Effective Adult Teaching and Staff Development

Effective Adult Teaching and Staff Development Practices to Promote 21st-Century Competences with a Focus on Attitudes

A Study with Education Institutions and Development Organizations in the Swiss IC Sector

A study conducted in collaboration with KSC Consultancy

Impressum

IMPRINT

KSC Consultancy

Kimon Schneider

cinfo

Anjuli Chicherio, Irenka Krone and Shazia Islamshah

GRAPHIC DESIGN

cinfo

Maya Freymond

www.cinfo.ch

July 2025

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Definitions and terms

The key definitions and terms used in this study are briefly described below, with a more detailed explanation provided in annex 4.

Adult teaching and learning: Adult teaching and learning, emphasizes principles like self-direction, relevance, life-stage readiness, and intrinsic motivation, integrating learners’ life experiences to shape socio-cultural contexts for adult education.

Adult teaching and staff development practices (ASPs): ASPs are the strategies and methods used by lecturers, trainers, HR managers to facilitate learning and development in students and employees, including assessments, and broader institutional contexts.

Attitudes and Soft skills: Terms like attitudes andsoft skills are often used interchangeably. Like attitudes, soft skills entail personal attributes that enable a person to interact effectively and harmoniously with others. However, it is difficult to make a clear distinction between soft skills and attitudes.

Emotional-affective: “‘Affective’ broadly covers attitudes, moods, and inclinations toward emotional responses, while ‘emotional’ specifically refers to the immediate, often intense experience of feelings.” (Principles of Social Psychology, consulted 30.10.2024)

Competences: “[Competence] implies more than just the acquisition of knowledge and skills; it involves the ability to meet complex demands, by drawing on and mobilizing psychosocial resources (including values and attitudes) in a particular context […] “ (OECD, 2021). This definition partly overlaps with definitions of intercultural competence (Deardorff, 2006).

Decoloniality: Decoloniality refers to a “[…] complex, all-encompassing transformation: a cultural shift that reveals and challenges systemic injustices and mindsets that are rooted in colonial history.” (Partos, 2022: 1) This includes shifting power and resources to local actors.

Localisation or locally-led-practices within development and humanitarian action recognises, respects and strengthens the leadership and decision-making of local actors who are best placed to understand and respond to the needs of their communities. Successful locally-led action recognises how power imbalances influence development and humanitarian initiatives and is facilitated by strong and equal partnership, quality direct funding, transparency and mutual accountability, and diversity and empowerment in staffing and leadership.

International cooperation: International cooperation (IC) comprises humanitarian aid (HA) and development cooperation (DC). HA seeks to protect people facing life-threatening situations in humanitarian emergencies and enable them to become self-sufficient again. Reconstruction of infrastructure in affected areas is generally considered to be part of HA. DC aims to reduce global differences in socio-economic development and general living conditions in a sustainable way. It strives for a close partnership and cooperation between donors and recipients. As peace and respect for human rights are important prerequisites for sustainable development, activities in the areas of (civilian) peace promotion and support for human rights are included in DC.

Knowledge-Skills-Attitudes (KSA) framework: The KSA framework is widely used for definitions of competence. Knowledge encompasses theories and facts that support understanding; skills involve applying knowledge (know-how) toward goals; and attitudes are the driving force behind knowledge and skill activation, contributing to meaningful action (Baartman & De Bruijn, 2011).

Non-cognitive means not connected with thinking or conscious mental processes. The term ‘non-cognitive’ is used in this study because it is commonly referenced to by IC practitioners, HE faculty, and policymakers. While the term implies a separation between emotion and cognition, literature views them as complementary (Jones et al., 2016; Knowles et al., 2020). Here, it is used in this complementary sense.

List of acronyms

ACT: Acceptance and Commitment Therapy

ASPs: Adult Teaching and Staff Development Practices

CAS: Certificate of Advanced Studies

DAS: Diploma of Advanced Studies

DC: Development and Cooperation

DEI: Diversity, Equity and Inclusion

Acknowledgements

EI: Emotional Intelligence

KSA: Knowledge Skills and Attitudes

HE: High Educational

HA: Humanitarian Aid

HR: Human Resources

IC: International Cooperation

IDG: Inner Development Goals

SDG: Sustainable Development Goals

IQ: Intellectual Quotient

ITC: Immunity to Change

MAS: Master of Advanced Studies

OECD: Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development

We have been supported by numerous people in this joint study with cinfo. Thanks go to the 24 representatives from HE institutions who contributed through the survey. And special thanks go to our key informants who in addition to the survey took part in a reflective discussion and validation inspiring us with their questions and comments. Key informants represent six HE institutions and seven IC organizations.

Executive summary

As global challenges become increasingly interconnected, there is growing recognition that knowledge and skills alone are insufficient to navigate the complexities of the 21st-century with ‘competences’. The notable shift toward holistic competence frameworks demonstrates an increasing acknowledgement of the importance of emphasizing personal and social competences as key to achieving equitable and impactful work in international cooperation (IC).

Despite this consensus, much of the International Cooperation (IC) sector continues to prioritize cognition-oriented learning, focusing heavily on knowledge and skills while often neglecting emotional-affective1 dimensions, such as attitudes. Attitudes and soft skills are often used interchangeably. Like attitudes, soft skills entail personal attributes that enable a person to interact effectively and harmoniously with others. However, it is difficult to make a clear distinction between soft skills and attitudes.

Competence, as defined in the study, encompasses the integration of knowledge, skills, and attitudes to address complex demands. Attitudes are described as intricate interweavings of beliefs and emotional responses that shape evaluations, decisions, and actions (OECD, 2021). Furthermore, the mechanisms for cultivating competences—particularly attitudes—frequently lack an evidence-informed foundation.

Building on these findings, this study explores the adult teaching and staff development practices (ASPs) employed by higher education (HE) institutions and IC employers/organizations to cultivate 21st-century personal and social competences, (cf. cinfo & NADEL. 2022.

Future Trends and Competencies for the Swiss International Cooperation Sector, cinfo, Bern) with a particular emphasis on attitudes.

The main objective of this study is to support HE institutions in equipping graduates with greater employability and to enhance staffs’ performance within their professional roles.

This study, conducted by ksc Consultancy and funded by cinfo, draws on a survey of 24 respondents from HE institutions and in-depth interviews with 13 key informants from both HE institutions and IC organizations. While not representative, the small but focused sample of experts in adult education and Human Resources (HR) management provides valuable and in-depth insights into the subject matter. Supported by a cross-sectoral and interdisciplinary review of competence frameworks and ASPs, the findings reveal gaps in current practices and offer actionable recommendations.

The role of attitudes in the Swiss IC sector

In the IC sector, attitudes have—relative to other sectors—long been emphasized due to its reliance on experiential learning and intercultural competence. In the Swiss IC context, 60% of study respondents and key informants report their institutions and organizations adhere to a shared understanding of competence as encompassing knowledge, skills, and attitudes, and other non-cognitive2 factors. The Knowledge-Skills-Attitudes (KSA) model is the most referenced framework, alongside related concepts like ‘soft skills’.

1 “‘Affective’ broadly covers attitudes, moods, and inclinations toward emotional responses, while ‘emotional’ specifically refers to the immediate, often intense experience of feelings.” (Principles of Social Psychology) For simplicity, the term emotional will hereafter be used to refer to both emotional and affective responses, unless otherwise stated.

2 The term non-cognitive, as defined here, does not suggest that emotions are separate from cognition.

Despite this recognition, attitudes remain underprioritized in practice compared to cognitive factors like subject-specific knowledge. Only 40% of survey respondents and key informants reported having and using robust competence frameworks that include descriptors of attitudes. Among the 17 attitudes identified in the literature as critical for 21st-century personal and social competences, only nine (53%) were highlighted as systematically addressed by HE institutions and IC organizations. The most cited attitudes include: Embracing diversity and include people and collectives with different views and backgrounds; and Having a mindset of curiosity and exploration. However, attitudes like Acknowledging the limitations of one’s knowledge and worldview with humility, accepting vulnerability by being willing to express own feelings to oneself and others, and Self-critical reflection on emotions remain significantly underrepresented.

The role of ASPs in fostering attitudes

The gradual shift toward prioritizing attitudes aligns with a growing recognition of the need to transform ASPs. However, most HE institutions and IC organizations rely heavily on cognition-oriented learning and ASPs, such as knowledge delivery and problem-based methods, which are easier to implement but insufficient for fostering attitudes of personal and social competences. Emotion-oriented ASPs aiming at emotional reflexivity are underrepresented despite evidence highlighting the critical role of emotions in reshaping adult attitudes.

The study highlights that only five of 16 ASPs identified in the literature (31%) as effective for fostering attitudes of personal and social competences are systematically applied in the Swiss IC sector.

Commonly used ASPs include coaching and mentoring, on-the-job learning assignments, and project- and problem-based methods, as well as ‘basic’ decolonial practices like diversifying reading lists and speakers and revising terminology and imagery. However, far-reaching ASPs, such as provocative didactics, Presencing (Theory U), body-centered approaches, Immunity to Change (ITC) process, and mindfulness-based approaches like Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), remain underutilized.

Decoloniality in competence frameworks and ASPs

The study focuses, among other things, on the aspect of decoloniality 3 . Ongoing discussions on decolonizing and localizing our work in IC have shown the importance of evaluating “how” we work. Decoloniality touches on our approach to flows of decision-making, narratives of others, the integration of local knowledge and how racism and bias influence our organizational processes and professional relationships.

Survey and interview data reveal a mixed perspective on decoloniality within the Swiss IC sector. Some respondents recognize racism as a significant issue and have implemented measures to address it within their organizations or institutions. Others, however, dismiss its relevance, often without providing a clear rationale. A common assumption among this latter group is that working in the IC sector, with its exposure to international contexts and focus on global challenges like inequality reduction and poverty alleviation, inherently eliminates bias and negates the presence of racism.

A small minority of respondents demonstrate an understanding of concepts such as the white gaze, white saviorism, and white fragility, and their applicability to Switzerland—a country often viewed as having no colonial past. These findings suggest that the sector either perceives itself as genuinely distinct from other contexts, and free of coloniality issues, or is in the early stages of its learning journey. The preference for the former explanation likely accounts for the insufficient prioritization of decolonial attitudes and approaches (ASPs) within the sector.

Competence frameworks often lack explicit descriptors for ‘decolonial attitudes’ focused on epistemic justice and anti-racism. While Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) initiatives have facilitated the adoption of some attitudes like Embracing diversity, others—like Acknowledging the limitations of one’s worldview and Accepting vulnerability—remain underrepresented. Far-reaching decolonial ASPs, such as recentring ‘non-Western’ epistemologies and ontologies through standpoint journaling and story circles or implementing anti-racism/unlearning processes including implicit bias training and trauma therapy, are particularly rare.

Challenges in integrating attitudes and im- plementing ASPs

The moderate prioritization of attitudes and emotion-oriented ASPs in the Swiss IC sector stems partly from implementation challenges. Two obstacles are: integrating attitudes into teaching curricula and training programs and identifying ASPs that effectively nurture these attitudes. Participant feedback is the primary method for assessing ASPs’ effectiveness, systematic evidence reviews are rare, even as some efforts draw on best practices from other sectors.

Further, measuring changes in attitudes remains a recurring challenge. Assessments are typically limited to evaluating motivation and behavior during recruitment through interviews, with psychometric tests occasionally used for senior leadership roles. Other reviews, such as staff appraisals or reflections on on-the-job assignments, are often informal, voluntary, and lack standardized methodologies.

Additionally, many lecturers and trainers lack the competence needed to design and apply emotion-focused ASPs, which require emotional self-awareness and resilience to address emotional patterns and mitigate projections (‘hidden curriculum’).

Furthermore, financial constraints, fragmented programs, and a focus on shorter, more diverse offerings (‘course-hopping’) reduce the coherence and depth of educational and professional initiatives, limiting their potential impact on fostering attitudes.

Finally, despite the growing focus on DEI principles, their transformative potential in advancing decoloniality is often undermined by insufficient prioritization from society and institutional leadership and policymakers. Limited awareness of broader systemic issues—such as institutional racism, epistemic injustice, and Global ‘North-South’ power imbalances—constrains the ability of lecturers, trainers, HR professionals, and policymakers to identify and address the manifestations of discrimination within the sector and in educational and training settings. This lack of understanding also impedes their capacity to handle instances of discrimination effectively and minimize harm in classrooms and training sessions.

Employer evaluations of attitudes

The trend in the literature seems to emphasise that employers increasingly prioritize non-cognitive aspects such as attitudes as critical for personal and social competences is reflected in the study data, see pages. Highlighted were attitudes such as humility over traditional markers like high IQ or elite credentials, and having the mindset of a ‘facilitator’ to support local partners, not seeing oneself as an ‘expert’. Employers also value lifelong learning and self-management capacities for adapting to digital transformation. However, attitudes are prioritized differently across IC organizations, depending on factors like size, mandate, and context.

Overall, employer evaluations of graduates’ competences, particularly attitudes, are positive but highlight areas for improvement in Swiss HE institutions, particularly in aligning educational programs with labor market needs. Attitudes that could be improved include Willingness to move forward despite setbacks and ambiguity (includes emotional resilience) and Acknowledging limitations of own knowledge and worldview with humility.

Recommendations

The following recommendations target key areas for improving the systematic development of attitudes and the effective use of ASPs:

1. Integrating attitudes. These recommendations focus on facilitating incorporating attitudes into teaching and training programs.

2. Integrating effective ASPs. These recommendations provide guidance on identifying effective ASPs to foster attitudes.

3. Professional development of lectures and trainers. These recommendations address equipping lecturers and HR mangers and trainers with the competences required to implement emotion-focused ASPs.

4. Integration of Decoloniality. These recommendations tackle the challenge of promoting decoloniality.

5. Enhancing current practices ASPs. These recommendations focus on enhancing the effectiveness of currently applied ‘conventional’ ASPs.

6. Assessment of attitudes. These recommendations address the critical challenge of measuring changes in attitudes.

1 Introduction and purpose of the study

1.1 Background and trends in competence development

With the increasing interconnectedness of global trends and challenges, there has been a notable shift toward holistic competence frameworks across sectors. This shift stems from the growing recognition that possessing knowledge and skills alone is insufficient to ‘competently’ navigate the complexities of the 21st century. In response, HE institutions and IC organizations have begun to articulate competences in greater detail, often categorizing them into domains such as personal, social, methodological, and subject-specific.

Notably, there is increasing emphasis on personal and social competences—such as self-awareness and empathy—which have traditionally received less attention compared to subject-specific and methodological competences, like analytical thinking and problem-solving. Furthermore, competences are now defined more comprehensively, using descriptors of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and other dimensions such as values, ethics, and behavior (Devex, 2018; Joynes, 2019; Michie et al., 2011; OECD, 2005; Schrader, 2017; WEF, 2021). As such, competence is understood as a multidimensional concept that can be developed through various channels, including the enhancement of knowledge, skills, attitudes, or other contributing factors.

In 2022, cinfo commissioned a study to examine trends and competences projected for 2030 in the Swiss IC sector. The study revealed several key findings: HE institutions and IC organizations/employers define competences differently; mechanisms to promote competences often focus on knowledge and skills, with less attention paid to non-cognitive dimensions such as attitudes; the term "attitudes" is understood inconsistently; and mechanisms for promoting competences, particularly attitudes, frequently lack an evidence-based foundation.

1.2 Scope of this study

Terms like attitudes and soft skills are often used interchangeably. Like attitudes, soft skills entail personal attributes that enable a person to interact effectively and harmoniously with others. However, it is difficult to make a clear distinction between soft skills and attitudes.

Building on these findings, this study explores the adult teaching and staff development practices (ASPs) employed by higher education (HE) institutions and IC employers/organizations to cultivate 21st-century personal and social competences, with a particular emphasis on attitudes.

Building on these findings and considering the extensive body of literature on competence research, this study focuses on a specific subset of competences to define its scope. As illustrated in table 1, the study centers on personal and social competence domains, each encompassing several specific competences, with only a selection of examples provided for brevity.

The study examines the adult teaching and staff development practices (ASPs) employed by HE institutions and IC organizations in the Swiss IC sector to foster personal and social competences, with a particular emphasis on attitudes. Conceptually, the study is anchored in the KSA (Knowledge, Skills, Attitudes) approach, which underscores the importance of emotional-affective4 dimensions in competence development, with attitudes serving as a focal point.

The underlying theory of change is that to enhance the competences of students and staff it is essential to cultivate their corresponding attitudes. Drawing on research findings, this study assumes that attitudes can be fostered and acquired, though their degree of malleability varies (Albarracin et al., 2005; Baartman & De Bruijn, 2011).

Based on the KSA approach, this study defines competence as an integrated whole, combining knowledge, skills, and attitudes to address complex demands.

The KSA approach has gained widespread acceptance due to its structured and practical application, making it particularly well-suited to both educational and workplace contexts (Zahn et al., 2024). This model provides a common language for educators designing courses, employers drafting job advertisements and staff trainings, and individuals developing competences. It helps graduates align with employer expectations and supports staff in their professional growth.

Attitudes are widely discussed in competence research (Baartman & De Bruijn, 2011), including studies on intercultural competence (Deardorff, 2006). The concept of attitudes has also been integrated into competence taxonomies developed by several IC organizations and HE institutions (Zahn et al., 2024). Table 1 illustrates this with the examples of the personal competence Adaptability and Flexibility and the social competence Sensitivity to Diversity, demonstrating how each competence can be broken down into descriptors of knowledge, skills, and attitudes.

The shift toward holistic competence frameworks aligns with a growing recognition of the need to transform ASPs. A small but increasing number of HE institutions and IC organizations are adopting ‘unconventional’ ASPs that focus on emotional dimensions of learning to better foster attitudes. Insights from neuroscience, psychology, education, sustainability, and management have driven interest in emotion-oriented ASPs, leading to the adoption of therapeutic, body-oriented, creative, contemplative, and provocative didactic approaches (Schrader, 2017; Schwittay, 2023; Stålne & Greca, 2022).

Despite growing interest, many HE institutions and IC organizations face challenges in integrating attitudes (and other non-cognitive aspects) into educational and professional development, fostering them, and assessing their impact in practice. These challenges include inconsistent terminology, the proliferation of competence models, and a lack of evidence on the effectiveness of ASPs, which leads to hesitancy in adopting practices to systematically cultivate attitudes. Moreover, ongoing discussions about localization and decoloniality highlight the need to examine how these perspectives intersect with competence frameworks and ASPs.

4

“‘Affective’ broadly covers attitudes, moods, and inclinations toward emotional responses, while ‘emotional’ specifically refers to the immediate, often intense experience of feelings.” (Principles of Social Psychology) For simplicity, the term emotional will hereafter be used to refer to both emotional and affective responses, unless otherwise stated.

Table 1: Focus of the study on personal and social competence domains and the concept of attitudes (Adapted from

(Study focus )

Adaptability and FlexibilityAbility to adjust effectively to a changing environnement and deal well with changes

Knowledge of sources of ambiguity and change and their impact on different environments and contexts

Ability to adapt to different roles, responsibilities, and contexts

Ability to change priorities and direction if necessary

Self-awarness and Selfreflection

Sensitivity to Diversity - Ability to recognise differences among people and work with them

Awarness of diversity Knowledge of the impact and potential of diversity

Understanding of biases due to diversity and their effects on interpersonal interactions

Ability to recognise biases

Ability to work effectively with diverse people and teams

Be open to criticism and setbacks

See ambiguity and change as an opportunity to learn

Be willing to move forward despite ambiguity

Techniques

Be open to and respect diversity in all its forms

Be open and motivated to embrace international or interdisciplinary experience

These challenges have led many HE institutions and IC organizations to prioritize cognition-focused ASPs that are easier to implement and assess, like knowledge delivery, while sidelining emotion-focused ASPs.

1.3 Study purpose and structure

The purpose of the proposed study, as depicted in figure 1, is to identify effective ASPs that foster attitudes associated with personal and social competences.

However, there is growing interest in emotion-oriented and unconventional ASPs, such as Presencing (Theory U), Immunity to Change (ITC) Process, listening to pause, and mindfulness practices. (Swiss) IC actors are increasingly seeking evidence on their effectiveness and ways to integrate them into study and training programs.

