2015 International Congress of IIAS Report by Melissa Monaco

Improving Administrative Sciences Worldwide

2015 International Congress of IIAS Trust in Public Administration

R e port R io d e Jan e iro, B ra zil 2 2-26 Ju ne

Congrès international de l’IISA, 2015 La Confiance en l’Administration publique

R a ppo rt R io d e Jan e iro, B résil 2 2-26 juin

www.iias-iisa.org Rue Defacqz 1, bte 11 B-1000 Bruxelles, Belgique e-mail: info@iias-iisa.org

31ème Congrès international des Sciences administratives

31th International Congress of Administrative Sciences

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ADMINISTRATIVE SCIENCES IIAS – Improving Administrative Sciences Worldwide The International Institute of Administrative Sciences (IIAS) is a NGO with scientific purpose established in 1930 whose seat is in Brussels. The Institute is a worldwide platform providing a space for exchanges that promote knowledge and practices to improve the organization and operation of Public Administration and to ensure that public agencies will be in a position to better respond to the current and future expectations and needs of society. It provides thus a forum where practical experiences and theoretical analyses of experts (academics and practitioners) in public administration worldwide and from all cultures are presented and discussed. To cover the diversity of its members, the IIAS has set up four entities:

• The IASIA (International Association of Schools and Institutes of Administration)

• The EGPA (European Group for Public Administration)

• The LAGPA (Latin American Group for Public Administration)

• The AGPA (Asian Group for Public Administration)

The IIAS aims to :

• promote the development of the administrative sciences ;

• be the worldwide platform providing a space for exchanges between practitioners and academics ;

• establish a link between theoretical research and practice ;

• improve the organisation and operation of public administrations ;

• develop effective administrative methods and techniques ;

• contribute to the governance progress within the national and international administrations ;

• act as bridge builder.

To realize its objectives, the IIAS implements the following actions:

• Organizes Annual International Congress ;

• Organizes scientific meetings, symposia and seminars ;

• Sets up and manages of Project Groups and Study Groups in the field of administrative law, public management or administrative practices ;

• Publishes the IRAS ;

• Publishes specific books ;

• Administrates a worldwide information network thanks to the «Knowledge Portal» ;

• Promote relations with governments and their administrative bodies, worldwide or regional international institutions, scientific associations, universities and schools and experts in the administrative sciences ;

• Establish National Sections for the purpose of furthering the science ‘progress of public administration and of contributing with comparative terms of reference to the study of problems related to public administration ;

• Cover the diversity of its members by setting up Regional Groups.

Ackowledgements The International Institute of Administrative Sciences should like to thank the Getulio Vargas Foundation and the state of Rio de Janeiro.

Remerciements L’Institut international des Sciences administratives remercie Fondation Getulio Vargas et l’Etat de Rio de Janeiro.

2015 International Congress of IIAS - Rio de Janeiro - June 2015

Congrès international de l’IISA, 2015 - Rio de Janeiro - Juin 2015

31th International Congress of Administrative Sciences

INSTITUT INTERNATIONAL DES SCIENCES ADMINISTRATIVES

31ème Congrès international des Sciences administratives

Contents - Sommaire

L’IISA est une ONG à vocation scientifique fondée en 1930 dont le siège se trouve à Bruxelles. L‘Institut est une plateforme mondiale d’échanges qui permet de faire avancer les connaissances et les pratiques pour améliorer l’organisation et le fonctionnement des administrations publiques afin que celles-ci soient en mesure de mieux répondre aux attentes et aux besoins actuels et futurs de la société. Il vise donc à offrir aux académiques et aux praticiens de toutes cultures un forum où peuvent être présentées et discutées les expériences et les théories en administration publique. Pour répondre à la diversité de ses membres, l’IISA a créé quatre entités :

• L’AIEIA (l’Association internationale des Ecoles et Instituts d’Administration)

• Le GEAP (le Groupe européen pour l’Administration publique)

• Le GLAP (le Groupe latino-américain pour l’Administration publique)

• Le GAAP (le Groupe asiatique pour l’Administration publique

L’IISA vise à :

• promouvoir le développement des sciences administratives ;

• être la plateforme mondiale d’échange entre praticiens et académiques ;

• établir un lien entre la recherche et la pratique ;

• améliorer l’organisation et le fonctionnement des administrations publiques ;

• perfectionner les méthodes et les techniques administratives ;

• apporter une contribution aux progrès de la gouvernance au sein des administrations nationales et internationales ;

• agir comme un bâtisseur de ponts.

Pour réaliser ses objectifs, l’IISA met en œuvre les actions suivantes :

• organise des congrès internationaux annuels ;

• organise des séminaires et réunions scientifiques ;

• crée et gère des groupes de projet et des groupes d’étude dans le domaine du droit administratif, la gestion publique or les pratiques administratives ;

• publie la RISA ;

• publie des ouvrages spécifiques ;

• gère un réseau mondial d’information via le « Portail de Connaissance » ;

• Promouvoir les relations avec les gouvernements et leurs organismes administratifs, les institutions internationales mondiales ou régionales, les associations scientifiques, les universités et les écoles et les experts en sciences de l’administration ;

• Mettre en place des sections nationales dans le but de favoriser le progrès de la science de l’administration publique et de contribuer avec des termes de références comparatifs pour l’étude des problèmes liés à l’administration publique ;

• Couvrir la diversité de ses membres en mettant en place des groupes régionaux.

2015 International Congress of IIAS - Rio de Janeiro - June 2015

Introduction / Introduction................................................................................................................................................................................................... p.6 Reports of the Rapporteurs / Rapports des Rapporteurs...................................................................................................... p.8 Braibant Lecture / Conférence Braibant....................................................................................................................................................... p.18 Intercontinental Administrative Forum / Forum administratif intercontinental....................................... p.27 Policy Platforms .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. p.29 • Reforming the administration to strengthen citizens’ Trust • Trust Economic actors? • Trust of the public sector itself Reports of the IIAS Permanent Study Groups / rapports des Groupes permanents d’étude de l’IISA................................................................................................................. p.31 Panel BRICS on Public Reforms and Trust in Public Administration....................................................................... p.36 Panel on “Are Administrative Reforms Doing Any Good? To Whom?”................................................................. p.37 Panel on «Theorical and practical evolutions on Public Administration: Recent institutional publications»............................................................................................................................................................................ p.39 OECD Workshop: Investing in trust: from insights to policy design & implementation................. p.40 CEPA Panel.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. p.44 Abstracts of papers presented during the congress / Résumés des papiers présentés pendant le congrès...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... p.46 • IIAS Subthemes / Sous-thème de l’IISA................................................................................................................................................. p.46 • Open Call / Appel ouvert............................................................................................................................................................................................ p.88

Congrès international de l’IISA, 2015 - Rio de Janeiro - Juin 2015

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31th International Congress of Administrative Sciences

Introduction

The main theme of the congress was Trust in Public Administration.

Le thème principal du congrès était Repenser la responsabilité et la reddition des comptes de l’administration publique à l’heure de la globalisation, la décentralisation et la privatisation.

The scientific programme was composed of: Le programme scientifique se composait de : • Workshop sessions based on three subthemes: • Sessions d’atelier basées sur trois sous-thèmes :

1. Citizens/Customers’ Trust in Governments, Public Administration and Public Sector at all levels of governance. Contributions on the following aspects were welcomed:

- empirical evidence as to the level of trust public administration institutions enjoys, and its variation over time and place; - empirical evidence as to the initiatives taken by public administration institutions to increase their level of trust – including but not limited to accountability systems and ethical and integrity standards – and their effectiveness; - theoretical explanations for differing levels of trust; - propositions to increase the level of trust public administration institutions enjoy.

2. Trust from Government in Society Contributions on the following aspects were welcomed

- the trust of governments in the capacity of citizens to be associated to the process of co-design, co-production and co- evaluation of Public Administration Public Sector and regulatory reforms as well as to the public policies; - how officials and citizens can be conscious of their role as co-producers in the process of public service delivery; - the role of networks and civil society associations and the level of reciprocal trust; - techniques and tools to involve people in governmental action; - relations between participatory/collaborative governance, responsive delivery services and trust.

3. Administrative Trust in Public Administration Reforms: inner-trust, civil servants’ trust and interorganisational trust The theme was covering different aspects:

- trust between civil servants; - trust between public sector organizations; - trust between politicians; - trust between politicians and the civil service (Bouckaert, 2012 ); - trust or faith of policy-makers in the effectiveness of their reform initiatives. • The fifth Intercontinental Administrative Forum • Policy Platforms - a « Bridge » between the Scientific and the Practitioner on the following themes:

1. Confiance des citoyens/clients dans les Gouvernements, l’Administration Publique et le Secteur Public à tous les niveaux de gouvernance. Des contributions couvrant les aspects suivants étaient les bienvenues:

- des études empiriques relatives au niveau de confiance dont bénéficient les institutions d’administration publique, et à sa variation dans le temps et dans l’espace ; - des études empiriques quant aux initiatives prises par les institutions d’administration publique pour augmenter le niveau de confiance dont elles bénéficient – incluant mais n’étant pas limité aux systèmes de reddition des comptes et aux codes éthiques – et à leur efficacité ; - des explications théoriques aux différents niveaux de confiance ; - des propositions pour augmenter le niveau de confiance dont les institutions d’administration publique bénéficient.

2. La confiance du Gouvernement dans la Société Des contributions couvrant les aspects suivants étaient les bienvenues:

- la confiance des gouvernements dans la capacité des citoyens à être associés aux processus de co-conception, co-production et co-évaluation de l’administra publique, aux réformes de régulation et aux politiques publiques ; - comment les fonctionnaires et les citoyens peuvent être conscients de leur rôle en tant que co-producteurs du processus de fourniture de service public ; - le rôle des réseaux et des associations de société civile et le niveau de confiance réciproque ; - les techniques et outils pour impliquer les citoyens dans l’action gouvernementale ; - les relations entre la gouvernance participative/collaborative, la fourniture réceptive de services et la confiance.

3. La confiance de l’administration dans les réformes d’administration publique : confiance interne, confiance des fonctionnaires, et confiance inter-organisationnelle Ce sous-thème couvrait différents aspects :

- la confiance entre fonctionnaires ; - la confiance entre organisations de secteur public ; - la confiance entre politiciens ; - la confiance entre le monde politique et administratif ; - la confiance ou la foi des décideurs politiques dans l’efficacité de leurs initiatives de réforme

• Sessions of some of the IIAS Permanent Study Groups • Le cinquième forum administratif intercontinental • Various panels • Plateformes politiques - un « lien » entre le point de vue scientifique et le point de vue pratique, entre l’offre et la demande de connaissances académiques sur l’administration publique. • Des Sessions de certains Groupes permanents de l’IISA • Différents panels

2015 International Congress of IIAS - Rio de Janeiro - June 2015

Congrès international de l’IISA, 2015 - Rio de Janeiro - Juin 2015

31ème Congrès international des Sciences administratives

31th International Congress of Administrative Sciences

Report of the Rapporteurs Rapport des Rapporteurs Available only in the language of the presentation / Disponible uniquement dans la langue de présentation

Rapporteurs Team / Équipe des Rapporteurs

Theme 1 – Citizens/Customers’ Trust in Governments, Public Administration and Public Sector at all levels of governance General Rapporteur

Theme 2 – Trust from Government in Society

Theme 3 – Administrative Trust in Public Administration Reforms: inner-trust, civil servants’ trust and interorganisational trust

Professor Dr Marco Meneguzzo – Switzerland/Italy

Academic Rapporteurs

Professor Masao Kikuchi – Japan Professor Obuya Bagaka - Kenya

Professor Dr Steven Van de Walle – The Netherlands

Practitioner Rapporteurs

Dr Khalil Amiri – Tunisia

Professeur Edgar Varela Barrios – Colombia

Profa Alketa Peci – Brazil

INTRODUCTION

By Marco Meneguzzo, Rapporteur General - Full professor Public administration and management University Roma Tor Vergata IT and University of Italian Switzerland CH

Report of the Rapporteurs

Trust and Confidence in the Public Administration systems are growing rapidly and are becoming a global topic. The main trends in PA systems can be analyzed and discussed within five areas: to represent them we have used the five Olympic rings, in tribute to Brazil and to the FGV in Rio de Janeiro, which hosted and organized the IIAS IASA conference in 2015.

Rapport des rapporteurs

The first area is related to the need to distinguish between different points of view: the citizen (trust in public institutions), customers of public services where there are chances of competing with the offerings of other private non-profit and for-profit

2015 International Congress of IIAS - Rio de Janeiro - June 2015

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31ème Congrès international des Sciences administratives

31th International Congress of Administrative Sciences

(health and education) centers, users as in the case of justice and public safety. This is not completely new, as anticipated by the authors in the U.S. (Mintzberg) in « managing Governing, governing management « (1996) Harvard Business review) . The data presented in the 2012 OECD report Government at the glance – Trust in government is very interesting; the OECD average shows a relatively high trust towards the local police (72%) and healthcare (71%) compared with a 40% to the central government (citizen and user perspective) and the judicial system (user perspective).

Sub theme 1 (hereafter ST1) deals with the Citizens/Customers’ Trust in Governments, Public Administration and Public Sector at all levels of governance. The call for paper especially welcomed the contributions covering; empirical evidence as to the level of trust public administration institutions enjoy, and its variation over time and place; empirical evidence as to the initiatives taken by public administration institutions to increase their level of trust – including but not limited to accountability systems and ethical and integrity standards – and their effectiveness; theoretical explanations for differing levels of trust; and propositions to increase the level of trust public administration institutions enjoy.

A second important area is about the trust towards the key players operating within PA systems: policy makers, senior public management (high-ranking civil servants), public managers and practitioners operating within the PA (doctors, nurses, engineers, teachers, biologists, lawyers). Practitioners are key for the supply of public services to users and customers.

2. Overview

This perspective connects directly the third theme, which we identify as administrative trust. The theme of inter-organisational trust takes on different nuances connected to the third area of the confidence towards international agencies, to national governments, to local governments and independent and operational agencies, which are becoming a standard in PA systems, thanks to the agencification process undertaken between the 1980s and 1990s. The point of view of the different stakeholders in relation to PA is very important: from civil society to the different forms of association, NGOs and non-profit organizations, and private businesses in the business logic of government relationships. Trust in the PA system is a perfect fit for a multi-stakeholder engagement perspective, which characterizes the intervention policies of the United Nations and the leading international agencies, starting with the MDG (Millennium development goals) right up to the post-2015 solutions for sustainable development. The data emerging from the 2013 «Latin American Barometer» is worth of mention. Trust in institutions in Latin America shows that the Church, the educational system, the armed forces and the television media rank highest, with rates of over 54%. Indirect indicators of the PA system (not explicitly considered in the barometer) are political parties and Congress / Parliaments (legislative bodies) with percentages between 14% and 24%. The reference to regional/continental directly introduces the third area represented by the global perspective, which is closely related to the global, national and local cultures, to the growing role of the Internet and social media, to the methods of social inclusion and to the relationship between exit and voice in different countries. A reference to the 2013 OECD data is compelling. In this regard, it should be noted that the report highlights «relative confidence» in the BRIC countries, with percentages between 60% and 70% in Indonesia and China compared to an average figure of 40% in OECD countries. Over the past three years the situation of the BRIC countries has changed significantly, especially if we think about what happened in Brazil (Petrobras) and in the Russian Federation, and also about the growing public concerns about global emergencies. By observing the OECD countries we find two main dynamics:

• Between 2007 and 2012 only a small cluster of countries improved the trust, with percentages ranging from 5% to 10%;

• There are few countries with percentages above 50% in terms of trust towards national governments. Switzerland, Sweden and New Zealand - who improved their relative levels of confidence – Norway, Luxembourg, …

The prospect of stakeholder engagement connects the second area of research of the conference Trust from government in society.

IIAS SUBTHEME 1 ON CITIZENS/CUSTOMERS’ TRUST IN GOVERNMENTS, PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND PUBLIC SECTOR AT ALL LEVELS OF GOVERNANCE By Masao Kikuchi, Associate Professor of Public Policy and Management, Meiji University

1. Introduction 2015 International Congress of IIAS was held in Brazil, under the general theme of “Trust in Public Administration,” which has growing importance both in academics and practices of the field of public administration. Concept of trust in public administration composed of different levels and perspectives, and thus can be argued from multi-dimensional angles. In line with this, the general theme had three sub themes: Citizens/Customers’ Trust as Sub Theme 1, Trust from Government in Society as Sub Theme 2, and Administrative Trust/Interorganizational Trust as Sub Theme 3.

2015 International Congress of IIAS - Rio de Janeiro - June 2015

The rapporteurs team received 112 abstracts for ST1, which was largest volume among sub themes. Probably because the scope of the ST 1 was more general than other sub themes. In terms of language profile, 104 abstracts were in English, while 8 abstracts were written in French. China was largest in terms of country attributions of the author, which accounted around 18% of the total proposals. It is followed by Brazil, host country (12%), Germany (6%), U.S., (5%), South Africa (4%) and others. The total number of country affiliations was 35 countries from four continents, except from Australia. Team of rapporteurs carefully reviewed all submitted abstracts for months from the following criteria; clarity and relevance of paper objective to the ST1 theme, originality and level of scholarly argument, and empirical evidence to support arguments and propositions. Most of common reasons of the rejection were either irrelevant to the theme, failure to generalize broader discussions (specific case study without implications), or lack of evidence to support arguments (pure practioner’s report). Around 25 % of submitted abstracts were rejected. The team of rapporteurs accepted about 75% of submitted abstracts in consideration with the possible failure rate of final paper submission, no- show, and physical capacity of the conference venue and schedule. Country Representation of Presenters Total 36 papers were actually presented during the congress. Countries of final presenters at the congress were China, Brazil, Germany, South Africa, Colombia, Hungary, Italy, Algeria, South Korea, France, Morocco, Portugal, Chile, Croatia, India, Japan, Poland, Spain, Argentine, Denmark, Kenya, Lithuania, Mexico, Switzerland, Nigeria, and Ukraine. Approach: Empirical or Theoretical Around 80% of the presented papers employed empirical approaches in one way or the other. Of them, many used case study and others used existing data set such as World Values Survey, Eurobarometer, and others. A few papers collected their own data by conducting questionnaire surveys. There are some, but good theoretical and conceptual papers on corruption, transparency, risk, participatory budgeting, and government society relations. These papers reviewed various concepts of trust and tried to bring implications, which are challenging, but important contributions to discuss fundamental meanings of trust in public administration. Country Specific or Comparative Study Most of the papers concentrated on specific single country case, while some others were comparative; EU countries, OECD, Brazil and U.K. , and Japan and New Zealand. One of the benefits of the international conference is the opportunities to integrate perspectives of single country study to identify the commonality and uniqueness of each country’s experience. Comparative study also brought us the bird eye views of the current state of trust in government in regions and world. Trust in Government at all level Many papers focused on trust in government at central government level, while a certain volumes of papers focused at local government level. Especially it was the case in China. This would be the reflection that general observed patterns of trust level is that, trust in local government is higher than central government in most country, however, in China, trust in local government is lower than trust in central government. Many papers from China tried to tackle this “wicked” problem. Trust issue in government is not confined within the executive branch of government. Paper from Brazil discussed the issue of trust in government in judicial branch at front line level. Another paper from Brazil focused on trust and management issues in the Olympic organizing committee, which is both public and private hybrid organization, and has received lots of public attentions for its activities. Specific Focus on Policy Area Some papers focused on trust in specific policy area. These studied policy area were; security, education, environment, food security, welfare for seniors, and fire and ambulance services. All these are the “high impact” police areas closely related to the quality of life of the citizens. Interesting paper from Brazil tried to study trust issue in foreign policy area, which may not be familiar among citizens, yet important policy area dealing with security and trade, and has significant impact on the quality of life of citizens in indirect way. Diversified Interests on Management Area Common focus in the ST1 was the relations of trust in government and management reforms. It questioned whether managerial reforms affected or enhanced trust level. Based on this basic research question, presented papers discussed about organizational, fiscal, performance, policy, and information management reforms. Discussed reform initiatives were; OPEN

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government, anti-corruption measure, freedom of information, mediation, public private partnership, procurement, regulatory impact analysis, e-voting, participatory budgeting, planning academy, customer first, process simplification, NPM and postNPM, public relations and social media, cost accounting, and role of external consultant.

3. Emerging Themes for Further Research and Practices Wide varieties of management topics and trust in government discussion could be broadly divided into two types of trust in government; trust as outcome based on the logic of consequence, and trust as process based on the logic of appropriateness (Bouckaert 2012). Following a logic of consequence, citizens trust capacities of government for efficient and effective management of limited resources, providing good performance, and therefore contribute to trust. On the other hand, there is also a logic of appropriateness with values more on process, which leads to a direct focus on integrity, open and responsive government, and transparency, lead to trust. Presented research areas based on trust as outcome were; customer first, e-service delivery, and NPM type reforms. Topics based on trust as process were; open government initiative, collaboration, mediation, freedom of information, civic education and participation, participatory budgeting, transparency, and post- NPM reforms. These two logics are in blend and affected each other in the actual reform practices. Moreover, comparative study of Japan and New Zealand discovered that general public did not distinguish NPM type reform (mainly based on the logic of outcome), and post-NPM type reform (more emphasis on logic of appropriateness). Both logics may contribute to enhance trust, but it is significant to distinguish two logics to identify the causal link of the reform and trust. Although there are empirical evidences that both approach can lead to trust, roughly 70% of the presented papers considered trust as process (Vigoda-Gadot and Yuval 2003; Van Ryzin 2011). Is Trust Decreasing, or Increasing? Many presentations presupposed that trust was decreasing or simply stated that trust was in crisis without empirical evidence. Incorrect diagnosis may lead incorrect treatments, and it is even harmful to existing trust. Trust is said to be declining, however, there is no conclusive evidence of general patter of declining public trust in a global way (Van de Walle, Van Roosbroek, and Bouckaert 2008). It is mainly because due to lack of reliable long term data on public trust in government. Some countries seem to enjoy stable level of trust, and EU countries even gained trust after the global financial crisis. On the other hand, some country may suffer long erosion of trust in government, and the others may simply fluctuate based on business cycle of one’s economy. Trust in government research flourished after widely believed that trust is declining among policymakers. In other words, events that affect trust in government such as political scandals or government maladministration brought trust as widely discussed public agenda, and then polls followed. The result of the polls after the event may not reflect the general trend. Or rather, policymakers and government officials now recognize that they need to rely on the citizens’ moral support and voluntary compliance than ever, to government work in efficient and effective manner. So the attention on trust in these days would be the reflections of ever increasing dependence of government to the citizens, and impatience of the people in the government for the rush supports from the citizens. Trust and Distrust can Coexist It is generally believed that trust is in the other extreme side of distrust. However, low trust does not necessary mean high distrust, and trust and distrust is not one dimensional, and thus has different dimension. In other words, trust in government, and distrust in government can coexist. New Public Management is based on both trust and distrust (Gregory 2001; Van de Walle and Six 2015). It gives more autonomy with the expectations that managers use resources effectively. At the same time, strict audit of the performance with indicators is imposed based on the assumption that government officials do not seek public interests, unless otherwise controlled. More broadly, democratic institution exists based on public trust in government, and at the same time, it functions based on public distrust in government, as demonstrated in institutionalized check and balance mechanism. In discussing how to enhance or rebuild trust in government, one cannot put aside the existence and functions of distrust.

4. Conclusion Relationship between trust and reform is not static, it is rather dynamic process. Trust can be the cause, objective, driver and leverage of the reform (Bouckaert 2012). Also, ostensibly lowering trust can be an outcome indicators of the reform to enhance transparency or anti-corruption campaign, as most of hidden incidences under the table revealed with the reform. So there is a certain difficulty to identify the causal relations. Nevertheless, trust is still key concept in the reform agenda. That means we carefully and explicitly conceptualize the trust in the reform. Public trust is now topical and “buzz word” in the reform campaign and agenda. It seems to be even trust is overloaded in the reform process. Trust is ambiguous concept, yet it is not the easy catchall concept for the reformers. Papers and discussions in ST 1 brought us the issues and questions that we should step forward beyond fundamental difficulty. These further research agenda stated above can be done through future IIAS activities, which is a unique international organization that each participant bring own experience for more better understanding. More empirical and comparative study is necessary. It is also essential to integrate the perspectives of ST1 (trust in government), ST 2 (government trust in society), and ST 3(trust among government). Finally, on behalf of rapporteur team of ST1, I would like to congratulate and thank all presenters and participants for their sincere commitments and intellectual inputs. I also thank team of rapporteurs with the great leadership of Professor Marco Meneguzzo as a general rapporteur, FGV, host institution, and the IIAS secretary team, all bounded with “trust”. Mutio Obrigado!

References Vigoda-Gadot, Eran and Fan Yuval. (2003).“ Managerial Quality, Administrative Performance and Trust in Governance Revised” International Journal of Public Sector Management. 16 (7), pp.502-522. Bouckaert, Geert. (2012). “Trust and Public Administration” Administration, 60(1), pp.91-115. Gregory, Robert. (2001). “Transforming Governmental Culture: A Sceptical view of New Public Management. in Tom Christensen and Per Lægreid, eds. New Public Management: The Transformation of Ideas and Practice. Ashgate. pp. 231-257 Grindle, Merilee. (2004). “Good Enough Governance: Poverty Reduction and Reform in Developing Countries” Governance, 17(4), pp.525-548. Van de Walle, Steven, Steven Van Roosbroek, Geert Bouckaert. (2008). “Trust in the Public Sector: Is there any Evidence for a Long-term Decline?” International Review of Administrative Sciences. 74(1), pp.47-64. Van de Walle, Steven and Frédérique Six. (2014). “Trust and Distrust as Distinct Concepts: Why Studying Distrust in Institutions is Important.” Journal of Comparative Policy Analysis: Research and Practice, 16(1), pp. 158-174. Van Ryzin, Gregg. (2011). “Outcomes, Process and Trust of Civil Servants.” Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 21(4) , pp.745-760.

IIAS SUBTHEME 2 ON TRUST FROM GOVERNMENT IN SOCIETY

By Alketa Peci, Brazilian School of Public and Business Administration EBAPE A total of 26 papers organized around 6 (six) session were presented and debated under the theme 2 “Trust from government in society”. Participants represented worldwide regions such as Africa, Middle East, Latin America, Asia, Europe, among others.

High Enough Trust? Dual approach from both trust and distrust leads us the question; how much do we need to restore trust, or is there adequate or optimal level of trust? Same as too low trust, too much high trust would be dysfunctional. This question reminds us the concept of “good enough governance” coined by Professor Merilee Grindle, and was once the 2008 IIAS congress general theme in Ankara, Turkey.

Papers were classified under six sub-themes:

Among the multitude of governance reform that “must be done,” there is no common understanding as to what is critical and what is not, what should be prioritized and what should follow, and what can be achieved in the short period and what can only be achieved in a long run (Grindle 2004). “Rebuilding public trust” is a catchall poplar slogan among reformers. However often time they do not provide us “where” to go and “how” to achieve it. As too much high trust tends to become blind trust to the authority and thus even harmful, there should be much more attention on the high enough trust or necessary minimum level of trust for better understanding of the reform and trust issues ,and priorities and feasibility of reform measures.