Thereby, the study aims at contributing to HE institutions and organizations of the Swiss IC sector improving the employability of their students and the performance of their staff.

Adult teaching and staff development practices (ASPs)

Attitudes

Social and personal competences

Student employability and staff performance

The study does not aim to assess the entire range of contributing factors to personal and social competences (e.g., opportunities, values, and ethics), as this would fall well beyond the scope of the study. The structure of this study is as follows: Part One reviews the literature on the conceptualization and promotion of personal and social competences, particularly attitudes, as addressed by HE institutions and IC organizations. Part Two compares the insights from the literature with data collected through this study on

current practices among these actors within the Swiss IC sector. Part Three concludes with a discussion of implications and recommendations. The three parts, along with their respective chapters, are structured to align with the study’s research questions, outlined below. This study was carried out by an independent consultant (ksc Consultancy) with support from cinfo – the Swiss Center of Competence for International Cooperation, and Policy Analytics Switzerland.

Figure 1: ASPs fostering personal and social competences through attitudes

2

Research questions

The following questions guide this study:

Part 1: What can we learn from the literature about fostering competences relevant to the IC sector?

• How are competences conceptualized across sectors and within the IC sector, and what are the trends? To what extent are attitudes covered?

• What are the tested and promising ASPs to promote competences?

• What are the key ASPs to promote competences that have proven successful in other sectors and could be transferred to the IC sector?

• To what extent is decoloniality covered by literature on competences?

• What are the main challenges in promoting attitudes and effective ASPs?

Part 2: To what extent are effective ASPs currently applied by Swiss HE institutions and IC organizations to foster competences among students and staff?

• What concepts of competences are used? To what extent is decoloniality reflected by these?

• What ASPs are used to promote these competences in education and staff development programs? To what extent is decoloniality reflected by these?

• How is the effectiveness of ASPs assessed in terms of developing competences?

• How are the changes in competences, including attitudes of students and staff assessed?

• What is the importance attributed by HE institutions / IC organizations to the concept of effective / ‘unconventional’ ASPs? What is mandatory and what optional?

• How do IC employers evaluate students’/graduates’ competences, including attitudes?

Part 3: What are the conclusions and recommendations for HE institutions and IC organi- zations / employers?

• To what extent can they improve in cultivating competences, especially attitudes?

• How can they improve in fostering effective ASPs for these attitudes?

• To what extent can decoloniality in competence frameworks and ASPs be promoted?

• How can currently employed ASPs be strengthened?

• How can the assessment of changes in attitudes be enhanced?

3 Methodology

Adult education and staff development can be analyzed at the micro, meso, and macro levels. The micro level is about the specific contexts and examines why and how adults engage in educational opportunities and what expectations they hold. The meso level centers on adult education and training organizations, where program analysis is typically conducted. The macro level encompasses broader questions on educational policy and socio-political contexts. The study focuses on the micro and meso levels.

Corresponding to micro and meso levels, the two target groups of the study are:

• Swiss academic and applied HE institutions, hereafter referred to as HE institutions, with a link to the IC sector and IC topics and mainly their advanced further education programs such as Certificate of Advanced Studies (CAS), Diploma of Advanced Studies (DAS) and Master of Advanced Studies (MAS), and single courses. Accordingly, students span from young to experienced IC professionals.

• Swiss based IC organizations who hire awell as promote graduates from these HE institutions and their educational offerings. The study uses a mixed methods approach, including a literature review, key informant interviews, and a structured online survey. The main purpose of using these methods was to triangulate findings. In addition, a thematic advisory board accompanied the study at certain times.

3.1 Literature review

The literature screening and review process was guided by several key considerations. First, as noted in the introduction, competence research has increasingly emphasized the cultivation of attitudes. Second, despite their growing importance in fostering 21st-century competences, attitudes of personal and social competences remain under-researched. Both points hold for many sectors, including the IC sector, though to varying extent, as outlined further below.

The IC sector, despite substantial research on intercultural competence (Deardorff, 2006), has relatively little dedicated literature on competences and attitudes.

The first step involved screening reviews and studies that provided an overview of key authors, seminal works, and current knowledge on competence development relevant to HE institutions and development organizations in the IC sector. The search spanned multiple sectors, including NGOs, foundations, agencies, private and tech industries, and consultancy and management.

This study integrates competence approaches and frameworks with literature on adult education aligned with its underlying theory of change, which posits that cognitive adult teaching and learning practices alone are insufficient for promoting competences and that emotional and critical-social pedagogies must be emphasized. However, recognizing the theoretical and conceptual fragmentation within the field of adult learning (Knowles et al., 2020), the study adopts a pragmatic approach to organizing relevant theories. It clusters the reviewed literature into three interrelated strands:

• Emotional theories emphasize emotional engagement and include Transformative Emotional Learning and Pedagogy (Arnold, 2022; Boler, 2004; Brookfield, 2015; Cranton & Taylor, 2013).

• Cognitive theories focus on mental processes like critical reflection, drawing from Andragogy (Knowles, 1973), Transformative Learning (Mezirow, 1991), Experiential Learning (Kolb & Kolb, 2017), Informal Learning (Livingstone, 2006), and Neuroscience (Immordino-Yang and Faeth, 2010; LeDoux, 2001); and

• Critical-social theories address critical consciousness and systemic inequalities such as epistemic injustice and racism and include Critical Pedagogy (Freire, 1970) and Decolonial Pedagogy (Mignolo and Walsh, 2018; Smith, 2021). They add essential layers of complexity and perspective to the study.

In addition, while screening literature on concepts and approaches of competence development from different sectors, particular attention was paid to identifying concepts and approaches that fulfil the following criteria: (i) operationalize and frame the notion of competences, including attitudes or similar terms; (ii) recommend concrete strategies or methods (ASPs) to develop these competences and attitudes; and (iii) address attitudes specifically related to personal and social competences.

The cross-sectional review of competence development covered the IC sector and other sectors, and encompasses intercultural competence models (e.g., Process Model of Intercultural Competence), the Inner Development Goals (IDG), the Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes (KSA) concept, 21st-century skills learning frameworks, Education for Sustainable Development (ESD), approaches to soft skills / core skills / life skills, personality traits (e.g., Big five), and the Capability, Opportunity, Motivation, Behavior (COM-B) model. Annex 1 provides an overview of the reviewed competence frameworks and approaches in this study.

3.2 Survey

The survey design was based on findings from the literature review. The purpose of the survey was to assess to what extent teaching and staff development practice in the Swiss IC sector confirm the findings from the literature review. Accordingly, the survey collected data related to all research questions covered in part 2 of the study. The survey was conducted by Policy Analytics, who are specialized in running surveys for multiple audiences, including the IC sector, and they have expertise in behavioral economics.

In Switzerland, there are about 20 HE institutions with educational offerings on IC related topics. They are all listed on cinfo’s webpage. Thematically, their focus within the IC sector spans a range of areas, including for instance Leadership and Humanitarian Aid, Interdisciplinarity, Technical Project Evaluation, Private Foundations Management, International Relations/Diplomacy, and Peacebuilding. A structured online survey was sent to all those HE institutions.

Given the diversity of their institutional settings, we followed a snowball sampling procedure. The survey link was sent first to contact points of the concerned HE institutions who then forwarded the survey link to suitable ‘knowledge holders’, i.e. experienced staff who are involved in curricula design and teaching and have broad understanding of their corresponding institutions’ setting and teaching practice. Accordingly, the sample entailed 1-2 representatives of 20 HE institutions, resulting in a total of 24 respondents. The survey questionnaire is provided in annex 2. The survey was further complemented by five follow-up in-depth interviews, as outlined further below.

Profile of survey respondents:

• A total of 24 respondents from at least 15 different HE institutions completed the survey. Since the survey was conducted anonymously, the exact number of participating institutions cannot be confirmed. However, given the snowball sampling approach and efforts to reach as many institutions as possible, at least 15 institutions were represented.

• Among them, 13 are from universities, 8 from universities of applied sciences, and 3 from other types of HE institutions.

• Respondents have significant teaching experience, with an average of 11.6 years and a median of 10 years in HE teaching.

• The bulk of respondents are responsible for curriculum design and the teaching of one or more courses/lectures within CAS and MAS programs. Others are involved in programs such as DAS and other types of study programs and courses.

• Regarding teaching qualifications, 7 respondents have formal teacher training (specialized degree) and/or further education in teaching (CAS or higher). An additional 8 respondents regularly participate in short teaching courses (1-3 days each), while 9 marked ‘other’ in the survey.

• Overall, respondents demonstrate a deep understanding of teaching and learning, particularly in relation to their own courses and lectures, as they are directly involved in curriculum design, teaching, and assessment. Complemented by insights from KIIs, there is strong indication that most respondents are also well-acquainted with the broader settings of their respective HE institutions.

3.3 Key Informant Interviews

Six follow-up interviews were held with HE institutions who participated in the survey. The purpose was to validate the corresponding survey findings, as well as to complement the findings with institutional information about the HE institutions’ corresponding teaching policy (e.g., staff recruitment, and quality assurance of educational offerings). This sample was selected purposefully to achieve mixed representation across different types of HE institutions, including educational offerings (CAS, DAS, MAS, etc.), student profiles (international, national, young professionals, etc.) thematic focus (e.g. humanitarian aid, health, and peace building) and geographical location.

Moreover, in-depth interviews were carried out with seven key informants from IC organizations who know the IC sector very well, and who have extensive experience in human resource development. The purposive sample of employers was selected to achieve mixed representation across different types of organizations (multi-/ and bilateral, private foundations, and big and small technical and personnel NGOs).

Most organizations took already part in the previous study on IC trends and competences in 2022. Data collection would also include screening relevant existing internal documents such as Human Resources policies and competence models (not part of literature review).

All KIIs addressed research question 2. KIIs were conducted and evaluated by lead consultant (ksc consultancy), with support from cinfo. The KII questionnaires are provided in annexes 3.1 and 3.2.

3.4 Advisory Board

At key stages, the study was supported by an advisory board composed of two thematic experts. Jo Howard, from IDS, a leading global institution in the IC sector, brings her extensive expertise in education and development, with a substantial collection of published research, particularly in participatory research and inquiry. Tobias Seidl, from HdM, contributes his deep experience in adult education, HE management, and research on competence and attitudes development in HE, along with a commendable record of publications in these areas. Their complementary expertise made them valuable contributors to the study’s design.

3.5 Limitations

• Given the complexity of the literature on competence development and adult education, a systematic literature review was beyond the scope of this study. Accordingly, the study adopted a pragmatic approach, as described in chapter 3.1.

• The literature review does not always neatly differentiate between adult teaching and learning and lower-level education.

• Due to the interdisciplinary nature of the IC sector, this study incorporates sources and approaches from a range of disciplines and fields, which a times overlap or diverge. As a result, it is not always straightforward to delineate which source and approach pertains to a specific area.

• The focus on attitudes carries both shared and unique implications for HE institutions and IC organizations / employers. Both often integrate attitudes into their competence models, showcasing a commonality. However, IC organizations, unlike HE institutions, frequently include behavioral descriptors alongside attitudes in their models and job descriptions. This distinction underscores a limitation of the study.

• Given the diversity of HE institutions, the survey sample was taken pragmatically from a small number of representatives from HE institutions: on average about 1 representative per institution. Accordingly, the survey is not statistically representative of the Swiss IC focused HE institutions as a whole. However, due to respondents’ significant experience and expertise in adult education, the survey still manages to provide some interesting insights and indications regarding the orientation and focus of HE institutions’ approach to competence development.

• Further, due to the chosen sample, certain graphs or findings may be subject to bias, as multiple respondents from the same institution may have completed the survey.

• The definition of specific thresholds of mentions or counts of survey responses on attitudes and pedagogies (e.g. most, medium, least counts of attitudes) were made based on our experience, not on an objectively verifiable methodology, as we believed that this was not possible

• The number of KII was limited due to time constraints, and the list of purposive sample criteria was non-exhaustive and hence excludes some considerations.

• The study attempts to address ‘Western’ bias by incorporating theory and practice from diverse disciplines, sectors, authors, perspectives, organizations, and institutions working on adult learning, competence development, and decoloniality. However, given the complexity of the topic, ‘Western’ bias can only be addressed to a certain extent. Additionally, the authors of this work, as well as the survey respondents and key informants who contributed to the study, are primarily ‘Western’-based.

Part 1: Literature review on Competences and Adult Teaching and Staff Development Practices (ASPs) in the IC sector

This Part reviews literature on how competences are conceptualized across sectors, including the IC sector, highlighting trends and challenges. It explores the relationship between ASPs and personal and social competences and identifies tested and promising ASPs used in the IC sector. Key considerations include the extent to which attitudes and decoloniality are addressed in competence frameworks. This Part also examines effective ASPs from other sectors that could be adapted to the IC context and assesses opportunities for HE institutions and IC organizations to strengthen competence development.

1 Competence frameworks

To understand the link between ASPs and competences, the main developments in the conceptualization of competences must first be examined. This includes the increasing complexity of competence frameworks, and the underrepresentation of emotional dimensions such as attitudes, and decolonial perspectives. We also explore the lack of connection between competence frameworks and ASPs, and the challenges of implementing these complex frameworks.

1.1 Increasing complexity of competence frameworks

Across sectors, including the IC sector competence frameworks have been used by organizations and HE institutions for human resource management (e.g., recruitment, staff appraisals) as well as in teaching and learning (e.g., curriculum design, assessments). What has changed in recent years is that frameworks have on average become more comprehensive aiming at enhancing competence-orientation.

As sectors increasingly converge around 21st-century challenges, there is a shared focus on 21st-century competences, and a general agreement that personal and social competences, especially their associated attitudes are relevant for all and should be embedded in competence frameworks.

Accordingly, many HE institutions and organizations differentiate competences into distinct domains and stages, emphasizing personal and social competences (e.g., self-awareness and empathy), which have traditionally received less attention compared to technical and methodological competences (e.g., analytical thinking and problem-solving). In line with this, competences are being more finely detailed through approaches like, for instance, the KSA (Knowledge, Skills, Attitudes) approach using specific descriptors of knowledge, skills, and attitudes (OECD, 2021; Schrader, 2017; USAID, 2019).

Although competence frameworks have on average across sectors become more complex, the trend has been heterogenous. As sectors converge around complex global challenges and the SDGs, their boundaries blur, fostering a cross-sector emphasis on building 21st-century competences. Accordingly, there is a relatively recent trend in sectors (historically at the sidelines of IC) like management, sustainability, and education toward investing in emotional and non-cognitive factors—attitudes, soft skills, personality traits, etc.

In the IC sector, personal and social competences comprising of emotional and other non-cognitive factors have been focused for a comparatively longer time, due to IC’s inherently intercultural and international working field. Despite this longstanding focus, there is a relatively wide variation in the degree of its implementation, and the IC sector continues to seek effective

ways and methods to understand, operationalize, and foster these factors. Renewed interest in defining and building 21st-century competences is driven by new insights from other fields such as sustainability, neuroscience, education, and psychology and also intersects with localization and decoloniality debates questioning the global applicability of ‘Western’-based models, as outlined further below.

1.2 Emotional dimensions in competence frameworks

1.2.1 Growing importance of emotional dimensions in competence frameworks

Research demonstrates the essential role of emotional factors, for example attitudes, in transformative learning, competence development, and meeting 21st-century challenges: when attitudes are internalized, students and staff tend to be more motivated to learn and engage in critical thinking; persistence and curiosity strongly predict performance for both students and staff; additionally, attitudes are interconnected across different dimensions; for example, individuals with a growth mindset place greater importance on education and training, set more ambitious learning goals, report higher self-efficacy, and show increased motivation with reduced fear of failure. Research further emphasizes the interdependence of cognitive and emotional dimensions in learning, suggesting that a holistic approach to competence development must view attitudes and other dispositions as inseparable from cognitive processes (Knowles et al., 2020; OECD, 2021).

IC’s growing critical self-reflection contributes to refining competences and competence models (Alexander et al., 2014; Deardorff & Arasaratnam-Smith, 2017; Stålne and Greca, 2022; Knowles et al., 2020; Schrader, 2017).

1.2.2 Example frameworks including emotional dimensions

Increasingly, though at varying degrees, HE institutions and IC organizations emphasize emotion-oriented competence models. ILO (2021), UNICEF (2019), and USAID (2019), for example, differentiate competences into distinct domains of socio-emotional skills and soft skills.

Each domain entails further sub-skills with short narrative definitions, however, without further specification through descriptors. The World Economic Forum( WEF 2021) and the ETH Zurich (2024), to mention two other examples, incorporate descriptors of attitudes into their respective frameworks, in addition to descriptors for knowledge, skills, and other factors. The WEF, for instance, emphasizes that attitudes such as resilience, flexibility, agility, curiosity, lifelong learning, self-awareness, empathy, and social influence are anticipated to become increasingly vital in the future. For a comprehensive comparative overview of widely-used frameworks of social and emotional learning—though mainly focused on children and youth—see Harvard Graduate School’s visualization tool (Jones et al., 2016).

Another example of a holistic model that tries to put emphasis on emotional aspects is the Inner Development Goals (IDG) framework (Stålne and Greca, 2022), depicted in figure 2.

• 1 Being – Relationship to Self is about “Cultivating our inner life and developing and deepening our relationship to our thoughts, feelings and body help us be present, intentional and non-reactive when we face complexity.” (ibid.: 19)

• 3 Relating – Caring for Others and the World is about “Appreciating, caring for and feeling connected to others, such as neighbours, future generations or the biosphere, helps us create more just and sustainable systems and societies for everyone.” (ibid.: 23)

It is important to recognize that, at least in the aforementioned examples, emphasizing emotional aspects within competence frameworks does not imply that cognitive aspects are less valuable. Rather, the aim is to create a balance, acknowledging that emotional aspects have traditionally been underrepresented, as explained further above. In this light, these shifts signal a move away from a predominantly cognitive focus toward a more integrated approach, where emotional dimensions hold equal importance alongside cognitive ones in competence models.

Figure 2: IDG framework

1.2.3 Attitudes aspired to by students and employees

It is important to note that the value placed on attitudes in this study is not limited to IC organizations/employers and HE institutions/lecturers. Students, graduates, and employees also recognize their significance, highlighting the need to prioritize the cultivation of attitudes in education and training.

Various OECD studies (2021) highlight the competences, particularly values and attitudes, that students regard as essential for curriculum design, viewing them as prerequisites for further learning, fostering student agency, and supporting well-being. These include, for example: empathy required for teamwork, respect and co-operation; curiosity, motivation, and confidence building for agency; creativity, interaction, freedom, justice and equity; and collaboration, and learning from failure and trust.

A recent survey conducted by NADEL, ETH Zurich, in collaboration with cinfo, gathered insights from over 200 professionals, i.e. graduates from its Master and Certificate of Advanced Studies programs. The findings highlight competences like critical thinking, self-awareness, collaboration and cooperation, and adaptability and flexibility for effective performance in global and sustainable development roles. Associated attitudes mentioned in the survey include empathy, humility, genuine interest and curiosity in diverse perspectives, courage (e.g., to address controversial topics or prioritize courage over comfort), and perseverance.

In a 2021 article titled "We asked young people about work and skills. Here’s what they told us", the WEF reported that nearly two-thirds of 11’000 polled young respondents were optimistic about securing their desired careers. They emphasized the importance of soft skills, such as resilience and adaptability, which they felt were not adequately addressed by current education systems.

Additionally, the Global Youth Survey for the UN World Youth Report 2021 gathered insights from young individuals on improving their well-being and mental health. Participants underscored the importance of inclusive social policies and the development of competencies like resilience, empathy, and adaptability to enhance their mental health and overall well-being.

2 ASPs to promote competences, including attitudes

This chapter provides an overview of adult learning principles and ASPs aimed at fostering 21st-century competences, including attitudes in the IC sector.

2.1 Principles of effective adult teaching, training, and learning

This sub-chapter outlines principles of effective adult learning and highlights ASPs that cultivate 21st-century competences across sectors. Additionally, it differentiates between degrees or modes of implementation of these principles within the IC sector.

2.1.1 Implementation of effectiveness principles across sectors

A substantial body of literature has accumulated over time, on principles of effective adult education and professional training to promote 21st-century competences. Overall, many of these principles are implemented and considered by HE institutions and organizations across sectors (Grotlüschen, 2022; Knowles et al., 2020). Principles of effective adult learning include, for example:

• Adult education should be learner-centered by catering to adults’ needs to know how learning will be conducted, what learning will occur, and why learning is important. Adults should be engaged as learning partners in a collaborative planning process for their learning.

• Adults are self-directed learners. They prefer to autonomously take control of the learning goals and purposes and assume ownership of learning.

• Adult learning needs to build on prior knowledge (experiential learning). Adults prefer a problem-solving orientation to learning rather than subject-centered learning. They learn best when new information is presented in a real-life context. Adult’s experience serves to shape or inhibit new learning.

• Adults’ motivation to learn is mainly intrinsic. Adults are often more motivated to learn when it helps them solve real-life problems or provides personal satisfaction. External factors (e.g., salary increase) also matter, however, internal need satisfaction is the more potent motivator.

• Adults generally become ready to learn when their life situations create a need to know. It follows that the more educators and HR/managers can account for their students and staffs’ life situations and readiness for learning, the more effective the ASPs can be.

2.1.2 Implementation of effectiveness princi- ples in the IC sector

While the general trend of adhering to these effectiveness principles also applies to the IC sector, its implementation varies across HE institutions and organizations, as reflected in the following modes of implementation (Deardorff and Arasaratnam-Smith, 2017; Joynes, 2019; Schrader, 2017; Schwittay, 2023):

• Mode 1: Many still use the conventional ‘transmission’ model of adult learning as the dominant approach. The ‘transmission’ model prioritizes knowledge delivery over engaging learners and is rather ineffective for developing 21st-century competences.

• Mode 2: Many incorporate both conventional and learner-centered, etc. principles and strategies; however, their application is often unsystematic and fragmented.

• Mode 3: An increasing number incorporates both conventional and learner-centered, etc. principles and strategies systematically.

Although it is not possible to provide precise figures, the collected data and literature reviewed suggest that most HE institutions and IC organizations fall somewhere between modes 2 and 3.

2.2 ASPs in the IC sector

While the aforementioned principles serve as general guidelines for effective adult teaching, training, and learning, ASPs, as defined here, are more specific and can be subsumed under one or more of these principles. In addition, each ASPs can be further subdivided into concrete teaching and learning methods and techniques (e.g. project-based group assignments, critical incident analysis, and internships). This chapter groups the key ASPs currently implemented in the IC sector to promote personal and social competences.

2.2.1 Main strands of ASPs applied in the IC sector

To develop personal and social competences, most HE institutions and organizations in the IC sector incorporate one or more of the ASP strands outlined below. In practice all ASP strands are offered at varying levels of depth and effectiveness and often in overlapping forms (Arasaratnam-Smith and Deardorff, 2022; Schrader, 2017; Schwittay, 2023). These efforts are primarily guided by Intergroup Contact Theory (Lytle, 2018) and Experiential Learning Theory (Kolb & Kolb, 2017). Intergroup Contact Theory posits that intergroup contact can reduce prejudice and improve relations, while Experiential Learning Theory emphasizes learning through direct experience, reflection, and application.

Additionally, these frameworks intersect with Informal Learning Theory (Eraut, 2004), which posits that most of what humans learn is acquired outside formal educational settings. Accordingly, it makes sense for example for HE institutions to integrate in their educational offerings informal (or non-formal) learning experiences such as job placements and other practical assignments. In IC organizations, the ‘70:20:10’ rule of thumb— which indicates that most staff learning occurs through on-the-job experiences, with only 10% happening through formal training—has long been recognized and is actively implemented (Deloitte, 2020).

2.2.1.1 Intercultural competence training

Intercultural competence training facilitates meaningful interactions across cultural boundaries by promoting cultural sensitivity, effective communication, trust building, and collaboration across diverse contexts. It combines theoretical learning, reflection on experiences, and practical exercises like group simulations and communication exercises to address cultural differences and stereotyping.

2.2.1.2 Transmission model

The transition model of adult learning, often referred to as the lecture-based or teacher-centered approach, focuses on the unidirectional delivery of information from lecturer or trainer to learner. This model is mainly applied in HE institutions, and less common in IC organizations. In this model, learners are typically passive recipients with limited opportunities for interaction or practical application. 5

2.2.1.3

Problem-, project-, and case-based learning

Problem-, project-, and case-based methods involve applying knowledge and developing skills to address real-world challenges. These methods actively engage learners in the experiential learning cycle—concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation—bridging theory and practice. In HE institutions, they are often implemented through interdisciplinary and interactive group work assignments. In IC organizations, they are sometimes referred to as cross-functional collaboration involving staff knowledge-sharing initiatives through interdisciplinary projects and interdepartmental teamwork (Deloitte, 2021; Lozano et al., 2019).

2.2.1.4 Experiential learning opportunities

Cross-cultural collaborations, community-based learning initiatives, and on-the-job assignments provide immersive experiences that foster understanding of local contexts, relationship building, and contributions to poverty alleviation. Some organizations and institutions enhance these opportunities through highly structured coaching and mentoring, which deepen reflection and learning, while others adopt more ad hoc, needs-based approaches.

2.2.1.5 Mentorship and coaching

Mentoring and coaching offer personalized learning opportunities, enabling individuals to engage in reflective observation through guided exchanges. These practices are often embedded as cross-cutting components within educational offerings at HE institutions and staff development programs in IC organizations. They contribute to professional growth, lifelong learning, leadership, and network, and enhance career development.

While some IC organizations and HE institutions implement coaching and mentoring through well-structured, in-depth processes, others adopt a more ad hoc or needs-based approach.

The latter approach is more common among IC organizations and HE institutions (Adebayo & Sunderman, 2024; Kolb & Kolb, 2017; Schrader, 2017).

2.2.2 Emotional ASPs (in the IC sector)

How adults learn and develop competences is described in various ways within adult education. The spectrum ranges from approaches that are more cognitively oriented to those grounded in theories of emotion (Boler, 2004; Brookfield, 2015; Knowles et al., 2020; Schüßler, 2008). By definition, the transition between cognition-oriented and emotion-oriented learning approaches is fluid:

• Cognition-Based Learning and ASPs prioritize intellectual capacities, focusing on the acquisition, processing, and application of knowledge through higher-order cognitive functions such as critical analysis, problem-solving, and logical reasoning. When pushed to its limits, cognitive engagement challenges learners to question established beliefs and confront biases, thereby disrupting cognitive frameworks. These disruptions can indirectly spark emotional reflexivity. For instance, recognizing an implicit bias during critical incident analysis may evoke discomfort. However, while emotions like discomfort are acknowledged, they remain secondary to the intellectual task at hand.

• Emotion-Oriented Learning and ASPs focus on emotions as the central medium for transformative learning, with cognition playing a secondary or supportive role. These approaches target learners’ emotional experiences, values, attitudes, and interpersonal relationships, deliberately eliciting and processing emotions like empathy, vulnerability, and anxiety as integral to the learning process.

This study adopts an approach to effective adult learning that considers cognition-based and emotion-based ASPs as distinct yet synergistic components of competence development, contributing together to transformative learning (Knowles et al., 2020; Öhman & Sund, 2021). Despite the complementary roles of cognition and emotion, however, this study emphasizes the centrality of emotions in transformative learning for two reasons: adults learn differently from children, and emotion-oriented ASPs are underrepresented in the IC sector.

2.2.2.1 Adults learn differently

Within the IC sector, research focusing on emotional learning theory remains limited. This study draws on different models of emotion-oriented transformative learning (Arnold, 2016; Boler, 2004; Cranton & Taylor, 2013), which identify emotional experiences as primary catalysts for deep learning. Adult learning is complex. Unlike children, adults develop rigid emotional, interpretive, and behavioral patterns over time, making transformative change challenging, requiring tailored approaches to facilitate personal growth (Knowles et al., 2020). As Roth (2001: 453) explains: "[T]he conscious self is not capable of changing its emotional behavioral structures through insight or conscious decision; this can only occur through emotionally ‘moving’ interactions.” (translated and cited in Schrader, 2017: 122).

In this sense, strong emotions play a pivotal role, particularly in the transformative phases of leaving the ‘mental comfort zone’ or familiar framework (disequilibrium/dissonance), where deeply held beliefs, attitudes, and values are challenged, ultimately reshaping mental models. Approaches designed to create such disequilibrium are often referred to as ‘provocative didactics’, as further outlined in Part 3. These didactics intentionally employ both cognitive and emotional disruptions to stimulate reflection and growth.

Cognitive disruptions occur when learners are confronted with information or perspectives that conflict with their existing beliefs, while emotional disruptions target deeply held assumptions, attitudes, or personal experiences, often eliciting discomfort or resistance. When facilitated effectively, such disruptions—particularly emotional ones—can leverage humans’ inherent drive for emotional coherence and stability, fostering openness to alternative mental models.

2.2.2.2

Emotion-oriented ASPs are underrep- resented

IC educational and training programs prioritize cognition-centered learning activities for competence development. As depicted in figure 3, this emphasis often sidelines approaches that integrate emotional with intellectual aspects through emotional reflexivity. While IC-related challenges (e.g., poverty, inequality, racism, climate change) naturally evoke emotions that influence thought, commitment, and action, the development of emotion-oriented ASPs remains limited.).

Figure 3: Balanced approach to competence building using intellectual, emotional, and practical aspects

Practical aspects

Intellectual aspects Emotional aspects

The IC sector has—relative to other sectors—long been drawing on the afore-mentioned frameworks of Intergroup Contact, Experiential Learning, and Informal Learning. They provide to some extent a theoretical grounding for emotional dimensions in IC, with emphasis on intercultural sensitivity, perspective-taking, and empathy (Bruder et al., 2020). Attempts are being made to stimulate emotional aspects in competence building by introducing ASPs like, for example, mindfulness interventions, Presencing (Theory U), and whole-bodycentered approaches.

The systematic cultivation of emotional dimensions in enhancing attitudes of social and personal competences through teaching and professional training remains an area in need of further development. Only a few HE institutions and IC organizations systematically foster the ‘inner development’ of students and staff by cultivating attitudes through emotion-oriented ASPs such as mindfulness interventions, Non-Violent Communication (NVC), listening to pause, Immunity to Change (ITC) process, arts- and body-oriented practices, and anti-racism / unlearning processes.

This underrepresentation is due to several barriers, including difficulties in measuring outcomes, time constraints, insufficient teacher and facilitator training, and the inherent complexity of designing curricula and training programs to nurture attitudes. Few invest in emotion-oriented ASPs, let alone provocative ASPs, that systematically foster attitudes. This hesitancy persists despite widespread acknowledgment that knowledge and skills alone are insufficient for holistic competence development.

These HE institutions and IC organizations also co-design and co-assess teaching and training of attitudes and ASPs with students and staff, and they offer corresponding professional capacity building to staff and trainers. (Stålne and Greca, 2022; Kothari et al., 2019; Partos, 2022c; Schwittay, 2023).

2.3 Transferrable ASPs from other sectors

In addition to the above-mentioned ASP (chapter 2.2.1), (emerging) approaches from other sectors could be adapted for use in the IC sector. Three examples are briefly introduced here and will be explored further in Part 3.

2.3.1 Interdisciplinary research: Inner Devel- opment Goals (IDG) Initiative

The IDG initiative has developed a diverse array of ASPs by integrating knowledge, tools and practices from different sectors such as management, consultancy, sustainability, neuroscience, psychology, behavioural economics, contemplative studies and transformation theories. All ASPs are accessible online. Table 2 outlines a brief categorization of several IDG methods/ASPs that are either relevant to or underutilized in the IC sector.

Source: adapted from Öhmen & Sund, 2021

Group of methods/ ASPs Description

Mindfulness-based practices

Adult developmentbased approaches

Leadership development and practice

Group, team or family-based methods

Organisational or values-based methods

Spiritual and transpersonal approaches

Embodiment-based approaches

Trauma-work / therapy

Mindfulness practices (e.g., Commitment Therapy (ACT)) involve regulating attention, fostering receptivity and awareness, and creating distance to one’s thoughts and emotions to respond/act more consciously or intentionally.

Include methods such as the Immunity to Change (ITC) process, Polarity management and dialectical thinking (e.g., Dialectical Thought Form Framework - DTF).

Not in the traditional sense of management and authority, but in the sense of inner development. Approaches include different strands of self-leadership e.g., transformative leadership, servant leadership, artful leadership, systemic leadership.

Aim to develop the group rather than the individual. They nurture collective intelligence, trust and safe space, negotiation, deep listening, dialogue, collaboration and team development. Examples are systemic constellations, authentic relating and circling.

Delve into organisational design as a way of promoting new ways of self-organisation with approaches such as Holacracy, Sociocracy, etc., and providing feedback by assessing the culture and values in the organisation or a country.

With roots in religious or wisdom traditions focusing on self-realisation, transcendence or enlightenment. There is a link to mindfulness methods in terms of developing openness, self-awareness and presence. Examples: meditation or contemplative practices.

Focus on developing and working with the body by physical exercise. Body psychotherapy and Drama Therapy enhance body awareness and implicit and tacit knowledge. Embodiment is often used as a component in other approaches (e.g., embodied leadership).

Contains practices to address trauma at the individual and collective levels. Development from this perspective means healing and reintegrating those parts of oneself that have been disassociated through a traumatic experience.

2.3.2 Psychological research: The Big Five

Psychologists have established measurement systems for personality traits. The Big Five traits—Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness—are widely recognized as broad dimensions of personality, each encompassing specific characteristics (figure 4).

depressivity

emotional lability

shamefulness

fearlessness

shamelessness

excitement seeking attention seeking social withdrawal detached coldness magical

While there is general agreement on the traits’ influence on education and labor market outcomes, views differ on their malleability. Some suggest change is possible only until late adolescence and others believe change is lifelong (Brunello & Schlotter, 2021). Further, while the Big Five have been validated across various countries (McCrae, 2002), some studies question their cross-cultural validity, suggesting it may not fully apply in all contexts. While not an ASP in itself, the Big Five model can add value to the field of competence development by highlighting how understanding individual personality can enhance student and employee performance and inform ASPs by lecturers, trainers, and HR/managers (Fantozzi et al., 2024). Research indicates that certain Big Five traits can be enhanced through targeted interventions. For instance, mindfulness-based interventions are shown to increase openness and agreeableness, fostering greater flexibility and empathy (Lim, 2023). The Big Five model is not a novel concept in the IC sector; it has been utilized by several IC organizations alongside other psychometric tests. However, its application has largely been confined to recruitment processes, particularly for senior leadership positions, as discussed further below.

workaholism

distractibility

irresponsibility

rashness

2.3.3 Educational research: emotional self awareness of trainers and lecturers

Research suggests that humans acquire 70%-80% of the competences they possess as adults largely independently from educational institutions and formal learning. Individuals’ learning biographies are shaped also by informal learning —the unconscious, unstructured acquisition of knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors through life experiences—at work, within families, or during leisure activities (Grotlüschen, 2022).

Informal learning often leaves strong emotional imprints or patterns that shape how lecturers/trainers perceive and react to teaching/training and learning situations. Unresolved emotional patterns may manifest as inherited behaviours or biases that are projected onto students or staff. For instance, a lecturer/trainer who grew up in a highly authoritarian educational environment may unconsciously replicate a rigid, top-down teaching/training style, expecting compliance rather than fostering self-directed learning. Similarly, a lecturer/ trainer who struggled with perfectionism may impose overly high standards or interpret mistakes as laziness, failing to consider individual differences or emotional needs (Arnold, 2016).

3 Decoloniality 6 in competence frameworks and ASPs

The literature shows that while many competence frameworks and ASPs include Diversity, Equity and Inclusion (DEI) principles and aim to encourage self-reflection on assumptions and values among students and staff, they often lack explicit focus on key issues like epistemic justice7 and anti-racism8 . Many development practitioners, lecturers, and students hold an idealized view of the IC sector, assuming that exposure to international contexts and research on poverty reduction inherently makes them bias-free. Consequently, many believe there is no need to address topics like racism and epistemic injustice. The data collected in this study suggest that this tendency is also partly present in the Swiss IC context, as discussed in Part 2.

3.1 Epistemic injustice and racism in the sector

However, epistemic injustice and racism have been underrepresented in the IC sector as a whole. This is reflected in a growing body of literature and student and grass-root initiatives on decoloniality and locally led development (e.g., Cole, 2012; Grand Bargain 2016; Mignolo and Walsh, 2018; Pailey, 2019; #shiftthepower; Smith, 2021). Racism only officially entered the IC discourse in 2001 (White, 2002). Additionally, Intergroup Contact Theory (ICT), which posits that positive interactions reduce prejudice and has shaped IC education and training for decades, is being questioned by studies suggesting that sustained interaction and policy changes are necessary for long lasting effects in competence building (Paluck et al., 2021). Intercultural competence research and training are also criticized for the lack of considering wider historical and systemic issues

(Durham and Mendoza, in Alexander et al., 2014).Within the Swiss IC sector, progress in addressing epistemic injustice and racism has been relatively limited compared to other contexts. This can be partially attributed to factors such as Switzerland’s perceived immunity to colonial legacies—a long-debunked notion (see e.g., colonial Zurich).

It should be noted, however, that decoloniality is neither a recent topic, nor one with a single answer. Attempting to frame it as such oversimplifies a complex discourse (Táíwò, 2020). Decoloniality-related issues have been discussed for decades, touching for example on the concept of intersectionality 9 (Krenshaw 1989) and participatory approaches (e.g., Burns et al., 2021). In addition, many decoloniality related themes were central to debates during the era of modernization and dependency theories in the 1960s and 1970s, aspects of which remain relevant in today’s IC sector. The IC sector, therefore, has experience with (de)coloniality.

3.2 Decolonial attitudes

Overall, however, most competence frameworks still lack specific descriptors of ‘decolonial attitudes’. These attitudes encompass qualities such as humility, which involves the respectful acknowledgment of the limitations of one’s own knowledge and worldview (Smith, 2021). Additionally, they call for a critical awareness of white saviorism (Cole, 2012), the belief that ‘target groups’ lack the capacity to develop independently, thereby justifying externally imposed interventions. As Howard and Burns (2021) aptly state: “Too often, people are […] seen as lacking the maturity or competence to contribute meaningfully. […] It is the systemic nature of inequalities that shapes our attitudes and drives the widespread lack of recognition of the knowledge of these groups.”

6 Decoloniality refers to a “[…] complex, all-encompassing transformation: a cultural shift that reveals and challenges systemic injustices and mindsets that are rooted in colonial history.” (Partos, 2022: 1) This includes shifting power and resources to local actors.

7 Epistemic justice is intellectual decolonization by putting onto-epistemic traditions in a non-dominant and equal position (Smith, 2021).

8 “The policy or practice of opposing racism, promoting racial tolerance and equity.” (Peace Direct, 2021: 42)

9 “A theoretical framework for understanding how aspects of a person’s social and political identities combine to create different modes of discrimination and privilege.” (Peace Direct, 2021: 42)

(ibid.: 206) Including such descriptors would enhance the capacity of competence frameworks to address systemic biases and promote truly inclusive practices. Similarly, there is a need to avoid the replication of the white gaze10 , which can reinforce internalized racism through subtle elements such as language, like the term ‘modern’, implying inferiority in those deemed ‘less modern’ (Khan et al., 2022). Furthermore, fostering a decolonial mindset requires attitudes revolving around trust, mutuality, and reciprocity, which underpin equitable partnerships (Peace Direct, 2023). Adopting the mindset of a ‘facilitator’ rather than an ‘expert’ is also key, requiring flexibility, process orientation, and relationality (Apgar and Allen, 2021).

3.3 Decolonial ASPs

Like decolonial attitudes, decolonial ASPs—particularly those aimed at Recentring ‘non-Western’ epistemologies and ontologies or advancing Anti-racism and unlearning processes—are underrepresented in HE institutions and IC organizations. They are often overshadowed by more basic practices, such as diversifying reading lists, inviting diverse speakers, or revising terminology and imagery. While many of the emotion-oriented ASPs discussed in this study possess decolonial elements or can be adapted to foster decoloniality, ASPs that fully embrace decolonial principles are frequently sidelined. Far-reaching decolonial ASPs that explicitly target epistemic justice and anti-racism—often requiring profound unlearning processes and leading to emotional shifts in mental frameworks (Gayá, 2021; Straubhaar, 2015)—remain either absent or rare.