2015 International Congress of IIAS - Rio de Janeiro - June 2015

• General theoretical and practical construct of trust from government

• Trust in government through budgetary & financial process

• Issues of trust at the local level

• Building trust through social security systems

• Managing risks & preventive strategies to enhance trust

• Innovations, ICT & performance management as trust enhancing strategies

Theme 2 attracted academics & practitioners’ papers, employing, methodologically, an array of traditional and innovative methods of research, such as case studies, comparative analysis, descriptive analysis & advanced inferential statistical analysis. There is a need for improvement in terms of the analytical and methodological design of the papers, particularly due to such a mix categorization (academic & practitioners).

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In terms of the main topics of the presentations, some key trends emerged:

a) There are timid experiences in central governments mainly focused on planning or budgeting initiatives. Among the obstacles that were mainly pointed out during the presentation, the focus relies on: a) bureaucratic expertise, and bureaucratic distrust, because of ethnic and/or religious differences as a key obstacle to trust from government in society; b) civil society “receptivity” to government initiatives; and, c) low levels of institutionalization of participatory practices. Some cases also focus on government using fear to enhance trust, based on terrorism suspicions.

b) Bureaucratic insulation and historical/contextual contingencies appear as an obstacle to trust building relations from government in society. Papers also debated the risks of such governmental posture, one the lack of trust in citizens can be an obstacle to the introduction of innovations, such as in the case of digital democracy.

c) There are huge advances in terms of consultation, as stakeholder engagement and co-design in public policies of European Union levels demonstrate. However still remain too many obstacles in citizen participation and engagement initiatives.

d) Contrary to the central government initiatives, local governments are more permeable to citizen engagement and participation, corroborating previous studies. Interesting experiences are shared from Japan’s context in terms citizens and social sector’s partnerships with local governments. Once again, the role of interpersonal trust and social capital bonds is considered a key element in analysing trust building experiences.

e) Papers also debated capture indicators, trying to focus on “who” and “why” in power distribution initiatives. Innovative experiences indicate the challenging role that other branches (Legislative and Judiciary) may induce to the Executive in fostering trust to citizens, as some Brazilian cases demonstrate.

f) Another important observation from the subtheme 2 is related to the fact that collaboration tends to build trust and enhance the performance. Particularly, the triple helix collaboration experiences from Italy demonstrate, in such cases, lower levels of public funding versus higher levels of social accountability, and innovation.

g) Lastly, an important shared lesson is related to the relevance of political support to foster collaborative experiences. In fact, trust is a substitute for control. There is no surprise that several papers indicate that in in highly centralized governmental experiences there are frustrated indicators of trust building experiences.

At the same time, trust between organisations also comes with some downsides. Too much trust may lead to partnerships where collaboration is too cosy and where vigilance is low. Politicisation of collaboration and nepotism is one way to ensure all partners within the partnerships trust each other, and to exclude outgroups from decision making. Trust may come at the detriment of well-functioning checks and balances, audits, and respect for administrative law. While trust is often seen as a virtue and an essential fuel for social life and indeed public administration, it should not be forgotten that distrust also has an essential role to play in the functioning of public administration. Indeed, distrust is one of the core organising principles in public administration, and it is so for a reason. An elaborate set of checks and balances exists within government to avoid government and public administration to be captured by elites, special interests or majorities. In addition, governments distribute considerable amounts of benefits (money, jobs, licenses) which makes abuse, shirking and slack very likely. Traditional public administration for this reason is not just structured as it is in order to achieve superior outcomes, but mainly to guarantee fairness, legality and due process. Such institutionalised distrust is visible in a deliberate fragmentation and distribution of functions within public administration. While trust-based collaboration is currently regarded as a superior way of doing things, diverging views may see this as a risky strategy because it may preclude effective oversight and control. In other words, low trust can be considered as an essential driver for institutional renewal. It should therefore not come at a surprise that many papers at the conference dealt with these issues.

Papers under subtheme 3 Papers in the sessions under subtheme 3 explored different aspects of interorganisational trust. Presentations were made to the audience in six different sessions, one of which was conducted in French. All sessions were chaired by the rapporteurs, in order to manage time, and to facilitate lively discussion. Presenters came from a variety of countries: Algeria, Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Cameroun, Canada, China, France, Germany, Indonesia, Kenya, Morocco, the USA, the United Kingdom, South Africa, and Switzerland. Papers looked at a diverse set of collaborations between organisations, such as between legal institutions, juvenile crime institutions, local governments, regulators, oversight committees etc. They also looked at highly diverse settings ranging from normal day-to-day public service delivery, to regulatory relations, public housing, or crisis response.

Common themes

IIAS SUBTHEME 3 ON ADMINISTRATIVE TRUST IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION REFORMS: INNER-TRUST, CIVIL SERVANTS’ TRUST AND INTERORGANISATIONAL TRUST

By Steven Van de walle, Erasmus University Rotterdam and Edgar Varela Barrios, Universidad del Valle colombia

Introduction Theme 3 looked at trust within the public sector, and between public sector organisations , and also at trust and reforms. Trust is not only important in interactions between individuals, but also in interactions between organisations. This is especially the case when public organisations work together in delivering services or making policy in areas that cut across policy areas or levels of government. Examples are ministry-agency relations, central-local relations, inter-agency collaborations, intermunicipal bodies, multilevel governance arrangements, or delivery and governance networks. Trust is also important when public organisations collaborate with private or not-for-profit actors, for instance in public-private partnerships, or in various service delivery arrangements. This trust goes beyond the mere interpersonal trust between actors within these organisations. The literature offers some evidence about the effects of trust between organisations on transaction costs and levels of formalisation of collaboration, conflicts, or (perceived) performance and outcomes. Trust, it has been argued, reduces transaction costs, and makes it easier for organisations to collaborate without having to revert to elaborate control mechanisms and contracts. Therefore, things work more smoothly, because there are fewer instances where trustworthiness has to be checked prior to the transaction. Recent developments throughout the public sector appear to suggest a gradual return to trust-based management and steering concepts. This goes hand in hand with the emergence of newer informal governance arrangements with relatively few formalised rules, and with changing but often long-term interactions and fairly unstable environments. As a result, trust has resurfaced in the work of scholars interested in the functioning of governance networks, collaborative arrangements and partnerships, where partners work together to achieve shared goals.

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A common theme throughout the papers was that they mostly focused on areas where collaboration between organisations was necessary to achieve desirable outcomes. Such collaboration happens within public administration (intra-governmental), but also between different levels of government (intergovernmental collaboration), and between public and private or non-profit actors. More specifically papers addressed mechanisms, processes and preconditions that make trust possible: audits, courts of account, information exchange, codes of conduct etc. Basic rules and routines help making trust possible, and include things such as fines, incentives, subsidies, or regulations. To make trust possible, one may have to regulate, or instead deregulate. A shared culture and common identity was also identified as important for trust to be possible between organisations. In interactions where there is profound distrust between organisations, bureaucratic controls and rules may instead be required for interorganisational collaboration to be possible. Papers also discussed the role of codes of conduct and ethics committees as mechanisms to stimulate trustworthy behaviours. Can other actors in the public sector be trusted, and how can we be sure they act in an ethical way? Codes of conduct regulate interactions, but formal procedures cannot exist without ethical leadership. Papers not only discussed the need for trust, but equally so the perils of having too much trust in interorganisational collaboration. Examples include cases where relational trust develops between regulators and regulatees, public officials who exchange information where such information should have been kept confidential, or situations where accountability and oversight fail because actors trust each other a lot or too much. This brought up the question of who is accountable and answerable when things go wrong. In this context, the position and role of regulators attracted considerable attention. Another issue that was addressed was whether it are organisations that trust each other, or the individuals within them. It was shown that individual relations matter a lot, and that boundary spanners and personal contacts are essential for trust to develop. At the same time, organisational structures are very influential in determining where trust may or may not develop. Papers looked at civil servants’ mindset: do civil servants trust the organisations they work with or have to work with, and do they trust their fellow civil servants? To study how trust develops, one has to look at drivers such as organisational socialisation and public service motivation, but also one should also emphasise the importance of shared identities. Finally, papers looked at the importance of trust for reform to be possible, and at reforms aimed at improving tryst, such as civil service reform, public sector modernisation, improved accountability mechanisms etc.

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CONCLUDING REMARKS

By Marco Meneguzzo, Rapporteur General - Full professor Public administration and management University Roma Tor Vergata IT and University of Italian Switzerland CH

First, would like to thank IIAS-IISA and the colleagues at FGV Rio de Janeiro for organizing the Congress, along with the rapporteurs from the three Tracks for systematizing papers in a professional and effective way. Mostly, I thank all participants for making the Congress a highly successful one. I will build upon the rapporteurs’ reports, as I think it is important to write some final remarks that can summarize authors contributions and subsequent discussions with participants during the sessions .

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Discussions inside Conference tracks have particularly highlighted the need to promote and leverage on synergies between trust, accountability, transparency and quality, in a perspective of multilevel governance and collaborative governance. Future policies will also have to promote strongly the integration with social innovation processes, while co-designing and co-implementing (more than simply co-producing) public actions will also play a crucial role in reinforcing trust in government. Engaging in stakeholder management activities, being permeable and open to civil society and mostly aiming at the creation of not only shared value, but shared trust are also key principles for future approaches, along with promoting intangible assets and focusing on people development. Trust in public administration can be created, consolidated and enhanced by working outside the boundaries of the public sector, by integrating fides (trust), constantia (tenacity and perseverance) and suavitas (pleasantness) – as mentioned by Cicero in his De Officiis, when he describes conditions for Trust in Roman republican institutions.

These are my “highlights”:

• a high relevance of analyses focusing on individual national contexts along with comparative studies (multi-country analysis; comparative public policies);

• the integration between theoretical and empirical approaches (i.e track 1, and track 2 -academy vs practitioners);

• utilization of innovative research methodologies (track 2 – comparative analysis, descriptive analysis and inferential statistical analysis; open track – data mining, design thinking and public service design, behavioral economics);

• a focus on different public policy areas, programs and sectors (environment, welfare for seniors, security and foreign policies, universities and education, health care, urban space management, culture and creativity, ODA development cooperation, social services);

• the ability to outline some cutting-edge dynamics (TTP: trust, transparency and participation; TQA: trust, quality of services and accountability; ethical issues; innovation and social innovation);

• focus on some key issues (trust in central vs local governments; capture indicators; relevance of political support; inter-organizational trust, intra- vs intergovernmental trust; over-trust; trust as a process and as an outcome; trust vs distrust).

To conclude, it is important to underline a number of possible intervention areas to strengthen and consolidate trust in government. Connecting with the five areas mentioned in my introduction, it is possible to identify five specific fields of intervention, always maintaining the reference to the Olympic rings .

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Available only in the language of the presentation / Disponible uniquement dans la langue de présentation

CITIZENS AND PUBLIC SERVANTS: HOW IS THE TRUST RELATIONSHIP EVOLVING? Ladies and Gentlemen, Good Morning. May I say how honoured I am to have been invited to give this prestigious lecture. During my career in the UK Civil Service we were pleased to be members of IIAS and indeed I was part of the team when we hosted an event at The Civil Service College in Sunningdale Park in Britain. If you have looked at my biography you will have picked up that my perspective is that of a practitioner and adviser. Many of you are academics and your analysis gives us a valuable independent view which we must interpret to strengthen our effectiveness. I have worked with and learnt from people in a range of disciplines over the years in many countries. I will be speaking to you today based on experience and observation; my own, and those made to me by colleagues. You have taken as your theme “Trust in Public Administration” and it so happens that the Un Committee of Experts on Public Administration which advises the Economic and Social Council, known as ECOSOC, in the UN who are leading the transition to the Sustainable Development Goals also chose ‘Building Trust in government in pursuit of the Sustainable Development Goals” as their theme for this year1. I have been a member of the Committee of Experts on Public Administration, shortened to ‘CEPA’, which advises ECOSOC and also steers the work of the department of economic and social affairs for some 6 years now. This period happens to coincide with what feels to me like a wave of turbulence, in the world of public administration. After many years of working in different countries including Africa, the Middle East, Eastern Europe and the Caribbean and with colleagues in international organisations, I sense that we are going through a discontinuous change and suggest that If we don’t handle it well, and navigate our way forward thoughtfully, we may sleepwalk into more negative consequences than we would like. The topic is broad and you have three days to discuss and debate it – I have less than an hour so I will be selective and address only a few areas which I hope will interest you.

Braibant Lecture

Conférence Braibant By Margaret Saner, CBE

It seems to me that the issue of trust is fundamentally about relationships, hence my title Citizens and Public Servants: How is the Trust Relationship Evolving? But before I address the topic I want to acknowledge my colleagues past and present in CEPA. We all serve on a personal basis, not as representatives of our countries. We are drawn from around the globe and generally speaking are a mixture of Politicians, Academics and Practitioners, some of whom are present at this event. We work on a consensus basis; in this talk I will draw on the work of CEPA and others, but I won’t go in to detail on the CEPA papers since there is a panel session tomorrow. The coincidence of the themes is significant. It might imply that we have a deficit in trust or that trust is decreasing and that this is a bad thing. If there is a need to build trust what does this mean? Who needs to be more trusting? The Citizen? Public administration? Or is it a question of taking steps to earn trust? Or, even, are trust issues actually masking more fundamental problems in public administration? I doubt there is a single answer but I will set out for you some of my reflections and proposals in the hope that it leads you to evaluate your own circumstances and to act accordingly. I have structured my talk along the lines of the agenda for the last CEPA meeting, in April earlier this year. At our previous meeting and before ECOSOC identified its own topic we had picked three areas which we thought would be of significance in preparing for the transition to Sustainable Development Goals. They were: Relationships, Accountable Institutions and Ethical Leadership. In my view, if we could get things right in these three areas we would go quite a long way to building trust. The Sustainable Development Goals, by the way, are cross cutting, such as End hunger, Achieve Food Security and Promote Sustainable Agriculture. Particularly relevant to public administration is Goal 16, Promote Peaceful and inclusive societies , provide access to justice for all, build effective accountable institutions at all levels2. So moving on to Relationships and Trust, I want to go back in time a little. I first met Geert Bouckaert at a conference on reforming the public service and introducing Quality Management in Athens, Greece, I think, around 1990. The UK was at that time creating a new kind of public service, setting up Executive Agencies with delegated responsibilities, focusing on Quality and Customer Service, turning the typical organisational pyramid on its head – or at least on its side – the focus of attention being the interaction between the public servant and the citizen. In the years that followed this became labelled as ‘New Public Management’, which is fair enough as a label for an emergent theory, but at the time it didn’t feel like New Public Management at all. It felt like a fundamental shift away from the view that policy should be made by the brightest and the best away from outside influence and without consultation with those who would be expected to implement it.

1R eport of the 14th Session of the Committee of Experts on Public Administration ((E/2015/44-E/C.16/2015/7) http://www.unpan.org/DPADM/CEPA/ UNCommitteeofExpertsonPublicAdministration/tabid/1454/language/en-US/Default.aspx 2 http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/

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It felt like front line staff were being trusted to know their jobs, to appreciate the challenges members of the public faced and to do their best to serve them effectively3. These so called ‘soft’ aspects I have noticed, are often overlooked in descriptions of New Public Management and in the way that similar labels have been introduced elsewhere, without the same degree of attention being paid to the years of hard work to change attitudes, transfer new skills and knowledge and to develop new ways of working. In short it seemed to me that our efforts at the time had many of the hallmarks of leadership rather than management.

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This is possibly what the many surveys that show declining trust are exposing, an outward appearance of compliance but a growing inner disassociation from government and the Political world. This is widely understood within organisational theory; people will develop or maintain informal systems7 when formal ones don’t work for them. CEPA has called many times for effective, genuine Citizen Engagement. Engagement is not about show, about broadcasting policies and programmes, it is about a relationship, participation, a dialogue with citizens born out of respect. I have been in public meetings where plans and budgets have been set out – but there is no interaction, no contribution from the public, it is a show8.

Why does this matter – because, through this process we learnt to respect members of the public, to value feedback, and to appreciate the diverse needs of differing groups of citizens. Remember this predates social media! It brought about a fundamental change in public servants’ attitudes to the public and to their jobs. We did, I acknowledge, subsequently become rather obsessed with operational effectiveness and the empowerment of the agencies led to diversification which brought a new set of problems – but that’s a whole other subject. I want to stay focused on the issue of trust so I won’t address that now.

Of course government is about regulation and not everyone can have everything they want. But people can and do respond positively to decisions where they are satisfied that the process has been open and transparent. Where it is evident that a genuinely wide consultation and evidence gathering process has taken place and that the decision is going to benefit members of the public - even if it is not the one they personally preferred.

The point I am making here is that early in my career I was closely involved in a complete shake up of attitudes in the civil service. In my teenage years public servants knew best, deference was the order of the day, but then in the UK we had the Profumo affair, when a senior politician was found to be having a relationship with a prostitute and in local government where a local government leader was caught up in a corruption case related to municipal construction. Along with Watergate in the US these scandals showed us that politicians and public administrators were fallible.

So my second point in connection with Relationships is that the days of automatic compliance with a ‘professional view’ are gone. The senior public servant, the doctor, the teacher, has to learn to function in a world where knowledge is freely available, but not always fully understood, or properly evaluated. Interestingly however, several of the surveys show that Experts are generally trusted, not as much as Peers but more than Politicians. So your Doctor’s diagnosis of your illness is fine, until your friends tell you it is definitely something different and suddenly they are right and your Doctor is wrong!

At the point I met Geert in Greece, The Prime Minister of the UK was Mrs Thatcher, I don’t think she held senior civil servants in awe4, nor did her first lieutenant Sir Peter Kemp. One of the messages as a junior member of the project that I received loud and clear, was that achievements were what mattered; devolving decision making and meeting the needs of the public. Incidentally the administrators who worked closely with her where very loyal, she knew not only their names but their children’s, remembered details about schools, doctors appointments and so on. Did they trust her – absolutely5.

A further complication is that it seems we can easily be led (if you have read Thinking Fast and Slow, by Daniel Kahneman9, you will understand what I mean. Or perhaps you have seen the recent confession that a supposedly scientific study that chocolate helps you slim was a fabrication. Much more serious was the misleading publication on the Measles Mumps and Rubella vaccine. And it is not only the Citizen that can be easily led, so are policy makers and politicians – the impetus to provide instant solutions seems to have grown, rather than waned with experience of less than hoped for results.

In the following years we began to discuss the changes the younger generation, known as Generation Y might bring, and to work on scenario planning. Some of those scenarios, by the way, suggested a rise in nationalism, border disputes and government regulation giving way to the interests of big corporations. But we didn’t predict the banking crisis, nor the power of social media.

It is a generalisation but we seem to have become accustomed to instant answers and waiting is often not an option. Politicians are driven to make promises that sound so attractive but they will they be able to keep them? We have just had an election in the UK and beforehand, while saying that the deficit must be cut, at the same time politicians were saying, but don’t worry about health, education, overseas aid, they’ll be protected. So we are sceptical and we may punish them at the next election if they break a promise, as UK voters did with the Liberal Democrats, who, when in government in coalition with the Conservatives, broke a Manifesto promise to remove tuition fees.

I had early warning of how things were going when I led the pay team in Customs in the early 1990s. We took on doing our own pay bargaining in a delegation from the Treasury and I wanted to know the best way to produce the guidance for the local HR staff. So I asked my team to raise it when they went out to the regional meetings. The response couldn’t have been clearer, no need to write guidance, we don’t look at it. We don’t like reading, we phone someone up! This was a clear message, signalling self-direction, peer to peer communication and learning. The path to online Human Resource services was already being laid. In a home full of reference books, online communities were the fount of all knowledge for my son, luckily he didn’t blindly accept whatever he was told. In around 2000 we ran our first seminar on e-government for senior civil servants. Some of them were adamant it would never happen, could, never happen – there was no possibility of people ever paying for government services or paying taxes online, it simply wouldn’t work. Fortunately not everyone thought that way. The improvements in processes that took place during the 1990s were possible because of that fundamental shift that had taken place, the change of attitudes to the public, the concept of internal service delivery and the desire to get it right for the citizen. Unfortunately the instilling of those underlying values seems to be the piece that has often been missed in some places, names have changed but attitudes haven’t and while much of this approach has been retained in the UK, other factors which I will come on to, mean that a few years down the line, some lessons learnt back then have been forgotten. It has also made me very wary of importing solutions that work in one set of circumstances to another culture, what used to be called best practice. It is vital to understand your own situation and to develop your own way forward. So my first point is that where Public Administrations continue to set the relationship with the citizen as one of generalised control, which may also, incidentally, be more illusory than assumed, there is a risk that people will simply behave as if compliant. On the surface this may look like a trusting relationship but compliance is not the same as trust or consent6. It is a very different relationship which can sometimes mean that resentment or disassociation is quietly growing.

The public servant has been shown to have human weaknesses; they have been found guilty of serious abuse of office and been the subject of great humour such as the perennial T V programme ‘Yes Minister’. Yet if you go beyond generalised surveys about what people think of public services you will often find a very different story. There is often a marked difference between our generalised perception of public services and our actual experience. Of course sometimes we are let down and treated badly and these incidents now receive wide publicity. But there many occasions where people are delighted with the service they get and the relationship they have with people who work in the public service. It seems to people to be perfectly reasonable to hold these two competing ideas at the same time. Even though I used the example of the UK in talking about how attitudes to citizen engagement - to the relationship with the citizen can change, I still think we have a long way to go, some countries are further down the road others are coming up behind, but communication is now unbelievably rapid and global. There is a real chance that the technological possibilities have outpaced the relationship. I have focused on the relationship between the civil servant and the public but I don’t believe it is possible for this to be healthy if relationships within the service are poor. And it is hard to see why public servants should trust the public if they themselves are denigrated by their own leaders. Almost always they have no right of reply to any public criticism. Expectations of behaviour standards in the public service are rightly high, for everyone. Methods of communication, access to information and expectations of citizens and public servants themselves have changed the way we work. Organisations are flatter, decisions have to be taken more rapidly and often public servants have to work together and agree ways forward that are innovative and outside formal hierarchies. We have become skilled at leadership without formal authority, when a health worker and a social worker are trying to help an elderly patient, it doesn’t matter what grade they are, what matters is how they can provide assistance within the parameters they have been given. The world of policy development and implementation as well as service delivery has become increasingly complex, there are many players and not all are public servants. Relationships have to be developed and safeguarded with many different groups in order to make progress. It is enriching, time consuming, rewarding and ultimately, I believe, more effective. It seems to me that in part, Trust is back on the agenda because of the evaluation of the implementation of the Millennium Development

3 Making Public Governance Work for the Post-2015 Development Agenda, Paper by Ms. Margaret Saner, Ms. Hyam Nashash and Ms. Rowena G. Bethel(E/C.16/2013/2 http://workspace.unpan.org/sites/Internet/Documents/e%20c16%202013%202%20eng.pdf 4 http://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/sites/default/files/case%20study%20next%20steps.pdf 5 Recounted to me by one of her staff at the time, unrelated to any political perspective. 6 Responsive and Accountable Public Governance, 2015 WORLD PUBLIC SECTOR REPORT http://workspace.unpan.org/sites/Internet/Documents/UNPAN95253.pdf Pages 15-18

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7F or Example: Structure in fives: Designing effective organizations. Mintzberg, Henry Englewood Cliffs, NJ, US: Prentice-Hall, Inc Structure in fives: Designing effective organizations. (1993). 8G uidelines onCitizens’ Engagement for Development Management and Public Governance http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/un-dpadm/unpan045265.pdf 9D aniel Kahneman (25 October 2011). Thinking, Fast and Slow. Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4299-6935-2

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Goals and the transition to the Sustainable Development Goals. A few years ago CEPA reviewed the implementation of the Millennium Development Goals or MDGs. We made various observations, including the fact that to many, the MDGs seemed to have been imposed, to have little meaning at a local level and that with little baseline data, tracking real improvement was next to impossible. As the ECOSOC agenda became focused on the post 2015 development agenda and the sustainable development goals, CEPA was asked to advice on the nature of the goals.

sions of the Constitution and that in time someone would act. This row erupted on a Friday night, the following Wednesday the Speaker was due to make an announcement in Parliament, while he was doing so a newsflash appeared across the bottom of the screen. A Judge had ruled the appointments unconstitutional. Now that the Constitution was in place, a group of civil society organisations had been able to achieve this in three working days. This is the difference that governance measures can make for the citizen.

Our key points included, the need for local ownership, goals that were meaningful to communities, access to resources and skills at whatever level they were required and that the goals were relevant to all, not just developing countries. In short we wanted to see greater participation in prioritising10. But would citizens want to be involved? We know from the early days of customer service and quality that unless people have a specific issue they are concerned about they often don’t participate in opportunities to have their voice heard. I am a governor at a local school with some 1800 pupils; we are lucky if more than 6 parents turn up to the Parents Forum and you see this replicated across local areas, people don’t go to see the local community police or attend the patient meetings at their Doctors – until that is,there is a problem! We are just completing a new sixth form centre for 16 to 18 year olds. When we consulted, only a few discussed this exciting new education opportunity for their community’s young people, the biggest issue by far was car parking!

In my view, accountability adds to the effectiveness of institutions, it does not diminish it.

So there is a need to overcome this dissassociation, possible cynicism. A need to convince people that they really do have say. Citizen engagement, as an element of effective governance, now encourages policy makers to consult and to put forward proposals that the local community have participated in developing and implementing. For our UNCEPA meeting last April, Professor Meredith Edwards researched a paper looking across all aspects of Trust11, I am not going to cover it in full here but you can find it on our website. Some of her observations are what anyone might expect to see if asked what contributes to building trust – keeping a promise and behaving predictably for example. Simple to say but seemingly difficult to put into practice. We also discussed how changing expectations may influence levels of satisfaction – as basic requirements are met, expectations rise and should these new expectations not be met it, generates dissatisfaction.

The transition to Sustainable Development Goals is going to make this all the more important, as I mentioned earlier, the goals are based on achieving local engagement around priorities that are cross cutting by nature. This means that expertise will be needed at a local level, including the ability to explore matters from a range of perspectives. It also means, and this is perhaps more difficult to achieve; national administrations will need to take account of the evidence coming from local levels.