Additionally, ASPs such as Co-designing lectures, trainings, and assessments may focus less on personal feelings and more on fostering mutual openness between students and lecturers, and staff and HR/managers, while promoting a more flattened hierarchy. At their core, however, co-design and co-evaluation are connected to a decolonial mindset. Key factors are the willingness, trust, and skill of lecturers, trainers, and HR/ managers to relinquish control and embrace diverse ways of knowing and being—elements highly relevant to decolonial practice (Smith, 2021).

4

Challenges of implementing competence frameworks and ASPs

The challenge of implementing complex competence frameworks, including ASPs is cited in the literature as a major bottleneck to becoming competence-oriented HE institutions and IC organizations. Even with an increasing number of well-structured and descriptive competence frameworks, many HR managers, trainers, and educators often feel overwhelmed when it comes to practical application and assessment challenges.

Constructive alignment, i.e., the systematic interlinking of learning objectives (competences), course/training curricula (learning contents), and didactic materials (ASPs) based on frameworks is not self-explaining. Study and training programs cannot—and should not— aim to develop all competences but rather only those deemed relevant. However, determining which competences—knowledge, skills, and attitudes—are relevant depends on many factors like course duration, context, and audience, complicating a well-justified prioritization (González-salamanca et al., 2020; Scott, 2015a; Wilhelm et al., 2019).

Further, at the institutional level, educators and trainers and HR / managers are often faced with insufficient time, as well as a lack of necessary didactic support and guidance, to approach this task thoroughly. As a result, they are often left to navigate these challenges on their own (Frank & Stanszus, 2019; Nielsen et al., 2019).

A key challenge lies in meaningfully assessing attitudes and other non-cognitive dispositions in educational and workplace settings. Didactic concepts explicitly aimed at evaluating the development of students’ and staff’s attitudes do exist, including the field of intercultural competence research.

However, they tend to be complex, implying considerable effort (Blair, 2017; Deardorff, 2017; Joynes, 2019; USAID, 2019).

There are also implementation challenges in terms of rendering competence frameworks and ASPs decolonial. While Diversity, Inclusion, and Equity (DIE) initiatives in HE institutions and IC organizations have partly improved recruitment, compensation, and other HR management practices, their transformative potential remains underutilized due to insufficient prioritization at societal (macro) and leadership (meso) levels. Systemic issues such as epistemic injustice and ‘Global NorthSouth’ power imbalances are often overlooked, limiting awareness of how discrimination manifests in the sector. This gap undermines the ability of lecturers, trainers, HR/managers, and policymakers to create culturally responsive education and professional development, eroding also their credibility. Additionally, it hinders their ability to address discrimination in classrooms and training sessions, increasing the risk of harm to both learners and educators.

Part 2: Current Practice in the Swiss IC Sector – ASPs used in HE institutions and IC organizations to foster attitudes

Building on Part 1, which outlines the main trends and challenges in competence research as discussed across various sectors, including IC, this Part compares these findings with current practices in Swiss HE institutions and organizations within the IC sector. The primary insights are drawn from a survey conducted with 24 representatives from HE institutions and 6 follow-up Key Informant Interviews (HEI KII), as well as KIIs with representatives from 7 IC organizations (IC KII).

Accordingly, this Part first examines the definitions of competences currently in use, including the extent to which attitudes are addressed. It also explores how decolonial perspectives are integrated into competence frameworks. Additionally, it investigates the specific ASPs employed in education and human resources development, focusing on how these are structured to foster attitudes. Furthermore, this Part analyzes how the effectiveness of ASPs is evaluated and considers how change in attitudes is assessed for both students and staff. Finally, it examines the priority given to attitudes and unconventional ASPs within institutional and organizational policies and highlights insights gained from employer evaluations of graduates’ competences, including attitudes, during job applications.

1 Definition of competences

1.1 Concepts of competences

Summary: HE institutions and organizations within the Swiss IC sector appear to be increasingly competence-oriented. The indications are: 90% have structured their educational offerings and trainings to focus on achieving competences. 60% share a common understanding of competence, viewing it as a complex whole that includes knowledge, skills, attitudes, and/or other non-cognitive factors. The KSA model is widely adopted, alongside other frameworks such as ‘soft skills’. However, 60% lack detailed competence frameworks, including descriptors of attitudes and other dispositions.

Following synthesized findings from survey and KII respondents, and literature concerning competences:

• Sixty percent of KII and survey respondents define competence as a complex, integrated whole comprising several mutually reinforcing elements. Competence involves the ability to meet complex demands in a particular context by mobilizing more than just knowledge and skills; it also includes attitudes and values (which were most frequently mentioned), higher-order skills, behaviors, and other non-cognitive dispositions.

• Sixty percent report having a shared definition of ‘competences’ among lecturers within study programs, as well as among HR managers within organizations, while the remaining respondents feel they do not have such a shared understanding. This mixed finding is supported by literature.

• Although the survey results suggest a potential bias towards the KSA approach, they align with literature and KII findings, with most respondents (60%) using a definition of ‘competence’ similar to that of the KSA model. However, a notable portion (40%) also use alternative terms and concepts, such as ‘soft skills’ and ‘human competences‘.

• Sixty percent of survey respondents indicate they do not have frameworks that detail the specific elements of each competence through descriptors or indicators. This is indicated by the following statement: “We have a sophisticated and participatory process to discuss and define which competences should be established as learning outcomes, but defining soft components and developing a comprehensive competence framework remains a work in progress.” (HEI KII 4) KII findings reflect this mixed outcome: 50% of respondents report lacking documented definitions beyond a basic listing of domains, while the other 50% describe using more comprehensive models that include domains and levels or stages. This mixed pattern is also supported by literature.

• Linked to this, findings from KIIs and survey indicate that few attempts have been made to integrate specific descriptors of emotional dispositions such as attitudes into competence frameworks. Reasons include time constraints and difficulties in measurement, despite acknowledging that knowledge and skills alone are insufficient, as indicated by the following statements: “At the heart of our competence concept are attitudes as a transversal theme.

They are central and we want to emphasize their importance. However, there is no precise definition of attitudes.” (ICO KII 1) “For most staff, systematically promoting and measuring soft skills does not happen because it is too costly.” (ICO KII 3) “It would be super interesting to have a framework for integrating attitudes into curricula, but it is extremely time-consuming and conceptually difficult.” (HEI KII 6)

• Regardless of whether they have a shared definition or framework, nearly all respondents (ninety percent) gear their educational offerings and professional trainings toward achieving competences. In all or most lectures and trainings, curricula and training design, delivery, and assessment are structured to promote student competence achievement, i.e. going beyond knowledge transmission. This trend is corroborated by existing literature.

1.2 Attitudes of personal and social competences

Summary: Out of 17 predefined attitudes identified in the literature as essential for developing personal and social competences, nine were highlighted as being used by HE institutions and organizations within the Swiss IC sector. Among these, four showed the greatest overlap between IC organizations and HE institutions: Embrace diversity and include people and collectives with different views and

From a list of 17 attitudes identified in the literature as crucial for developing 21st-century personal and social competences, table 3 highlights those deemed most important—and increasingly essential—by both HE institutions and IC organizations. An overview of the attitudes, and how they are rated by survey respondents and key informants is provided in annex 5.

Focusing on the main overlap between findings from the survey and the KIIs seems reasonable, given the KSA approach used as the underlying conceptual framework in this study defines competences in a way that is equally relevant to both IC organizations—employers and staff—and HE institutions—lecturers and students—when hiring new talent or applying for jobs, respectively.

Main areas of overlap include the attitudes Embrace diversity and include people and collectives with different views and backgrounds and Having a mindset of curiosity and exploration (which encompasses creativity).

These attitudes are followed, though at some distance, by the attitudes Self-critically reflect on own values, thoughts, feelings, and actions, and Acknowledge limitations of own knowledge and worldview, with a relatively higher proportion of counts from HE institutions compared to IC organizations.

Other valued attitudes, though with less overlap between survey and KII respondents, but with a relatively higher number of mentions from IC organizations, include Value sincerity, honesty and work ethics and apply them in relationships and own work, and Be willing to trust and share control with others in the development and delivery of joint initiatives.

Table 3: Attitudes most mentioned by survey and KII respondents (darker color indicates greater overlap between ICO and HEI)

Interpreting the lack of overlap between certain attitudes is challenging, partly due to methodological issues arising from vague terminology and the use of different data collection methods for different target groups. However, a possible explanation for why attitudes like for instance Be willing to trust and share control with others in the development and delivery of joint initiatives is rated as relatively more important by interviewees from IC organizations than by respondents from HE institutions could be that IC organizations are directly engaged with local partner organizations. This engagement involves specific needs such as fostering trust and collaboration to localize aid, which may elevate the prominence of this attitude. In fact, issues like lack of trust, and fear of losing control or reluctance to share control are frequently discussed in the localization literature, as outlined further below.

For the sake of objectivity, it should be noted that if this reasoning holds, it becomes difficult to explain why IC organizations place less emphasis on attitudes like Listening to others and Valuing the experience and perspective of others. Arguably, these attitudes are just as decisive in terms of building trust and fostering collaboration.

There is no overlap regarding the attitude of Understand and share the thoughts and feelings of others, which respondents from HE institutions rated as quite important. The lack of overlap is surprising; it can almost certainly be attributed to methodological limitations of the study.

1.2.1 Decoloniality reflected by these compe- tences/attitudes

Summary: While aspects of decoloniality are evident in IC organizations and HE institutions’ focus on attitudes like Embracing diversity, Having a mindset of curiosity, Deep listening, and Empathy—valued by many survey respondents and key informants—significant gaps remain. Efforts to build a truly decolonial mindset remain limited, as crucial attitudes such as Having a realistic self-image and Accepting vulnerability received few mentions. Additionally, attitudes like Acknowledge limitations of one’s own knowledge and worldview, Valuing others’ perspectives and adapt one’s own plan and action, and Self-critical reflection are only partially implemented, with emotional dimensions (emotional reflexivity) mostly overlooked.

There is general agreement that the afore-mentioned attitudes are essential for a decolonized and localized IC sector, as outlined in Part 1. However, certain findings should be considered in context. For instance, many of the attitudes identified are not new; rather, they have resurfaced amid the ongoing decoloniality debate. Numerous HE institutions and organizations in the IC sector have long promoted these attitudes through intercultural competence training and similar initiatives, albeit to varying extents, as outlined in Part 1. This is especially true for attitudes such as: Embrace diversity; Having a mindset of curiosity; Aspire to really listen to others; and Understand and share the thoughts and feelings of others.

Also crucial for decoloniality—and not new—are the attitudes Self-critically reflect on own values, thoughts, feelings, and actions, Acknowledge limitations of own knowledge and worldview, and Value the experience and perspective of others, and be able to adapt one’s own plan and action. However, these attitudes have been implemented only partially. Thus, the importance that survey and KII respondents appear to place on these attitudes warrants further differentiation.

1.2.1.1 Attitude: Self-critically

reflect on

own values, thoughts, feelings, and actions

A closer examination raises the question which aspects are actually being implemented? As outlined in Part 1, literature suggests that deep emotional learning (emotional reflexivity) is seldom practiced within HE institutions and IC organizations. This implies that while most components of this attitude might be addressed, Self-reflection of feelings may be largely overlooked. Yet this element is critical to decoloniality, which involves recognizing and addressing biases and forms of racism. Confronting such issues often triggers intense emotions, including anger, guilt, avoidance, and fear (Diangelo, 2011; White, 2002).

Moreover, survey and KII results reveal that far-reaching decoloniality measures, such as anti-racism initiatives, are rarely present in these institutions, as discussed further below. This suggests that the attitude of Self-critical reflection on own values, thoughts, feelings, and actions is only partially embraced, focusing primarily on cognitive dimensions (reflective activity) while emotional dimensions (emotional reflexivity) remain underrepresented. In this sense, efforts to foster a decolonial attitude are also limited in scope.

This observation is further emphasized by examining the attitudes that received the fewest mentions from both KII and survey respondents, as shown in table 4. Notably, some of these attitudes—particularly Having a realistic self-image, including awareness of how one is perceived by others and Accept vulnerability by being willing to express own feelings to oneself and others— are regarded as essential in decoloniality literature.

Table 4: Attitudes with the least mentions by KII and survey respondents

The ability to embrace vulnerability and use it as an emotional strength (‘power of vulnerability’) in relation to recognizing and handling one’s biases and implicit associations and understand how one is perceived by others are essential for developing self-reflection and self-awareness (Brown 2012; Eurich 2017; Peace Direct, 2021; Smith, 2021; Straubhaar, 2015). The fact that these two attitudes are regarded as relatively unimportant underscores the earlier point that efforts to foster a decolonial attitude are limited in scope.

1.2.1.2 Attitudes: Acknowledge limitations of own knowledge and worldview, and Value the experience and perspective of others, and be able to adapt one’s own plan and ac- tion

Additionally, the attitudes Acknowledge limitations of own knowledge and worldview, and Value the experience and perspective of others, and be able to adapt one’s own plan and action are highly valued in both the survey and KIIs. However, the literature presents a contrasting view, indicating that these attitudes are largely lacking in IC HE and practice.

Concrete examples of this discrepancy in IC practice are abundant. For instance, to what extent are donors willing to move away from standard project management tools, such as logical framework matrices and other ‘Western’-based frameworks, in favour of alternative approaches? Some argue that many funders already accept alternatives to the logframe, and indeed, models such as the Theory of Change have emerged and are in use. But the essential question is, what truly constitutes an ‘alternative’? For example, is the Theory of Change genuinely an alternative to the logframe matrix? From a technical standpoint, one could argue they are very similar (Schneider, 2022).

A true alternative would go further, addressing deeper epistemic questions such as ‘whose knowledge counts’, a key issue widely discussed in decoloniality literature (Kothari et al., 2019; Mignolo and Walsh, 2018; Smith, 2021).

1.2.2 (De)coloniality in the Swiss IC sector

Survey and KII responses present a mixed picture on whether the Swiss IC sector has a de-/coloniality issue: some respondents see racism in the IC sector as a problem requiring attention, while others feel it is a misnomer, yet cannot explain why. Some assume that due to engaging with an international community and global issues like poverty reduction racism is not an issue and argue that mental health and gender discrimination should be the focus. Some believe that only social sciences, such as sociology or philosophy, can be decolonized, while natural sciences like chemistry or mathematics certainly cannot—a misconception refuted by numerous reports (alliancesud 2022; ZH Kolonial). A few respondents seem unclear on what racism and epistemic injustice entail, and only a small minority understood concepts such as the white gaze, white saviorism, and white fragility11 , or why these might be relevant in Switzerland—a country perceived as lacking a colonial past. These findings suggests that the Swiss IC sector either perceives itself as genuinely distinct from other contexts, with no coloniality issues, or as being at the very beginning of its own learning journey. It appears that the IC sector leans towards the first scenario, which may explain why certain crucial decolonial attitudes are either not prioritized or receive insufficient focus.

2 ASPs to promote attitudes

Summary: Out of 16 ASPs identified in the literature as essential for cultivating attitudes of 21st-century competences, five are most systematically applied by Swiss IC-sector HE institutions and organizations. Among these, coaching, on-the-job learning, and mentoring show the greatest overlap, followed by project-, problem-, and case-based interventions and basic decolonizing practices like terminology review—though the latter are more common in HE institutions. While these ASPs can effectively foster many targeted attitudes, including decolonial ones, ASPs with contemplative and emotional elements remain largely absent or inconsistently applied, despite evidence of their value. Underutilized approaches include, for example, practices from adult developmental psychology such as Immunity to Change (ITC) process, mindfulness interventions, arts- and imagination-based methods, and decolonial practices focused on epistemic justice and anti-racism. Co-designing curricula and assessments is also rare.

2.1 Most applied ASPs

From a list of 16 ASPs identified in the literature as crucial for developing the above mentioned 21st-century attitudes associated with personal and social competences (annex 6), table 5 highlights the five most systematically applied by both HE institutions and IC organizations – with the exception of ‘introspection about subjective experience’, as discussed further below. For ASPs, the overlaps between HE institutions and IC organizations are less straightforward than those observed for attitudes. However, the findings from the survey and KIIs still align with the findings from the literature, as outlined in Part 1. An overview of the identified ASPs, and how they are rated by survey respondents and key informants is provided in annex 7.

Table 5: List of ASPs systematically applied in educational and professional development programs (darker green indicates greater overlap between ICO and HEI)

2.1.1 Coaching programs, on-the-job training and assignments, and mentoring programs

These ASPs show the biggest overlap. Coaching and mentoring are more systematically implemented in IC organizations, where they are often integrated into global peer exchange and learning initiatives. For onthe-job training, students are offered internships and assignments both abroad and within organizations to gain practical experience. Staff members are provided with opportunities to engage in internal projects as ‘stretched assignments’—such as salary review processes or digital transformation initiatives within Human Resources Department. Additionally, interdisciplinary working groups and cross-functional learning opportunities are organized to promote peer learning.

2.1.2 Project-, problem-, and case-based in- terventions

They are the most frequently used ASPs by HE institutions, taking various forms such as interdisciplinary and interactive group assignments for students based on relevant and real-world examples.12 For IC organizations, these interventions are used less frequently, as they are often less applicable or relevant to their context, given that the bulk of daily work is by default ‘project based’.

2.1.3

Basic decolonizing/localizing practices

While both IC organizations and HE institutions employ these practices, their specific applications differ somewhat depending on their contexts. HE institutions tend to focus on diversifying reading lists, featuring a broader range of speakers, and identifying colonial influences within course topics. A method that remains relatively uncommon and unsystematically applied but, according to the study data, appears to be gaining

traction in educational offerings is Listening to Pause. IC organizations, on the other hand, engage in writing and strategizing about ‘localization’, rather than ‘decolonization’ partly because this term has been promoted by the Grand Bargain (2016). They further organize events for experience and knowledge-sharing with partners and allies, and regularly involve staff in learning groups focusing on how to become a locally-led organization. Shared approaches across HE institutions and IC organizations are the critical review of terminology and imagery used.

2.1.4

Introspection about subjective experi -

ence

There is no overlap regarding this ASP. The importance survey respondents assigned to it is surprising, as this practice—by definition, involving deep emotional reflexivity—is, as previously discussed, lacking in most HE institutions and IC organizations. This finding is further supported by KIIs with HE institutions.

2.2 Least applied ASPs

The application of coaching, practical assignments, and mentoring interventions is meaningful, as experiential and project-oriented approaches have been shown in the literature to be effective in fostering competences, including attitudes. However, beyond the ASPs that IC organizations and HE institutions are currently implementing, it is also essential to learn from those that have not been systematically applied, or applied at all, as indicated in table 6.

What stands out about these findings is that some ASPs have a distinct emotional component or, depending on their application, are designed to foster emotional learning. Methods such as Immunity to Change (ITC) processes stemming from adult developmental psychology, mindfulness approaches, arts- and imagination-based practices, and combined organizational, leadership, and teamwork practices such as Theory U emphasize engaging with subjective experiences that evoke emotional responses (Stålne & Greca, 2022; Schüßler, 2008). Similarly, decolonial ASPs targeting epistemic justice and anti-racism involve profound un-learning processes that can lead to emotional shifts in mental frameworks (Gayá, 2021; Straubhaar, 2015).

It may be somewhat different with the ASPs co-designing lectures, trainings, and assessments. Here, personal feelings play a lesser role, and instead focus is on a high degree of mutual openness between students and faculty, staff and manager/trainer, as well as a more flattened hierarchy. A key factor here, then, is that the lecturers, trainers, and managers have the willingness, trust, and skill to let go of control. It may sound lofty, but it is highly relevant to (decolonial) practice (Smith, 2021).

The limited application of ASPs with a contemplative and emotional component is consistent with survey, KII, and literature findings indicating that emotional learning is underrepresented in IC teaching and staff development, despite growing evidence of their effectiveness.

Another notable finding from the survey and KII results, supported by the literature, is that more far-reaching decolonial ASPs —such as recentring ‘non-Western’ epistemologies and ontologies and advancing anti-racism and unlearning processes—are underrepresented in HE institutions and IC organizations compared to more basic practices, such as diversifying reading lists and speakers, and revising terminology and imagery.

3 Assessment of ASPs’ effectiveness

Summary: Data reveal two key patterns: first, ASPs’ effectiveness is predominantly assessed through participant feedback and screening good practices from other sectors, though this approach relies on self-perception and is hindered by time constraints. Second, assessments are primarily conducted by lecturers and HR managers themselves, with limited specialist support, leaving many lecturers and HR managers to rely on informal, learning-by-doing approaches to determine effective ASPs.

Two patterns, as outlined below, emerge from the collected data on the assessment of ASP effectiveness, i.e. the reliance on course feedback and good practice from other sectors, and the predominance of in-house assessments.

3.1 Reliance on course feedback and good practice from

other sectors

HE institutions predominantly assess ASP effectiveness through course and training evaluations. As shown in table 7, with 16 counts survey respondents reported relying on participants’ feedback on courses and lectures to evaluate whether intended attitudes were fostered. To some extent, this method is also used by IC organizations, as many offer training programs—some in-house and others by external consultants.

Additionally, IC organizations facilitate peer exchange, coaching, and mentoring initiatives, for which participants’ feedback is also collected, albeit less systematically. While the evaluations of trainings, courses and similar initiatives are valuable, they primarily rely on self-perception and provide subjective rather than objective evidence of effectiveness. Notably, 8 survey respondents reported using exams to assess the changes in students’ attitudes, which is a more robust approach compared to relying on students’ self-assessments. Furthermore, as depicted in figure 5, most survey respondents (15 out of 24) indicated that they screen at least to some extent ASPs from other sectors, such as private sector (e.g., Deloitte, McKinsey).

7: How HE institutions assess pedagogies’ effectiveness in terms of developing attitudes (N=24)

Table

In a similar vein, most key informants from IC organizations stated that they look to other sectors for effective ASPs. However, these findings need to be contextualized. Many key informants, including those from HE institutions, cited lack of time as the main barrier to

adequately screening evidence on effective ASPs. As a result, it can be assumed that course and training feedback and exams remains the primary approach for assessing ASP effectiveness.

Figure 5: Systematic search and integration of effective pedagogies from other sectors

3.2 Predominance of in-house assessment of ASP effectiveness

Although it is difficult to determine precisely how much of the work is outsourced versus handled in-house, particularly regarding training and course delivery and the assessment of ASP effectiveness, the collected study data indicate that a significant portion of assessing the effectiveness of ASPs is conducted by lecturers and HR managers themselves. As illustrated in table 7, 11 out of 24 survey respondents reported independently assessing the effectiveness of ASPs, and only 7 lecturers (2+5) state there is specialist support from within the institution when assessing ASPs’ effectiveness.

The finding that a significant portion of assessing the effectiveness of ASPs is done by lecturers and HR managers themselves is corroborated by findings from the KIIs. Only when external facilitators are engaged to conduct courses and lectures, be it in HE institutions or IC organizations, the effectiveness of ASPs is assumed to be ensured by these specialists.

Despite their differences, both HE institutions and IC organizations share a common responsibility for quality assurance in education, training, and staff development.

For HE institutions, this responsibility is particularly pressing. In Switzerland, lecturers at HE institutions are often not required to have formal training in adult education. Accordingly, only 17% of survey respondents are teachers by training (with a specialized degree), another 13% have a further education certificate (e.g., CAS), while a third regularly takes short training courses, and 40% of respondents refer to practicing a learning-by-doing approach. KIIs reveal that while many HE institutions have dedicated departments with specialists in didactics, these experts are used infrequently and primarily on a needs basis.

This lack of systematic support may leave many lecturers struggling to independently determine effective ASPs for fostering specific attitudes, especially given the complexity of identifying and integrating evidence of effective ASPs into daily teaching, training, and learning practices. Accordingly, the literature increasingly emphasizes the need for professional capacity building for lecturers.

4 Assessment of student and staff attitudes

Summary: In the Swiss IC sector, the systematic assessment of attitudes remains uncommon. Current practices include evaluating candidates’ motivation and behavior during recruitment, often through interviews, and occasionally using psychometric tests for senior leadership roles. Although attitudes are also reviewed in staff appraisals, student feedback, and post-deployment reflections, these assessments are typically informal, voluntary, and lack the rigor of tested methodologies.

The collected data in this study indicate that the systematic assessment of student and staff attitudes and changes of attitudes is uncommon in the Swiss IC sector. Here, ‘systematic’ refers to conducting before-and-after evaluations based on some tested methodology (e.g., psychometric tools like The Big Five Personality Test (NEO-PI-R) and The Leadership Assessment Battery for Effective Leadership Test (L.A.B.E.L.)) combined with continuous monitoring of indicators or descriptors of attitudes. Consequently, there appears to be no formal measurement of attitudes and their changes. However, in certain cases, as discussed further below, attitudes are systematically assessed.

In a nutshell, the approach to assessing ASP effectiveness in HE institutions and IC organizations can be summarized by the following statement: “There is no concept for systematically assessing effectiveness, other than course and training feedback and evaluations. While good practices are occasionally mentioned, they are not systematically documented or implemented.” (ICO KI 7)

4.1 Recruitment process

• During screening candidates’ profiles, IC organizations and HE institutions infer soft skills from motivation, for example, by analyzing how a person writes: “Does the application focus solely on ‘me, me, me’, or does it show thoughtfulness and consideration of others including us the organization the person wants to work for?” (ICO KI 4).

• During interviews, IC organizations and HE institutions assess attitudes by asking questions like “[…] tell me about the last time you made a cultural mistake and what did you learn from it?” or “[...] describe a challenging situation you faced and how you handled it.” (ICO KI 2). This helps better understand candidates’ potential behavior. In addition, non-verbal communication is observed, such as whether the interviewee appears disengaged or distracted, which contributes to forming a ‘sense’ of what the person brings to the table. This is possible whether the interview takes place online or in presence.

• Particularly when recruiting for senior management and leadership positions, bigger IC organizations tend to evaluate—often through external assessment centers using psychometric tests — the attitudes of applicants:

4.2 Staff Appraisals

Attitudes and changes in attitudes can be assessed during annual performance reviews. While most review formats include a dedicated section for attitudes or related topics, these are typically addressed only if initiated by either supervisors or staff. The review of attitudes is generally needs-based and voluntary, with systematic methods such as psychometric tests or descriptor monitoring rarely employed.

When attitudes are discussed, the primary purpose of the appraisal is typically not to evaluate changes but to identify and implement support measures to address challenges faced. These measures include additional training sessions, peer exchange groups, and coaching, which is occasionally provided by external experts.

4.3 Student feedback and tracer studies

Students’ attitudes are assessed at staggered intervals through self-perception feedback during study programs or retrospectively via tracer studies. These assessments, however, often use broad questions such as ‘Which competences were you able to acquire?’ and ‘Which ones are useful for your job?’ without differentiation for instance between knowledge, skills, and attitudes.

4.4

Teaching courses and trainings

For lectures and training courses in HE institutions and IC organizations, it is common practice to evaluate whether learning objectives were met and whether targeted competences improved, typically based on participants’ self-perceptions. However, these assessment forms usually remain somewhat vague and do not explicitly differentiate between knowledge, skills, and attitudes.

4.5 On-the-job learning and post-deployment reflections

Many HE institutions and IC organizations prepare their staff and students in the run-up to longer on-the-job learning assignments and similar placements by cultivating competences. After deployment / assignments, participants may reflect on their experiences and self-perceived changes in attitudes if this is a focus area. However, this is usually optional and not a standardized requirement and procedure.

In summary, while some mechanisms exist to assess attitudes, they are largely informal, voluntary, and lack a systematic framework using tested methods for measuring change over time.

5 Embedding attitudes and ASPs in IC organizations and HE institutions

Summary: The embeddedness of attitudes and ASPs into educational programs and staff development relies on robust competence frameworks. In the Swiss IC sector, 40% of HE institutions and organizations have and use such frameworks, incorporating nine of seventeen (53%) attitudes of personal and social competences considered relevant and applying five of sixteen (31%) ASPs recognized as effective in fostering these attitudes. However, decolonial attitudes and emotion-oriented ASPs are notably absent. Most HE institutions and IC organizations rely on participant self-assessments for ASP-effectiveness evaluation but lack systematic evidence reviews, though many assess good practices from other sectors.

This chapter explores the extent to which attitudes and ASPs are embedded in HE institutions and IC organizations. The degree of embedding can be considered an indication of the importance institutions and organizations assign to attitudes and effective ASPs.

5.1 Systems and procedures

Both HE institutions and IC organizations operate within strategic and operational ‘management cycles’, which generally consist of the following phases: needs assessment, planning (strategy and resources), implementation (students study, and staffs perform), and evaluation (Knowles et al., 2020). These cycles and phases equip organizations and institutions with systems and procedures that enable them to systematically foster competences, including attitudes, relevant to both staff and students.

HE institutions focus on identifying the competences critical for addressing 21st-century challenges of IC related topics such as sustainable development and poverty alleviation, as well as those most sought after by employers. This contributes to equipping students with the necessary knowledge, skills, and attitudes by the time they graduate and enter the labour market. IC organizations/employers focus on determining the competences staff need to effectively fulfill the organization’s mandate, including sustainable development and poverty alleviation. This involves addressing 21st-century challenges and pinpointing the specific knowledge, skills, and attitudes staff must possess to enhance organizational efficiency and effectiveness. The common denominator is thus the focus on the labour market—students are prepared to find a job and perform well in it, while staff are recruited based on labour market requirements and subsequently supported to excel in their roles and contribute to the organization’s overarching goals.

HE institution and IC organization often formalize the competences in a framework, which essentially serves as the central pivot point. If lecturers and HR/managers use it effectively across each phase of these cycles, competences/attitudes and ASPs are systematically interlinked and fostered accordingly: In IC organizations, competence frameworks form the foundation for developing job descriptions including expected attitudes, which in turn guide recruitment interviews and serve as the basis for annual performance appraisals, feeding into career development initiatives (ASPs) such as need-based coaching, mentoring, and training, etc.; In HE institutions, competence frameworks shape study programs and provide the basis for constructive alignment of course curricula, learning outcomes including attitudes, teaching methods (ASPs), and assessment formats, with student feedback continuously refining study programs and teaching practices.

The situation is different when it comes to recruitment and admission. In IC organizations competence frameworks are central to staff recruitment, whereas in HE institutions, they play only a minimal role in student admissions: IC organizations must identify candidates whose competences contribute to the organization’s overarching objectives. To this end, especially bigger organizations often invest substantial time and resources in assessing candidates’ attitudes during interviews. This is supported by literature as well as the conducted KIIs. In HE institutions, the starting point and hence approach is different. Competences, including attitudes, are assumed to be developed during study programs, with admissions based on criteria such as educational background, grades, age, and motivation.13

5.2 Current situation in the Swiss IC sector in prioritizing attitudes and ASPs

To assess the degree to which a HE institution or IC organization gives importance to attitudes and effective ASPs, as defined in this study, the following criteria have to be considered: If there is a robust competence-framework that’s being used, and If there is a shared definition of competence, and If attitudes are explicitly designed / targeted in study courses and staff trainings, and If the effectiveness of ASPs is assessed through training and course participants’ evaluations and/or exams, and If the effectiveness of ASPs is assessed based on rigorous evidence (presupposing lecturers / trainers are competent to do so), and If effective ASPs from other sectors are systematically sought and integrated, and If effective ASPs to nurture these attitudes are applied, THEN it can be inferred that a HE institution / IC organization gives importance to attitudes and effective (including emotion-oriented) ASPs at the level of policy and practice.

To assess the extent to which the aforementioned criteria are fulfilled, the collected data have to be considered:

• 40% of HE institutions and IC organizations have and use robust/detailed competence frameworks.

• 90% have structured their educational offerings and trainings to focus on achieving competences.

• 60% have a shared understanding of what competences are, going beyond knowledge and skills.

• Out of 17 attitudes falling under personal and social competences, 9 are systematically addressed.

• Out of 16 ASPs identified as effective in cultivating these attitudes, 5 are systematically applied.

• 70% HE institutions and IC organizations assess the effectiveness of ASPs through course and training evaluations based on participants‘ self-assessment.

• 80% HE institutions and IC organizations do not systematically search the evidence body of ASP’s effectiveness, however, most (over 60%) do at least to some extent assess good practice form other sectors.

In addition, to be able to infer whether a HE institution or IC organization prioritizes attitudes and effective ASPs, it is crucial to evaluate which processes or criteria addressing these are classified as mandatory or optional. By ‘addressing’ we mean the whole range from design and implementation to monitoring and assessment. Table 8 provides an overview of these processes/criteria, based on data collected from KIIs and the survey.

13 With regard to ‘motivation’, one could argue that there may be some overlap with attitudes, as they are considered in this study. In this sense, there is a certain, albeit slight, similarity to the role of attitudes during recruitment processes in IC organizations.

Table

organizations

Processes / Criteria

Staff recruitment

Assess attitudes/motivation of staffs in general x

Assess attitudes of staffs for leadership roles, using tested tools/methods (depends on organization) x x

Staff performance appraisal

Assess staff attitude change during yearly appraisal x

Assess senior staff attitude change during yearly appraisal x

Designing and conducting staff trainings

Training curricula are geared toward nurturing competences x

Training curricula are geared toward nurturing attitudes x

Trainers search body of evidence of effective ASPs x

Complete preparation program for deployment / assignment, including fostering attitudes (depends on organization) x x

Trainer qualification

In-house trainers are qualified and experienced x

External trainers are qualified and experienced x

Student admission

institutions

Assess student attitudes/motivation to join study program x

Assess student attitudes/motivation to join study program, using tested tools/methods x

Designing and conducting lectures/courses

Curricula are geared toward nurturing competences x

Curricula are geared toward nurturing attitudes x

Lecturers search body of evidence of effective ASPs x

Student feedback during study program

Assess student attitude change through self-assessment x

Assess student attitude change through tracer studies x

On-the-job learning assignments / placements / deployment (depends on institution)

Complete preparation courses, including fostering attitudes x

Assess attitude change during assignment x

Assess attitude change ex-post assignment x

Teacher qualification

Teaching staff are teacher by training x

Teaching staff are supported to teach effectively x

A glance at most checkmarks in table 8 reveals that most processes/criteria for addressing attitudes and ASPs are optional rather than mandatory (the assumption here being that processes/criteria have equal weight). Mandatory are the processes primarily during student admissions, staff recruitment, training and course design, and prior to departure for on-the-job and other practical assignments. Subsequent monitoring and evaluation of changes in attitudes are less systematic and more the exception than the rule.

6

From graduation to employment in the IC sector

Summary: Employer evaluations of graduates’ competences, particularly their attitudes, are generally positive but reveal areas for improvement for HE institutions in the Swiss IC sector. Achieving alignment between the competences promoted by HE institutions and those expected — and cultivated — by IC employers is a shared responsibility, as the need for improvement extends to IC employers as well.

6.1 What employers need and search

The trend highlighted in the literature, where employers prioritize soft skills or attitudes related to personal and social competences, is echoed by most key informants from both HE institutions and IC organizations, as illustrated by the statements below. However, differences in characteristics such as size, mandate, and context among IC organizations result in varying ways this trend is realized in practice.

6.1.1 Humility, and collaborative and commu- nication skills

Organizations are prioritizing attitudes like humility and collaborative and communication skills over high IQ and elite credentials in recruitment:

• “We see a swing towards promoting more soft skills. Until about ten years ago we used to recruit all the ‘Harvards’ and the ‘LSEs’, and they knew everything and had the highest IQ, but they are also arrogant. To stop this ‘IQ nightmare’ we introduced a new framework including ‘killer’ competences like humility. The staff we recruited since then are much higher in the hierarchy than the ones we recruited before, which shows that the focus on soft skills was worth the effort. In

these earlier days it was enough if you knew how to ‘deliver’ to make a career, but this is no longer possible, now you need to be able to negotiate and collaborate with partner countries to make a career.” (ICO KI 3)

• “Attheheartofourcompetenceframeworkareattitudes as transversal theme, specially the mindset of acting as a ‘facilitator’ to support our local partners, and not seeing yourself as an ‘expert.’ So,yes,wehavebeenprioritizinglocalizationand decoloniality for some time. However, attitudes should not involve abandoning your identity but rather developing a compromise.” (ICO KI 1)

6.1.2 Self-learning capacity to adapt to digital transformation

Organizations emphasize the importance of self-learning capacity to adapt to digital transformation and leverage open-source knowledge:

• “With the digital transformation, meta-skills like critical thinking, inclusion, and self-management are getting crucial. Besides, it is often not feasible for us to foster key competences, because we lack the resources. All this highlights the growing need for staff to develop strong self-learning capacities. Sharing knowledge and experience is gaining importance, bringing people together. We try to facilitate this through global peer exchange mentoring programs. ’Establishing yourself through sharing’ is the new motto, and for that you need to be able to learn to leverage open-source knowledge.” (ICO KI 2)

• “Today’s youth come with expertise backgrounds and a life approach focused on finding meaning. […] this search for meaning is already deeply ingrained [and] the accessibility of digital information further enhances their efficiency, shaping a workforce that is both motivated and skilled." (ICO KI 5)

6.1.3 Observations contradictory to the trend

However, there are also observations and developments that appear somewhat contradictory to the trend toward emphasizing soft skills or attitudes. For instance, as indicated by the following quotes it is not always about soft skills or attitudes:

• “We used to primarily hire juniors but realized that once trained, they would leave for larger organizations. As a result, we changed our hiring policy. During recruitment, we target senior professionals with technical expertise, we no longer fund CAS training, instead this must already be completed. Overall, the quality of staff regarding technical competence has significantly improved. We focus only indirectly on soft skills.”

(ICO KI 4)

• “We are moving more and more to equipping students with soft skills. At the same time, we have the challenge that the number of students is declining. Therefore, requirements should be reduced to let in more students. Students with not so much soft skills but with analytical skills should also be accepted.” (HEI KI 3)

Finally, it has been observed that while soft skills are highly valued during studies, they are often deprioritized in practice: “Students find soft skills useful and meaningful during their studies. Yet, when they take on leadership roles and face budget constraints, soft skills are often the first to be cut. It’s somewhat contradictory.”

(HEI KI 5)

6.2 Employer evaluation of graduates’ competences

A rapid review of several publicly available tracer studies and related assessments, including personal accounts from graduates, conducted by Swiss universities and universities of applied sciences with a focus on IC, reveals that most graduates perceive the com-

petences they acquired as relevant to their workforce entry 14 . They highlight for example the importance of project management and intercultural communication skills, which facilitate a smoother transition to professional life and are valued by employers. These findings underscore the relevance of the competences developed, including attitudes, and the effectiveness of practice-oriented ASPs, as discussed earlier. However, these findings should be contextualized and relativized, as they are based on students’ self-perception and often stem from studies commissioned or conducted by HE institutions themselves.

There are limited publicly available studies that specifically examine employer satisfaction with the competences of graduates in the Swiss IC sector.

However, the following statements from KIIs with employer representatives offer some insights into their general expectations and observations. For clarity, both positive feedback and critiques highlighting areas for improvement are organized along the evaluation barometer presented in figure 6.

The collected data indicates that employer evaluations of graduates’ competences, particularly their attitudes, are generally positive but somewhat mixed. Moreover, the following quote highlights that most HE institutions are aware of the corresponding challenges: “The pressure for HEIs to continue evolving is increasing as the world becomes more complex and competency requirements grow. As a result, the discussion around ‘what exactly are attitudes?’ is gaining momentum.” (HEI KI 6)

Figure

"When it comes to ‘humility’, the range is quite diverse. One end of the spectrum, there are candidates who are very confident on their professional and academic background and, in my opinion, surprisingly display little humility. On the other end, there are very reserved candidates who are acutely aware that this sector has often been associated with ‘doing more harm than good’. These individuals tend to be critical, deliberate in their views about IC, and consciously apply only to certain (highly suitable) roles."

(IC KI2, 2024)

"Generally, we are disappointed in the way HE institutions prepare students for work. Especially regarding resilience. Younger generations go on sick leave when being criticized, instead of hanging in there. I do ask myself critically: are we not adapting well to these younger generations? However, I don’t think this is the problem, but rather that they struggle handling stress and criticism."

(IC KI 3, 2024)

"Regarding creativity, humilty, courage, etc. – I would say that, yes, these competences are often present among graduates applying to us."

(IC KI 2, 2024)

"Compared to ten years ago, it is noticeable that there is a difference in the competences and attitudes graduates bring when they apply."