This leads me to now to comment on the second element, Accountable Institutions. When I first joined the civil service there was huge reluctance to propose a Freedom of Information Bill and the UK was actually quite slow in adopting one. One might critique whether it has generated some problems but it is very hard to imagine not having such an Act now. Yet there are still countries where access to information is really difficult if not impossible, there is little transparency and citizens cannot possibly genuinely participate in democracy if they are not informed. Simply dumping figures on to web sites or taking out advertorials in the local newspaper is not usually enough. Information has to be given in a way that is understandable and meaningful to the reader. Why would you not want to do this? Perhaps because you don’t trust the citizen or are fearful about how it might be used. Similarly 15 or so years ago we would have been reluctant to publish specific targets in case they weren’t met and explanations had to be given. While I have always believed some matters to be confidential especially as they relate to individuals and some to be secret as they relate to national security. When it comes to the generality of public administration I do think that one should assume that what you say or write might one day appear in the public domain and to act accordingly. The internet has made data and information widely available, what I learned in College about information being power has an altogether different meaning these days. It is a power that has moved from being the property of an elite few to being distributed across the generations and across the globe. Civil Society organisations have played a vital role in persistently requesting information from government, sometimes at personal risk to the people involved. They can raise awareness, inform people of their rights and bring the world’s media to the door. There is a separate discussion to be had about the extent to which some Civil Society organisations are accountable to the people they represent. Many are essentially single issue organisations with in depth knowledge in their field but when it comes to policy development their interests are competing with other interests. They are an essential part of the policy process but not the whole the story. Nevertheless I want to salute those who persist in seeking basic information to which every citizen should be entitled and to say that denying information is my view short sighted. Working in Africa in a country which had just adopted a new Constitution I saw the value of the rights and protection it gave and, the value of civil society organisations who work for the benefit of the people. The Constitution required new ‘clean’ top level appointments to made in the Judiciary. The President at the time appeared to unilaterally declare appointments which many believed were his supporters. The resulting political row threatened to break up the then coalition government. In amongst this and while Parliament was considering how to proceed I was asked by some for advice. Having been there a while and looked closely at the Constitution it seemed to me (though I am no lawyer) that the action was contrary to the provi-

10 Report of the 12th Session of the Committee of Experts on Public Administration (E/2013/44 - E/C.16/2013/6) http://workspace.unpan.org/sites/Internet/Documents/English2013.pdf 11 The trust deficit - concepts and causes of low public trust in governments (E/C.16/2015/CRP.3/Rev.1) http://www.unpan.org/DPADM/CEPA/14thSession/tabid/1778/language/en-US/Default.aspx

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2015 International Congress of IIAS - Rio de Janeiro - June 2015

Policy development has become more challenging as issues have become more complex, perhaps because for example, they are global or intrinsically difficult to resolve. Government Ministries must work together to deal with both national and international issues such as migration, health and environmental change. Policy integration was one of the issues we looked at in April, not only is the integration difficult but many countries are still working on achieving a robust approach to policy development that is evidence based and has involved appropriate consultation with citizens – whether they be the general public, academics, business or civil society. Unfortunately there are still too many occasions when problem solving is hampered by Ministries not talking to each other or worse still pulling against each other.

To bring these two themes together, I am proposing both that the nature of the relationship is changing and, that the content of the dialogue is changing. Deference has been replaced with challenge and that challenge may be hidden if you don’t look in the right places, or worse still, deliberately disguised, even if you do. Assertion is no longer accepted – evidence is required, and peer approval. As a response to this I can understand that at times the public servant could be forgiven for thinking that people’s expectations are too high, their demands too great. Only the other day a senior politician said to me that the trouble is ‘people want all these things but they don’t want to pay the taxes that would pay for them’. But I think the point I am making is not that people want all their demands met, rather that they wish to be consulted on an informed basis about the options available, including the costs. And by costs I don’t just mean in monetary terms, for example people might choose saving the environment over the benefits a new road would bring. Perhaps the way forward is to share more information about costs and choices and impacts and to have a more open debate. Some years ago, as part of work of the Delivery Unit as I recall, we asked senior civil servants about a number of policy issues and with electronic voting, recorded their choices, they were then given more data and asked again, their priorities changed, and their responses mirrored those of the general public, who had been polled along similar lines. Many times of course, the collision of expectation with the drive for efficiencies can lead to innovative solutions. That is, where creativity is encouraged in institutions and failure is seen as simply a step on the way to success. Such an approach requires a sense of shared enterprise in striving to achieve a better outcome for all and in the public sector implies a degree of trust between the Minister and the public servant and between public servants. I recall a former Minister, a well-known public figure who had come to politics after a successful career in drama. She had agreed to come and meet with senior civil servants on a leadership programme I was running – just to have a free conversation about working together, Ministers and Civil Servants. Someone asked her the inevitable question ‘What do you want from us civil servants. Her reply, which I can’t repeat fully here was along the lines of ‘If you think I am about ***mess up, please tell me before I *** mess up, don’t wait until I have messed up and then tell me afterwards that I have *** messed up! Which brings me to CEPAs third strand - ethical leadership. As I have just mentioned I don’t believe it is right to rail against the behaviour and expectations of the public, it feels rather like blaming the victim. In my view people who have taken public office whether as a politician or as public servant are the ones with responsibility12. Broadly speaking the Legislators are responsible for the policy decisions and the public servants for the implementation though I recognise the lines can be blurred. So it is down to those of us in the public service to own that responsibility and to say, if this relationship and this dialogue is not working as well as it should, what can we do about it? At CEPA one of the working groups focused on the issue of Ethical leadership and set out some expectations of leaders in relation to their behaviour. Many of my colleagues remain concerned that not enough attention is paid to what they perceive to be a decline in ethical leadership. And a couple of weeks ago The Governor of the Bank of England used the expression Ethical Drift, he was referring to the financial sector but it is a thought provoking phrase. 12 The 7 Principles of Public Life https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/the-7-principles-of-public-life/the-7-principles-of-public-life--2

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I was influenced profoundly many years ago by a session on a leadership programme I was responsible for13, where the speaker began with a question to the senior civil servants ‘By what right do you presume to lead14’ the flippant and one might say defensive ones, tended to respond with ‘because I have been promoted’, for the majority though, it prompted a deeply reflective discussion about the nature of ethical behaviour and what it means to have integrity. As we discussed these issues on programme after programme I gained an understanding that leadership is not about being the ‘boss’ or ‘in charge’ it is often about seeking a mutually developed way forward, a partnership. When colleagues care about what they are doing they feel a sense of ownership and want to work together at a values level in order to achieve the right results. Charles Handy15 talked about this a few years ago in his book The Empty Raincoat and more recently has said that he thinks that Institutions are losing their ability to operate at a values level – I am sure there are exceptions but it does seem to me that the dialogue is increasingly about efficiencies and rules rather than about humanity and responding to need. Ethical leadership is about obeying the rules, of course it is, and standards of public life are justifiably high, but I think there is more to Ethical leadership than abiding by the rules, there’s the quality of honesty even when the news is not good, there’s the ability to compromise, to step back from one’s own desires when there is a risk of people being harmed and I do include here physical danger. I have been privileged to work with leaders who have put the people first, who have been willing to step back from their own reasonable ambitions in order to preserve public safety. On the flip side I also think there is something unethical about scapegoating others and the narrative of public criticism of civil servants that is running in some countries at the moment. About 6 years ago at a CEPA meeting we were discussing corruption and somebody said something like, well the civil servants should just not do it. The comment was made just as it was my turn to speak and thinking of the many civil servants I knew who earned a tiny fraction of their boss’s salaries, who were spied on and bullied, It prompted me to say, “when it is made clear to you that your livelihood, maybe your life, depends on your compliance, that is a very big ask”. My comment seemed to strike a chord with people and in the break someone gave me their personal example of how his life and that of his family had been threatened. Why do we seek to punish those who are trapped in this situation rather than go after those who orchestrate and perpetuate it? Not to do with corruption, but at our most recent meeting we discussed the issue of politicians finding it convenient to blame public servants in the media, something that rarely happened in the UK until the last few years. What does that do to trust, either in regard to the sector itself or how it is seen by the public? Does this constitute ethical leadership? and what impression does it create amongst the general public? On the other hand I do appreciate that Ministers are asked to put a good deal of faith in their civil servants, they commit to major projects and don’t get to choose staff or resources. Professor Gillian Stamp16 was one of a number of academics and practitioners who were Fellows of the Sunningdale Institute and she addressed this in relation to devolved administration in Scotland. The Institute was an initiative17 which brought closer ideas and innovation from the private and research sectors with the development of government policy – another dimension of the benefits of building relationships. Very early in my career I was present at a staff meeting in Cabinet Office when a major reorganisation was announced. The number two in the office was asked whether he could be believed about the promised benefits of the reorganisations, he responded, ‘Watch my feet, not my lips and in 2 years time you will know whether I can be trusted’. In short, it is our actions and behaviours that enable trust so if we are genuine about participative democracy, we need to change our behaviour, in response to changing circumstances, and I am not sure we are doing that extensively or rapidly enough. You will have gathered that CEPA identified deficits in Relationships, in Accountable Institutions and in Ethical leadership but what more is there to say on the subject? Many if not most, of the remedies are known. It is not a question of knowing, but of doing. I have illustrated the three aspects with my own comments and observations. Our resolution which is not yet adopted18 broadly speaking, advises member states to act on what’s already known, to draw on all that has been written and said because to act, is less of a risk than not to act. But what is on the horizon? My title uses an active verb, ‘evolving’. Well I can’t foretell the future nor do I have a grand solution to the problems I have set out. But I have a few observations - that may not be enough for those of you who are academics - but you can try them out and test them. My first is that if we don’t change the way we approach relationships with the citizen in particular, the scope is there for government to simply be bypassed and ignored. The use of social media is rising rapidly, with more than half the population 13 Leadership and Social Transformation in the Public Sector: Moving from Challenges to Solutions http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/un/unpan013665.pdf 14 http://www.chriskeeble.co.uk/ 15 The Empty Raincoat (1994) – ISBN 0-09-930125-3, USA printing under title The Age of Paradox (1994) – ISBN 0-87584-425-1 and The Second Curve (2015) ISBN 1-8479-4133-8 16 http://www.bioss.com/gillian-stamp/ 17 http://www.lgcplus.com/national-school-of-government-names-fellows-of-the-sunningdale-institute/516135.article 18 Resolution adopted by the Economic and Social Council on the Report of the 14th Session of the Committee of Experts on Public Administration (E/ RES/2015/28)

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using multiple social media accounts, levels of trust in peer assessments are exceptionally high and there are many examples of social media being used to facilitate community action. There were riots in London a few years ago – spread by social media but so also was the clean-up and restoration work, not initiated by any public servant but by members of the community. Crowd funding is growing and often used to support what might be considered to be public enterprises – if public administration is too slow to act it is simply ignored. We have schools, colleges and community enterprises being set up in a parallel world to public administration. Sometimes people have a negative view of their local public administration because they are unaware of what their local administrations actually do for them, that is they are unaware how their taxes are used. If it is not on Facebook or Twitter it doesn’t exist! They may rate their local authority badly while rating the library or swimming pool highly – not realising they are all part of the local authority. Some public organisations have begun to map their online communities and to engage them in dialogue over local issues19. This has increased awareness of how public money is spent and also helped decision makers to target policies more effectively. As a judge of innovation awards in the public sector last year several entries were about just such involvement of citizens through social media – generally much more widespread in Asia than in Europe. Interestingly, although the community being engaged with is online – face to face events are held to discuss proposals. I think we need to engage with social media, work on the challenges of disaggregating privacy issues from security issues. From personal data issues and create a space for consultation and problem solving20. We also need to address the dialogue itself, to learn how to communicate effectively in this new environment. So my next observation is that to earn trust you have to demonstrate trust. Engagement has to be genuine with a real openness to be influenced by the outcome. There’s an old saying about knowing the cost of everything but the value of nothing. Has the message become too focused on the economic details? on the mechanisms? and lost sight of the relationship? People want what works, not necessarily the cheapest. A few years ago I used to be responsible for a leadership programme which became known as the Cabinet Secretary ‘s programme. It was at the time of what we called our modernisation programme. The Cabinet Secretary would come to Sunningdale on the last day to hear recommendations for change and then he would meet us again 6 months later to tell us what he had done to implement those changes – something of an interesting role reversal. One particular group spent a lot of time discussing the need to improve relationships between civil servants and Ministers. They thought there was a problem with Trust. Those Friday sessions were meant to be creative and fun with a serious purpose so when the Cabinet Secretary arrived, he was asked if he would mind doing something of a role play and being blindfolded. He agreed straight away. It so happened that in the group was someone who was blind and he had his guide dog with him – if you are not familiar with this type of support, basically the person holds the harness of the dog who then sees them safely along and across roads for example. So he took the harness of the dog and was asked to just walk across the room with the dog. He tried stepping forward with a friendly, ‘let’s go’, nothing, then he tried patting the dog and saying ‘come on boy’, after a few more good natured attempts to get the dog to move he admitted defeat, probably wondering if there was secret command they hadn’t told him about. There wasn’t, the point they wanted to make is that the guide dog and the blind person spend weeks getting to know each other, they do things together and yes, learn to trust each other. No way was that dog going to move for a stranger, whatever command was given, and, if the Cabinet Secretary really had been blind, no way should he have followed a dog he didn’t know! I hope my purpose in recounting the incident is clear, we have somehow to reach that shared understanding using the means available to us as public administrators and as human beings. I want to bring these strands together by saying that yes, I do believe that achieving effective governance is major element of what we need to do to build trust. But the challenge is not in writing more definitions and rules, it is in negotiating and agreeing how we can use use the new possibilities given to us by technology, to build a different relationship with citizens, one that is appropriate for the current age. And, to appreciate that while we may have to learn to express clear messages in a limited number of characters, the communication must be genuine. There are examples of innovation, of combining social media and face to face but we need to do more and quickly. Superficial attempts to use social media will be found out.

19 http://www.wired-gov.net/wg/wg-images-1.nsf/img/DNWA-8V7FBY/$file/DWPub_Public_Relations_Whitepaper14_Social_media_in_the_public_sector.pdf 20 M ickoleit, A. (2014), «Social Media Use by Governments: A Policy Primer to Discuss Trends, Identify Policy Opportunities and Guide Decision Makers», OECD Working Papers on Public Governance, No. 26, OECD Publishing, Paris. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5jxrcmghmk0s-en

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My values continue to drive me to say that it is up to public administrators to reach out and to try to see the world from different perspectives than their own. Some of you are academics, some practitioners, some may move from one field to the other, wherever you are I hope you will play your part. If public administrators can’t get this right then they leave that space open to troublemakers. Having said all this about the need to address issues of Trust, and meaning it, I do want to make one comment about expectations. I don’t think there is a world out there where there is complete trust in government and frankly I wouldn’t want it. I think we may be in danger of overloading the word. If I asked you now to think of the people in your life that you really trust – I don’t need to know, just think to yourselves, how many are there, who are they? And why do you trust them? Did you think of your government, probably not. So if I now ask you if you trust your government? How does your internal response compare with the earlier one? Am I really asking you the same question in each case? Yes, we need to improve trust but we are not looking for a fairy tale ending, we need the right amount of trust, sufficient trust, to meet our needs, society’s needs. I want to close by mentioning a story that won in a children’s writing competition recently, You will find the full text if you search for It’s a Wide World by Amabel Smith21 (Age 10) A young boy has hacked into a government network, on his computer screen he can see a girl out running on one of the cctv monitoring cameras, running is not allowed, the government is controlling people by keeping them fat and unfit - he wrestles with his conscience, should he report her, but then he would be found out? I quote, His mind repeated the words he sees every morning when he logs-on to school: ‘The Government looks after you. Trust the Government.’ His conscience fought with his instincts. He’d trusted the government but now they seemed to have become evil. What does he do? Well, I won’t tell you the ending and spoil it. It struck me as such a coincidence that I read this story at the same time as I was writing this talk for you. This is a 10 year old, writing, from her perspective, about trust and government. To conclude, If we believe we need to recapture trust, we need to start behaving as if it matters, and call it out when we see unethical behaviour or misuse of trust. This means raising awareness of how public administration could and should, be for citizens, and it means supporting public administrators in strengthening the foundations of trust through meaningful engagement with Citizens as part of good governance. I hope you have found my perspective, my attempt to make a link between between experience and public administration concepts, helpful. And that it will inform your debate here in Rio, But please, do also turn debate into action; effective public administration is critical to our way forward.

Intercontinental Administrative Forum

Forum administratif intercontinental

21 http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/articles/1nPFm8v8sQGM2l7N4JNTfsM/its-a-wide-world-gold-winner

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The Forum was organized around the dynamics of citizens’ trust in public policies and their implementation by governments and on the policies to maintain/strengthen the trust of citizens in their governments. Indeed, the loss of trust in governments and their administrations has led us to question the essential issue of trust or the interest the citizens /users have in the capacity of governments to implement effective public policies to address their needs and societal issues. The alarming distrust has also led governments to revisit policies to increase the level of trust that institutions / governments benefit from the public. Transparency, communication tools, new modes of participatory decision-making process and public policies design and implementation, consultation with citizens and users, use of social media, governments have implemented a variety of tools aimed at halting the decline of trust: the legal framework to increase the participation, measures reinforcing the implication of the citizens, strategy and policies to strengthen the trust have been multiplied with a diverse degree of success in different political, democratic and cultural contexts.

Le forum a été organisé autour de la dynamique de la confiance des citoyens dans les politiques publiques et leur mise en œuvre par les administrations et celle des politiques visant à maintenir/renforcer la confiance des citoyens dans leurs administrations. En effet, la diminution de la confiance dans les gouvernements et leurs administrations nous a amenés à nous interroger sur la question essentielle de la confiance voire l’intérêt porté par les citoyens/usagers dans la capacité des gouvernements à mener des politiques efficaces répondant à leurs besoins et aux enjeux sociétaux. La méfiance alarmante a également conduit les gouvernements à revisiter les politiques visant à accroître le niveau de confiance dont les institutions/les administrations bénéficient de la part du public. Transparence, communication, nouveaux modes participatifs de décision des politiques publiques et de production des services publics, consultation des citoyens et des usagers, usage des medias sociaux, les gouvernements ont mis en place une panoplie d’outils visant à enrayer le déclin de la confiance, du cadre légal aux mesures de participation renforcée, la stratégie et les politiques de renforcement de la confiance se sont multipliées avec un degré de succès varié dans des contextes politiques, démocratiques et culturels diversifiés.

Policy Platforms

Plateformes politiques

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The platforms are intended as a bridge between the scientific and the practitioner points of view; between supply and demand of academic knowledge on public administration.

Three platforms were organized on the following issues:

REFORMING THE ADMINISTRATION TO STRENGTHEN CITIZENS’ TRUST: Public administration reforms, aimed at improving the delivery of public services to citizens, contribute to the legitimacy of leaders. The platform provided an overview of national experiences where the public administration reforms fulfill this function.

TRUST ECONOMIC ACTORS? The Great Recession is an opportunity to re-explore the classical theme of the role of the state in economic organization: should we trust and refrain from intervening, or otherwise regulate and invest?

TRUST OF THE PUBLIC SECTOR ITSELF Debates about how to extract some countries underdevelopment remain lively and the policy seems to result in large measure of faith possessed by certain institutions in one or another model of development. The platform is designed to examine theories of development in which development actors trust, and the evolution of trust.

Les plateformes sont conçues comme un « lien » entre le point de vue scientifique et le point de vue pratique, entre l’offre et la demande de connaissances académiques sur l’administration publique.

Trois plateformes étaient organisées sur les thèmes suivants :

RÉFORMER L’ADMINISTRATION POUR RENFORCER LA CONFIANCE DES CITOYENS Les réformes d’administration publique, en visant à améliorer la prestation de services publics aux citoyens, contribuent à la légitimité des dirigeants. La plateforme fournit un aperçu d’expériences nationales où les réformes d’administration publique remplissent cette fonction.

Reports on the IIAS Permanent Study Groups

FAIRE CONFIANCE AUX ACTEURS ÉCONOMIQUES ? La Grande Récession donne l’occasion de réexplorer le thème classique du rôle de l’Etat dans l’organisation économique : doit-il faire confiance et s’abstenir d’intervenir, ou au contraire réguler et investir ?

LA CONFIANCE DANS LES DOCTRINES DU DÉVELOPPEMENT Les débats relatifs à la façon d’extraire certains pays du sous-développement restent animés et la politique suivie semble résulter dans une large mesure de la foi qu’ont certaines institutions dans l’un ou l’autre modèle de développement. La plateforme vise à examiner les théories du développement dans lesquelles les acteurs du développement ont confiance, et l’évolution de cette confiance.

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Available only in the language of the presentation / Disponible uniquement dans la langue de présentation

IIAS Permanent Study Group IX on Civil Service and Politics By Dr. Caspar F. van den Berg, Associate Professor of International Governance, Leiden University, The Netherlands Executive governments are faced with increasing societal and political pressures. Such pressures may derive from, amongst other factors, increased electoral volatility and polarization, changes in mass media and communications, increased freedom of information and government transparency, and the internationalization of policy challenges. Presidents, prime-ministers and cabinets have found and indeed used different responses to such pressures, many of which include either attempts to delegate responsibility outward (such as privatization, agencification, decentralization, Europeanization), and/or attempts to increase grip on their sphere of responsibility (such as performance management, audits, politicization, increased media management). Each of these responses may have substantial consequences for the interaction between politicians in government and their civil servants, and for the positioning of civil servants vis-à-vis their political superiors. During the Rio conference, the study group addressed the following themes:

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The Senior Civil Service: Maintaining Quality in a Turbulent Environment

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Civil Service Politicization

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External Policy Advice and the Civil Service

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Representation, Trust and Bureaucracy

From Monday June 22 through Wednesday June 24, one practice-oriented panel took place and 8 papers were presented and discussed. The practice-oriented panel’s theme was “The Senior Civil Service: Maintaining Quality in a Turbulent Environment”. The panelists were Mr. Paul Fietz, Head of the Central Staff at the German Federal Ministry of Home Affairs (BMI) and Chair of the Council of the German Federal Academy of Public Administration; Prof.dr. Frits van der Meer, CAOP professor in Comparative public sector and civil service reform and working at the Leiden University Institute of Public Administration; and Prof.dr. Gavin Drewry, Emeritus Professor at the Royal Holloway University of London Department of Politics and International Relations. Mr. Fietz and prof. Drewry gave their accounts of present developments in the senior civil service in Germany and the UK respectively, and prof. Van der Meer approached the challenges and issues from a broad comparative perspective. The remainder of the panel sessions were used to present and discuss the academic papers. Below you find the summaries of the papers that were presented.

Paper 1: Internal Advisory Systems in Different Political-Administrative Regimes Exploring the Fit of Configuration, Administration and Composition of Internal Advisory Systems in France, Germany, Sweden, The Netherlands and The United Kingdom by Daphne Bressers, Martin Schulz, Martijn van der Steen and Mark van Twist, The Netherlands School of Public Administration. Every country has an internal advisory system that fits the specific country’s needs. Internal advisory systems therefore differ not only to the content of their advice, but also to the institutional setup of the system itself. In this paper we present and discuss an intensive desk study in which we explore the fit of institutional elements of internal advisory systems of France, Germany, The Netherlands, Sweden and the United Kingdom with the political-administrative regimes in which these internal systems are setup in. Based on empirical findings and existing academic literature (e.g. Halligan, 1995; Craft & Howlett, 1995; Fleischer, 2012) we identified institutional elements of advisory systems setups that show differences between these systems: configuration, administration and composition. In this paper we discuss that each country’s internal advisory system fits into the specific administrative-advisory system. We also find that though the institutional setup of the internal system is different the underlying issues dealt with are the same. One is the attempt by governments to regulate internal advisory systems while at the same time emphasizing the independence of the advisory bodies within that internal system. The other is the apparent necessity to incorporate facts and knowledge into the decision making process while at the same time incorporating value and opinions strengthening the legitimacy of the policy. Different countries cope with these struggles differently resulting in different setups of internal administrative regimes.

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Paper 2: Technical Advice or Political Recommendation: Re-Examining the Role of “Councils” in Japanese Government Decision-Making by Hiroko Kudo, Bocconi University. “Shingikai” or “policy council” has been powerful instrument of Japanese government since Eighties, although the form was introduced with the 1948 National Public Administration Organizational Law. Ministries can institute a panel of experts from academia, business, and social sector, or representatives of various interests to discuss policies, strategies, or design of laws. Its impact is significant in terms of policy-making as well as enactment and/or amendment of laws and orders. The government has widely reviewed its institutional settings, role and function in 2001, along with the reorganisation of Ministries and Agencies, but also because of long-lasting critics that these institutions are not neutral but politically biased. The paper analyses cases of these councils through: missions; institutional design; background and competencies of the components; relationship among the Minister, the secretariat and the council members; and their overall impact on policy- and law-making to understand the real role of these entities.

Paper 3: External Policy Advice in The Netherlands: Searching for Substance? by Caspar van den Berg, Leiden University The literature on policy advisory systems has experienced a revival in recent years but its empirical focus has mainly been directed to the group of Anglophone countries (Craft and Halligan 2015). This paper applies the policy advisory systems approach to The Netherlands, as an example of a broader group of consensus-driven, neo-corporatist policy making systems (Lijphart 1999). Using a historical-institutionalist perspective, it diachronically examines the dynamics of the Dutch policy advisory system from the mid-1960s to the present day. Based on original cross-time survey data and analysis of secondary sources, it examines the impact of depillarization (mid-1960s – mid1990s), new public management (mid-1980s onwards) and the increased pressure on the executive on the advisory policy system (late 1990s onwards). It finds fragmentation, externalization, and a non-partisan brand of politicization, in which the use of the institutionalized system of permanent advisory councils has lost part of its significance in favour of both external consultants and of ad-hoc advisory committees. It concludes that for the Dutch case, its accumulative institutional design based on Weberianism, neo-corporatism and new public management elements, account for a marked different dynamic than has been documented for the Anglophone group of countries.

Paper 4: Values in Civil Service Training and Education, Toon Kerkhoff, Leiden University. In Europe and elsewhere, we find debate on the values associated with a competent and legitimate civil service. At stake is which values are – or should be – associated with ‘good’ civil servants in the light of changes and challenges of recent times, such as increased citizen participation, politicization or multi-level governance. What seems to be needed are renewed or reemphasized ethical foundations for the civil service of the 21st century. To clarify and further this debate I aim to investigate the values associated with the ‘good’ civil servant in past and present. To do so, I aim to focus on the manifestation of values in civil service training and education programs over time in various national European contexts. With a comparative historical design I aim to look at training and education for national civil servants in the Netherlands, England, France and Germany since the early 19th century to assess change, continuity, differences and similarities regarding the notion of the ‘good’ civil servant. In this working paper for IIAS, I outline the main elements of this proposed research.

Paper 5: Decentralization of Basic Education in Egypt: A Political Decision with Potential, by Laila El-Baradei, American University, Cairo. The quality of basic education in Egypt is suffering. Despite repeated reform efforts, there are very serious embedded shortcomings, including a high degree of centralization. Starting the early 2000s, the Government of Egypt, due to a myriad of pressures mainly from international development agencies, decided to proceed with decentralizing public basic education. Although the decision was mostly political and incentivized by the in-pouring of donors’ assistance, the study perceives that decentralization may have promising results on the long run. Through a meta-analysis of empirical studies dealing with international experiences of education decentralization, and through a stakeholders’ analysis of main influential parties to the decentralization decision in Egypt, the study makes a case for decentralization of basic education in Egypt and identifies a number of prerequisites for effective implementation including: capacity building for administrators, teachers’ training, orientation to parents, genuine authority to school boards and continued government support to disadvantaged communities.

Paper 6: MLG and the Enabling State in the Netherlands: Implications for Political- Administrative and Societal Relations at the Local Level, by Frits van der Meer and Gerrit Dijkstra, Leiden University Relations between political officials and civil servants have been at the core of the field of public administration from the start. 1 Defending or attacking (as has become more usual) the political –administration dichotomy has been on the founding stone of this field. Interesting enough the discussions of this relationship between two groups of vital actors have been dealt with rather separately from the connection to citizens as a group of vital actors in the public domain. This paper will examine the implications of the rise of the enabling state in connection with the changing MLG system in the Netherlands for the role and position of political officeholders and civil servants concentrating on the local level. That emphasis on the local level is to be explained by an increasing emphasis on local public service delivery to citizens as the core in the depillarized MLG system.

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Secondly from an academic point of view attention for these relationships on the local level has been rather limited. This limited attention relates both to more traditional relationship between local political officeholders and civil servants as with respect the triangular relationship. Core questions thus are: what are the implications for the first kind relations and the triangular relations vis-a-vis the citizens? Concentrating on the Netherlands we also make some outsteps to surrounding countries in order to put the Dutch situation in perspective. This paper has to be seen as preliminary inquiry and as the starting point for further empirical research given the knowledge gap mentioned above.

Paper 7: Government Control on Socio-Economic Advisory Councils: How Governments Control Socio-Economic Advisory Councils through Design Choices in Institutional Setup in France, Ireland, The Netherlands and Spain, by Daphne Bressers, Martin Schulz, Martijn van der Steen and Mark van Twist, The Netherlands School of Public Administration The increasing complexity of the policy environment increases the demand for policy advice. Government is confronted with policy issues that have no clear cut solutions and require knowledge from multiple disciplines. The advisory system providing advice to government has consequently expended , with advice originating from both within the bureaucratic system and beyond (Halligan, 1995). In this paper we build on Halligan (1995) to further conceptualize the aspect of ‘government control’ in advisory systems. We answer the following question: how do institutional design options influence the degree of government control on socio-economic councils in the Netherlands, Ireland, France and Spain? In order to answer this question we first identify six institutional design options that influence the degree of government control. Then, we analyze the choices governments in The Netherlands, Ireland, France and Spain made regarding these institutional designs for the socio-economic councils in the respective countries.

Paper 8: Patterns of Politicization in 14 Democracies, by Caspar van den Berg, Leiden University One of the often-cited determinants of state legitimacy and overall government performance is the interface between politicians and bureaucrats, in other words: the balance between (a) political control over the bureaucracy to ensure democratically accountable governance, and (b) the insulation from political intervention in administrative business to ensure quality and effectiveness. While increasing politicization, i.e. the existence of political elements in otherwise apolitical government bureaucracies is often reported as a general trend, our empirical knowledge as to the causes and consequences or this phenomenon is patchy and contradictory. This project answers the question under what circumstances politicization is more likely to occur than others and what impact politicization has on government legitimacy and performance, by investigating four policy sectors in 14 OECD countries in Europe, North America and East Asia. The findings shed empirical light on the sources, incentives and impediments of civil service politicization, and its harm or benefits to ‘good governance’. This knowledge fills an important gap in the body of knowledge of Public Administration and Political Science, and will provide the policy community with betterinformed avenues to respond to decreasing trust in government and decreasing policy effectiveness.

IIAS Permanent Study Group XVIII on Financial and Fiscal Public Administration By Ringa Raudla, Senior research fellow Tallinn University of Technology The Study Group XVIII on Financial and Fiscal Public Administration organized 2 sessions during the IIAS annual conference in Rio de Janeiro (on June 23rd 2015). One of the sessions was dedicated to the topic of how crises (fiscal, financial, economic) have influenced financial and fiscal public administrations. Altogether, 5 different papers were presented in that session, covering European countries, South Korea, South Africa, and India. The second session of the study group included 4 papers on miscellaneous topics that are of interest for the academics and practitioners in fiscal and financial administration, including tax expenditures, sub-national capital markets, and revenue forecasting. The countries covered in these studies included the United States, Brazil, and China.

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Ringa RAUDLA1, James Douglas2, Tiina Randma-Liiv3, Riin Savi4 1 Tallinn University of Technology, 2University of North Carolina at Charlotte, 3Tallinn University of Technology, 4 Tallinn University of Technology The Impact of Fiscal Crisis on the Importance of Performance Information in the Decision-Making Processes of European Governments The Great Recession resulted in fiscal crises for governments across the Western world. Significant cuts in government programs were initiated as many governments scrambled to reduce their growing budget deficits. Previous economic downturns have shown us that increased centralization in budgetary decision making is often used in order to maintain control over aggregate spending. This raises the question of what type of information is used by decision makers to justify their spending decisions. The evidence from the previous era of cutbacks (the 1970s/the 1980s) is mixed: some governments instituted more rational decision making processes, while others discarded this strategy as unrealistic given the time and resource constraints imposed by fiscal crises as well as political realities. We are interested in how the governments have reacted during the most recent crisis. In particular, we are interested in whether, as a result of the crisis, the relevance of performance information in organizational decision-making increased. Furthermore, we are interested in how other shifts in governmental decision-making processes - centralization of decision-making, increased involvement of politicians, and increased power of the Ministries of Finance – influenced the shifts in the relevance of performance information for the public sector organizations. The theoretical part of the paper outlines the predictions about the impacts of fiscal crisis on the role of performance information in public sector decision-making and how shifts in other decision-making processes are likely to mediate that impact. In the empirical part of the paper, we use the survey of 6701 senior government officials in 17 European countries, undertaken within the framework of COCOPS project to. We find that, in line with the predictions of the principal-agent models, the increase in the relevance of performance information in organizational decision-making was positively associated with increased centralization, increased power of the Ministry of Finance and increased involvement of elected officials in organizational decision-making.

Bong Hwan KIM1, Sungman Jun2 1 Seoul National University, 2Seoul National University Different Financial Crises and Different Financial and Fiscal Policies: 1998 Asian Financial Crisis and 2008 Global Financial Crisis in Korea This paper examines how different financial regulatory schemes have been implemented during two financial crises in Korea and what was the impact of those policies. Korea tried to restructure financial market by fostering market-friendly policy during the crisis in 1998, while it tried to isolate domestic financial market from the influence of financial crisis started in U.S. in 2008 by consolidating regulation system and shuffling corporate governance structures in financial institutions. The paper will examine whether public policies should be different depending on the types of crisis and what the common feature of public policy should be across different crises.

CD OLIVIER1 1 Central University of Technology, Free State “Mechanisms to build public confidence in public administration: Are these mechanisms effective? A South African perspective” Abstract Voters vote a particular political party into power in the belief that that political party, when becoming the government of the day, will improve their living conditions and that the government will add value to the taxes that they pay. Living conditions in this context could mean reliable security services, improved health services, maintenance and development of new infrastructure, good education and economic development. It is therefore a relationship of trust between the citizens of a country and the government. The government could, however, only develop, implement and maintain its policies if there is an effective and efficient administration in place to realize this. There are various “categories” of trust or confidence that could be breached by a government that could be discussed such as human rights violations, preventing access to information, covering up of certain actions and many more. This presentation will, however, focus on the trust (or not) we put in government, and the public administration they oversee, to spend our taxes effectively and efficiently in order to improve the living standards of the public in general. To develop, implement and maintain policies, a budget is required based on the estimated revenue

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received from personal income tax, value added tax, company tax and various other lesser sources of income, received directly or indirectly from the citizens, and balanced with the estimated expenditure. It is in this context that the citizens of a country entrust their contributions to the government of the day in the belief that it will be spent effectively and efficiently to the advantage of all citizens. Unfortunately, in practice, this is not the case. In a survey done by ICAEW-PwC of 10 000 citizens in 10 European countries, it was shown that only one in five Europeans have trust in their government’s ability to manage public funds (http://www.finance-monthly.com/2014/12/europeans-dont-trust-governments-to-manage-public-funds/) [accessed on 27 December 2014]. Regularly information becomes available, most of the time reported by the media, which exposed unauthorized expenditure, fruitless and wasteful expenditure and irregular expenditure. There are various mechanisms to ensure good financial management and administration, and these mechanisms are found in similar or different formats all over the world. The effectiveness and independency of these mechanisms will depend on how free they are from political influence. Usually these mechanisms found their origin in the constitution of the country, and therefore also referred to as constitutional institutions. In addition to these constitutional institutions there are also the general responsibilities of an accounting officer, in terms of financial legislation, to ensure effective and efficient internal control measures, risk management and budget control. In this regard performance agreements and measurement (of political office-bearers and senior officials) play an important role in order to measure, monitor and evaluate the effective and efficient management of public resources, and the provisioning of services to the populace. In the case of South Africa there are two important constitutional institutions to guard (or “strengthen constitutional democracy” as stated in the Constitution) over the interest of the public and to provide some assurance (we cannot say “to ensure”), to the public that their contributions to the fiscus will be spent wisely and in the public interest. These two institutions are: • The Public Protector, and • The Auditor-General South Africa (AGSA). The Public Protector was established in terms of section 181(a) of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 (the Constitution) and the AGSA in terms of section 188 of the Constitution. Additional powers of the Public Protector and the AGSA are prescribed by the Public Protector Act, 1994 (Act 23 of 1994) (as amended) and the Public Audit Act, 2004 (Act 25 of 2004), respectively. The mandate of the Public Protector is to “…to strengthen constitutional democracy by investigating and redressing improper and prejudicial conduct, maladministration and abuse of power in state affairs…”, and discharging other responsibilities as mandated by legislation such as the Public Finance Management Act, 1999 (Act 1 of 1999) (http://www.pprotect.org/contact_us/ national_office.asp) [accessed on 28 December 2014]. The “Reputation Promise” of the AGSA is that “…it has a constitutional mandate and, as the supreme audit institution (SAI) of South Africa, it exists to strengthen our country’s democracy by enabling oversight, accountability and governance in the public sector through auditing, thereby building public confidence” (http:// www.agsa.co.za/) [accessed on 28 December 2014]. In the case of both these institutions statements such as “investigating… “maladministration and abuse of power in state affairs” and the “building of public confidence” draws attention to the topic of “trust” in a government by its citizens. It is against this background that the presentation will address aspects of trust or confidence in government by its citizens, and to answer the question if institutions such as the Public Protector or the Auditor-General could indeed address financial maladministration and build public confidence. This is a question that could be asked in any democracy, and most probably there will not be a decisive answer. The only way in which public confidence in public administration could be restored, or at least improved, is when the findings of institutions such as the Public Protector and the Auditor-General is accepted by government and measures being put in place to prevent further occurrences of such matters, and those responsible being brought to book. Key words: trust; public confidence; public administration; government; constitutional institutions; performance measurement.

Zhengzhong XU1, hongwei du, shucui zhang, jinkun wang 1 Chines Academy of Government Consolidate Economic Governance with Public-private Partnerships in China China’s economy is entering into the “new normal” stage with increasing uncertain factors. Studies into the ways to curb the decline of economic growth and release the economic vitality is therefore significant. Public-private partnership (PPP), which introduces private capital into the sector of providing public products and public services, can reduce the burden of financial capital while give full play to its leveraging function. As a constructive attempt to exert the decisive role of market, PPP provides a potential approach to deal with China’s New Normal situation. Based on combing through definitions and operation procedures of current PPP modes and drawing upon China’s practical conditions, this paper seeks to proposal a PPP mode that fit China’s condition and figure out feasible measures for its implementation.

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Vijay RATTAN1 1 Panjab University Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) and Tax Administration in India: A Legal Analysis The 2014 edition of the United Nations E-Government Survey, conducted to check the progress made after the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS), admitted that information and communication technologies are potent enablers of the effective, transparent and accountable institutions envisaged by world leaders at Rio. Countries in all regions of the world and at all levels of development continue to make significant investments in public sector ICTs for these reasons. Such efforts are vital to achieving broad public participation in decision-making, enhancing access to information and removing barriers to public service—all essential if we are to assure a future of equitable economic growth and sustainable development that are free of poverty and hunger. Undoubtedly, ICTs have also brought tremendous changes in almost every area of governance everywhere. Today, every government as well as private institutions are using these technologies to improve public services including tax administration. Earlier, at the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development held in Rio de Janeiro in June 2012, a global consensus was reached that to achieve our sustainable development goals we need institutions at all levels that are effective, transparent, accountable and democratic. E-governance holds tremendous potential in this regard to improve the way the governments deliver public services and to enhance broad stakeholder involvement in public services management. In India, for example, use of ICTs in tax administration has improved the system a lot as is also admitted by the Tax Administration Reform Commission (TARC) in its 2nd Report submitted in September 2014 that, “With the adoption of ICT(s) by the Indian tax administration, large volumes of data and information are being generated. They provide opportunities to the Central Board of Direct Taxes, (CBDT) and Central board of Excise and Custom (CBEC) to harness them for analysing how to improve tax compliance and ensure better enforcement.” It is important to mention here that in India the National Association of Software and Service Companies (NASSCOM) has played a crucial role in this shift from traditional tax department to online tax department. On the basis of recommendation of NASSCOM, the Ministry of Finance set up an industry forum to discuss the problems arising in using ICTs in Tax Department. Again, on recommendation of NASSCOM, The Foreign Trade Policy addendum announced significant changes in the SEZ policy, taking into account the specific needs of the IT sector. Significantly, the shift from a traditional tax department to an online tax department has increased online assessees and has provided a better, particularly more prompt interaction between the Tax Department and the clientele. Commendably, the newly established system has decreased errors and delays on both the sides to a great extent. The Government to Business (G2B) model of e-governance has provided benefits to both, assesses across the country and the employees within the Tax Department. Now the employees of Tax Department are saved from the drudgery of manual management of files and data whereas assessees are able to spend more time on productive and creative activities like accuracy of reporting, resulting in increase in collection of taxes, etc. Consequently, assesses have easy and hassle-free gateway to interact with the Tax Department. However, sometimes non user-friendly technology and English language used by the Tax Department causes inconvenience to assesses. Therefore, this paper is a humble attempt to make an analysis of impact of ICTs on Tax Administration in India. Methodology It is theoretical study based on the examination of international and national instruments, reports, research articles and Indian Tax Administration. Key Words: ICTs, WSIS, NASSCOM, CBDT etc.

Paul POSNER1, Lehn Benjamin2 1 George Mason University, 2Indiana University- Indianapolis Tax Expenditures and Accountability: The Case of The Ambivalent Principal The past 60 years have marked an unprecedented expansion of the role of government, particularly the federal government, in our nation’s domestic life. Yet, during this same period, the public’s confidence in the capacity of government to deliver on policy goals has eroded. One reason for this may be our increasing reliance on indirect governmental tools—grants, contracts, loan guarantees, tax expenditures, vouchers—to address national policy hopes and aspirations.

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The origins of such indirect strategies are rooted in the public’s conflicted views about the role of government in a nation that values government benefits but fears government bureaucracy. Indirect tools seem to resolve this conflict because government can take action without significantly expanding government operations. Consequently, it is no surprise that indirect instruments of public action such as grants, contracts, tax expenditures, loan guarantees and insurance, comprise over 70 percent of federal outlays, according to Lester Salamon. Yet, indirect tools simultaneously fuel the erosion of public confidence. Indirect tools obscure and even obfuscate the government’s role in addressing public needs. Yet, as Don Kettl has noted, transferring who does the work does not relieve the federal government of responsibility for performance. The broader public often realizes the role of government in these indirect tools only when news headlines, about an overpaid contractor or misdirected grant call attention to government’s failure to keep tabs on a far flung set of nonprofit and for profit firms that it depends on to ensure policy objectives. Government’s response to the public’s declining confidence has been to design these indirect tools to better ensure accountability of third party actors. Nowhere was this more evident than in the 2009 American Recovery and Reinvestment Act. While billions of dollars were pumped into the failing economy, an unprecedented oversight and accountability apparatus was put in place. The new federal website Recovery.gov provided open data on spending of ARRA money by program and congressional district. The Administration also required direct recipients and sub-recipients of ARRA funds to report on the use of these funds and the number of jobs created each quarter. But these same accountability requirements did not apply to tax expenditures. Agencies administering tax provisions and the recipients of the tax benefits were not required to report data to the Recovery Act website. . This was true even though more money was allocated for tax credits and deductions ($290.7b) than through grants, contracts and loans combined ($261.2b) (Recovery.gov) Similarly, the Bush Administration’s high profile PART program (Program Assessment Rating Tool) was intended to assess the performance of each federal program activity, but this accountability framework excluded tax expenditures from its purview as well. More generally most tax expenditures require no prior approval by government officials ror taxpayers to enjoy the benefits. Most tax expenditures are self-certified by the taxpayers themselves, while grants, loans and contracts all require the imprimatur of a federal administrator to authorize funded activities. We wondered why? What was it about this indirect tool of government that set it apart from other frequently used tools like grants and contracts? Was it too difficult to ensure that tax expenditures realized stated policy objectives using existing accountability strategies? Or perhaps tax expenditures required less oversight, as one federal manager suggested, “These are not federal dollars going out the door“. Perhaps normal reporting requirements were not necessary because tax expenditures involved redirecting private resources rather than making a direct payment of public funds? What seemed even more puzzling was that despite the growing use of tax expenditures as a favored tool of government, there seemed to be limited attention to accountability issues with tax expenditures in the public management literature to help us answer these questions. This paper starts to address this gap. The paper assesses the accountability implications of tax expenditures as a tool of public action. We drew on the work of the U.S. Government Accountability Office on tax expenditures, reviewing some 50 reports issued by this Congressional oversight agency over the past 20 years .All told, the GAO work provides a well-researched and supported data base on accountability issues and challenges compiled by the premier accountability institution at the national level. We show how the accountability arsenal used by federal managers is severely constrained when applied to tax expenditures. We surmise that this is the consequence of the ambivalence of the key principals—public, Congress and IRS—about whether tax expenditures in fact represent delegated authority to agents – in this case taxpayers – to achieve national policy objectives or whether they instead constitute a return of partial authority to taxpayers—who are also principals and owners of government—to make choices that align with their own goals. Our findings stand in contrast to the image of the principal assumed in most of the public management literature, where the principal is always eager to ensure agents are accountable regardless of tool or context. Instead our findings lend support to a more recent strand of thinking, which suggests that in the real world of policy, principals are conflicted, indifferent, and do not always want to hold agents accountable. Our paper proceeds as follows. First, we briefly describe the features of the tax expenditure tool and present data showing our growing reliance on this tool. Next we review the benefits and draw backs of using this tool to achieve public objectives. We then turn to accountability. Drawing on our analysis of Government Accountability Office reports and principal agent theory, we consider the applicability of three accountability strategies for tax expenditures: monitoring, risk sharing and socialization. In this discussion we draw on our analysis of government reports to show both the institutional constraints facing the principal,

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specifically the IRS, and the principal’s ambivalence to hold taxpayers accountable to ensure that policy goals are realized. We then consider the implications of tax expenditures for principal agent theories. This article concludes with some consideration of the implications for public administration when principals are ambivalent about their role.

Christine MARTELL1, Salvador Espinosa2, Tima Moldogaziev3 1 University of Colorado Denver, 2San Diego State University, 3University of Georgia A Theory of Subnational Capital Markets This paper develops a theoretical argument for expanding credit markets for subnational governments in a variety of economies. The central tenet applies the theory of information economics to financial transactions, with emphasis on reducing adverse selection and moral hazard problems through well-designed contracts, incentives, and/or financial intermediaries using market-based mechanisms. An important feature examines the role of information economics in the face of constraints imposed by legal, institutional, socio-cultural, political, and economic factors. The applied goal is to advance credit markets in a variety of economies so that subnational governments can access affordable financing for long-term capital investments.

JAIRO ALONSO BAUTISTA1, Natalia Garzón2 1 ESCUELA SUPERIOR DE ADMINISTRACIÓN PÚBLICA, 2Escuela Superior de Administración Pública Transparency of Tax Spending in Colombia: Characteristics and Limitations of the Information Produced by Fiscal Administration in Central Government. Transparency of Tax Spending in Colombia: Characteristics and Limitations of the Information Produced by Fiscal Administration in Central Government. Jairo Alonso Bautista Evelyn Cárdenas The present work has as purpose to analyze the transparency processes in the information produced about the tax spending executed by the central government in Colombia, and the fiscal consequences that are derived in such administration. Taking into consideration that fiscal transparency is the foundation to take adequate political decisions, and the key element to better the confidence of the citizens and to legitimize the taxation structure, its study is highly pertinent in the measure in which different from the regular budget spending, tax spending is not easily represented or measured in fiscal accounts, therefore, the relationship between this spending (which truly is treated with preference in the subject of tax spending) and the economic and social effects wanted with this treatment are not clear, and in addition can hide profound inequality in paying taxes. The central focus of this work is the analysis of the way information about tax spending from the central government is presented, in this sense, the document pretends to answer the following questions: What type of information is produced by fiscal administration about tax spending? Which legislations regulate the production and unveiling of the information about tax spending? Is the information produced by fiscal administration easily understood by the general public? With what regularity is such information produced? Does the information produced help illustrate the decisions made? What elements regulate how fiscal spending is divided by the legislative branch? These questions allow coverage of a universal theme in which one tries to establish the conditions, requirements, legal lineaments and usage of information about tax spending, and the way in which fiscal authorities –including the legislative branch– use such information to direct policy in the subject of tax spending. Although the analyses of this subject are not new (the first date back to the 80s in the 20th century) (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 1984), in Latin America the concern for the visibility and transparency of tax spending appears in a recently hand in hand with the studies from the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (UNECLAC) about the same subject, which have been centered around three fundamental aspects: the studies of determinants of tax spending (which also tend to be called tax waivers) (Simonnit, 2003), the way to measure and evaluate tax spending in the light of the general structure of the budget (Espada Tejedor, 2009), the implications these processes have in aspects so diverse as economic efficiency, equity, sector development, and employment production. (Gómez Sabaini & Morán, 2013). In Colombia, the most important precedent about the subject is constituted by, without doubt, the document by the World Bank “Tax Spending in Colombia” (Banco Mundial, 2012) which developed an integral analysis of tax spending and developed case studies to establish not only the fiscal sacrifice, but also the cost relations – benefit which comes from spending. Previous works have been developed amidst the Department of National Planning (González & Calderón , 2004) and some other private and academic centers of study. (FEDESARROLLO, 2011; Bautista & Valencia , 2014). Nevertheless, these studies have not emphasized the transparency of tax spending, its adequate representation in the governmental accounts, and the mechanisms of information and diffusion, just as the use of said information by those who take decisions about the subject of tax spending. Some authors in Colombia have worked with elements of unveiling the information and the transparency in the budget spending (Católico, Gómez-Solano,

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& Gómez Díaz, 2013) but the fundamental source of reference in this kind of studies is constituted by the survey from the International Budget Partnership (IBP) about Open Budget Initiative (International Budget Partnership, 2014) which establishes the lineaments that must be taken into account when revealing budget information, which guide the analyses of this document. In that sense, this work pretends to develop an analysis about the elementary criteria of revealing the information about tax spending, starting with four essential categories that come from the questions referred to before: • Type of reports that are produced about tax spending by the Central government • Information contained in those reports • Mechanisms of Circulation of the information about tax spending (specialized documents, information in mass media, etc) • Implementation of such information in the decision making processes about tax spending. We hope to bring in elements not only for debate about trust in government institutions, but also seek to give essential elements of contemporary fiscal administration, which is found according to the discussions of the 18th Study Group of Fiscal Administration and Public Financing, held under the frame of the Congress of the Institute of Internal Auditors (IIA), under the supposition that better and greater information about tax spending can contribute to better budget planning, to identify new sources of financing the public budget, and to reduce the budget lagging that comes from the context of fiscal crisis. In this sense, the Colombian experience will permit to comprehend the incidences of tax spending in fiscal administration, and the quality of said information becomes a decisive factor to improve the capacity of fiscal institutions in the country to overcome their structural problems.