(IC KI 1, 2024)

"It is noticeable that juniors (early thirties) often have problematic attitudes towards work. For instance, they tend to question everything, sometimes to an excessive or unrealistic extent. They lack the necessary pragmatism. And juniors are often very focused on themselves and their own needs. As a result, they are less adept at recognizing their own limitations and seeking consensus, which affects their adaptability and conflict resolution skills."

(IC KI 4, 2024)

"Overall, we are quite satisfied with graduates."

(IC KI 4, 2024)

"Young people joining today bring a wealth of soft skills. Previously, recruits tended to be more politically engaged, whereas today’s youth come with expertise backgrounds and a life approach focused on finding meaning. Recently there’s been a push toward professionalization, so now we see a more passionate and purpose-driven workforce."

(IC KI 5, 2024)

Part 3: Conclusions and recommendations

Overall, the data collected in this study indicate that many Swiss IC organizations and HE institutions actively focus on developing attitudes relevant to the IC sector and foster them using effective ASPs. Notably, 60% of survey respondents and key informants report that their HE institutions and IC organizations share a common understanding of competence as encompassing knowledge, skills, and attitudes, and/or other non-cognitive factors. The KSA model is the most widely referenced framework, alongside others such as ‘soft skills’. Furthermore, the study data suggest that employer evaluations of HE graduates’ competences, including their attitudes, are generally positive.

On the other hand, there is room for improvement. Only 40% of HE institutions and IC organizations have and use detailed competence frameworks that include descriptors of attitudes. These frameworks incorporate just nine of 17 (53%) attitudes of personal and social competences considered relevant (e.g., Embrace diversity and Mindset of curiosity). Furthermore, only five of 16 (31%) ASPs recognized as effective in fostering these attitudes are employed systematically (e.g., coaching, and on-the-job assignments). Notably absent are ‘decolonial attitudes’ such as Accepting vulnerability by being willing to express own feelings to oneself and others as well as decolonial ASPs like decentering ‘non-Western’ epistemologies and anti-racism / un-learn processes.

A key bottleneck underlying these issues, widely cited in the literature and confirmed by the study data, is the difficulty of translating complex competence frameworks into practice, including effective ASPs. Key challenges include integrating attitudes into teaching and training programs, identifying ASPs that effectively foster these attitudes, and equipping lecturers and trainers with the skills required to apply emotion-focused ASPs, such as provocative didactics.

Another challenge is advancing decoloniality by incorporating decolonial attitudes from competence frameworks into lectures and training programs and adopting ASPs that foster these attitudes. Enhancing the package of currently applied ‘conventional’ ASPs also remains an area for improvement. Lastly, the recurring challenge of measuring changes in attitudes continues to present an obstacle.

Although lecturers, trainers, and HR managers are already familiar with many of these challenges, and despite the growing availability of well-structured competence frameworks, many still feel overwhelmed by the technical-practical difficulties of translating these frameworks into practice. This remains the case even with a strong willingness to engage with attitudes, identify effective ASPs, and integrate them systematically into their work. The data also reveal insufficient time as a barrier to addressing these gaps effectively, with a lack of financial resources, though mentioned less frequently, further compounding the issue. Furthermore, most quality assurance criteria or processes within HE institutions and IC organizations intended to support the development of attitudes and the implementation of emotion-centered ASPs remain optional.

However, these challenges are compounded by broader structural difficulties faced by HE institutions. A key issue lies in balancing labor market demands with their educational mandate. Financial constraints, combined with growing demand among graduates and employees for shorter study and training programs and declining interest in long-term assignments abroad, have driven many institutions to shorten on-the-job placements and offer shorter, more diverse educational offerings (‘course-hopping’).

While these measures aim to meet market pressures, they often lack coherence and depth, limiting their didactic effectiveness.

Integrating key attitudes

These recommendations focus on facilitating incorporating attitudes into teaching and training programs. 1

To address this, HE institutions must adopt a less reactive and more proactive strategy by reallocating resources toward high-impact ASPs—including longterm on-the-job placements paired with emotion-oriented ASPs—and engaging employers, employees, and students to recognize the value of these methods.

The following recommendations target key areas for improving the systematic development of attitudes and the effective use of ASPs:

The following recommendations target key areas for improving the systematic development of attitudes and the effective use of ASPs:

Professional development of lecturers and trainers

These recommendations address equipping lecturers and trainers with the competences required to implement emotion-focused ASPs. 3

These recommendations provide guidance on identifying effective ASPs to foster attitudes. 2

Integrating effective ASPs

Enhancing current ASPs

These recommendations focus on enhancing the effectiveness of currently applied ‘conventional’ ASPs.

5

4

6

Integration of decoloniality

These recommendations tackle the challenge of promoting decoloniality.

Assessment of attitudes

These recommendations address the critical challenge of measuring changes in attitudes.

1 Integrating attitudes

Recommendation 1: Finding and selecting attitudes

Lecturers and trainers should incorporate the critical attitudes for navigating 21st-century challenges into their courses, trainings and other learning assignments, tailored to the specific circumstances (objectives, scope, target audience, etc.). For this purpose, they can refer to available resources such as:

• WEF’s global interactive skills taxonomy (2021), outlining descriptors of attitudes along 5 levels of granularity.

• ETH Zurich’s competence framework (2024), defining descriptors of attitudes for 24 competences across four domains (personal, social, methodological, and subject-specific).

• IDG framework (2022), including 23 skills or inner qualities – similar to what this study defines as attitudes – across 5 domains (Being, Thinking, Relating, Collaborating, and Acting).

Alternatively, lecturers and trainers can refer to table 9 which provides a merged overview of 20 attitudes of personal and social competences considered by literature as relevant to tackle 21st-century challenges. The summary has been consolidated based on the review of various competence frameworks that seem relevant for the IC sector, including for instance the IDG, ETH Zurich, the WEF, and several 21st-century learning frameworks.

Table 9: Key attitudes of social and personal competences (S = covered by the survey of this study)

Social / Relating Competences

Collaboration, Cooperation - Ability to build relationships with others to pursue common goals and achieve results in constructive atmosphere.

Embrace diversity and include people and collectives with different views and background

Attitudes

Be willing to trust and share control with others in the development and delivery of joint initiatives (S)

Strive to inspire and mobilise others to engage in shared purposes

Empathy and Compassion - Ability to relate to others and nature with kindness, and address related suffering

Strive to address societal and environmental challenges

Understand and share the thoughts and feelings of others (S)

Having a deeply felt sense of being connected with and/or being a part of a larger whole, such as humanity or global ecosystem (S)

Communication - Ability to communication with others in different contexts and forms

Aspire to really listen to others (deep listening) (S)

Value managing conflicts constructively (S)

Adapt communication to diverse groups and contexts

Attitudes

Self- reflection and Self-awarness - Ability to understand own strenghts and weaknesses and enhance self-development.

Self-critically and deeply reflect on own values, thoughts, feelings and actions (S)

Personal / Generative Competences

Integrity and Authenticity - Adherence to moral and ethical principles in personal and professional conduct

Adaptability and Flexibility - Ability to adjust effectively to a changing environment and deal well with changes

Creativity and Innovation - Ability to produce and implement novel and useful ideas

Having a mindset of curiosity and exploration (S)

Have a realistic self-image, including awarness of how one is preceived by others (S)

Be commited to own professional and personal development and lifelong learning (S)

Acknowledge limitations of own worldview and knowledge (S)

Value sincerity, honesty and work ethics and apply them in relationships and own work (S)

Value the experience and perspective of others, and be able to adapt one’s own plan and action (S)

Sustain a sense of hope and confidence in the possibility of meaningful change (S)

Accept vulenarbility by being willing to express own feelings to oneself and others (S)

Willing to move forward despite selfbacks and ambiguity (incl. emotional resilience (S)

Recommendation 2: Embedding

attitudes into courses and trainings

The KSA (Knowledge, Skills, Attitudes) framework, for example, has gained traction for its detailed, practical structure, aligning well with educational and workplace settings (Zahn et al., 2024). For each competence, the KSA model aligns specific descriptors of knowledge, skills, and attitudes with the language used by educators in course design and employers in job ads. This also supports students in competence development, graduates in job applications (by knowing what employers expect), and staff in professional growth.

Be willing to disrupt conventional pattern (S)

An example of a KSA model is the ETH Zurich framework, as referenced earlier. This framework defines 24 competences, each accompanied by descriptors for knowledge, skills, and attitudes. These are structured along a continuum, progressing from simpler elements at the top to more complex ones at the bottom (Cara et al., 2023). Table 10 provides an excerpt from the framework, focusing on the personal competence of Creative Thinking, with its corresponding details / descriptors.

Personal competence

Creative Thinking

Ability to produce and implement novel and useful ideas

Knowledge

• Knowledge of idea-creation techniques and processes

Skills

• Ability to apply idead-creation techniques to generate new and potentially useful ideas

• Ability to elaborate, refine, analyse, and test own ideas in order to improve maximise creative efforts

• Ability to convert ideas to action plans and projects at work or in own field

• Ability to act on new ideas to make useful contributions to economy, research, and society

Attitudes

• Be open to new and diverse perspectives

• Be creative and inventive when developing potentially new and useful ideas

• See change as an opportunity to experiment and explore

• Think outside the box and adopt a fail-forward attitude

This structured approach enables HR managers and lecturers to systematically design curricula that target specific competences, including attitudes. This process involves the following steps (simplified):

• Select the competences you want to achieve. Competences are interrelated; identifying the final set of competences is dependent on context, including learning purpose, audience, etc.

• Select a manageable number of descriptors of knowledge, skills, and attitudes for each chosen competence. Particularly for attitudes, focusing on a limited and achievable set is crucial, as some may be unrealistic to address within time constraints. This approach facilitates also smoother integration into curricula, ASPs, and assessments.

• Go to an ‘ASPs toolbox’ (e.g., IDG toolkit shown below) and select the ASP best suitable for fostering the selected descriptors of knowledge, skills, and attitudes.

2 Integrating effective ASPs

Recommendation 1: Finding and selecting ASPs to foster attitudes

Competence frameworks usually lack explicit connections to the ASPs required to develop attitudes. Establishing such linkages would support lecturers and trainers in effectively designing their courses and training programs. A pioneering example of a framework incorporating ASPs is the IDG framework, which includes a digital library of 18 evidence-informed tools / ASPs.

Figure 7: Excerpt of IDG’s library of tools to foster inner qualities/skills

The 18 ASPs outlined in the digital library indicate which ASP contributes to which inner quality. To select the appropriate ASP, two steps apply, as depicted in figure 7. First, one chooses which inner quality/ies one wants to develop, and second one identifies the relevant ASPs. In the depicted example, the focused skill area is ‘Being’, and the chosen skill / inner quality to foster is ‘Self-awareness’. The corresponding ASPs automatically listed include among others ACT (Acceptance and Commitment Therapy/Training), Mindfulness Practices,

Theory U for group work and Prototyping, and Meet Yourself at 90.

In addition, each ASP is weighted according to its effectiveness in fostering specific inner qualities, as illustrated in figure 8 using the example of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy/Training (ACT). In this case, ACT has the greatest effect on developing the skills of Inner Compass and Self-awareness, followed by Presence, and others.

Figure 8: Degrees of ACT’s (Acceptance Commitment Therapy / Training) contribution to IDG skills / inner qualities

Inner Compass

Self-awarness

Presence

Perspective Skills

Sense-making

Long-term Orientation and Visioning

Empathy and Compassion

Courage

Perseverance

Appreciation

Humility

Connectedness

The framework’s pre-defined prioritization enables lecturers and trainers to select ASPs that most effectively cultivate the specific inner qualities or skills they aim to target in their educational offerings or training programs.

Alternatively, table 11 provides an overview of 11 key attitudes associated with personal competences and several associated evidence-informed ASPs identified in the literature, i.e., developed for this study.

For instance, attitudes related to the personal competence of Self-reflection and Self-awareness (the ability to understand one’s strengths and weaknesses and enhance self-development) include: critically

reflecting on one’s own thoughts and feelings, maintaining a realistic self-image (including awareness of how one is perceived by others), committing to lifelong learning, and acknowledging the limitations of one’s knowledge with humility.

Effective ASPs for fostering these attitudes, at varying levels as indicated by the checked boxes in table 10, include Immunity to Change (ITC) process, Acceptance and Commitment Therapy/Training (ACT), mindfulness practices, Nonviolent Communication (NVC), Theory U/ Presencing, and arts- or imagination-based practices.

Adult teaching and staff development practices (ASP)

Self-critically reflect on own thoughts and feelings

Have a realistic selfimage, incl. awareness of how one is perceived by others

Committed to lifelong learning

Acknowledge limitations of knowledge with humility

Value sincerity, honesty and work ethics

Accept vulnerability

Value experience and perspective of others; adapt one’s own action

Willing to move forward despite setbacks (emotional resilience)

Have a mindset of curiosity

Sustain a sense of hope

Willing to disrupt conventional patterns

Ability to understand own strengths and weaknesses and enhance self-development

Adherence to moral and ethical principles

Ability to adjust effectively and deal well with changes

Ability to produce and implement novel and useful ideas

Self-reflection and Self-awareness

Personal

Integrity and Authenticity

Adaptability and Flexibility

Creativity and Innovation

Recommendation 2: Integrating provocative didactics

As previously discussed, most IC educational and professional training programs focus on cognition-centered reflective activities to develop personal and social competences. This often sidelines approaches that specifically integrate emotional reflexivity, leaving such approaches scarce and fragmented. While many of the ASPs included in the IDG framework and table 11 are emotion-oriented, the following recommendations offer additional examples of effective emotion-oriented ASPs, including provocative didactics. These are accompanied by practical guidance on where to access them and how to prioritize their application.

Table 12 presents several examples of provocative ASPs, including specific methods and tools. There is no definitive list of ASPs. Many provocative ASPs overlap, complement each other, and can be combined with a range of other methods and approaches. What makes an ASP ‘provocative’ lies primarily in the intention behind its use, i.e., the deliberate creation of cognitive and especially emotional disruptions to challenge learners’ mental models and provoke introspection and emotional engagement.

Disruptions range on a spectrum from challenging learners’ assumptions to foster perspective-taking and empathetic engagement with diverse viewpoints (e.g., critical incident analysis, story circles, and roleplays) to deliberately eliciting emotional discomfort or contradictions to challenge deeply held behaviours or beliefs (e.g., art-based provocation, reflective hot-seat, and paradoxical interventions). The latter requires experienced facilitators (Arnold, 2016; Boler 2004; Brookfield 2015; Schüßler, 2008; Cranton & Taylor, 2013; Vermaak, 2012).

Additionally, common features of provocative ASPs are that they center on various dimensions of the learner’s subjective experience, depending on the context, cognitive-emotional dimensions (thoughts and feelings), and/or somatic dimensions (e.g., physical sensations such as breath or pain), and/or sensory dimensions (e.g., images or sounds); and that often they integrate contemplative practices such as guided meditation into ASPs (before, during, and/or after sessions) to promote emotional grounding and cohesion, i.e. to support a cohesive cognitive, emotional, and behavioural framework for personal growth.

Exemple Description

Critical Incident Analysis

Learners analyze emotionally charged or difficult incidents (e.g., a case of workplace discrimination). They explore their immediate emotional reactions, question underlying assumptions, and identify how their emotional and cognitive responses influence their decisions.

Methods, tools

• Reflective journals / diaries (learners jot down and reflect on their immediate emotional reactions or questions during a lecture and workshop)

• Structured peer conversations (ensure deep reflection and transformative emotional engagement)

• Pause and reflect (pausing allows learners to process emotionally charged situations)

Tools: Reflection templates, incident mapping

Role-Immersion

Exercises

Art-Based Provocation

Learners assume roles that conflict with their usual perspectives or identity (e.g., learners assume roles of marginalized individuals navigating systemic barriers), forcing them to experience discomfort and practice empathy in a structured environment. This exercise stimulates self-reflection on biases and emotional responses.

Learners engage with provocative and controversial films, theatre, painting, storytelling—that elicit strong emotional reactions related to a specific IC topic (e.g., unethical poverty commercials). They then reflect on their emotions and resulting cognitive shifts.

• Perspective-taking (learners adopt and analyze others’ viewpoints to foster empathy, reduce bias)

• Pause and reflect (pausing allows learners to process emotionally charged situations)

• Emotional tracking (learners reflect on their emotional state during the exercise and how it affects their learning)

Tools: Role-switch cards, scenario playbooks

• Creative expression workshops (encourage emotional processing and insight through artistic mediums such as art-modelling or improvisation)

• Emotional tracking (learners reflect on their emotional state during the exercise and how it affects their learning)

Tools: Art prompts, emotion charts

Reflective HotSeat

(e.g. Brookfield 2015)

A learner or a facilitator (!) shares a real-life challenging experience with the group. This ASP places individuals in emotionally charged roles where they must respond spontaneously to challenging questions or scenarios. It encourages participants to confront biases, assumptions, and emotional responses in real time.

• Personal story sharing / story circles (facilitate narrative-based peer learning by eliciting personal experiences to foster emotional resonance)

• Probing questions / group inquiry (employ targe-ted, reflective questioning within a group to deepen understanding and challenge cognitive assumptions)

• Peer discussions (allow for closer emotional connection and exploration in pairs)

Tools: Question banks, empathy maps

Paradoxical interventions

(e.g. Vermaak 2012)

Intentional contradictions or exaggerations encourage self-awareness and behaviour change (e.g., a trainer instructs a trainee to exaggerate a nervous habit intentionally, leading to increased awareness and change)

Provocative ASPs possess significant transformative potential, but they also present challenges, as the learning process often elicits a mix of emotions:

• While novel experiences can evoke positive emotions (e.g., gratitude and joy), they may also trigger negative emotions (e.g., shame, anxiety, and guilt). Negative emotional responses, if not effectively managed, can hinder meaningful learning by overwhelming learners or reinforcing resistance to change, demonstrating that not all disruptions inherently lead to productive outcomes (Knowles et al., 2020).

• In addition, challenges often stem from learners’ personal mindsets and (lack of) willingness to engage in the learning process. Confronting inner difficulties—such as discussing and sharing intimate or personal issues with peers and col-

• Prescribing the symptom (assigns learners to consciously enact a problematic behaviour, fostering awareness and counterproductive change)

• Reverse psychology (leverages contradictory instructions to provoke autonomous decision-making and challenge resistance)

Tools: Behaviour logs, contradiction diaries

leagues—can feel uncomfortable, as such openness is uncommon in teaching and professional settings.

• Further, learners often struggle with introspective practices, as they may not fully understand what is expected of them or how to integrate these practices into their daily lives.

These challenges highlight the importance of introducing provocative ASPs gradually through scaffolded approaches, as outlined further below, progressively building learners’ cognitive and emotional capacities to engage meaningfully without overwhelming them.

Additionally, and importantly, lecturers and trainers/ facilitators need to be trauma informed, and consider ethical principles before engaging in these activities, as outlined further below in chapter 3.

Recommendation 3: Using ICT and immersive technology to learn emotionally

As we become increasingly entangled in artificial intelligence and big data the fusion of human judgment with digital tools becomes ever more crucial. While the literature acknowledges the potential of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and digitalization to enhance 21st-century competences—particularly through functionalities that foster communication, collaboration, critical analysis, and creative use of knowledge—it also highlights significant gaps. For instance, many studies conclude that educational technology (edtech) alone fails to address deeper systemic challenges in teaching 21st-century competences (Care et al., 2019; De Villiers, 2024; Joynes, 2019).

The use of ICT and digitalization, however, can to some extent foster attitudes of personal and social competences. The management consultancy sector, for instance, is experimenting with the use of immersive technologies like Virtual Reality (VR) to cultivate essential attitudes (Deloitte, 2020). VR offers workers the opportunity to practice complex interpersonal scenarios—such as de-escalation, managing difficult conversations, negotiation, and enhancing diversity and inclusion—without the emotional strain that could impact real-life relationships. These virtual settings provide a distraction-free environment where participants’ thoughts and actions influence outcomes in real time, at minimal risk to actual workplace dynamics. The immersive experience of VR—where learners feel physically present, have the chance to acquire knowledge and develop skills, and actively manage their emotional reactions—enables them to more effectively internalize and apply competences in their given contexts.