Various Panels

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Available only in the language of the presentation / Disponible uniquement dans la langue de présentation

BRICS Panel Public Reforms and Trust in Public Administration The panel was organized and moderated by professor Eduardo Marques, of Fundacao Getulio Vargas, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The chairman invited the speakers in the order of the RICS acronym, thus initiating with Russia. Professor Victor Vakhshtayn, who is a sociologist, presented the project named “The Russian Barometer” that consists of surveys held in ten cities in the Russian Federation and encompassing a sample of 6000 people. The survey is done twice a year and is compatible with the European Barometer. He showed indexes of trust in the world, where Brazil shows less interpersonal trust than Russia. There is a correlation between interpersonal trust and trust in the Government, notably in the case of China. Based on his own data on generalized trust, this index should be correlated to trust in the institutions. His research has shown that Russia is similar to UK and USA: 25 % of people trust each other and 75 % think you should be careful when dealing with others. Since 2012 social capital has grown in Russia; strong ties (friends and relatives) and weak ties (acquaintances and people that you can ask for a favor) also have grown. There is a strong correlation between strong ties and political optimism. Strong ties lead to assurance and reduction of economic risks through the intensity of social contacts, and weak ties cause security and reduction of economic risks through variety in social contacts. Strong ties are important when you are thinking of the risky situation but weak ties are much more important when people are planning their economic future. Considering job search strategies, people in Russian do not use the formal institutions, 45 % of the population prefer to use relatives, friends and acquaintances to find a job. Interpersonal trust and interpersonal relations are inversely proportional to public institution and government trust: 47% of the Russians would not go to doctors; they would rather call their friends and ask how they should cure themselves. Police, health care system, judiciary and municipal administration are other institutions that are not trusted by the people; national government has a higher evaluation. The second speaker was Mr. Wenping Huang, President of China Society for Public Sector Reform. He is the origin of this panel, after his suggestion to Mr. Bouckaert, Chairman of IIAS. He explored the practice, experience and thoughts of China’s promotion of administration transparency, in the context of China’s reform and opening up. Since 1978, China has successively carried out seven administrative system reforms, focused on institutional reforms, and on single area reforms covering fiscal, finance, investment, science and technology, education, culture, health and other industries. The most recent reform focused on the transformation of government functions and streamlining administration. Social investment and entrepreneurial enthusiasm were released and the economy has progressed while maintaining stability. Chinese public institutions are of great significance for people’s livelihood. In 2011 a «Guidance on Advancing Public Institution Reform by Classification» was issued, setting requirements to achieve separation of government organizations and public institutions, public institutions and enterprises and regulation and management. Organizations mainly engaged in production and business operation activities should gradually turn to enterprises. Public service functions focused on social developments such as compulsory education, public health, social security. Collaborative governance should be enhanced. The concept of government management was changed, with introduction of the concepts of accountable government, service government and law-based government. Government functions should recognize the role of market and enterprises. The goal of administrative system reform for the coming future is to promote the separation of government functions from those of enterprises, state-owned assets, public institutions and social organizations, so as to build a service-oriented government that is scientific in function, optimized in structure, incorrupt, efficient and meets people’s satisfaction, guided by the objective of establishing a socialist administrative system. To achieve these goals the following aspects are to be promoted: streamlining administration, delegation of government powers and transformation of government functions; steadily pushing forward super ministry reform and improving the division of responsibilities among government sectors; administration style must be innovated and government credibility and execution must be improved; public institution reform shall be carried out according to the classification in different categories; law-based administration and system construction should be strengthened. The following speaker was Mr. Mataywa Busieka, from the Department of Public Service and Administration, International and African Affairs, of South Africa. He presented the program Enhancing Trust in Government through the Framework “Open Government Partnership” (OGP), based on the assumptions that trust in government is derived from good governance. Trust in government is understood as a potent ingredient that nourishes governance of any institution and clothes it with the crucial legitimacy to run the affairs of citizens or stakeholders. Trust has been diminishing globally, with lower level of trust

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in government as compared to non-profit organization, media, businesses and youth. The value of trust is that it makes everyday life easier, less complex and more orderly, thereby increasing democratic stability. A deficit of trust makes citizens cynical about their political system and disaffected with the existing order. It also lowers rates of compliance with rules and regulations leading to distrust and a fragile state that cannot mobilize and shape national vision. Citizens and businessmen can also become more risk averse, delaying investment, innovation and employment decisions. The key ingredients of the Open Government Initiative are participation and rule of law, transparency and responsiveness, effectiveness and efficiency and accountability. Transparency implies on information flowing freely to citizen. Accountability requires a feedback system on matters affecting the citizens. Inclusivity takes citizens in confidence on important national dialogue. Participation obligates government to establish a framework and culture of consulting processes. In this last issue South Africa’s high indicators are internationally recognized. South Africa has also established a legislative framework (constitutional imperatives, legislative instruments and policy environment) that gives effect to the Open Government value statement. The Brazilian representative, professor Marcelo Neri, expressed his thanks to Director Bianor Cavalcanti and Manager Eduardo Marques for the invitation to this Congress and congratulated the Chinese representative for the idea of the panel. BRICS meetings are very special and they seem to him more interesting than forums like Mercosul or the European Union, where conditions are more similar; here we found a forum based on differences. This is also a forum of big players, representing 25 % GDP and 40 % of the world population. BRICS is a good sample of people in the world. Cultural differences and other characteristics make this cooperation a very steep learning process. Learn from differences, not so much from similarities. For this purpose there are technologies available. The author introduces two ingredients that would help to understand the lack of trust in government. The first ingredient was explored by Professor Victor Vakhshtayn on his research. The economists build models and then go to the data and reject or accept the model. This is classical science but it is necessarily incomplete. The author has learned a lot doing research on public perception on policy and institutions. Last week there was a pool of public opinion in Brazil, showing that trust in government is the second main concern today. The first is health and then comes corruption and lack of trust in government. It was the main concern we had during the demonstrations during the confederations cup. The main variable that explains people going to demonstration is if you are in a social network. Then there is a new technology that government has to use to interact with the people. Sergey Zuev, Dean of the School of Public Policy of The Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration, presented a short comment on trust and social trust (social capital or social networks, human connections) that are extremely important as a framework for decisions in public policy. There are two formats to speak about trust or social trust: the first one is the academic approach: what is trust, how this trust will be the framework for the future decision making process, what is policy analysis and how we can use this idea of trust in its structure and in the policy making process. The second format is the description of the models, how the social connection or social trust is already included in the existing models. It would favor the share of experience and it is more about the policy implementation. There are four main steps in public policy: analysis, decision making, implementation and control. Decision making is about implementation or multiplication of the existing models and modernization of what exists behind. As an academic Prof. Zuev considers the first approach more interesting, but for administrators and politicians the second model is more adequate. This can be the startup point of new researches comparing the different situations in different countries, as for example the BRICS countries. Panelists

• Eduardo Marques – Professor and Manager for International Affairs, FGV, Brazil (Moderator)

• Brazil: Marcelo Neri – Professor and Head of the Center for Social Policies, Fundação Getulio Vargas. Former Minister of Strategic Affairs/Presidency of the Republic/Brazil,

• Russia: Viktor Vahshtain – Professor at the School of Public Policy of The Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration.

• China: Wenping Huang – President of China Society for Public Sector Reform

• South Africa: Mataywa Busieka - Department of Public Service and Administration, International and African Affairs.

Comments by Sergey Zuev – Dean, School of Public Policy of The Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration.

Are administrative reforms doing any good? To whom? Panelists:

• Christina W. Andrews, Federal University of São Paulo, Brazil

• Michiel S. de Vries, Radbout University, Nijmegen, Netherlands

• João Passador, University of São Paulo, Brazil

Congrès international de l’IISA, 2015 - Rio de Janeiro - Juin 2015

31ème Congrès international des Sciences administratives

31th International Congress of Administrative Sciences

Administrative reforms inspired by New Public Management model have assumed that there are universal management techniques capable of producing efficiency under any condition, moment in time, place, or historical circumstance. This assumption is flawed, however. Although some management techniques indeed can be successfully adopted by public and private organizations alike, the issue lies on the different goals that the two types of organizations pursue. For the typical capitalist organization, maximum benefits equal maximum profits. On the other hand, under the same condition of limited resources, efficient public management corresponds to the ability of producing desirable social outcomes. Public services are valuable “products”, but cannot yield a profit. NPM inability to incorporate this simple idea may explain the why it has lost part of its luster in the past decade. However, although scholars agree that the emphasis on the NPM model has diminished, administrative reforms still hold on to many of its original features. De Vries and Nemec (2013), in a literature review on the current status of the debate on NPM inspired reforms, have noted that while the external dimension of this model —the downsizing of the public sector and the need to outsource services— has lost its grip on the debates on administrative reform, the internal dimension —management and organizational improvement in the public sector— still maintains its influence. They conclude that reforms nowadays are less focused on NPM precepts than one or two decades ago, but the model has not lost all its influence on reforms; the emphasis on optimization of the internal workings of the public sector is still a preeminent concern of reformers. Halligan (2007) has reached a similar conclusion after investigating trends in recent reforms implemented in Australia and New Zealand. According to the author, the “third generation” reforms posit a lesser emphasis in NPM’s core precepts, while system integration and performance gained importance. There is a new concern with the whole of government and a focus on horizontal vis-à-vis vertical integration, but it is still an open question whether this trend will consolidate into a new model. Despite the changes in reform styles and content, one neglected aspect is whether reforms are worth their “dark side”. Reforms introduce uncertainty, and public servants react to it with symptoms such as diminished job satisfaction, negative views of politics and politicians, less appreciation for colleagues at work, less pride in their jobs, and less public service motivation (Borst, Lako and De Vries, 2013). Moreover, organizations undergoing constant chnages present more interpersonal conflicts than more stable organizations (Venner & De Vries, 2012). Contrary to what common sense suggests, officials facing unending reforms are less open to change and less likely to think strategically than officials in more stable organizations. This state of affairs can be called “reform fadigue” (De Vries, 2013). And to make matters worse, reforms are like a toss of a coin, a gamble, for no one can predict their outcome. All this calls for the development of evidence-based public reforms. At present, we have little knowledge and information about what makes reforms more effective. Some insights could be provided from the related field of evidence-based policymaking, which has paid the due attention to processes. Adopting a similar approach, we need to understand how operational processes affect reform outcomes, which often differ substantially from stated intention (De Vries, n.d.). In this regard, “soft factors” such as ethics, transformational leadership, communication, and motivation — so far neglected in the study of administrative reforms— should receive more attention.

De Vries, M.S. (n.d.). From evidence-based policies to evidence-based public sector reforms. Unpublished manuscript. De Vries, M.S. (2010). War inside public administration: Interpersonal conflicts in Dutch municipalities and provinces. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the International Association of Schools and Institutes of Administration – IASIA, Bali Indonesia, July 2010. De Vries, M.S. (2013). Reform fatigue: The effects of reorganizations on public sector employees. Speech presented at the 21st NISPAcee Annual Conference. Halligan, J. (2007). Reintegrating government in third generation reforms of Australia and New Zealand. Public Policy and Administration, 22(2), 217-238. Kliksberg, B. (2000). Diez falacias sobre los problemas sociales de América Latina. Revista Venezolana de Gerencia, 5(12): 305–335. Perry, J.L., Hondeghem, A., & Wise, L.R. (2010). Revisiting the motivational bases of public service: Twenty years of research and an agenda for the future. Public Administration Review, 70(5), 681-690. Perry, J.L. & Vandenabeele, W. (2015), “Public Service Motivation research: achievements, challenges, and future directions”, Public Administration Review, 75(5): 692-699. Perry, J.L., & Wise, L.R. (1990). The motivational bases of public service. Public Administration Review, 50(3): 367-373. Ryan, R. M. & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1): 68-78. Ryan, R. M. & Deci, E. L. (2002). Overview of self-determination theory: An organismic dialectical perspective. Deci, E.L. & Ryan, R.M. Handbook of Self-Determination Research, Rochester: University of Rochester Press. Chap. 1, p. 3-33. Venner, J. & M.S. de Vries (2012). Decentralization in the Netherlands: Practices and opinions on decentralization in a decentralized unitary state. Paper presented at the annual IASIA conference Bangkok 2012.

Panel on Theorical and practical evolutions on Public Administration: Recent institutional publications Moderator:

Panelists and publications they presented:

• Mercedes Iacovello, IDB Senior Consultant, Inter-American Development Bank (IADB), publication: Cortázar Velarde, J. C., Lafuente, M.,Sanginés, M., Schuster, C., Echebarría, K., Longo, F., Iacoviello, M. (2014). Serving citizens: a decade of civil service reform in Latin America (2004-13).Washington, DC: IADB. Retrieved from http://publications. iadb.org/handle/11319/6636#sthash.X0QW3rih.dpuf

• Julieta Galicchio, Consultant for Institutional Development, Development Bank of Latin America (CAF), publication: O’Donnell, G., Cárdenas, M., Mann, M., Ziblatt, D., Oszlak, O., Geddes, B., Rockman, B. (2015). Capacidades estatales: diez textos fundamentales. Buenos Aires: CAF. Retrieved from http://scioteca.caf.com/ handle/123456789/715

• Allan Rosenbaum, Director of the Institute for Public Management and Community Service and Professor of Public Administration at Florida International University (FIU), and former President of the American Society for Public Administration (ASPA), publication: A. Rosenbaum (Ed.) (2015) In Quest of Excellence: approaches to enhancing the quality of Public Administration Education and Training.New York: United Nations. Available in http://www.iias-congress2015.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/In_Quest_of_Excellence.pdf M.E. Guy and M.M. Rubin (Ed.) (2015) Public administration evolving: from foundations to the future.New York: Routledge. Available in http://www.tandf.net/books/details/9780765643261

Strangely enough, few public administration scholars have examined the impact of reforms on the “soft factors”. Public Service Motivation, regarded one of the few concepts unique to the discipline of Public Administration (Perry and Vandenabeele, 2015), has been rarely mentioned in the debates involving public sector reforms. This may be do to the fact that PSM initially promoted the idea that some people more naturally inclined to work in the public sector than others (Perry & Wise, 1990; Perry et al., 2010). Only recently PSM scholars began to acknowledge that motivation is not only a set of personal values, but that the context in public organizations affects public servants’ motivation (cf. Vandenabeele, 2014). On the other hand, Self-Determination Theory, which emerged within the discipline of social psychology, has focused on the effect of context on motivation since it was developed in the mid 1980s (Ryan and Deci, 2000, 2002). Overall, the most important concern should be: how to associate ethics with administrative reforms? Is this possible at all? Change in the public sector should focus on the deliver of what is fair and good, and be promoted under the guidance of democratic institutions. Thus, reforms are not mere technical affairs, but social and political endeavors. Kliksberg (2000) noted that one of the fallacies holding back social development in Latin America is the putative need to ignore ethical consequences of public policies in favor of “technical” issues. The same applies to administrative reforms: these can only do any good to society if ethical concerns take precedence over technical matters. References: Borst, R. C.J. Lako & M.S. de Vries (2013). Pride in the Dutch public sector. Paper presented at the IIAS/IASIA conference, Bahrain, July 2013. De Vries, M. S. & Nemec, J. (2013). Public sector reform: an overview of recent literature and research on NPM and alternative paths. International Journal of Public Sector Management, 26(1): 4-16.

2015 International Congress of IIAS - Rio de Janeiro - June 2015

• Marlos Lima, Executive Director, Latin American Center for Public Policy, Getulio Vargas Foundation (FGV)

The panel took place on 29 June 2015 during the Congress of the International Institute of Administrative Sciences (IIAS) in Rio de Janeiro. It was moderated by Marlos Lima, Executive Director of the Latin American Center for Public Policy at Getulio Vargas Foundation (FGV), and had the participation of Mercedes Iacovello, Senior Consultant of the Inter-American Development Bank (IAB), Julieta Galicchio, Consultant for Institutional Development at Development Bank of Latin America (CAF), and Allan Rosenbaum, Director of the Institute for Public Management and Community Service and Professor of Public Administration at Florida International University (FIU) and former President of the American Society for Public Administration (ASPA), as speakers. Under the title «Theoretical and practical evolutions on Public Administration: recent institutional publications» the panel presented to the audience: the 2014 report from IDB, “Serving citizens: a decade of civil service reform in Latin America (2004-13)”; the Congrès international de l’IISA, 2015 - Rio de Janeiro - Juin 2015

31ème Congrès international des Sciences administratives

31th International Congress of Administrative Sciences

2015 report from CAF, “State capacities: ten fundamental texts” (Capacidades estatales: diez textos fundamentales); the 2015 edited book by Allan Rosenbaum, “In Quest of Excellence: Approaches to Enhancing the Quality of Public Administration Education and Training”, and the 2015 edited book by Mary E. Guy and Marilyn M. Rubin, “Public administration evolving: From foundations to the future”. Presented by Mercedes Iacovello, the Serving Citzens report concerns an analysis of the current situation of human resource management (HRM) in Latin America. It is related with the Ibero-American Charter for the Public Service (ICPS) signed in 2003 which built a general agreement around which practices should direct the reforms in the public sector. In 2004, the InterAmerican Development Bank (IDB) devised a methodology for accurately measuring how the central government civil services operate regarding the points established by ICPS. Therefore, the IDB report analyzes how human resources management in Latin American public services has evolved in the last 10 years; what lessons can be learned from that and in which direction should the Latin America be headed. According to the study, the average score on the Civil Service Development Index (CSDI) for the 16 countries observed has improved by 8 points, reaching 38 on a scale of 0 to 100. Nonetheless, the progress in the CSDI was asymmetrical: the improvements were more significant in countries that started out with the lowest baselines. The main groups of countries can be classified according to Figure 1. The analysis reveals that the challenge faced by countries in the future is to move from the squares on the left (low impact) towards the squares on the right (high impact). Following Mercedes Iacovellio, Julieta Galicchio presented a compilation of ten publications about State capacities from the report “Capacidades estatales: diez textos fundamentales“. It is part of CAF´s publications series on “State, Public Management and Development in Latin America” (Estado, Gestión Pública y Desarollo em América Latina) which analyzes the capacity of the State in determining the public policies and carrying on the development of countries in Latin America, as well as exposes theoretical approaches to increase it. In a very brief way, the major explored areas in the report are:1) The State’s fiscal capacity, that highlights the importance of how the State collects taxes; 2) The administrative capacity, related to the capacity of providing the citizens with public goods efficiently and inexpensively; 3) The organizational capacity, which relates the political and administrative spheres of the State; 4) The bureaucratic capacity of the State, that goes between the government and the citizens, answering social interests; 5) The Coercive capacities, necessary to the survival and consolidation of the State; and 6) The interaction between the State, its citizens and its institutions, exposing a multidimensional approach to the capacities of the State. Finally, Allan Rosenbaum presented two books in which mechanisms related to enhancement of public administration are analyzed. Edited by himself, “In Quest of Excellence: approaches to enhancing the quality of Public Administration Education and Training” is focused on public administration education and can be divided in two parts. The first one brings together several approaches that are used to maintain and/or enhance the quality of public administration education and training. The second part of this book explores different perspectives around the world on delivering public administration education and training. The book also presents in its last chapter the results of a survey on the same subject, carried out by Jide Balogun, providing an overview of institutional practices around the world. As for the second book presented, “Public Administration Evolving: from foundations to the future”, it examines how public administration theory and practice has evolved over the last decades, tracing in each chapter the evolution of thinking and practice in a particular dimension of public administration. After the presentations, the attendants were invited to ask questions to the speakers, which led to a positive discussion on the themes. Therefore, this moderated panel explored several aspects from Public Administration ‒ first, analyzing practices over the last 10 years in Latin America; secondly, exploring the perspectives of the State capacities; later, addressing the case of education on Public Administration; and finally, showing how Public Administration has evolved in the last decades.

The limitations to the understanding of what drives trust in government are partly due to the lack of an analytical framework that can help organize concepts, links and causality relations. This OECD workshop proposed a framework for analysing trust in government that deconstructs trust along actionable policy dimensions. Further, it presented ongoing work on develop OECD Guidelines on Measuring Trust. In addition, insights from an ongoing case study on trust in government in South Korea, undertaken jointly by OECD and Korea Development Institute (KDI) were discussed. Likewise, ongoing initiatives in Finland added to the discussion on policy amenable drivers of trust in government. Summary:

• Trust is an issue of fundamental importance to the OECD. Trust in institutions is at the heart of several institutional efforts, highlighting the relevance of trust for key social and economic outcomes cannot be overstated, as an essential element of government legitimacy, social coherence, regulatory compliance and stable economic environment but also as an “overall” assessment by people of institutional quality. Beyond this, interpersonal trust is the best available measure of social capital, and thus a core part of the OECD’s work to measure the capital stocks that underpin well-being as part of the Better Life Initiative.

• Despite being aware of the importance of trust, policy makers do not have at their disposal actionable policy tools that enable informed policy choices. While several international surveys collect data on citizens’ trust in government (e.g The World Gallup poll, the World Values Survey, the European Union’s Eurobarometer or the Edelman Trust barometer), there remain substantive gaps in terms of coverage, scope and interpretation. Further, the generality of the questions cover in these surveys do not help shed light on specific behaviours that could be changed in order to improve citizen’s perception. If information on trust is to usefully inform policy, it is first necessary to analyse and measure trust adequately.

• The OECD is working on two complementary fronts that seek to address the points above. First, by developing an analytical framework that helps “de-construct” trust into drivers amenable to policy change and inform the analysis and identification of policy options to build more “trustworthy” institutions. Second, by engaging in the preparation of international Guidelines for the Measurement of Trust.

• The OECD analytical framework builds upon core mandates or expectations (provide public services, anticipate change, protect citizens, use public resources and power ethically, inform and consult citizens and improve socioeconomic conditions for all) to identify key drivers of trust in government. First, we deconstruct trust into two key components, Competence and Values, that closely follow the broad distinction reflected in the literature between the actual outcome of an action and the intention that guided it. Second, for each component, we identify relevant dimensions that could make it amenable to policy change: Responsiveness, Reliability, Integrity, Openness and Fairness.

• In turn, this framework provides a basis to conduct qualitative analysis, better linking the policy discussion on trust to an actionable reform agenda. Further, it can inform new approaches to quantitative analysis of trust in government, by targeting specific behaviors (related to core governmental mandates). For example, by inquiring how do (citizens) think their government would behave under a given specific circumstance(s)? or do you trust your government to do X if Y happens?, where X is the driver of trust. The goal here is to provide insight to strengthen institutional “trustworthiness”. Higher “trustworthiness”, together with other factors that lay beyond the framework (e.g. interpersonal trust, role of media etc), could influence higher trust outcomes.

• The OECD Guidelines on Measuring Trust are modelled on the successful OECD Guidelines on Measuring Subjective Well-being. They aim to improve the international comparability of trust measures by establishing common standards, to summarise what is known about the reliability and validity of measures of trust and, where possible, extend this body of information; and to act as a catalyst for broader work by NSOs and academics so as to increase the number of countries for which official measures of trust are produced. Space constraints in official surveys and gaps in the literature relating to the validity of trust measures and best practice in question wording and response scale will be major challenges in developing the Guidelines. However, the OECD, in collaboration with countries, is well-placed to address these issues. In particular, split sample testing allows us to look at how different questions relate to each other and will provide information on question wording and scale use, while the OECD’s Trustlab initiative, on a demand-driven basis, will provide new information on the validity of trust measures by bringing together information on survey-based and lab-based experimental measures of trust for nationally representative samples.

• Together with better frameworks for analysis and eventually, measurement of trust, country specific examples can help us understand better policy options for governments seeking to invest in trust.

OECD Workshop: Investing in trust: from insights to policy design & implementation Description: Against a background of increasing unemployment and widening inequalities, demands from citizens and business are high, but confidence that government can deliver is low in many countries. Without trust in government, public support for ambitious, innovative policies is difficult to mobilise, particularly where short-term sacrifices are involved and where long-term gains might be less tangible. For many years, trust in government and institutions has been a neglected component of public policy making. As such, the evidence base for policymakers at the international level is underdeveloped. Even countries that are concerned about it (70% of Centers of Government monitor trust in public institutions) may not know how to influence it. This is particularly important at a time when trust levels have declined on average, in some countries with a very pronounced negative change between 2007 and 2014. 46

2015 International Congress of IIAS - Rio de Janeiro - June 2015

Congrès international de l’IISA, 2015 - Rio de Janeiro - Juin 2015

31ème Congrès international des Sciences administratives

31th International Congress of Administrative Sciences

• For example, Professor Soonhee Kim argued that the emerging literature on government reforms toward creating collaborative governance in public administration has suggested that citizens should be considered as collaborative partners for building inclusive and effective governance. As data from various surveys between 1981 and 2010 shows incremental decrease of public trust in government in the Republic of Korea, more attention has to be paid to the factors affecting public trust in government in Korea.

• Based on a case study of Seoul Metropolitan Government, KDI is analysing the following questions: 1) What are the impacts of citizen participation experiences on citizens’ perceptions of transparency in government and their trust in government?; and 2) How does public managers’ experience of engaging online and offline citizen participation programs influence on their trust in citizens? For this case study, a survey of participants of online participation programs and a survey of public employees in Seoul Government would be conducted. This is work in progress, and will aim to provide recommendations for short-term and long-term strategies and policy action plans for restoring public trust in government in Korea.

• In Finland trust varies according to which public institutions one is talking about. Katju Hokeri pointed that recent study results paint the same picture as before that Finnish people trust the Police, the Defense Forces and the Social Insurance Institution mosts. Over 80 % of Finnish people trust these institutions a lot or very much. On the other hand only one fifth of Finnish people trust the political institutions. What is interesting is that in Finland people seem to trust most those institutions over which they have the most limited influence. In regard to local government research shows that Finnish people follow actively from the media what is going on in the municipality, but only one third says they are interested in municipal policy. The use of social media in following decision-making has clearly grown and trust in decision-makers at the municipality level has strengthened a little. However only 16 % agree with the statement ”In my municipality citizens are listened to” and 41 % disagree. • The issue of trust was emphasized a lot in the Future reviews that the Finnish ministries did in autumn 2014 for political parties that were preparing themselves for parliamentary elections. These reports that aimed to take up the most urgent challenges the coming Government would face stated for instance that “Trust is the basis of public governance. The goal should be to increase trust and to stabilize it on a high level” and further ”This is possible only if the structures and actions of the government are clear. Citizens need to be involved in developing the welfare society further. Trust capital is a remarkable resource in implementing societal changes especially when resources are diminishing.”

He is involved in several international networks such as: President of the Scientific Committee of SPAN (Swiss Public Administration Network), President of the Flemish Governmental Commission for the Efficiency and Effectiveness of the Public Sector, Vice Chair of COST Action LocRef (Local Government Reform), Member of the Corvinus Budapest International Advisory Board, Member of the Conseil scientifique de la Revue française d’administration publique (ENA), Member of the Board of the Belgian Institute of Public Administration. Member of the VVBB- Flemish Association of Administrative Sciences, Member of the international advisory board of the MPM at the Bocconi University. He is also the Coordinator for Governmental organizations in Flanders (Belgium). Geert Bouckaert received several Honorary Doctorates and other international awards in recognition to his scientific contributions in the field of Public Administration. Professor Bouckaert published many books and articles on Public Management and Public Administration Reforms. Ms. Paloma Baena Olabe, workshop coordinator and panellist. Paloma Baena Olabe joined the OECD in 2012. At the Public Governance Directorate, she provides substantive leadership on key OECD horizontal projects, including Trust and Inclusive Growth, articulating the role of public governance and public sector reform in broader economic and socio-political challenges. Previously, she served as Deputy Head of the Public Sector Integrity Division. Prior to the OECD, Paloma worked at the Institutions for Development department of the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), where she established and headed the Transparency technical area, and led large public management reform projects in Latin America and the Caribbean; and at the World Bank, where she advised on issues relating to the business climate and public-private partnerships in Latin America and Africa. Her professional experience also includes the private sector, as a Sr. strategy and management consultant for government agencies (PricewaterhouseCoopers) and as a legal counsel in a top tier law firm in Spain (Cuatrecasas Abogados). Paloma has published on the relationship of institutions and growth, trust in government and transparency policies. She holds a J.D. from Complutense University in Madrid, a Maîtrise in International Law from Aix-Marseille III and an M.P.A. from Harvard University, Cambridge, focused on political and economic development and public leadership. Paloma.baenaolabe@oecd.org

• Pr. Geert Bouckaert, President of IIAS, provided comments, highlighting other dimensions of trust in government, including not least inter-governmental trust, as well as different levels of analysis, from the micro (e.g. public services) to mezzo and macro.

Speakers: Mr. Luiz de Mello, moderator. Luiz de Mello is Deputy Director of the Public Governance and Territorial Development Directorate at the OECD. Previously, he served as Deputy Chief of Staff of the OECD Secretary-General. He started his career at the OECD in the Economics Department, where he was the Head of Desk responsible for bilateral surveillance activities with Brazil, Chile and Indonesia before becoming the Economic Counsellor to the Chief Economist.

Ms. Katju Hokeri, panellist. Ms. Katju Holkeri is Head of the Governance Policy Unit of the Personnel and Governance Policy Department of Finland’s Ministry of Finance. In this capacity, she works on governance policy, central government reform, open government, and international and OECD co-operation. Ms. Holkeri serves as secretary general of the ministerial group of public administration and regional development, and is Finland’s delegate to the OECD Public Governance Committee, having served as Chair of the Committee from 2010-2012 and vice chair from 2006 -2009. She is Vice chair of the Programme and Research Advisory Council of the IIAS, President of the IIAS Finnish National Section and Member of the Finnish Evaluation Society. She also served as Editor in-Chief of the Finnish Administration journal between 2004-2008. Ms. Holkeri has also served as Secretary General of the Finnish Women’s League. Ms. Holkeri holds a Master of Political Sciences from the University of Helsinki.

Prior to joining the OECD, Mr. de Mello worked in the Fiscal Affairs Department of the International Monetary Fund, where he was involved in different projects in the areas of public finances, as well as programme monitoring and policy surveillance, with an emphasis on emerging-market and transition economies in Asia, Latin America and Eastern Europe. Mr. de Mello holds a PhD in Economics from the University of Kent, United Kingdom, where he started his career as a lecturer. His main areas of interest are open-economy macroeconomics, public finances, and growth and development issues. luiz.demello@oecd.org Pr. Geert Bouckaert, discussant. Geert BOUCKAERT is currently the President of the International Institute of Administrative Sciences (IIAS) (2013-2016). He was the President of the European Group for Public Administration (EGPA) (2004-2010) and the Chair of the IIAS Programme and Research Advisory Committee (PRAC) (2010-2013).He is Professor at the Public Management Institute (Faculty of Social Sciences) of the KU Leuven, Belgium. From 1997 to 2012, he was the Director of the Public Management Institute (Instituut voor de Overheid- KU Leuven). His fields of research and teaching are Public Management, Public Sector reforms, Performance Management and Finance Management. He is also visiting Professor at the University of Potsdam (Germany).