However, despite reduced risks it’s crucial to consider whether VR users are adequately prepared to handle intrapersonal scenarios, i.e., their own emotional responses without guidance from a trained facilitator or specialist. As outlined above, leveraging critical emotional/cognitive incidents as learning opportunities do not always yield positive results. This means that VR-based training and its effects, while promising, should be monitored.

In this context, the use of Artificial Intelligence (AI)-powered chatbots shows promise. Research highlights the potential of chatbots, including social bots and chat avatars, as digital coaching companions and assistants (Mai and Rutschmann, 2022). Already today, chatbots are being utilized to support self-assessment by helping students and staff identify their values and needs. They can also facilitate self-coaching and self-reflection by offering guidance on topics such as stress management, decision-making, and conflict resolution. However, personal interaction with a coach will likely remain irreplaceable for effective coaching. As Mai and Rutschmann observe: “[...] Being understood and perceived by others will remain a fundamental human need, which chatty robots cannot fulfill in the near future. Thus, coaching chatbots are currently not designed as replacements for humans but rather as supplements and support systems” (ibid.: 55, translated from German). This highlights the role of chatbots as complementary tools that enhance traditional coaching practices rather than replacing human coaches.

3 Professional development of lecturers and trainers

The following recommendations focus on developing the professional competence of lecturers and trainers in evaluating the effectiveness of ASPs and employing provocative didactic approaches.

Recommendation 1: Enhancing the competence in assessing effective ASPs

Fostering lecturers’ and trainers’ ability to apply ‘constructive alignment’ and accordingly assess the effectiveness of ASPs is vital, given the increasing requirements in becoming competence-oriented. This holds particularly for academia, where the dominance of research over teaching often results in limited faculty expertise in didactics, as professional development in these areas is rarely mandatory (at least in the Swiss IC sector).

Many faculty members develop teaching skills autodidactically or through brief professional development courses lasting 1-3 days. Consequently, they are adept at delivering subject-specific knowledge related to IC but often lack the training to implement highly effective learning approaches. A structured focus on didactical competence is needed to address this gap. This includes creating incentives for faculty to engage in teacher professional development programs and fostering a deeper understanding of methods for identifying and integrating evidence-informed ASPs into curricula to cultivate competences, particularly attitudes. In most HE institutions, there are also departments or units specialized in teaching and learning, and in such cases, collaboration with these should be further strengthened.

Recommendation 2: Promoting competences in using provocative ASPs

Lecturers and trainers are central to the effective implementation of provocative didactics. To fully realize their potential, they require targeted support in socio-emotional learning (SEL) across two dimensions: First, (2.1) they must develop the didactic competence necessary to facilitate provocative learning exercises effectively; Second, (2.2) they need to enhance their emotional self-awareness, which research identifies as a critical prerequisite for mastering the facilitation of provocative didactics (Arnold, 2016; Schüssler, 2008).

SEL complements intercultural competence training by addressing and enhancing emotional self-awareness, emotional regulation, empathy, and relationship-building skills—essential for effective teaching, professional training, and HR management. By fostering emotional reflexivity, SEL enables lecturers and trainers to engage with IC-related topics and issues and implement didactics / ASPs on both intellectual and emotional levels, thereby enhancing collaboration and inclusion (Brookfield, 2015; Nielsen et al., 2019; Yeh et al., 2022).

2.1 Professional development areas of provocative didactics

Many lecturers and trainers lack training in provocative didactics, which makes it difficult to integrate ASPs that foster emotional reflexivity. Lecturers, trainers, and HR managers must be able to establish a safe and trusting environment and frame cognitive and emotional disruptions as opportunities for collective growth. This involves guiding learners in distinguishing between past emotional imprints and present contexts and helping them reframe their experiences constructively.

For example, during role-playing exercises or critical incident analysis, facilitators may prompt learners to explore the emotional triggers underlying their reactions and encourage collaborative discussions to identify alternative responses. By doing so, facilitators empower learners to navigate complex interpersonal dynamics with empathy and adaptability.

To prepare lecturers and trainers for implementing provocative didactics, professional development should focus on several areas, as depicted in table 13 (Arnold, 2022; Boler, 2004; Brookfield, 2015; Nielsen et al., 2019; Schüssler, 2008):

Table 13: Areas of professional development of lecturers and trainers to apply provocative didactics

Professional development areas

Establishing safe space and using emotional regulation techniques

Description

• Establishing psychological safety: Methods to create a safe, trusting environment where learners feel comfortable confronting cognitive and emotional challenges.

• Emotional regulation: Techniques to manage emotions in learners, fostering resilience and adaptability during learning disruptions.

Facilitating cognitive and emotional disruptions

Using incremental and scaffolded approaches

• Challenging beliefs: Design and facilitate activities like role-play or critical incident analysis that confront learners’ assumptions, sparking reflection.

• Reframing emotional responses: Guide learners in processing negative emotions / discomfort constructively, using dialogic strategies to integrate these experiences into their learning journey.

• Gradual introduction: Progressively introduce cognitive and emotional disruptions to build learners’ capacity over time without overwhelming them.

• Reflective activities: Integrate tools like journaling and mindfulness to encourage learners to process disruptions and develop emotional resilience.

2.2 Foster emotional self-awareness of lecturers and trainers

Lecturers and trainers must also address their own emotional patterns and past learning experiences, which often unconsciously influence their teaching and training practices. Overcoming these tendencies requires heightened self-reflection and self-awareness, as well as strategies and techniques to identify and transform projections, fostering more adaptive and

present-centered interactions. Concerted professional development programs providing specific steps and methods for developing these competences, as outlined in table 14, equip lecturers and trainers to navigate the emotional dimensions of teaching and training while creating environments that promote growth and collaboration (Arnold, 2022; Boler, 2004; Brookfield, 2015).

Key steps Lecturers / trainers should…

Specific actions / methods

1 Identify and understand emotional patterns

• Gain insight into their recurring emotional reactions and under-stand how they influence their teaching and training.

• Replace automatic, often rigid emotional responses with flexible and context-sensitive reactions that accommodate diverse student and staff needs.

• Engage in self-reflection to identify emotional triggers, such as frustration or anxiety, that arise in specific teaching scenarios.

• Map these triggers to past experiences, particularly from informal learning (e.g., personal learning struggles).

• Use journaling or guided reflective practices focused on emotional awareness.

2 Emotional resocialization

• Actively reframe entrenched emotional patterns to foster greater openness and empathy in teaching and training practice.

• Develop the ability to interact with students / staff in ways that are emotionally supportive and inclusive, while addressing biases or past influences.

• Participate in mindfulness practices and emotional intelligence training to recognize and deconstruct habitual emotional responses.

• Use role-playing and simulation activities to practice responding empathetically to diverse student / staff behaviours or challenges.

• Seek peer coaching or mentoring to discuss emotional barriers and gain external perspectives.

3 Empathy for students’/staff’s experiences

• Cultivate deeper empathy by understanding students’/staff’s emotions, challenges, and unique contexts, and use this understanding to foster a supportive learning environment.

• Create opportunities for students / staff to take risks, engage autonomously, and feel validated in their unique capacities and contributions.

• Conduct 1:1 conversations or anonymous surveys to understand students’ and staff’s emotional needs, anxieties, or backgrounds.

• Design learning environments that balance emotional safety with constructive challenge, promoting self-efficacy and confidence of students and staff.

• Model emotional resilience by sharing personal learning challenges and demonstrating self-regulation techniques, encouraging students and staff to reflect on their own emotional growth.

4 Reframing interactions

• Shift the focus from past emotional residues to the present teaching context to foster more effective and emotionally attuned interactions with students/staff.

• Build constructive, emotionally grounded relationships with students/staff, fostering trust and the overall learning environment.

4 Integration of decoloniality

While the topics of decoloniality and localization are not new, initiatives like the Grand Bargain and Shift the Power have reinvigorated efforts to address these issues. HE institutions have been trying to decolonize their curricula and pedagogies, while IC organizations have been seeking ways to decolonize aid by redistributing resources and power more equitably between the ‘Global North’ and ‘Global South’.

• Train in mindful communication techniques to focus attention on the present dynamics rather than past experiences or assumptions.

• Use techniques such as active listening and intentional feedback to ensure interactions are responsive to the current context.

• Encourage students and staff to engage in real-time reflective activities, fostering shared ownership of the learning experience.

The depth and breadth of these efforts vary significantly across HE institutions and IC organizations. While some focus on ‘basic’ practices such as critically reviewing imagery and terminology or diversifying speakers and literature sources, others adopt more comprehensive approaches. However, significant difficulties in addressing racism and epistemic injustice remain deeply entrenched.

While these underlying complexities cannot be fully explored here, the following sections outline actionable steps for IC organizations and HE institutions in the Swiss IC sector to address racism and epistemic injustice more effectively. While these underlying complexities cannot be fully explored here, the following sections outline actionable steps for IC organizations and HE institutions in the Swiss IC sector to address racism and epistemic injustice more effectively.

Recommendation 1: Decolonize competence frameworks

Competence frameworks should include descriptors of ‘decolonial attitudes’ of personal competences relating to epistemic justice and anti-racism to guide transformative learning in lectures and trainings, where possible. S everal examples of decolonial attitudes of personal competences are depicted in table 15.

Table 15: Examples of decolonial attitudes

Decolonial attitudes (of personal competences)

Self-critically reflect on own values, thoughts, feelings, and actions

Further specifications Examples

Critically examining how colonial structures have shaped dominant paradigms in education, research, and organizational practices

Have a realistic self-image, including awareness of how one is perceived by others

Acknowledge limitations of own knowledge and worldview with genuine modesty and humility

Recognizing the historical and systemic advantages conferred by (neo-)colonial structures. Reflecting on how to avoid replicating (neo-)colonial dynamics, such as the white gaze or white saviourism.

Embracing diverse ways of knowing (epistemologies and ontologies) and treating them as equally legitimate.

Many HE institutions, including scientists and disciplines have colonial traces. Many IC organizations still have colonialist-style partnerships and HR and communication practices.

Development practitioners critically reflecting on how their position as outsiders could inadvertently reproduce power imbalances (e.g., outsider is seen as ‘expert’).

Recognizing how ‘Western’ epistemologies have marginalized local knowledge systems (e.g., oral histories). Integrate them into education and training (e.g. storytelling / UNICEF’s story circles).

Value the experience and perspective of others, and be able to adapt one’s own plan and action

Shifting from seeing oneself as an authoritative ‘expert’ to being a facilitator. Stepping back and recognizing that the people directly impacted by development issues often have the most relevant expertise. Having a mindset of approaching projects as a learner and partner.

An educator designing curricula or a program manager designing projects that integrate indigenous / local knowledge systems might involve indigenous / local scholars and practitioners in leadership roles, rather than simply consulting them.

Accept vulnerability by being willing to express own feelings to oneself and others

Sitting with the emotional and cognitive discomfort (white fragility) of realizing one’s complicity in (neo-) colonial systems and being open to criticism. Willingness to hear difficult truths and accepting that one’s own views and practices might need significant change.

Recommendation 2: Use ASPs and resources to foster decolonial attitudes

A decolonial mindset can be fostered through various approaches. Table 16 presents a range of ASPs, along with associated methods and tools, that can be employed—often in combination with the previously discussed provocative didactics—to foster specific decolonial attitudes.

IC organizations and HE institutions engaging in anti-racism un-learn processes might facilitate employees in confronting their biases, creating space for genuine growth.

These ASPs, methods, and tools are complementary and adaptable to diverse formats and contexts. It should be noted that the list of ASPs and attitudes provided is not exhaustive.

ASPs Specified methods, tools, links

• Students’ and staff’s critical self-examination of one’s privileges and power, in relation to others (e.g., use the power cube, or take Harvard‘s implicit association test).

Decolonial attitudes

Self-inquiry and selfexperience based learning

• Students/staff write standpoint journals where they critically examine and acknowledge the impact of their identities on their reading of course texts and project documents, respectively, and learning and interpretation of knowledge.

• These self-critical reflections should focus on subjective experience in all its dimensions, including cognitive, sensory, somatic, emotional-motivational.

Immunity to Change (ITC) process

While tools like self-critical epistemic and emotional journaling and facilitated dialogues are also applicable to the ITC process, its hallmark lies in the systematic identification and reframing of competing commitments and deeply held assumptions through structured tools like the Immunity Map.

Self-critically reflect on own values, thoughts, feelings, and actions

Re-centring ‘nonWestern’ epistemologies

• Examine alternative ways of designing development projects, different from results-based management and the logical framework (e.g., 45 indigenous ‘projects‘ in Smith, 2021)

• Examine post-development conceptualisation of development to embrace diversity and become inclusive of ‘non-Western’ ways of knowing and values (e.g., Post-Development Dictionary).

• Storytelling / Story Circles (e.g., UNESCO) facilitate understanding of reality from the perspective of the marginalized by them themselves recalling their histories, events, experiences in their own ways.

• Students and lecturers co-produce knowledge through student-led course discussions, community co-teachers, and establishing community advisory councils.

• Staff using/working with PRA instruments to co-produce knowledge during project planning, monitoring, and evaluation.

Acknowledge limitations of own knowledge and worldview with genuine modesty and humility

Outdoor education

Go on the Colonial Zurich city-tour, or a tour through and analysis of ETH’s colonial archive and history

Arts-, performanceand imagination-based practices

Encourage creative envisioning of transformative futures through theatre, utopian future art-modelling, and reflective future visioning workshops (e.g., IDG library toolkit)

Immersive practical learning assignments supported by coaching/mentoring On-the-job placements and immersive field experiences combined with emotional tracking and supported by coaching / mentoring to reflect on and facilitate learners’ emotional processing during/after placements and experiences.

Mindfulness interventions

Anti-racism / unlearn processes

Safe psychological space

Breath awareness, present-moment focus, Acceptance Commitment Therapy (ACT), and other contemplative practices

• Lecturers, trainers, staff, policymakers, etc. take Harvard‘s implicit association test. It helps identify one’s implicit racial biases and how they influence one’s thoughts, feelings and behaviours. All members of HE institutions and IC organizations should participate in implicit association training.

• Lecturers and students are pro-actively involved in externally accompanied anti-racism programs (e.g., students/lecturers, trainers/staff engage in empowerment and unlearn spaces).

Safe space dialogues help create environments where students and staff can openly discuss their feelings and thoughts without fear of judgment, fostering deeper introspection and emotional processing (e.g. IDG library tool).

Value the experience and perspective of others, and be able to adapt one’s own plan and action

Accept vulnerability by being willing to express own feelings to oneself and others

Recommendation 3: Nurture

decolonial environments

As IC organizations and HE institutions continue to internationalize, fostering collaboration among individuals from diverse socio-cultural backgrounds, education and staff development must go beyond intercultural competence training and the emotional self-awareness (SEL) of lecturers, HR managers, and trainers, discussed above. Equally critical is the creation of supportive, decolonial institutional environments through culturally responsible teaching and professional training (CRT).

CRT adds a critical lens that addresses systemic inequities and historical contexts (macro-level), including the influence of institutional policies (meso level), which are often overlooked. These systemic issues and policies are pivotal as they reflect societal and leadership priorities that shape teaching practices, influence student learning experiences, determine resource allocation for further education and professional development, and prepare educators, trainers, and HR/managers to address and mitigate discrimination in classrooms and training sessions (Alexander et al., 2014; Bond, 2022; Gay, 2002; Peace Direct, 2021; Smith, 2021).

Building a decolonial environment requires attention to several key areas, outlined below.

Recommendation 3.1: Mandatory Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI)

Integrating DEI principles into institutional practices through mandatory measures — such as implicit bias training, anti-racism initiatives, and unlearning programs, discussed above — should be a requirement for all members of the institution and organization, including students, employees, lecturers, trainers, HR/managers, and, critically, policymakers.

These measures equip individuals to manage emotional reactions and discrimination effectively.

Sensitive topics like racism often elicit strong emotional responses, especially when provocative didactics are used. Lecturers and trainers must navigate these emotions in real-time to prevent harm to students, staff, and themselves. While DIE divisions may offer specialized support, lecturers and trainers often act as the first responders, underscoring the need for strong competences to address these challenges promptly and appropriately before escalating issues to specialists.

Recommendation 3.2: Introduce decoloniality awareness-raising sessions

HE institutions and IC organizations should regularly organize sessions and events aimed at raising awareness about decoloniality. These initiatives should empower students, employees, lecturers, trainers, HR/managers, and, crucially, policymakers to:

• Recognize historical and perspective-driven origins: Develop an understanding that curriculum content and pedagogical practices are rooted in specific historical and ideological contexts, including colonial legacies embedded in society, HE institutions, and IC organizations. This awareness enables lecturers, trainers, and HR managers to critically assess conventional approaches. Familiarity with well-documented frameworks like ‘decolonizing curricula and pedagogy’ and ‘decolonizing aid’ (e.g., Grand Bargain, 2016; Shahjahan et al., 2022) fosters the adoption of culturally responsive methods that enhance the experiences of all students and staff.

• Understand how discrimination manifests in the sector: Learn how various forms of discrimination — including ideological, institutional, interpersonal, and internalized racism — present themselves within society and the IC sector. This knowledge enhances the ca-

pacity of lecturers and trainers to address these issues in their teaching and training. Furthermore, it prepares students and staff to confront institutional racism in their professional paths while cultivating empathy in diverse, international classrooms and teams, where many participants may carry personal experiences of racism.

Recommendation 3.3: Foster an organizational culture of DEI

Strengthening the capacity of lecturers, faculty, trainers, HR managers, leaders, and policymakers to recognize and address discrimination and enhancing their awareness of systemic issues reflected in sector policies and practices are key steps toward cultivating an organizational culture rooted in DIE. This can be achieved through the following measures:

• Providing safe spaces for emotional engagement: Implementing the recommendations outlined earlier supports educational practices and professional development by creating environments where participants can safely experience and reflect on emotions related to sensitive decolonial topics, such as white fragility, white saviorism, and white gaze. These safe spaces foster meaningful dialogue, critical self-awareness, and emotional resilience.

• Building credibility: Acknowledging the colonial traces of institutions, disciplines, and organizations demonstrates critical reflection and a sense of accountability. This fosters trust among students, staff, and partners. In educational contexts, studies indicate that students achieve better learning outcomes when educators display such awareness, reinforcing engagement and trust within the classroom. In addition, fostering an organizational culture of Diversity, Inclusion, and Equity (DEI) requires strong leadership ownership. Although many HE institutions and organizations have introduced DIE policies, inconsistent application often reduces these efforts to tokenistic compliance. Leadership must take ownership by embedding DIE principles and initiatives into the organizational culture and strategic frameworks. Three practical and complementing tools that HE institutions and IC organizations can use to strategically advance their efforts to become decolonial, while monitoring their learning journeys, are outlined in table 17. These tools help align DIE initiatives with organizational objectives and ensure sustained commitment to meaningful change.

Tools Purpose of resource

Bond’s Guide on How to Become a Locally-Led and Anti-Racist Organization

Partos’ Power Awareness Tool

The guide facilitates striving for and systematically monitoring against the objective of becoming more locally-led and anti-racist organization / institution. It helps reflect on an organisation’s transformation and identify critical, practical steps towards becoming a more equitable and locally led.

Makes power relations in partnerships more visible. The tool allows the different stakeholders to share and monitor their insights on their decision-making practice within their projects, programs and partnerships. This makes it easier for partners to reflect on their power relations and agree on changes where necessary.

Harvard’s Implicit Association Test (IAT)

Each person should critically self-reflect on assumptions, biases, and behaviors, including emotions such as fear and anxiety. Harvard’s IAT helps identify one’s implicit (racial) biases and how they influence one’s thoughts, feelings and behaviours.

5 Enhancing current practice / ASPs

As outlined in this study, the IC sector has accumulated a substantial body of knowledge and experience in terms of competence development. The ‘conventional’ ASPs applied by many IC organizations and HE institutions are in many ways effective in cultivating IC competences, including shaping the attitudes of staff and students. The effectiveness of these ASPs, however, can be further increased by implementing — alongside the recommendations previously discussed — the adjustments outlined below (Arasaratnam-Smith, 2017; Blair, 2017; Deardorff, 2017; Paluck et al., 2021; Schrader, 2017).

Recommendation 1: To avoid ‘course hopping’

• ‘Course-hopping’ characterized by shorter courses and trainings, currently applied by many IC organizations and HE institutions, should be avoided, as these offerings often lack cohesive structure and can be exhausting for participants.