2015 International Congress of IIAS - Rio de Janeiro - June 2015

Ms. Soonhee Kim, panellist. Soonhee Kim is a Professor of Public Administration at the Korea Development Institute (KDI) School of Public Policy and Management, and is a Senior Research Associate at Center for Technology and Information Policy in the Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs, Syracuse University. Professor Kim’s areas of expertise include public management, human resources management, e-government, and leadership development. She is co-editor of Public Administration in the Context of Global Governance (Edward Elgar, 2014), the Future of Public Administration Around the World: The Minnowbrook Perspective (Georgetown University Press, 2010) and Public Sector Human Resource Management (Sage, 2012). Professor Kim serves as an editor of international features in the Public Administration Review, and as editorial board member for the Springer Book Series on Governance and Citizenship in Asia, Review of Public Personnel Administration, International Review of Public Administration, Public Integrity, and Korean Journal of Policy Studies. She also serves as co-chair of the IIAS Study Group on Trust and Public Attitudes. Professor Kim received her Ph.D. in Public Administration from the Rockefeller College of Public Affairs and Policy at the University at Albany, State University of New York in 1998. soonheekim@kdischool.ac.kr

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31th International Congress of Administrative Sciences

Mr. Conal Smith, panellist. Conal Smith is a senior economist in the OECD Statistics Directorate where he heads the Well-being and Household Conditions section. His work at the OECD includes producing the OECD Guidelines on Measuring Subjective Well-being, editing How Was Life?, a report on global well-being since 1820, and leading OECD work on integrating the measurement of well-being into policy in both developing countries and developed countries. He is currently leading work to develop OECD Guidelines on Measuring Trust. From 2008 to 2010 Conal managed the Social Conditions group at Statistics New Zealand where he oversaw the release of the first New Zealand General Social Survey, and from 2004 to 2008 he led the Social Outcomes team in the Ministry of Social Development where he was responsible for the publication of the New Zealand Social Report. conal.smith@oecd.org

CEPA Panel

La discussion s’est naturellement orientée vers l’agenda des Objectifs de Développement Durables (ODD), et du rôle de l’administration publique dans celui-ci. A la différence des Objectifs du Millénaire pour le Développement(OMD), les ODD

• valent pour tous les pays, pas uniquement ceux en voie de développement,

• ont un champ d’application plus large, en termes de domaines politiques et de niveaux de pouvoir,

• reflètent un consensus politique important, d’où il résulte également une formulation plus subtile des objectifs,

• disposent d’un dispositif d’évaluation plus robuste, et

• octroient un rôle fondamental à l’administration publique.

Il revient maintenant aux Etats membres d’initier un débat national visant à établir des priorités entre les ODD et à en faire sens dans le contexte national. Ils présentent des opportunités, en terme d’impact sociétal, et des risques de bureaucratisation plus élevés que les OMD. En 2016, la session annuelle de l’UNCEPA sera consacrée au même thème de la Gouvernance durable que le Congrès conjoint de l’IISA et de l’AIEIA, permettant la réplication de cette collaboration.

On 25 June 2015, a panel of the United Nations Committee of Experts in Public Administration (UNCEPA) has been held during the 2015 IIAS Congress in Rio de Janeiro. This panel fits in the IIAS policy aiming at strengthening its links with other international organizations through active participation in respective events. The panel featured presentations Mrs. Margaret Saner, Chairperson of the Committee, and two long-standing observers, Mr. Stéphane Monney, Director General of the African Training and Research Centre in Administration for Development (CAFRAD) and Prof. Dr. Geert Bouckaert, IIAS President. Panelists have first addressed the role of the UNCEPA. It turned out that the Committee is evolving from the role of punctual producer of reports for a limited audience to that of an actor fully contributing to the UN system and agenda through a multifaceted and continuous work, crowned with the annual session organized in Spring in New York. The discussion then naturally evolved toward the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) agenda, and the role of public administration in it. In contrast with the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the SDGs

• apply to all countries, not only developing ones,

• have a broader and deeper coverage, in terms of policy fields and government levels,

• represent a much wider political consensus, what also results in a more subtle formulation of the goals;

• are now equipped with a more robust monitoring system, and

• grant a fundamental role to public administration.

The first task of UN Member States is to initiate a national dialogue to set priorities among SDGs and operationalize these into the national context. In comparison with MDGs, SDGs offer more opportunities in terms of societal impact and higher risks of red tape than the MDGs. In 2016, the UNCEPA will devote its annual session to the same theme of Sustainable Development as the Joint IIAS-IASIA Congress, allowing to perpetuate this collaboration.

Le 25 juin 2015 s’est tenu un panel du Comité d’experts en administration publique des Nations unies (UNCEPA) dans le cadre du Congrès 2015 de l’IISA à Rio de Janeiro. Ce panel s’inscrit dans la politique de l’IISA visant à renforcer ses liens avec d’autres organisations internationales au travers de participations croisées. La Présidente du Comité, Mme Margaret Saner, et deux observateurs de longue date, M. Stéphane Monney, Directeur Général du Centre Africain de Formation et de Recherche Administratives pour le Développement (CAFRAD), et le Professeur Geert Bouckaert, Président de l’IISA étaient les orateurs de ce panel. Les panélistes ont d’abord abordé la question du rôle de l’UNCEPA. Il ressort de cette discussion que le Comité évolue du rôle de producteur ponctuel de rapports confidentiels, à celui d’acteur intégré au système onusien et contribuant à son agenda par un travail continu et pluriforme, dont le point d’orge reste la session annuelle organisée au printemps à New York.

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Available only in the language of the presentation / Disponible uniquement dans la langue de présentation

Subtheme 1 / Sous-thème 1

Citizens/Customers’ Trust in Governments, Public Administration and Public Sector at all levels of governance / Confiance des citoyens/clients dans les Gouvernements, l’Administration Publique et le Secteur Public à tous les niveaux de gouvernance Abdeljabbar ARRACH1, Abdelmajid ASAAD2, Najib ELHADJIOUI3 1 University Hassan 1 Settat, 2Université Hassan 1, 3Université Hassan 1 Exploring some determinant causes and effects of distrusting the public sector in Morocco Although Morocco has introduced in the last decades various initiatives aiming at reforming the public sector through refinement of procedures, upgrading skills of human resources, consolidation of the values of ethics, redefinition of administrative missions and improvement of administration-users relations, low or declining trust in the public sector still remains on the agenda and is receiving increasing attention from researchers and practitioners , especially since the enacting of the 2011 constitution and the enshrining of principles that might , if implemented, facilitate interactions, reduce transaction costs , create innovation and consequently solidify and increase the performance of a trust-based management in public administration.

Abstracts of papers presented during the congress

Résumés des papiers présentés pendant le congrès

Our aim in this article is to better understand the issue of the public’s distrust in the Moroccan public sector which is rarely studied in depth. From this background and relying on both literature in administrative and political sciences and empirical approaches (Interviews with citizens), we will shed light into (1) the multifaceted causes of distrusting the public administration; (2) the impact of such attitudes upon the Governance policy and (3) the solutions that can cope with this crisis of trust in public institutions.

Dieter GRUNOW1 1 University of Duisburg-Essen Citizen-Administration Relations as a perpetual challenging interdependence. Observations of citizen perspectives in Germany. This paper draws conclusions from many years of research and practice concerning “responsive public administration” in Germany. (1) It starts with a short review of the development by showing the establishment and persistence of “responsiveness” as a quality measure of administrative performance - besides legality, effectiveness and economy. Over time it has enlarged its scope beyond the central starting references to welfare state developments, local embedding and its growing concern about “output- legitimacy”. It has reached all levels of the public sector and all kinds of policy fields - including service functions as well as encroaching functions. (2) The second part summarizes the empirical evidence concerning the citizen perspectives on public administration (in Germany). It starts with data on “trust” of the population in the public sector institutions: the trend analyses show a middle level “trust-position” of public administration while the judicial system (especially the supreme court in Germany) ranks high. Over time there are variations but there is no sustainable trend. By taking these findings as a generalized valuation of public sector institutions, in the next part of the paper a more detailed analysis of survey data is used to specify various components, which aggregate towards a general attitude vis-à-vis public administration: personal experience with staff behaviour, procedures, rules and organization; comparisons between different policy fields and levels of administration22. One of the enduring (empirical) results is the contradiction between comparatively positive judgements about the behaviour/ performance of the staff on one side and more general criticism of bureaucratic administrative agencies on the other side. This long term observation suggests (at least) three basic explanatory factors: (a) the personal experiences and observations by citizens; (b) the coverage of “administrative topics” in the mass media; (c) the exchanges of experiences and opinions in peer communication. Although (so far) there is only little evidence available, it can be shown that media and peer communication have strong impact on judgements about (trust in) public administration. They enhance/exaggerate negative stereotypes and bad experiences with administrative encounters.

22 M ost of the empirical evidence will be taken from studies of the author during the last 15 years.

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(3) Taking up a proposition formulated in an article of 200823, the criticism – being it substantive and justified or not – is seen as an important and necessary perpetual challenge for the reflexion and review of administrative architectures and performance on behalf of the public interest. The final part, therefore, analyses (selected) new developments in the German public administration – which relate to the three factors described above. (a) With regard to practical arrangements of encounters: the Bürgeramt (citizens office) and similar formats, the complaint management and staff diversity as a response to a growing heterogeneity of the population; (b) with regard to media: the new rules for freedom of information and transparency (f. e. via www); (c) with regard to peer communication: new forms of inclusion, co-production and participation on the local level (“Bürgerkommune”;”Bürgerhaushalt”). (4) The conclusion of the paper is drawn with regard to two questions (a) whether these measures can help to enlarge the trust of the public into public administration; and (b) whether the experiences in Germany could offer some suggestions for other countries. ADELA ROMERO-TARIN1, JOSE MANUEL CANALES-ALIENDE, , 1 University of Alicante Some reflections on transparency as an element of trust in the public sector Interlinking between the economy and society, and between them and politics, has a long doctrinal tradition in the social sciences, and is now a paradigm. Confidence in the public sector is the product of these relationships. Today’s world is complex and diverse, in the context of globalization, and therefore can not be analyzed from unilateral unique perspectives and visions, but based on multivariate explanations and plural disciplinary contributions. Without prior and thoughtful analysis of reality; is difficult to cope with the adoption of strategic and appropriate decisions while their outcome, to undertake adequate, effective, transparent and responsible action. The current model of political system will involve a certain model of State, Government and Public Administration. The introduction of a new element, transparency will have to lead to improve the relationship between the public sector and citizens. Several have been the causes and effects of the current structural and multiple crisis in which we live today; and a demonstration of what would be the crisis of political and administrative systems. But the failure of development of culture and public values and the inability to govern from the institutions, prevents the confidence in the public institutions can be done.

Gerson BORGES1 1 FGV The fundamental importance of risk management in public and private institutions and its inextricable link with society’s trust in government and the business environment Corporate governance, boards of directors, compliance rules, courts of auditors, regulatory agencies, all these segments within private companies and public institutions, are aimed at preventing all kinds of risks and losses and, in Brazil, recent events in public areas and large companies, show us unequivocally the urgency for control and prevention of root-cause of all problems: risk identification and management, in order to restore society’s trust in government and elected representatives , otherwise inexorably we see the weakening of that institutions. This paper shows us the fundamental importance of Risk Management in Public and Private Institutions and its inextricable link with society’s trust in government and the business environment.

Pedro ACCORSI1, Guilherme Marques2, Klaus Stier3 1 Getulio Vargas Foundation, 2Getulio Vargas Foundation, 3Getulio Vargas Foundation Foreign Policy and Public Opinion: analyzing the trust of Brazilian voters and its effects in the presidential elections of 2006 Foreign policy is a fundamental part of the existence of the State, through which the nations projects their images and explores possibilities to satisfy their national interests. Although every nation attempts to defend its own interests, they all have unique characteristics that influence their international strategies. Considering a nation as a complex set of organizations and people, its foreign policy will be a result of the motivations and actions of these actors. Hence, the foreign policy decision making is a result of internal and external forces, which makes it a very complex field of public policy. In the play of internal and external forces, there is one unique actor that has access to both sides of the table: the leader of the government (PUTNAM, 1988). From 1995 to 2002, while

23 Grunow/Strüngmann: Bürokratiekritik in der öffentlichen und veröffentlichten Meinung: Impulse für Verwaltungsreformen. In: der moderne staat 1 (2008), S. 121-140. (Public and published criticism on bureaucracy: a catalyst for administrative reform?)

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the Fernando Henrique Cardoso’s foreign policy was engaged in areas such as trade, financing, environment and security, it lacked a strategy of international insertion. The idea of this economical approach of the international relations was to support the existing international regime, maintaining the great powers contented and trying to take economical advantage of the relations with them. The consequence was an absence of political aspirations (CERVO, 2002). In this case, the strategy for South America was a discreet leadership. During the 90’s years almost every Latin American country emerged in the neoliberal ideology and, in this way, MERCOSUR did not become a platform of collective effort to development, but an effort to intensify internal trade and foreign investments (GONÇALVES, 2011). Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, from 2003 to 2011, on the other hand, directed the foreign policy towards a more independent and active insertion on the international scene, diversifying its relations and making an effort to achieve development thought an overcome of the impositions of the international order. Great number of agreements were established in the frame of South-South cooperation, as the formalization of IBSA and BRICS, and towards a more political, cooperative, nationalist and focused on development regional integration process (SARAIVA; RUIZ, 2009), by measures as strengthening the MERCOSUR and the creation of UNASUR. The political success of Brazilian leadership in South America integration demanded “generosity actions” of soft power towards its neighbors and partners, in order to ease tensions and make its leadership less opposed: the country has recognized economic asymmetries inside MERCOSUR and adjusted policies. In 2007, Brazil signed with Uruguay agreements to reduce asymmetries, including several offers of development assistance and investment. Brazil also agreed to reduce Uruguay’s trade deficit by facilitating the access of Uruguayan exports to Brazilian markets. Argentina government has made frequent use of protectionist measures and Brazil has become more tolerant in recognition of Argentina’s economic difficulties. In 2006, Bolivia nationalized the natural gas holdings of Brazilian company Petrobras. Lula adopted a very tolerant tone, stating Bolivia’s right to control its own resources and showing willingness to negotiate. The case of Bolivia is specially enlightening for one reason: Lula was a few months away from trying his reelection and he was under severe criticism of the media regarding this matter. The recent literature on the impact of public opinion in the foreign policy is still very inconclusive. In the United States, there is indication that, in recent decades, opinion influenced policy and vice versa, and that public opinion has a bigger role as a constrainer than in policy setting (SOBEL, 2001). There is also indication that the foreign policy strategy is generally disconnected with the population’s desires (PAGE; BOUTON, 2006). This leads to the discussion of whether the collective opinion is well informed, interested, organized and consistent enough to be a part of the decision making agenda. In this way, understanding the foreign policy as a public policy, this paper aims to provide a better apprehension on the relation between public opinion and foreign policy in Brazil and measure the influence of the media international coverage in the trust of the Brazilian voter regarding the “generosity positioning” adopted in relation to Bolivia and its effects in the 2006 presidential elections. References CERVO, Amado. Relações internacionais do Brasil: um balanço da era Cardoso. Rev. Bras. Polít. Int. 45 (1): 5-35 [2002]. GONÇALVES, Wlliams. Panorama da política externa brasileira no governo Lula da Silva, FREIXO, Adriano; et all A Política Externa Brasileira na Era Lula - Um Balanço. 1ª edição. Rio de Janeiro, APICURI EDITORA, 2011, p. 11-33. PUTNAM, Robert. Diplomacy and Domestic Politics: The Logic of Two-Level Games. International Organizations, Vol. 42, No. 3. (Summer, 1988), pp. 427-460, p. 430. SARAIVA, Miriam Gomes; RUIZ, José Briceño. Argentina, Brasil e Venezuela: as diferentes percepções sobre a construção do Mercosul. Rev. Bras. Polít. Int. 52 (1): 149-166 [2009]. SOBEL, Richard. The Impact of Public Opinion on U.S. Foreign Policy since Vietnam: Constraining the Colossus. The Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 66, No. 3, Oxford University Press (Autumn, 2002), pp. 460-463. PAGE, Benjamin I.; BOUTON, Marshall M. The Foreign Policy Disconnect: What Americans Want from Our Leaders but Don’t Get (American Politics and Political Economy Series). Chicago, University Of Chicago Press (October 1, 2006).

Zsuzsanna FEJES1 1 National University of Public Service A New Measurement and Assessment Model of Trust in Government in Hungary The paper is based on the sub-field of the research of Good Governance Research Centre of National University of Public Service in Hungary. The research attempts to evaluate the efficiency of the operation of government within the conceptual framework of “Good State Index, GSI”, designing a new measurement model of the quality of governance. The aim of the study is to analyse the assessment and measurement models related to the sense of trust in governance in Hungary. Firstly, the study examines the purpose and terminology of the good governance from the aspects of the democracy, rule of law and legal certainty. Secondly, the paper gives an overview of the indicator-systems and rankings, running by international institutions and organisations. Finally, the paper presents the new indicator system in the fields of “democracy and rule of law” and “trust in government”, illustrated relevant substantial and methodological problems of measurement model. Research has launched a process of reflection, which rotates around the ability to operationalization and measurement of democracy, rule of law and institutional trust in Hungary.

Ulrik KJAER1, Sune Hansen2, Ulrik Kjaer3 1 University of Southern Denmark, 2University of Southern Denmark, 3University of Southern Denmark Trusting Politicians and Institutions in a Multi-Level Setting The defining feature of representative democracy is the representative connection between voters and elected representatives by which voters elect politicians who then make decisions in the voters’ place until the next election, where the voters then

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evaluate the representatives by voting them in or out of office. In its simplicity, this vital mechanism for representative democracy to work looks ingenious at first, but it is worth noticing how radical the idea of representational democracy is – for an extensive period of time (in many cases four or five years) the many voters let the few politicians rule them and take all political decisions on their behalf. Deliberative arrangements which make discussions between citizens and politicians possible in between elections are of course also a part of the representative democratic set-up in many countries, but what basically kit the system together and enable political representation as a continuously working form of democracy is: TRUST. If the voters trust the politicians and the political institutions then the system can survive, otherwise it will be challenged. And in a world where representative democracy in many countries is seen as the preferred form of democracy, it is therefore essential to monitor the level of citizens’ trust in the representatives and in the legislatures these politicians occupy. When discussing trust, it is important to distinguish between the trust in the politicians and the trust in the institutions – it is possible to trust the parliament as an institution without trusting the MPs currently serving there, and vice versa. We will claim, that another important distinction is between politicians/institutions at different levels of government – in a more and more multi-levelled political structure, there can be significant differences in citizens’ trust related to these different levels of government. It might be that in some country at some point of time the claim is that politicians are (or are not) trusted, but the trust in local councilors, regional legislators and members of the national parliament might differ substantial. Therefore, we will in this paper focus on these potential inter-level differences. We will use Denmark as a case. Denmark consists of 98 municipalities and 5 regions so that every Dane votes for three elective bodies: municipal council, regional council and national parliament (Folketinget). In a survey conducted in 2013 we have asked no less than 4,902 Danes about their level of trust in the three institutions (municipal council, regional council, national parliament) and their level of trust in the politicians at each of the levels (municipal councilors, regional legislators and MPs). We have sampled at least 30 respondents in each municipality which allow us to conduct multi-level-analyses. We hypothesize that the level of trust will differ at the individual level (the older the more trust, public employees have more trust than private employees, etc.) but also at the municipal level, and this not least in regard to the difference in trust in local politicians/institutions vs national ditto. The smaller the municipality the more trust, the less economics stress in the municipality the more trust, the larger the mayoral coalition the more trust etc. The large dataset will allow us to test these hypotheses in a very systematic way, not only to evaluate the level of citizens’ trust and the variations herein but also to multi-level this kind of analysis mapping the important differences in citizens’ perception of different kinds of politicians. Since we have asked these questions also in a survey in 2001 and in 2009 we will even be able to comment on potential changes over time – in Denmark the municipalities were amalgamated in 2007 (reducing the number of municipalities from 275 to 98) and whether this influenced the level of trust in the local institutions/politicians can be evaluated (since 32 of the municipalities were not amalgamated we have a quasi-experimental setting).

Denis BORENSTEIN1, Clézio Saldanha dos Santos2, Thiago de Oliveira Costa3 1 Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, 2Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, 3Tribunal de Justiça/RS Evaluating the Impacts of CNJ Actions on the Efficiency of the Civil Chambers in the Justice Court of Rio Grande do Sul This work studies the relative efficiency of the Civil Chambers in the Court of Justice of Rio Grande do Sul. The main objective of this study is to verify if the National Council of Justice (NCJ) actions are causing a better management of the 25th Civil Chamber, chosen as a prototype for the implementation of NCJ line of actions, analysing the performance of the 25th civil chamber relative to the others, using Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA). The results enable managers to identify the best and worst performers. Relative efficiency ratings provided by the DEA technique are very useful to managers seeking to understand the performance of the units as a whole or of a specific individual unit. Managers, using the benchmarking analysis, can take corrective actions for the weaker performers based on the DEA results. Based on the results presented by this chamber, the NCJ actions could be validated.

Chunmei YOE1 1 Southeastern Oklahoma State University CitizenTrust in Local Government and Public Administration- A Study of Oklahoma City Metropolitan Area Projects Declining citizens’ trust in democratic government has been a concern of research. However, citizens’ trust in government at the local level has been much higher than at the federal and state levels in the United States, and has been steady since the 1970s. This study empirically analyzes Oklahoma City Metropolitan Area Projects (MAPS) programs as a case of what the local city government did and how they did it to steadily win citizens’ trust. The MAPS programs were gigantic urban redevelopment projects involving capital investment of billions of tax dollars. Oklahoma City leaders trusted the citizens and the citizens trusted their local government. Citizen participation in both the policy-decision process and the implementation process together with city government innovative and new public management were keys to the success of the MAPS programs for more than

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twenty years. The positive outcomes of the MAPS programs have strengthened the mutual trust. The fact that before one MAPS program completed, Oklahoma City citizens voted in favor of starting the next MAPS program is convincing evidence of citizens’ trust in their local government.

Dirk ZEITZ1 1 German Research Institute for Public Administration Regulatory impact assessment in Germany as tool to increase citizens’ trust? Strengths and weaknesses The contribution focuses on a specific type of accountability systems that have gained growing importance of the last years: systems of regulatory impact assessments (RIA). Systems of RIA generally aim at improving the quality of regulations and transparency about regulatory impact by showing costs and benefits of regulation. Whereas primarily focused on the political decision makers, RIA targets also the general public. The German system will be assessed from a citizen’s perspective, in particular with regard citizens’ participation and the specific citizen targeted information produced by RIA. Based on selected characteristics of the system and different examples it is argued that the RIA system in Germany may achieve citizens’ trust in federal legislations rather indirectly by the fact the fact there is some meta-regulation procedure in place than by actual participation of citizens or the production of citizen relevant information on regulatory impacts.

Soonhee KIM1, Jooho Lee 1 KDI School of Public Policy and Management Participatory Budgeting, Community Values, and Trust in Government: A Theoretical Model Participatory budgeting (PB), a leading citizen participation program under the participatory governance regime, has been introduced and utilized in Korea in the context of citizen-led democratization and for enhancing accountability and responsiveness of local government to the needs of their citizens. Although scholars analyze the factors affecting effective PB in Korea, there is limited empirical research on the impacts of the effective PB on governance values of transparency and public trust in government. The purpose of this study is to develop an integrated evaluation model of effective PB and the impacts of effective PB on transparency and public trust in government in Korea. Focusing on PB, firstly, this study conducts a literature review of the success factors of effective PB in Korea. The study particularly emphasize government management capacity for implementing participation programs (i.e., design, process, and evaluation), public managers’ and participants/citizens’ competency of authentic dialogue for enhancing quality discussion and decisions, and individual participant/citizen values and behavior that are affected by a civil society culture. Secondly, the study develops a research model and hypotheses that analyze the impacts of effective PB on transparency and trust in government. As PB has been diffused across many countries including Korea at local government level, scholars in public administration and practitioners in local government have discussed the benefits and limitations of PB and offered anecdotal evidence about its effects or comprehensive literature review. However, it is still unclear how PB could lead to enhanced government transparency and citizen trust in government. Drawing on a comprehensive literature review on antecedents of transparency and trust in government, this study offers a PB model of transparency and trust in government by emphasizing the roles of community values as mediator. The literature review has implied that the relationship between PB and trust in government can be indirect, which means that effective PB can affect trust in government through its other outcomes. As other outcomes, we focus on community values and transparency as mediators linking effective PB and trust in government. Specifically, the study asserts that PB creates community values (e.g. commitment to community issues) on participatory governance, which is related to trust in government while PB is associated with transparency in government, which shapes trust in government. Also, the model explores that transparency in government is directly related to community values and trust in government. Applying citizen participation, social network, and social capital theories and specific hypotheses are presented in this research. The future study of testing the hypotheses proposed in the study would enhance the theoretical and practical knowledge of how PB matters for enhancing transparency and public trust in government in Korea. The future empirical research should be conducted by identifying appropriate research design, research sites, data collection strategies including sample selection, and solid statistical techniques. Results of the empirical study would contribute to enhancing the practice of PB program in the Korean government by proposing several recommendations for strengthening participatory governance capacity for effective PB and leadership competency at the managerial and individual levels directly related to managing and institutionalizing citizen participation programs in the PB in local government.

Robert MICHENER1, Karina Rodrigues2, 1 FGV-EBAPE, 2FGV/EBAPE Transparently Discriminatory? How Identity Affects Access to Public Information and Trust in Transparency and Government Freedom of information (FOI) laws represent a bedrock transparency mechanism and constitute a fundamental right. By definition, fundamental rights should be non-discriminatory. Yet are common procedures in some countries, such as the obligation to self-identify when making a FOI request, prompting discrimination in the provision of public information? How common is

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it for public servants to Google requesters’ names? We revise the legal principle of identity-neutrality in the context of FOI, assess evidence on the question of discrimination, and evaluate the universe of FOI laws around the world, parsing countries into a taxonomy of identification obligations. Most importantly, we test the hypothesis as to whether self-identifying leads to discrimination in access to information. We do so in Brazil, a country that requires formal identification, by sending out more than 500 total requests in two separate field experiments that varied the institutional affiliations of requesters. Although we do find significant evidence of discrimination for female requesters lacking institutional affiliations and some evidence of longer response times for other ‘non-institutional’ identity profiles, our results are ultimately mixed and show that the proposition requires further testing. As a central policy implication, however, the paper marshals significant evidence to suggest that identity obligations may be stifling a more efficacious and broader use of FOI regimes. Kosuke OYAMA1 Keio University Which Effects Trust in the Civil Service, NPM or Post-NPM? Outcomes and Process form Comparative Perspective 1

The aim of this paper is to consider which restores trust in the civil servants, New Public Management (NPM) or post-NPM by empirically considering parallel questions on the effects on trust, outcomes or process. The previous studies treated outcomes and process with a limited comparison, and sometimes stressed on the performance effects on trust, but this paper treated 33 countries comparatively and found that process had more of an effect on trust. This paper also found that post-NPM restored trust in the local civil service in New Zealand and Japan. The structural equation models were tested by the data from the International Social Survey Program (ISSP) and our original New Zealand and Japan local government survey in 2015. Although there are some methodological problems, this paper may elucidate the importance of process and post-NPM for trust in the civil service.