• To enhance the effectiveness of on-the-job placements and similar learning assignments, these should be offered in long-term formats to allow for deeper engagement and learning.

• Similarly, problem- and project-based learning opportunities should be offered at regular intervals over extended periods to maximize their impact.

• The challenges of course-hopping, as well as overly short on-the-job learning assignments, could also be mitigated if HE institutions reduced the number of taught IC topics, as these are often rushed through with minimal evident learning effect. In a similar vein, formal requirements that exist primarily for compliance purposes could be reduced to free up time and resources for more meaningful learning.

Recommendation 2: To integrate process-supporting reflection

• On-the-job learning and similar assignments, as well as project- and problem-based learning, should be combined with structured reflection processes—such as coaching, mentoring, counseling, and other process-supporting models—as this approach has proven to be more impactful in developing IC competences.

• In a similar vein, individualized coaching and mentoring opportunities for staff and students could be introduced to counterbalance the effects of ‘course-hopping’. In this context, the previously outlined option (chapter 2, recommendation 3) of utilizing AI-powered chatbots in coaching could also be considered.

• However, when using coaching and other process-supporting models, they should be applied systematically, following tested approaches (e.g., the GROW coaching model) and implemented regularly. Furthermore, if offered in-house, educators and trainers should receive professional development to ensure effective and consistent delivery.

6 Assessment of attitudes

Giving an overview of attitudes measurement tools goes beyond the scope of this study. There a several challenges for the assessment of attitudes of students and staff in the context of HE institutions and IC organizations, including a) the reliability of the measurement tool; b) the bias of self-reporting (many tools are based on self-perception); c) challenge of using same tools across different contexts; and d) costs (most tools are costly and time consuming); and e) the lack of capacity of lecturers and trainers to apply these tools (Blair, 2017; USAID, 2019). The following presents a couple of key points that should be considered when designing and using assessment/tools.

• Assessing for learning: There has been a shift away from assessing learning outcomes for accountability purposes toward assessing for learning purposes. In other words, assessment tools should be used as instruments for learning. As Deardorff (2017) notes, “[…] this may require a change of mindset in thinking about assessment of learning to assessment for learning, with assessment being integral to the learning itself. Moreover, no longer is assessment viewed as something that is done to students but rather, assessment is done with students” (p. 127).

From this perspective, assessments evolve into self-reflective, iterative, and participatory processes that span study programs, careers, and lifelong learning. The approach involves the co-design of assessments and co-evaluation of learning outcomes, fostering active engagement between students and lecturers, staff and trainers. Traditional pre- and post-assessment measures are enriched by ongoing processes such as self-critical journaling, peer-to-peer exchanges, coaching, creating a more dynamic and holistic framework for growth and learning.

• Prioritizing the competences, i.e., specify the descriptors of knowledge, skills, and attitudes to be measured, as outlined further above. Competences are complex; hence assessments should take place piece by piece.

• Aligning what the tool measures with the learning outcomes it is supposed to measure. Otherwise, the gathered evidence will be invalid.

• Combining quantitative with qualitative tools is more suitable to grasp changes in individuals’ attitudes. In addition, tools should be applied throughout study programs or staff performance, i.e. before, during, and after learning opportunities (courses, placements, trainings, appraisals, etc.).

• Using the gathered information to facilitate the learner improving personal growth. This point directly connects to the mentioned point of assessing for learning. In addition, when assessing attitudes, for instance through psychometric tests, issues revolving around confidentiality should be kept in mind. There should be a clear and transparently communicated procedure in this regard.

Recommendation 2: To build on existing assessment tools

Building on the aforementioned principles, it is advisable to utilize existing tools that have been tested and have some degree of evidence supporting their effectiveness. The choice of tools should align with the specific purpose of the assessment and the context in which it will be applied.

Tools to assess changes in attitudes related to personal and social competences like communication, creativity, collaboration, etc. are limited compared to those measuring subject-specific and methodological competences. However, in the field of intercultural competence (Blair, 2017; Deardorff, 2017) and increasingly other fields (Stålne and Greca, 2022; Lim, 2023) a range

of measurement tools have been developed and/or used, including for instance:

• Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory (CCAI): Assesses an individual’s adaptability in crosscultural situations, measuring flexibility, emotional resilience, and openness. It’s useful for preparing students and staff for international assignments (Nguyen et al., 2010).

• Intercultural Sensitivity Scale (ISS): Measures the emotional aspect of intercultural communication competence, focusing on individuals’ attitudes toward intercultural interactions. It assesses factors like interaction engagement and respect for cultural differences (Chen & Starosta, 2000; Zhao, 2018)

• Immunity to Change (ITC) process: The Subject-object theory has a measurement instrument called Subject-object interview, where one can assess a participant’s stage of development in how they make meaning. The more one can see oneself and what one previously took for granted, the more complex one’s meaning making becomes (Stålne and Greca, 2022).

• The Big Five model is a psychometric test that assesses an individual’s personality based on five traits. Many IC organizations already use this tool for instance in risk management, recruitment processes, and leadership development. It offers individuals valuable self-insight, as it can enhance employee and student performance. In addition, it can inform HR management and teaching strategies (Fantozzi et al., 2024; Montalvo-Garcia et al., 2021).

• KODE® (Competence Diagnostics and Development) is a qualitative method for assessing competences (Heyse/Erpenbeck/Max 2004, in Schrader, 2017). It includes tools to support (self-) training, coaching, mentoring, and measures for personnel and organizational development.

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Annexes

Annex 1: List of reviewed competence frameworks and models

Competence concepts, approaches

General competence

domain-models and stage-models

Short description

They help educators and organizations design curricula and training programs, and assessment tools that align with the specific needs of learners and the labor market.

Domain-models help identify and align educational offerings and staff trainings toward a multifaceted development of competences in professional, methodological, social, and personal areas. Stage-models emphasize progression in competence development across learning outcome levels, and sectors and contexts (Bloom, 1956; Schrader, 2017). They are designed to support personalized learning by combining different scales, for instance: levels of competence development—‘Knowledge’, ‘Skills’, and ‘Attitudes’—and, stages of learner development, from ‘Beginner’ to ‘Advanced’ to ‘Professional’. Combined domain and stage models are especially helpful. An example of a combined model is the ETH Zurich framework (Cara et al., n.d.).

Intercultural competence models

Provide frameworks for understanding, developing, and assessing the effective and appropriate interaction with people from diverse cultural backgrounds. Different models exist, defining different interrelated components of intercultural competence including, among others, knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviour. Models include e.g., Process Model of Intercultural Competence (Deardorff, 2006), the Integrated Model of Intercultural Communication Competence (Arasaratnam-Smith, 2017), and the Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (Bennett, 2017).

Inner Development

Goals (IDG)

The IDG framework focuses on enhancing the personal and inner capacities of individuals to support sustainable development and global well-being (Inner Development Goals Community - Change starts within; https://idg.tools/). The framework contains the five dimensions: Being, Thinking, Relating, Collaborating and Acting. Each dimension contains 4-5 skills making it a total of 23 skills that need to be developed to contribute to reaching the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). The framework is the result of a joint effort of representatives from sectors such as politics, NGOs, businesses, and research.

Knowledge, skills and attitudes (KSA)

KSA form a foundational framework for understanding competences within education and professional development, providing a holistic approach to fostering competences (Zahl et al., 2024). OECD (2021, 2023) and emphasizing the need for fostering new evaluation methods that capture not only technical skills but also attitudes. Attitudes are seen as essential for navigating complex and rapidly changing environments, which are typical in IC work. The KSA model is a ‘simplified’ version of the more comprehensive KSAVE model (e.g., Binkley et al., 2012), which includes additional elements like values and ethics alongside knowledge, skills, and attitudes.

21st-century skills

21st-century skills encompass a broad set of frameworks and competences essential for students’ success in today’s complex and rapidly changing world (Scott, 2015a, 2015b). Multiple sources identify a variety of competences and skills and a broad range of attempts to synthesise these. “Key examples include the ‘4Cs’ promoted by the Partnership for 21st Century Learning (P21) initiative, the ‘3Rs’ as variously defined by Stenberg and Subotnik (2006) and Wagner et al. (2006), the ‘3Ps’ promoted by Prensky (2012), and ATC21S conceived by Griffin and Care (2012) (all cited in Scott, 2015).” (Joynes, 2019: 5).

Education for sustainable development (ESD

ESD is a holistic approach to education that aims to equip learners with the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values necessary to address global challenges such as climate change and social inequality. ESD aims at fostering the development of sustainability competences and embedding them at all levels of education. ESD provides guidelines and methodologies for integrating sustainability principles into educational practices (Brundiers et al. 2021; Cebrián et al. 2020).

Used across business, education, IC, and management, soft skills relate to interpersonal or intrapersonal qualities. Soft skills are vital for effective HE and workplace performance and organizational success. Most sources focus on the application and growing demand of soft skills rather than providing a method of measurement or definitions (exceptions being for instance UNICEF’s global framework (2019) and USAID’s model (2019)). This reflects a general trend in skills taxonomies, where practical descriptions are provided over specific definitions, allowing flexibility across industries and regions (Deloitte 2020; Zahn et al. 2024). ILO’s framework (2021), for example, organizes skills into socio-emotional, cognitive/meta-cognitive, basic digital, and green job skills, and UNICEF’s global framework (2019) differentiates between foundational, digital, job specific, and soft (or transferrable) skills.

Soft skills

Non-cognitive traits / Big five personality traits

Non-cognitive traits such as for instance the Big Five, i.e., conscientiousness, openness to experience, neuroticism / emotional stability, agreeableness, and extraversion are recognized as key factors in influencing learning outcomes and career success. These personality traits expand competence frameworks beyond cognitive abilities to include personal attributes critical to lifelong learning (Heckman and Kautz, 2012). Juxtaposing ‘noncognitive’ with ‘cognitive’, which is widespread due to its intuitive appeal, is prone to confusion because few aspects of personality and human behavior are devoid of cognition (Borghans et al., 2008).

Emotional Intelligence (EI)

EI emphasizes the importance of emotional regulation for professional success, particularly in roles requiring leadership and collaboration (Goleman et al., 2013; Miao et al., 2018). “According to Mayer and Salovey (1997), EI consists of four levels of ascending abilities: perception, appraisal and expression of emotion; emotional facilitation of thinking; understanding and analyzing emotions and employing emotional knowledge; and reflective regulation of emotions to promote emotional and intellectual growth.” (Mayer and Salovey (1997), cited in Smollan & Parry, 2011: 436)

Capability, Opportunity, Motivation, Behavior (COM-B)

The COM-B model offers a framework for understanding behavior change by identifying the interrelated components that influence actions. “In this ‘behaviour system,’ capability, opportunity, and motivation interact to generate behaviour that in turn influences these components […]. Capability is defined as the individual’s psychological and physical capacity to engage in the activity concerned. It includes having the necessary knowledge and skills. Motivation is defined as all those brain processes that energize and direct behaviour, not just goals and conscious decision-making. It includes habitual processes, emotional responding, as well as analytical decision-making. Opportunity is defined as all the factors that lie outside the individual that make the behaviour possible or prompt it.” (Michie et al., 2011: 4)

Annex 4: Definitions and terms

Adult teaching and learning

Literature on adult teaching and learning is vast. Andragogy is one school of thought or paradigm that deals with question how adults learn, and accordingly what adult teaching should / could look like. The model is built around several core principles that distinguish how adults learn differently from children, including a focus on self-direction (self-concept of the learner), the integration of life experiences into learning, the need to understand why something needs to be learnt (relevance), adults’ readiness to learn (life stages), learning orientation (project- and problem-oriented), and driven by intrinsic motivation. Andragogy encompasses not only the strategies and techniques employed by teachers (curriculum development, instructional design, assessment strategies) but also the broader socio-cultural and institutional contexts in which teaching and learning take place. Overall, andragogy is a multidisciplinary field that draws on insights from psychology, sociology, anthropology, and other disciplines to inform effective adult teaching and learning practices (Knowles et al., 2020).

Adult Teaching and Staff Development Practices (ASPs)

ASPs are rather broadly defined in this study. Adult teaching practices refer to the theory and practice of adult teaching in HE institutions. Staff development practices refer to the theory and practice of developing/training human resources at IC organizations. Both strands encompass a wide range of theories, methods, and techniques from different fields (psychology, sociology, anthropology, consultancy, etc.) aimed at effectively facilitating learning and development in students and employees. They entail not only the strategies and techniques employed by educators and human resources / managers but also the broader institutional contexts

in which teaching, training, and learning take place. It involves understanding how individuals learn, designing effective instructional materials and activities, assessing development/performance, using technology, creating supportive learning environments, etc. (Knowles et al., 2020)

Attitudes

“Attitudes are underpinned by values and beliefs and have an influence on behaviour. It reflects a disposition to react to something or someone positively or negatively and attitudes can vary according to specific contexts and situations (Haste, 2018: cited in OECD 2021). Attitudes are made of a complex interweaving of beliefs and affective responses that influence individuals’ views on their environment, as well as their decisions and judgements, and consequently their actions (Jarrett, 1991: cited in OECD 2021). Attitudes are also related to socio-emotional skills: interactions with others play an important role because “relationships provide the crucible out of which develops not only conscience and ethics but also self-attitudes and identities” (Heath, 1994: cited in OECD 2021).” (OECD, 2021: 11) Attitudes can be implicit (unconscious, early acquired, stable) and explicit (conscious, recently acquired, context-specific). Literature suggests that attitudes are malleable, though some are more so than others (Albarracin et al., 2005).

Attitudes and Soft skills

Terms like attitudes and soft skills are often used interchangeably. However, it is difficult to make a clear distinction between soft skills and attitudes. Like attitudes, soft skills entail personal attributes that enable a person to interact effectively and harmoniously with others. “For example, “empathy” is generally understood as a multifaceted construct and therefore it is often categorised under different taxonomies according to different

sources, different focuses, and different definitions. The Council of Europe’s Competencies for Democratic Culture Framework classifies “empathy” as part of both “cognitive” and “emotional” skills (Council of Europe 2016), while it is considered as an attitude in some research (Shapiro 2002).” (OECD, 2021: 48) The difficulty in defining key terms is further highlighted by the interchangeable use of terminology, which often depends on one’s preferred approach or school of thought. For instance, what the KSA (Knowledge, Skills, and Attitudes) approach, further outlined below, describes as personal and social competences are often referred to as ‘soft skills’ or ‘transferable skills’ by the 21st-century skills and soft skills frameworks. Common examples include critical thinking, creative thinking, and self-awareness.

Competences

For ease and convenience, in this report we consider the term ‘competence/s’. Competence implies more than just the acquisition of knowledge and skills; it involves the ability to meet complex demands, by drawing on and mobilizing psychosocial resources (including values and attitudes) in a particular context […]» (OECD, 2021). This definition overlaps with definitions of intercultural competence, which is «The ability to communicate effectively and appropriately in intercultural situations based on one’s intercultural knowledge, skills, and attitudes.» (Deardorff, 2004, p. 194, defined in Deardorff, 2006: 247f.).

Constructive alignment

Constructive alignment is a “[…] design for teaching in which what it is intended students should learn and how they should express their learning is clearly stated before teaching takes place. Teaching is then designed to engage students in learning activities that optimise their chances of achieving those outcomes, and assessment tasks are designed to enable clear judgments as to how well those outcomes have been attained» (Biggs, 2014, pp. 5-6).

Decoloniality

Decoloniality refers to a “[…] complex, all-encompassing transformation: a cultural shift that reveals and challenges systemic injustices and mindsets that are rooted in colonial history.” (Partos, 2022: 1) This includes shifting power and resources to local actors.

Emotional-affective

In educational psychology, there is a difference between emotional and affective. “‘Affective’ broadly covers attitudes, moods, and inclinations toward emotional responses, while ‘emotional’ specifically refers to the immediate, often intense experience of feelings. This distinction can help differentiate sustained emotional states (affective) from specific responses (emotional).” (Principles of Social Psychology – 1st International H5P Edition, consulted 30.10.2024) For simplicity, the term emotional will hereafter be used to refer to both types of responses, unless otherwise stated.

International cooperation

International cooperation (IC) comprises humanitarian aid (HA) and development cooperation (DC). HA seeks to protect people facing life-threatening situations in humanitarian emergencies and enable them to become self-sufficient again. Reconstruction of infrastructure in affected areas is generally considered to be part of HA. DC aims to reduce global differences in socio-economic development and general living conditions in a sustainable way. It strives for a close partnership and cooperation between donors and recipients. As peace and respect for human rights are important prerequisites for sustainable development, activities in the areas of (civilian) peace promotion and support for human rights are included in DC.

KSA framework

The KSA (Knowledge, Skills, Attitudes) framework has gained traction in competence research for its detailed, yet practical structure. It aligns well with the language used by educators in course design and employers in job ads (Cara et al., 2024; OECD, 2023; WEF, 2023). It helps articulate each competence through the integration of knowledge, skills, and attitudes in ways relevant to both education and employment. Knowledge encompasses theories and facts that support understanding; skills involve applying knowledge (know-how) toward goals; and attitudes are the driving force behind knowledge and skill activation, contributing to meaningful action (Baartman et al., 2011). The KSA model is a simplified version of the KSAVE model (e.g., Binkley et al., 2012), which includes additional elements like values and ethics alongside knowledge, skills, and attitudes. In addition, the KSA model is reflected in definitions of intercultural competence, which “[…] can be viewed as the process of developing targeted knowledge, skills, and attitudes that lead to visible behaviour and communication that are both effective and appropriate in intercultural interactions.” (Blair, 2017: 111).

Locally led

Localisation or locally-led-practices within development and humanitarian action recognises, respects and strengthens the leadership and decision-making of local actors who are best placed to understand and respond to the needs of their communities. Successful locally-led action recognises how power imbalances influence development and humanitarian initiatives and is facilitated by strong and equal partnership, quality direct funding, transparency and mutual accountability, and diversity and empowerment in staffing and leadership.

Non-cognitive

The term ‘non-cognitive’ is used in this study because it is commonly referenced to by IC practitioners, HE faculty, and policymakers. While the term implies a separation between emotion and cognition, literature views them as complementary (Knowles et al., 2020). Here, it is used in this complementary sense.

Annex 6: Effective ASPs for cultivating attitudes

Following is a literature-based overview of 16 ASPs that are considered to effectively promote IC relevant atti-

ASPs Description

1 Project-, problem-, and case-based teaching and learning

2 Outdoor education

3 Arts, performance, and imaginationoriented practices

4 Introspection about subjective experience

5 Practices of adult developmental psychology

6 Mindfulness practices

7 Self-leadership development

8 Listening to pause

tudes associated with personal and/or social competences. ASPs overlap and can be used in combination.

Interdisciplinary and participatory group work based on relevant and real-world examples

Learning about and/or learning through the environment; Example: colonial Basel and Zurich city tours

Working through poetry, music, dance, roleplays, theater, utopian future modeling, etc. Acceptance Commitment Therapy / training (ACT)

Self-inquiry- and self-experience-based learning approaches, unfolding emotional dimensions

Facilitates analysis of one’s emotional reactions and hidden assumptions hampering personal growth. Example: Immunity to change (ITC) process

Deepen awareness, concentration, insight. Examples: guided meditation, and Acceptance Commitment Therapy / training (ACT)

Transformative and adaptive approaches going beyond management and authority. Example: Radical transformational leadership approach

Generative listening or deep listening; listening to understand rather than reply 9 Non-violent communication (NVC)

Holistic communication process facilitating shared understanding and solutions in line with involved participants’ needs 10 Theory U for group work and prototyping

Framework for collaboration and engagement using awareness-based and contemplative practices and tools

Co-designing courses

Lecturers and students co-design curricula, pedagogy, and assessment

Diversifying reading lists and speakers; reviewing terminology and imagery used; pointing out colonial traces within the history of the course topic

Recentring “non-western” epistemologies and ontologies; students and lecturers taking part in anti-racism and unlearn processes

Lecturers facilitate students solving their own problems using their own solutions

Lecturers sharing their experience, not primarily targeted to facilitate students solving their own problems using their own solutions

Annex 7: Pedagogies (ASPs) covered in survey

A study conducted in collaboration with KSC Consultancy (Kimon Schneider)