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sector that it leads have resulted in new formations specifically social and voluntary movements to challenge the dominant sphere of public authority. Trends of the challenge of the legitimacy of the dominant hegemony is analysed here through Harbermas’ theory of structural transformation of the public sphere. Data is drawn from a variety of empirical studies, major social discourses, popular critical rational debates and movements of social protest that suggests an emergence of a bourgeoisie public/private sphere that provides alternative hegemonic ideology thereby escalating levels of social trust in the public sector. Rahel SCHOMAKER1, Andreas Knorr2, Christian Bauer3 1 Cologne Business School/German Research Institute, 2German University of Administrative Sciences Speyer, Germany, 3German Research Institute for Public Administration Speyer, Germany Mismanagement of Public Private Partnerships and the Role of Trust in Public and Private Actors The number of cooperation regimes between public and private actors (or, more precisely, Public-Private Partnerships – PPP) is on the rise worldwide. Nonetheless, as cases of re-municipalisation and failed projects demonstrate, the success of PPPs is not guaranteed. Hence the question of driving factors for the success or “failure” of these projects is matter of recent discussion. In our paper we discuss theoretically and based on empirical evidence (in particular outcomes from interviews and a newly developed survey amongst civil servants in Germany that started in Spring 2015) in how far issues of trust play a role in the – ex ante or ex post – failure of these PPP projects. As we find, trust amongst the actors involved turns out to play a pivotal role when it comes to the implementation of PPPs – the identified “trust-gap” therefore can be interpreted as one important stumbling stone to use PPPs efficiently and effectively. Keywords: Trust, Public Private Partnerships

Xu JIALIANG1, XU JIALIANG2 1 Center for the Third Sector, 2Center for the Third Sector ,Shanghai JiaoTong University Study on the form and expressions of citizen’s trust in government The trust and support of citizens is a key to government management. It can promote citizen’s involvement in political decision-making and policy implementation at the same time, which contributes governance efficiency and social harmony. The article is a comparative case study on “Xiamen PX Incident” with “Guo Meimei Incident”, discussing different expressions of citizen’s trust during different policies and different stages. In “Xiamen PX Incident”, people express their opinions through letters, meetings and network at first, followed by fierce street protests, which is the freezing point of relationships between government and citizens. In “Guo Meimei Incident”, it seems there is nothing related with government at first sight. However, people expressed their strong dissatisfaction with Guo’s behavior, in which she flaunted her considerable wealth by having unethical relationship with the Red Cross Society of China. The result of this incident costs the continue declining donation, day by day, the citizens direct express dissatisfaction to GONGO Different ways to describe citizen’s trust of government could come from “Xiamen PX Incident” and “Guo Meimei Incident” perspectives. It shows dissatisfaction image of government directly. The other creates the donation problem to Red Cross Society of China. According to cooperative governance theory, a tendency towards cooperative governance would take place in China, as no trust between citizen and government would be reached by government oriented and social autonomy. It will change the situation when policies are responded by political institution. By cooperative governance, policies need to be responded for citizens as well, and citizen, civil society organization will serve as governance role together with government. Consequently, citizen, civil society organization and government could affect political decision making together. This is also becoming the fundamental feature of cooperative governance. The article tries to keep abreast of the dynamic citizens, emphasize the role of civil society organization, change the way of the government acts, improve the scientific decision-making, remove the bureaucratization of civil society organization, increase citizen’s trust to government, ensure oversight of government, and improve government’s efficiency.

Pedro CAMOES1 1 University of Minho Explaining Confidence in Political-Administrative System: A Comparative World-wide Study Trust in the public sector, including civil service, is increasingly recognized as an important element of its performance. Concerns for restoring citizens’ trust are at the core of public sector modernization. The New Public Management model seems to be partly based on distrust, since the public sector expects to be trusted but does not necessarily trust its citizens or other public sector agents (Bouckaert 2012). While this issue is even more relevant in the context of the current financial crisis, several questions remain unanswered. According to a widely discussed view, these negative and/or declining figures/indicators in trust derive from the way administration functions and its poor performance. The result of this line of reasoning is the ever present call for public sector modernization, based on emphases on efficiency, productivity, and effectiveness, to restore citizen’s trust. The causality direction of this link between performance and trust right, however, is not clear (Van de Walle and Bouckaert 2003). Another line of argument is that trust in people and institutions of authority often depends more on process (such as fairness and equity) than on outcomes (Van Ryzin 2011). Still other scholars point to the argument that trust and distrust vary among agencies and, when it comes to comparative studies, differ significantly across countries because they are also culturally-determined. While attention to the issue of public sector (civil service) confidence is growing in the literature, empirical studies are still lacking. More research is needed to disentangle the different sets of hypotheses. Relying on survey data and regression analysis techniques, this paper analyzes trust in the public sector across countries with a special focus on confidence in the civil service. It aims at understanding to what extent trust depends on actual public sector performance, process factors, or culturally-determined factors. The theoretical relevance of the paper lies in ability to provide/explore different theoretical explanations with regard to different contexts of trust across countries and agencies. This research also allows practitioners to be wary of universal reform proposals for public administration to restore citizens’ confidence and trust.

Ericka ERICKSON1, Linda Jackson, AICP2, 1 San Francisco State University, 2City of San Rafael Planning Academies as a Strategy for Building Citizen’s Trust and Participation in Community Development: A Case-Study

Keywords: Citizen, Trust, Civil Society Organization, Public Policy, Cooperative Governance

Godfrey NETSWERA1 1 University of Limpopo What the emergence of protest movements in South Africa mean for public sector trust For the first time since the most newly found democracy in the African continent (in 1994); the levels of public sector trust by South Africans has dwindle its lowest ever between the years 2011 and 2014. Poor trust levels in the new ruling elite and the public

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Citizens’ Planning Academies are community education programs implemented for the last fifteen years in the Unites States to educate and engage different stakeholders in how communities are planned and shaped. This case study is an exploratory analysis of the San Rafael Planning Academy, which was first offered in 2009 by the City of San Rafael Community Development Department, as an initiative that can advance public trust and participation in community development. Concepts related to political trust, public participation, and common elements of Citizens’ Planning Academies are explored in this study as part of the framework for the San Rafael program analysis. Conclusions include reflections on the potential continuation of the program and its optimal use as one of the central elements of public engagement in local planning decision-making processes.

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Yuan WEI1 1 Sichuan Administration Institute Empirical Studies on the Relationship between Households’ Trust in Government and Agricultural Land Tenancy ——based on the households survey in four provinces In the premise of the separation of ownership and use right of land in China’s rural areas, agricultural land tenancy will be inevitably subject to the influence from the grass-roots government. In order to analyze the role of the trust in government from farmers in land tenancy, we have made a field research on 1305 households in 36 villages randomly selected in Shandong, Hubei, Gansu and Guangxi Provinces and got first-hand data in the year of 2010.In this thesis, we made statistical descriptions of households’ trust in government and agricultural land tenancy in field survey areas firstly, and then found that the formers have significant effect on the latter from the empirical analysis. Furthermore, as with the increase of the degree of farmers’ trust in government, the ratio of the land tenancy net of final use of the land will become less and less, which means a greater possibility of land leasing. In another word, the more the households’ trust in government is, the more inclined the land tenancy will be. In this paper, we have explained the conclusions above and given the relevant policy recommendations from the conclusions.

Robert SOBIECH1 1 National School of Public Administration (Krajowa Szkola Administracji Publicznej) Why do/don’t they trust us? The image of public administration in 13 European countries – civil servants’ perspective. The paper presents results of the qualitative survey of employees and managers from central government administrations of 11 European countries, commissioned by the European Social Dialogue Committee in Central Government Administrations. The study reveals dominant reasons for citizens’ trust and distrust in the central government administration and shows the key differences in defining the drivers of trust in low- and high-trust countries. The study shows that trust has no or a little impact on public support for austerity measures in the government administration and on the social standing of civil servants, but strongly influences job satisfaction and sense of identity with the civil service. The paper concludes that the deconstruction of the “bureaucracy” stereotype and better understanding of public administration tasks and roles its play in a society, represent main challenges for all the countries studied.

Yuduo FENG1 1 China Society of Administrative Reform It will be helpful to improve level of administration’ trust through reasonable ways to public government information Trust plays a key role in harmonic society. Meanwhile the information explosion makes it harder to hide a scandal today. Moreover it may be a better way to show the will of accepting supervision by government information disclosure voluntarily. It also shows that government would like to let citizens share the right of administrative participation. But until now no clear evidence shows the influential which to what extent information disclosure could create more government trust. This essay will argue that it is a good way to increase the trust of citizen in government through information disclosure, however, it may be opposite effect when administrations are not ready for solving some following problems. Therefore it is significant to find suitable ways to public information which could help governments alleviates the trust crisis when there is negative news.

ÁKOS CSERNY1, Andras Nemeslaki2, Szilárd Molnár3 1 National University of Public Service, 2National University of Public Service, Faculty of Public Administration, Hungary, 3National Strategy Research Institute, Hungary The Possibilities and Limitations of e-Voting – Directions of Research and Development Proposals to Extend e-Democracy In our paper we present a research framework, how the concept of e-voting, as a complex info-communication technology (ICT) innovation can potentially create social trust on an institutional level and political cohesion on a national level. In the centre of our argument will be the observation that the fluid borders between citizenship and nationality combined with mobility of inhabitants increase the demand for innovative voting solution supporting national elections. Hungary is not in the front line of e-Voting initiatives, nor is involved in wide scale e-participation experiments and initiatives. On the contrary, strategic focus of e-Government developments are placed on the integrative vision of ICT applications such as simplification, interoperability, portal development, one-stop-shop, and electronic services. ICT applications in the area of enhancing the governance dimension are not in the mainstream of agenda, and in this paper we intend to argue why it should.

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The motivation for our initiative originates from the practical opportunity of the new planning horizon of the 2014-2020 EU operative and cohesion fund cycle, the need for governance reforms generally in EU but specifically in the CEE countries, and finally to enrich the theoretical frameworks of understanding the drivers and barriers of e-democracy and particularly e-voting in CEE. We propose five directions for e-Voting development in the Hungarian and broader CEE context based on a conceptual review of the topic and some empirical data and observation. Also by developing this multifaceted research agenda we may find useful theoretical contribution to the field of e-democracy in general. The first dimension of our research proposition for e-Voting is the assessment of the desire to vote dimension in two virtual situations – somewhat less addressed fields in CEE. The first is to get insights form EU citizenship and its implication on voting, and the second is how opportunities of expatriate or out-of-country voting might enhance the impetus on e-Voting. Increasing national cohesion for out-of-country citizens might serve as a driver and essential political motivator for e-Voting experiments even in less “participatory” countries. Secondly, we recommend that building e-Voting programmes on comprehensive cybersecurity foundations also might indicate more likely institutional trust building especially in the technical mechanisms of the electronic voting processes. Comprehensiveness in this context covers coordinated technical, legal and educational approach to information security with a potentially wide spill over impact in security awareness which opens up doors for e-Voting development. Since 2012, Hungary has been building a systematic strategy, legal codification and awareness campaign in the area of cyber security, which might be used as a trust-building technical foundation for further e-Government development, such as e-Voting. Thirdly, we argue that creating and enhancing e-Government solutions gradually increase participation which increases willingness to technology adoption. Given the fact, that e-Voting is on the top of e-participation maturity chain, building up the level of ICT adoption and use, both on the institutional and citizen side, contributes to a more astute and innovative social environment. We argue that out-of-country voting might be a special driver in this context when a country extends e-Voting to a more e-participative country than its home base. Fourthly, with the illustration of sociological research amongst youth in Europe and Hungary we proposed an intensive stream of constructivist inquiry how trust can be built in democratic institutions via technology and how electoral organizations can be won to embrace the idea of e-Voting initiations. An essential bridge between ICT and society is the aforementioned attitude and inclusion of technology use; let that be e-commerce, e-government or simply personal applications. Going further into the social structures which might determine acceptance of e-Voting Prosser and Krimmer refers to the level of political participation, turnout in postal voting and desire to vote in general. If we take this chain of thought further, we could take general trust in voting, voting institutions, and finally democracy which embraces all of these terms. In our context of Hungary, and in CEE, this is a critical element of any future development in e-Voting since there are deeply rooted social barriers which hinder technology deployments for enhancing democratic participation. Finally, the fifth research stream in our agenda proposition is the R+D necessity of e-Voting in controlled and gradually extended environments. After the in depth analysis of the public ICT R+D projects in the 2007-2013 programming period we found that those were focusing on the integrative development of e-Government; e-Governance has been neglected both in the technology aspect and in the awareness dimensions. By looking at the project results, however, the more developed e-Government infrastructure might serve as a spring-board for e-governance and participation programmes for the 2014-2020 planning cycle. In conclusion, we offer our arguments not only to the Hungarian and CEE context, so that the fictitious e-Voting future could be brought closer to reality, but by developing this multifaceted research scheme we may also find useful theoretical contribution to the field of e-democracy in general.

MANOEL MACHADO NETO1, Manoel Machado Neto2, Marcelo Ficher3 1 SOCIEDADE EDUCATIVA OBSERVATÓRIO DA COMUNICAÇÃO INSTITUCIONAL , 2O.C.I, 3O.C.I. Transparency as an ethical imperative: confluence of Management and Public Relations in the twenty-first century. Transparency as an ethical imperative: confluence of Management and Public Relations in the twenty-first century. Manoel Marcondes Machado Neto & Marcelo Luiz Ficher (@ Sociedade Educativa Observatório da Comunicação Institucional). This paper discusses the historical aspects that split and join, in theory and in practice, the adoption of best practices of public relations in the management of organizations - in the public, private and third sector - in Brazil, and points to the need and relevance of a reintegration of these two fields for the benefit of «full citizenship» (for individuals and for organizations too), a concept with which the authors have been working for the past three years. Unlike other countries, where the origin of studying Public Relations always took place in communication schools - and the University of New York was the precursor, in 1935 - the spread and the formal teaching of Public Relations in Brazil began in management schools, pioneering the School of Public Administration (EBAP) of the Getulio Vargas Foundation (FGV) and thereafter at FGV, the School of Business Administration, in the 1950s and 1960s. Only from the regulation of the P.R. profession in Brazil (1967), by decision of the Ministry of Education, PR goes to the field of communication as one of the three main qualifications at

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undergraduate: Journalism, Advertising & Public Relations. In the authors’ view, this change was harmful to both areas, to Management and Public Relations. In the administrative field, was lost sight of the relevance and depth of communication as a management tool, that as primarily intended for communication in organizations, the actions cosmetic and superficial, as ceremonial organization and personnel integration programs of little strategic importance. Or, in another sense, more recently, tensioned by marketing needs on the external visibility and image building. As far as in the case of marketing, the permanence of public relations in the field of communication led to duplication of tasks with Journalism - being the most blatant case of the insane race for prerogative in relations with the press - as marketing itself, in his most visible aspect, the advertising, as both defined as focused on building a perception of products, services and companies in the consumer’s mind, aiming at achieving business. The work presented aims to strengthen the proposition of a rapprochement between Management and Public Relations, at the level of academic training and the practice of management, around a concept that is present in almost all the speeches in the corporate world, but finding little or no effectiveness in conducting business: the exercise of transparency. Transparency is a consequence of communication: to inform the public about acts, whether governments, businesses or non-governmental-organizations. And it is a commandment which implies huge changes in procedures, so that does not become another resource shelf when it comes to the public display of an organization, whether in opportunity or crisis scenario. Transparency as an ethical imperative demand alignment or realignment of all internal processes and interaction with the environment, so that it is a paradigm of performance at all levels, including the relationship with employees, with the production chain (suppliers, contractors and related companies), with customers and citizens in general, individually and collectively. This concept is in line with what we call «Full Public Relations», which is an amalgam of what would be the Public Relations had remained on the Management of the trail, with what has become after their forced migration to the field of communication. In no other country, public relations has the theoretical scope that it has acquired in Brazil, heritage from that time they were taken by those who thought Brazil as part of the professional “intelligentsia” pool intended to lead Brazil to social and economic development. At the same time, the last 50 years, as the communication sub-area, public relations obtained place in strategic communication actions (and marketing), taking leadership especially those involving the media, this being the main feature of Public Relations throughout the world. In short, the approach that we offer to the public, as future vision for the profession in Brazil, is a re-union of the trajectory interrupted in the 1960s, as we said, with the prospect of full citizenship, from the reorganization of the institutions around a key concept: that of transparency. And the vision that organizations serve the individuals and society, and not the contrary. Transparency as philosophy, politics and organizational culture and consequently as “modus operandi”, approaches that vision Public Relations we propose from the remnants of its primary period in the field of Management, and a particular vision of much closer authors notion of ‘identity’ than of ‘image’, as they are often defined. Such a view has been taken public on two occasions - with the publication of the books «Public Relations and Marketing: convergence between communication and administration» and «Transparency is the Soul of Business: the ‘4 Rs’ of the full public relations» as well as the joint paper of the authors, entitled «Syncretic Manifesto: Public Relations and Management», all works that deal with the close relations between the two major areas. The study is just appropriate at the time, history for public relations, in which the Brazilian Ministry of Education (MEC) has just approved the subdivision of degrees in communication, establishing independent courses for each area separately. Opens therefore a window of opportunity for the review of the theoretical framework that supports the profession, with the addition of knowledge and practices in the country of their origin, as well as the resumption of close ties between the careers for the benefit models management more attuned to the future, more humanistic, more focused on people and leaving behind the immediate vision that permeated the management, especially in the second half of last century. «Be more, talk less,» is an efficient summary of this confluence of real concerns with sustainability, current corollary of best management practices. Building identity from transparency, as the authors suggest, requires sophisticated levels of interaction with the public, replacing the institutions to serve the people, and not the opposite.

Gabriella Margherita RACCA1, Roberto Cavallo Perin2, Gabriella M. Racca3 University of Turin , 2University of Turin, 3University of Turin Corruption as betrayal of trust in Public Administration and as a violation of fundamental rights 1

It is a commonly shared view that poor integrity undermines the main objectives of private and public activities and distracts from their main goals. The lack of integrity affects fundamental rights and is even more unacceptable and serious when perpetrated by public authorities. It causes a waste of resources and undermines the trust and effectiveness of public powers. Moreover, tolerance of corruption distorts the rules of civil society and the quality of services provided to citizens. This paper highlights to what extent corruption erodes the pillars of democracy, the solidarity principle and the trust in public institutions. The principle of solidarity provides that the citizens should assure loyalty to the members of a social body assuring social cohesion. The pillars of anticorruption should be the values of solidarity and social cohesion that hold citizens together in any legal system. Such principles should exclude any tolerance for corruption, as corruption undermines fundamental rights. People’s representatives are all too often captured by non-transparent economic interests and divert the pursuit of public and citizens’ interests. Corruption in the public sector represents an emblematic case of such diversion determining the betrayal of trust in public administration. Systemic corruption costs to the citizens and they pay it with lower-quality public services. In the past often stakeholders have been kept unaware of such distortions due to a lack of transparency, information asymmetries, or undeveloped competences.

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A wider transparency and the oversight by civil society might be extremely useful for ensuring that the public activities are correctly performed. Civil society has a key role to play in fighting corruption, from monitoring public activities to denounce bribery and raising awareness of the risks of wasting public money. A new emphasis on the accountability of politicians and of public officials, organizational design and social sanctions is needed. Wastes and corruption betray the links of solidarity among citizens and social cohesion. A concrete risk of loss of reputation and improved audit systems could become effective deterrents to improper conduct for the benefit of citizens.

Jonathan SPEIER1 1 Fundação Getulio Vargas A proposition of citizen involvement in governmental action to increase the quality and positive effects of potential outcomes Rio de Janeiro, as the host city for the Olympic and Paralympic Games in 2016, will be highly visible at a national and global level, offering the opportunity to perpetuate a tradition of attracting thousands of domestic and international tourists to the Games. The infusion of these tourists, with their economic purchasing power, could potentially have an important positive impact on the quality of life of many economically disadvantaged and disenfranchised people in the City of Rio de Janeiro by offering possibilities for poverty reduction as well as for social and human development. Numerous efforts have reflected the growing recognition that, to have a successful positive impact on their lives, there is a need to integrate both well-functioning government institutions and free-market mechanisms through the use of crosssectorial partnerships and networks that enhance the level of stakeholder participation in relevant decision-making processes. Leadership in the public sector at a local, state and national level, besides public support policies, has been increasingly crucial in collaborative initiatives among the public, private and non-governmental actors (Robertson & Pirnejad, 2014). The challenge exists in identifying efforts to increase the involvement of citizens of politically and economically excluded population in governmental action that encourages collaboration among stakeholders who may influence or be influenced by relevant decisions. The literature on the topic of networks in public management provides useful information about how collaborative governance systems can be designed and managed so as to function effectively. Nevertheless, there is still more to be learned from studying a diverse array of these systems to better understand how they function and what it takes for them to be successful (Robertson & Speier, 2009). Based on the author’s professional experiences and observations, this paper will provide initiatives employed by some North American indigenous tribes, a population historically disenfranchised from the mainstream economic and political condition, which may offer ways of improving participation and the quality and positive effects of the outcomes for similar populations in the City of Rio de Janeiro. These efforts may present interesting examples of collaborative governance in that the basic purpose of many tribal systems clearly has a public good or public value quality to it of participation and sharing along with a considerable potential for the aim of achieving win-win outcomes, such as economic, social and human development goals, based on if the network is able to generate efficiencies and/or synergies (Robertson & Speier, 2009).

Nirmala DORASAMY1 1 Durban University of technology Transforming the public sector through a “customer first” paradigm Since the advent of democracy in 1994, many initiatives to improve service delivery have been formulated and implemented. One such crucial policy is the Batho Pele White Paper, which intends to transform the public service at all levels. In ensuring effective public service delivery according to the Batho Pele Principles, customers require the following: Be consulted, have services that comply with set standards, access to services, be treated with courtesy, information, transparency, redress, receive value for money. This was driven by a democratic South Africa which inherited a public service that was not peoplefriendly and lacked the skills and attitudes to meet the developmental challenges facing the country. In the struggle to transform the public service, there was a need to ensure that citizens are served properly, that all employees work to their full capacity and to treat state resources with respect. A crucial department like Home Affairs is not immune to challenges relating to the application of Batho Pele principles. The Department of Home Affairs (DHA) is a core government department that produces enabling documents that give access to government services like government grants, housing and education and is needed by everybody who enters, lives and exits in South Africa through natural, social, economic and political processes.

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The Public Service Commission report revealed that fraud and corruption involving bribing of officials to obtain fraudulent identity documents, passports, marriage certificates and the sale of identity documents to illegal immigrants were rife in government departments like the DHA. The losses that accrue from a culture of permissiveness with respect to corruption include a loss of revenue, loss of trust, loss of values, loss of credibility and legitimacy and a loss of the democratic ethos serving the common good. For the purpose of this study, a case study using the mixed method was used. The study was qualitative and quantitative in nature, using questionnaires, interviews, journals and government publications. The case study was useful in catching the close up reality and thick description of participants experiences and thoughts in understanding certain phenomena, applying solutions to current problems based on past problem-solving and generated further theories for empirical testing The findings of the research showed that while initiatives were in place to ensure the application of the Batho Pele principles, challenges still exist. Recommendations focus on enhanced procedures and processes relating to Batho Pele to improve service delivery at the Department of Home Affairs.

Otavio SANTOS1, Gregory Michener2, Otavio Santos3 1 FGV/EBAPE, 2FGV/EBAPE, 3FGV/EBAPE This paper analyzes the principal obstacles of using open government data to improve public educational outcomes. Examining two ‘most different cases’, the educational sectors of Brazil and United Kingdom, the findings illustrate three strains of resistance to open government in the form of professional animosities, bureaucratic and technical weaknesses, and privacy concerns. We argue that resistance towards openness can be overcome by applying a «data-informed» paradigm, whereby government delivers a secure data platform to connect school communities to facilitate monitoring and decision-making processes. We suggest ways in which policy makers might address obstacles in the design of open data initiatives.

Ali SAHIN1, Yasin TASPINAR2, 1 Selcuk University Faculty of Economics and Administratice Sciences, 2Selcuk University, FEAS Citizens’ trust in public institutions: a field study Citizens’ trust (distrust) in public institutions has become a subject of focus for researchers in the field of social sciences, in recent years. The decline of trust in public institutions, especially in the last decades, continues despite the implementation of governance and new public management principles. It is not easy to overcome that trust problem. Indeed, trust is a phenomenon affected by many factors. Therefore, the factors effecting trust should be carefully examined; measures about each factor should be taken for the reconstruction of trust. Regarding that point, it is discussed to what extent public institutions are perceived as trustworthy by the citizens, in this study. Along with the trust in public institutions, several factors thought to affect the level of that trust to public institutions constitute another focus of the study. The literature on trust and the trust in public institutions specifically is dealt in the study. In the application part of the study, the scale prepared in the light of past theoretical and practical studies, was used to analyze citizens’ trust in public administration. Using the data derived through the field study conducted over the citizens living in Derebucak, Hüyük and Doğanhisar Districts of Konya; some results were found about the citizens’ trust in public institutions. The citizens were found to consider the behaviour of the public employees and their previous experiences for trusting or distrusting the public institutions. Additionally some significant and positive correlations were observed between citizens’ trust in public institutions and the factors, thought to affect that trust.

Dieter SCHIMANKE1 1 State Secretary (retired) Trust through Participation and Transparency? Changes in the planning and implementation processes of projects of complex public infrastructure.

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relationship between the three corners of the triangle of participation, transparency and public trust: Trust

Participation

Transparency

The empirical part of the paper examines programmes and projects of complex public infrastructure. These fields represent a high public attention and significant changes of concepts of public information, communication and procedures in the last years. In the German context, the most significant sectors are the following two: (1) energy (new plants of alternative energy like wind or solar energy, great cross-country lines to transport energy etc.) and (2) transport infrastructure (enlargement of highways, new bridges and tunnels, new railway lines and railway stations, extension of airports and new airports, waterways). - Indicators for increase (or decrease) of public trust are consequences in the system of representative democracy (parties, elections etc.) on the one hand and the percentage of cases that went to the courts (and the rate of successful legal actions) on the other hand. Finally, the sectors, programmes and projects differ in a number of aspects. That will lead to a typology of different arrangements between the three corners of the triangle.

Kai MASSER1, Jesse P. Lehrke2 1 German Research Institute for Public Administration (GRIP) , 2German Research Institute for Public Administration (GRIP) Leviathan 2.0: Reinforcing the Social Contract by Open Security Security is, according to anthropological and socio-biological research, one of the oldest and most important of tasks of the social group. • Security as a precondition to trust in government • Participation of the civil society as a precondition of security • Co-production with civil society as a precondition of security? • How to safeguard trust in a modern complex society? • Towards a concept of “Open Security” (as a part of Open Government) In our paper we discuss the reasons why the state “needs” the help of the citizens in order to guarantee security in the modern era. Once we understand why only co-produced security can be effective, we can then begin to explore precisely how people can help the state to provide more subjective and objective security while simultaneously reinforcing the bonds between the two rather than undermining them. Clearly this cannot be done through the public-private partnerships that have thus far been experimented with. There is too much evidence that private action in the field of security has unforeseen consequences, lacks accountability, and can lead even to social collapse and state failure. Yet indirect participation through elections, or even direct via plebiscites, is also not enough; they may reinforce legitimacy in the short-term, but do not inherently improve effectiveness nor long-term trust. Our answer to meeting the current threats of security is by applying the principles of open government. Only participation, predicated on openness and extending to open innovation and co-production, offers the potential to again secure our society from corrosive or existential threats, imagined and real. By showing trust in its citizens in the realm of security the state can not only more effectively provide security but thereby can increase the trust the citizens in turn have in the state.

Reto STEINER1, Lukas REICHMUTH2 1 Centre of Competence for Public Management, 2University of Bern Saints or Seducers? The Role of Management Consultants in Public Sector Organizations

This paper discusses the thesis that more transparency would lead to more trust in politics and public administration. Transparency is improved by different changes of laws and procedures in the context of approaches of ‘Open Government’, like Freedom of Information, extension of information and public communication in the processes of public planning and decisionmaking. The use of modern technologies (especially IT and the different approaches of E-government) and the use of Social Media for public information and communication have the capacity to support these processes of transparency. Moreover, the extension of participation of the citizen (in different forms from public discussions until direct democracy) is a development in the recent two decades.

Management consultants play an increasing role in public sector organizations. All tiers of government seek the consultants’ expertise to reorganize public administration, especially in times of financial crisis. Yet, the awareness of this increasing external influence on governments has been rather low. A conceptual framework that would structure future research is helpful.

The hypothesis of the paper is that these extensions of transparency and participation have only a limited effect for the enhancement of legitimation of the decisions of politics and public administration. There is only a weak (one-way or mutual)

The article concludes with a research framework and hypotheses. These hypotheses will be tested by conducting an empirical study in Switzerland next year as part of an EU COST action.

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This research note answers three questions: (1) Why are management consultants so common in the public sector? (2) In which phases of a reform process are management consultants called in, and (3) what impact do they have on the administrative system and the society as a whole?

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Jean Bernard NATIVEL1 1 LABORATOIRE CREOP - IAE LIMOGES La confiance dans l’administration publique : les raisons d’un échec d’un outil de gestion de comptabilité analytique dans la banque centrale française En matière de conventions, la confiance définit un mode spécifique d’interaction liant les individus (Orléan, 1994). Chaque homme porte sa confiance en un certain nombre de valeurs, de représentations et de systèmes de justifications qui situent ses propres calculs et ses propres jugements (Gomez, 1995). Ainsi, les incertitudes possibles sont réduites dès lors que le niveau de confiance s’accroît. Arrow (1974) définit la confiance comme une «institution invisible» ayant une valeur économique réelle, mais distincte d’»une marchandise pour laquelle l’échange sur un marché est techniquement possible ou même a un sens». La confiance remplir alors une fonction ambitieuse : «elle est un lubrifiant important du système social». Granovetter (1985) a introduit la notion d’embeddedness (encastrement) des relations sociales et économiques. Selon lui, une meilleure compréhension des comportements humains suppose de les concevoir comme étant «enchâssés» dans des réseaux de relations interpersonnelles et sociales. De la sorte, la confiance repose sur «des relations personnelles concrètes, qui se sont structurées en réseau, qui ont une histoire, et qui pénètrent plus ou moins profondément dans la vie économique» (Rojot, 2003). Dans une organisation publique, la confiance apparaît comme un élément déterminant dans l’organisation des relations, des interactions et de l’efficacité. Le cas de la banque centrale française révèle à travers cette étude des insuffisances imputables à plusieurs facteurs tant institutionnels que comportementaux.

Mohamed HARAKAT1 (harakatmohamed@yahoo.fr) 1 université Mohammed v – RABAT La crise de confiance dans l’Administration Publique dans les pays arabes : dix propositions de l’amélioration de la gouvernance de la diplomatie économique marocaine en Afrique Le déficit en matière de la confiance en Administration Publique dans les pays arabes est problématique. Il impacte dialectiquement (et négativement) les différents types, niveaux et aspects de la gouvernance : économique, financière et politique. Or cette dernière qui se manifeste notamment par l’état de la démocratie, la participation et la transparence influence profondément le fonctionnement et l’état d’esprit de toute la pyramide de l’Administration Publique. Celle-ci constitue en fait le reflet et l’image du politique. Le graphique n°1 ci-après illustre les interférences entre les quatre types de gouvernance :

Gouverance économique

Gouverance politique et culturelle

31ème Congrès international des Sciences administratives

Dans un monde globalisé marqué par la crise, la diplomatie économique joue un rôle primordial dans le processus de croissance, c’est-à-dire la création des richesses, la stabilité politique et la lutte contre le sous- développement. L’Administration Publique dans son processus d’accompagnement de l’entreprise permet de parvenir à la réalisation des objectifs de la diplomatie économique si toutes les conditions d’adhésion, de mobilisation, de compétence et d’évaluation sont remplies. En l’occurrence, la diplomatie économique constitue en fait une part importante de la pratique de l’Administration Publique dans tous les pays du monde.

LUIS ANDRÉS ROJAS GALVIS1, Andrea Suarez2, Camilo Barrera3, Camilo Lara4, 1 Research group on Citizenship and Public Finance, 2Research group on Citizenship and Public Finance, 3Research group on Citizenship and Public Finance, 4Research group on Citizenship and Public Finance Legitimate trust on educational quality tests «SABER 11» The main objective of this work is to analyze the elements that constitute the legitimate trust of the citizens on the results of the educative quality evaluation tests SABER 11, in order to choose a private basic and middle educative institution that allows the students to continue with their academic process in the college level. In a first moment we will theorize about the concept of legitimate trust from its develop in colombian and international jurisprudence, in a second moment we will show the main features of the educational quality tests SABER 11, starting from legal order given to the ICFES by colombian legislation, at this point we will face the concept of legitimate trust in the state and quantitative results of the educational quality tests SABER 11, in order to determine how much those tests work to evidence the behavior of citizens when choosing basic and middle level private educational institutions, to eventually get to the university. In the third part, we will recognize involved actors and some determinant attributes about school choosing. Finally, we will present general conclusions and guiding ideas for a future develop of the study.

Egle BUTKEVICIENE1, Egle Vaidelyte2, Giedrius Zvaliauskas3 1 Kaunas University of Technology, 2Kaunas University of Technology, 3Kaunas University of Technology National Identity and Trust in Government: Comparative analysis of public & private sectors in Europe Environmental activism and other ways of pro-environmental behaviours have become a valuable part of our contemporary societies. Although there is a growing literature on this issue, a number of questions about the environmental behaviour and activism in a comparative perspective are still understudied. This paper relies on data from 2010 International Social Survey Programme (ISSP) module Environment and aims to examine cross-national variation in environmental behaviours. This paper investigates environmental activism focusing on a socio‐demographical profile of environmental group members across the European countries and patterns of environmentally‐oriented public behaviours (e.g. civic activities such as signing a petition about an environmental issue, giving money to an environmental group, or taking part in a protest or demonstration about an environmental issue, being a member of environmental NGO) as well as environmentally‐oriented private behaviours (e.g. sorting glass or tins or plastic or newspapers and so on for recycling, cutting back on driving a car, reducing the energy or fuel you use at home, choosing to save or re-use water and avoiding of buying certain products for environmental reasons). The study also employs a comparison of data on the attitudes towards the best ways of getting business and industry and people and their families to protect the environment: should we punish, reward or educate?

Gouverance administrative

Heungsuk CHOI1, Hyun Joon Kim2 1 Korea University, 2Korea University Willingness to Pay, Perceived Quality of Public Service, and Trust Ce déficit est dû notamment à la mauvaise gouvernance marquant la gestion publique d’une manière générale. La situation devient paradoxale. Les paradoxes de la gouvernance dans les pays arabes sont multiples et complexes. Ils résident dans sept (07) éléments caractéristiques intimement liés24: • Paradoxes de la culture rentière et de l’instabilité politique ; • Paradoxes de la vision stratégique et des priorités du développement ; • Paradoxes de la fragilité du système productif et du chômage des jeunes ; • Paradoxes de la reddition des comptes, de la crise de la confiance envers les institutions publiques ; • Paradoxes de la démocratie représentative et de la gouvernance locale ; • Paradoxes de l’université et de l’économie du savoir ; • Paradoxes de la formation en humanités et de la culture de la gouvernance démocratique.

This study investigates the willingness to pay of the citizen in providing some key public services including K-12 education, police service, food security, emergency medical and 119 service, and air pollution management. Of special interests is to analyze the extent to which different groups of citizens have systematically different levels of WTPs for public services. This study also delineates the factors affecting citizens’ willingness to pay. This study shows that each public service has somewhat different list of variables to influence the amount of its WTP. It also shows that citizens’ trust on government, as well as perceptions of public officials, are important factors influencing their WTPs, while their personal interests in public services matter indeed. The study also reveals that the citizens can be clustered in terms of their positions concerning the public service, and that different citizen groups can develop different tendencies concerning their WTPs.

24 Mohamed Harakat « Les paradoxes de la gouvernance dans les pays arabes » préface de M.de VRIES et A.R.Dwoody , à paraitre à L’Harmattan , Paris , 2015

2015 International Congress of IIAS - Rio de Janeiro - June 2015

Congrès international de l’IISA, 2015 - Rio de Janeiro - Juin 2015

31ème Congrès international des Sciences administratives

31th International Congress of Administrative Sciences

ANDREAS KNORR1, Kai Masser2, André W. Heinemann3 German University of Administrative Sciences, 2German Research Institute for Public Administration Speyer, 3 University of Bremen, Germany Can mediation increase citizens’ trust in public sector decision- making? Lessons from Germany’s largest mediation concerning Frankfurt Airport’s expansion

society by government entities at all levels and the ability of governments to monitor the public interest initiatives that impact on decision-making and deepening the dialogue dialogue between government and society are fundamental to the development of public policies in synergy with its beneficiaries.

With 58 million passengers, 2.1 million tons of air cargo and some 475,000 aircraft movement per year (figures for 2013), Frankfurt Airport is not only Germany’s largest airport by far and currently in 11th place worldwide for passenger services and in 7th place for cargo. It is also the country’s largest employment complex, serving as a platform for some 500 companies with a total workforce of 78,000. Due to its close proximity to downtown Frankfurt (which is just 11 kilometers away) and its location within one of Germany’s most densely populated agglomerations, every proposal to extend the airport has been met with fierce opposition from local residents, often escalating into violent clashes between protesters and the police: On November 2nd, 1987, two police officers were shot dead by a protester in the follow-up to the opening of the airport’s third runway, the Startbahn 18 West, the construction of which took 18 years to complete and was accompanied by unprecedented mass protests, which led to one of Germany’s most serious political crises after World War II. When in 1997 Lufthansa’s CEO urged another massive extension of the airport, most importantly a fourth runway to ease congestion, the government of the state of Hesse decided to use informal (i.e. not legally binding) mediation before the official planning and authorisation process to defuse the conflict potential between opponents and advocates of the proposed extension project. On July 16th, 1998, the first of 24 meetings of the “mediation group” was held. When it presented its final report in January 2000, the longest and most complex mediation in Germany’s history had come to a close. In order to strike a fair balance between the relevant economic, environmental and social interests and concerns, the final “mediation package” contained five “inextricably linked” recommendations for the future expansion of the airport: The optimisation of existing facilities, capacity extension, a strict curfew from 23pm and 5am (“mediation night”), an “anti-noise package” and the establishment of a “regional forum for dialogue”. Giving in to demands by Lufthansa and Fraport AG, the airport operator, the government of Hesse did not fully comply with the mediation group’s recommendations, however, in the official approval procedure for the fourth runway. In particular, a maximum of 17 aircraft movements was permitted during the curfew, and a total of 150 movements between 22pm and 6am on a daily basis. Anti-noise activists, supported by a large number of local politicians, took the case to Germany’s highest administrative court and prevailed in 2012. Nevertheless, (peaceful) protests of residents seeking an extension of the curfew continue to this day. In our paper we use the Frankfurt Airport mediation as a case study to identify the benefits and challenges of mediation as a tool to increase trust in public decision-making, especially with respect to controversial large-scale infrastructure projects which frequently suffer from NIMBY issues and cost overruns due to often substantial completion delays. Using the Coase theorem as our theoretical reference, we conclude that mediation, if properly applied, can indeed contribute to an efficient outcome and, hence, be conducive (re)building trust in government and public administration. However, its efficacy hinges critically on how well the key assumptions of the Coase theorem are fulfilled in the respective case.

Subtheme 2 / Sous-thème 2

Lenhard PEDRO1, Amaro Grassi2, Marco Aurelio Ruediger3 1 FGV, 2FGV, 3FGV Experiences using social media data on public policy tools development Brazil has experienced profound changes in the last decades. The biggest one is the rise of an increasingly informed and more educated civil society and public opinion, influencing and actively dialoguing, whether in political processes or about society themes and values. As recent wide-spread adoption of electronic and pervasive technologies has enabled the study of human behavior at an unprecedented level, the costs and time to groups of the society to organize itself around a common value has decreased considerably. As more and more people use social media to communicate their opinions and perceptions about public events, researchers have increasingly been collecting and analyzing data from the internet, more specifically, from social media platforms. Based on a wide range of concepts from sociology, political science and linguistics, our work focus describes our experience on monitoring of social networks as a reliable channel enhancement of citizens in state institutions and public policies. New Information and Communication Technologies gives a new perspective to the policymaker regarding the perception of society in relation to the referred public policy, constituting as an instrument for the construction of state trust, in a context of fast economic, political and social shifts. The central hypothesis of the analysis is that broad access to ICTs allows, on the one hand, that citizens send their demands more effectively to the State and assess the effectiveness of implemented policies and on the other, the public administrator, through network monitoring tools to track in real time the impact of policies and gather information for their constant improvement. The analysis will focus on two network monitoring tools developed by the Directorate of Public Policy Analysis of the FGV (FGV dapp):. The Themes Monitor and the Pulse of the Country. Both were used to monitor the public debate during the 2014 Elections in Brazil and provided a picture of the main demands of society in areas such as education, health, security, transportation and corruption, among others. The integration of methodologies for quantitative analysis, qualitative and spatial distribution of the entries in the networks revealed a synthesis of the main challenges of the Brazilian government for the next four years, providing subsidies for increasing public trust in institutions in ac context of legitimacy deficit of State and political system crisis of representation. We see a space for the development of own tools of government agencies, adjusted to your needs and objectives regarding the development of more efficient and democratic public policy. We note that there is a space for the use of approximation tools and dialogue with

2015 International Congress of IIAS - Rio de Janeiro - June 2015

Trust from Government in Society / La confiance du Gouvernement dans la Société Aziza ZEMRANI1 1 University of Texas Pan American Trust is considered as a crucial issue at all levels of governance Trust is considered as a crucial issue at all levels of governance. Restoring trust requests several measures/actions to strengthen integrity, transparency, accountability but also the engagement and involvement of all the partners/stakeholders of this interaction. Substantial body of work has developed around the topic of trust in government. The literature begins in the 1970’s as political scientists attempted to explain the first large decline in trust. Since trust reached a new level in the early 1990’s, there has been a wave of new work. Given this work, what can we say causes trust to move over time? (Keele, 2014) This proposed research paper will address trust in government in light of the recent reforms in governance after the Arab Spring and the proactive decision made by countries such as Morocco. This paper argues that Morocco has been in evolutionary change toward structural democratic governance since its independence in 1957. As countries attempt the difficult transition into democracy and open markets, numerous reforms in governance are necessary. Public institutions must be reconfigured, systems that are responsive and accountable to citizens must be built, and effective economic investment for support and growth created (Zemrani & Lynch, 2013). Such reform efforts tend to concentrate on formal institutions, rules and procedures. These are important because well-constructed institutions channel people toward equitable and above-board (i.e. non-corrupt) behavior—which is why legal and regulatory reforms often meet hostile responses in societies where they are undertaken. Nonetheless, “formal rules about how political (and administrative) institutions are supposed to work are often poor guides to what actually happens” (O’Donnell, 1996:40). Change is often difficult to implement and even more difficult to sustain empirical evidence as to the initiatives taken by public administration institutions to increase their level of trust – including but not limited to accountability systems and ethical and integrity standards – and their effectiveness. Morocco’s new Constitution recognizes the importance of independent institutions in building public-sector integrity and engaging citizens. The OECD supports the Instance Centrale de Prévention de la Corruption (ICPC) and the Institution du Médiateur to strengthen their institutional capacity. During a seminar on “Investigating Corruption” held in September 2013 in Rabat, participants identified the needed capacities and emerging challenges and opportunities of the ICPC’s new mandate to investigate corruption cases (OECD, 2014). As Keele (2007) argues that trust in government used somewhat to correlate with the president performance, the congress, and the economy. However, other scholarly work added to the equation the concept of Social capital. Social capital as defined is comprised of civic participation and trusting attitudes. Social capital has been found to be important for economic development, educational attainment, lower crime rates, and government performance (Brehm and Rahn 1997; Coleman 1988; Fukuyama 1995; Knack 2002; Putnam 1995a, 2000). In this paper, I will use the Keele methodology and apply it to the Moroccan context in light of the new and latest reforms.

THIAGO BOTTINO1 1 FGV LAW SCHOOL Qualified Legal Practice and Social Transformation: The amicus curiae brief experience as an example of trust from government in society. The Brazilian debate on human and civil rights is highly judicialized. Unlike other countries, major advances in public policy on human rights were obtained through lawsuits filed before the Supreme Court. The Brazilian constitution brought many rights that have not been implemented by the Executive and Legislative branches. Upon the initiative of NGOs, political parties and an independent Attorney General, the Supreme Court was urged to act on behalf of human rights. FGV DIREITO RIO has been following and studying the judicial prominence in public policies and has also been participating actively. FGV

Congrès international de l’IISA, 2015 - Rio de Janeiro - Juin 2015

31th International Congress of Administrative Sciences

DIREITO RIO is the first Law School in the country that offers qualified legal services to NGOs, allowing them to participate as amicus curiae before the Supreme Court. Since 2008, we have given legal assistance to various NGO’s on issues of press freedom, gay rights, political rights, prisons to obtain confessions, individual liberties and wiretapping. The participation of civil society associations in those Supreme Court cases are a successful example of how citizens can be conscious of their role as co-producers (together with the Supreme Court Justices, which are public officials) of public policies. Providing legal assistance and legal representation for civil society associations is an example of a technique to involve citizens’ participation in governmental action. Finally, this participation enhances the democratic level of the judicial decisions and design a new role of civil society associations at the level of reciprocal trust between the citizens and the judicial branch of government. This paper will share experiences and discuss the mistakes and successes of this new model of contribution to public policy on civil and human rights.

salem ALNASSER1 1 King Saud University Level of Trust Between Saudi Citizens and Services Providing Public organizations Level of Trust Between Saudi Citizens and Services Providing Public organizations Abstract By Salem Saeed Alnasser King Saud University, Saudi Arabia The heads of government organizations in Saudi Arabia are appointed politically, therefore they depend on their continuation in positions at the level of satisfaction of their superiors far from democratic processes. However, it is known that society depends not only on the confidence citizens have in their government for designing and managing public policies and the public sector, but also on the trust that public organizations have in citizens. Moreover, the citizens’ trust has become a part of the equation. In Saudi Arabia the government provides most of the basic services for the citizens free of cost, such as education at all levels, health, municipal services, and security services. With that in mind, the success of any public organization became very dependent on the level of trust and satisfaction it has with the citizens. Also the citizens of Saudi Arabia no longer accept negligence from government organizations, and they lose trust in government agencies when they impose services that are bureaucratic or which have systems riddled with mistakes. Therefore, in order to increase the trust with these agencies they look forward to becoming a beneficiary, a partner and a catalyst in the development of performance, improved levels of service, and the simplification of procedures . This paper aims at tackling the issue of trust between citizens and the basic public services organizations in Saudi Arabia through an empirical descriptive methodology to study the level of trust that exists between these public organizations and the beneficiaries, i.e., the citizens. Two forms of questionnaires were used to collect the data needed for this study. One was distributed to a sample of public employees of these organizations (260), and the other was distributed to Saudi citizens (340) utilizing the services of these organizations. The study tried to answer the following questions: What is the level of trust between citizens of Saudi Arabia and the basic service providing public organizations? What factors are contributing to levels of trust in both cases? Are there any differences between the level of citizens’ trust in government organizations and organizations’ trust in citizens? And how can trust be strengthened on both sides? The findings of this study show that most of the public service organizations have more trust in citizens than citizens have in them. Also, it was found that satisfaction was the most influential factor in citizens’ trust of public service organizations, and the appreciation of services was found to be the most influential factor in organizations’ trust in citizens.

analyese FRUTUOSO1, Frederico Lustosa da Costa2 1 MINISTERIO DA SAUDE, 2Universidade Federal Fluminense - UFF Flexibilization strategy in public manegement: the case of the Association of Social Pioneers Ladies (Rede Sarah) This article’s goal is to examine and discuss the relation between autonomy (and flexibility), control (based on compliance with standards) and efficiency in the public sector. It refers to the creation (and operation) of an autonomous social service, of the Association of Social Pioneers Ladies, a network of motor-rehabilitation hospitals as a parastatal agency created during the administrative reform undertaken in the Collor government (1990), previous to the Bresser Pereira Reform (1995), being part of the introduction of management culture in Brazilian public administration. The method used in this paper was the study of evaluative case. In the case study were used multiple data sources, besides literature research, especially documents such as: audit report annual accounts of years 2005, 2006, 2008 and 2009; judgments; program contracts; activity report of Rede Sarah and Monitoring Report of the 2008 to 2012 targets. Interviews were also conducted with some employees from Human Resources department, Nursing Commission and Quality of Service of the focused institution, and a few users. These interviews are illustrative only of the perceptions of these groups to promote understanding of information contained in the documents examined, therefore isn’t a statistically relevant sample of the staff for the large universe of users. The opinion of these interviewed is not intended to represent the average thinking of the Rede Sarah’s employees or users. The study was done within four steps. The first phase consisted of choosing the local where the research would be developed; the second one corresponded to data collection; the third was constituted of the analysis and interpretation of data and the fourth included the preparation of the report, pointing out the strengths and weaknesses of the management model adopted by the institution. The study aimed to understand the surveillance reports of the goals of the management contract of the period 2008 to 2012, the planning process (goal fixation and establishment of index), report showing the targets achieved by the institution, according to the four strategic objectives set out in the management contract, second clause, identify the control mechanisms used and verify the effectiveness of the services provided by the institution. The institution headquarter was chosen for the study 70

2015 International Congress of IIAS - Rio de Janeiro - June 2015

31ème Congrès international des Sciences administratives

because that’s where the organization was created and where data of management contract goals and costumer service of the institution are compiled, consolidated; is there that management exercises control and is located the largest unit providing service, including all research work and manufacture of prostheses. After collecting the data were established three (3) points titled as: flexibility, autonomy and control in order to analyze the results. Flexibility is directly related to the existence of standards with the reality of management model, this means, standards that are in accordance with the management and administration not to submit the general rules of administrative law. Autonomy is related to independence and not subordinate its internal decisions of management to financing agency and its resources, therefore, keeping autonomy in the decision-making process and, above all, legitimized by its technical expertise. This means a management model with autonomy is one that receives its resources and deliver results, having total autonomy in internal management to achieve the agreed goals, making movements of funds, changes in management mechanisms independent way without hierarchical subordination. In this context, the control becomes crucial factor when it’s in front of flexible models with management autonomy. For purposes of avoid uncontrolled occurrence of misuse of funds and objectives, these models should submit to management control, internal, external and social. The flexibility can be achieved with the adoption of control (and results) a posteriori, and with transparency and social control by the according results, conditions and means of achieving them, formalized in the management contract, based on according standards with the reality of management models. The study shows that the management model adopted by the Association of Social Pioneers (APS) has, in many ways and indicators, a positive rating. According to the Judgment 112/95 - Plenary - Minutes 41/95, Judgment 375/2003 Plenary - Act 13/2003 of The Federal Court of Accounts of Brazil (TCU), the goals achieved meet the population’s demands as regards the quality of care. The APS has an organized structure, caring professionals and prompt service to perform additional procedures (computerized tests, x-ray) for their patients. The characteristic of the Internal Control Department of the Ministry of Health Report, (CISET/MS), approved on 07.14.1994 by the Minister of Health, under «Management Assessment», recorded as satisfactory results achieved related to economy, efficiency and efficient management of the resources available to the manager. A model that is flexible, autonomy with effective and active control is able to offer efficiency in the health service to population and generate greater trust relationship between the company and the government. So the Autonomous Social Service, initially, can be characterized as a positive management model in health care as it offers quality services, meeting the wishes of the population that demand. However, the failure of the institution is the lacking of the principles of publicity and transparency in their actions. It is necessary that the process of management of the Social Pioneers Association is transparent. The site of the institutions, for example, brings few information to enable citizens (and potential users of their services) to make a social control of the institution. This is a negative point noted by the organs of control because it is inconsistent that a model of flexible, autonomous management, which works through public resources doesn’t own transparency. The very Judgment 668/2010, the accountability of year 2008 has recommended that the institution should let available information on the allocation of public resources received on its website based on the principle of public interest and publicity.

French MAX1 1 University of Stirling Achieving Outcomes in Complex Public Sector Environments: the Contributions of Complex Adaptive Systems Theory This paper argues that dominant bureaucratic strategies to improve outcomes in public services have fallen short as they have failed to recognise the unique challenges that outcomes present for the management of public services. An alternative framework is proposed, drawing from Complexity Theory, which emphasises the role of experimentation, the productive management of self-organisation, and trust in practitioners and local actors as the best-placed to generate solutions and push forward work towards desired outcomes. Drawing on qualitative data derived from a case study of the Early Years Collaborative, an outcomes-focussed multi-agency service improvement programme in early-years children’s services in Scotland, these two competing frameworks are drawn upon to explain how progress has been made towards outcomes. Literature review Outcome-based management has a long literature in public administration. Although coming to prominence as part of emerging performance management systems under New Public Management (Bevan and Hood, 2007), outcomes management has since come to represent a distinct literature, owing to the unique challenges it offers to such performance management regimes (Mayne, 2004; Wimbush, 2011; Hughes, 2012). Many of the tools have found wide application in public sector settings, particularly results based accountability, where accountability is based on relative performance in stated objectives (Wandersman et al., 2000) Given the dominance of the role of outcomes as results in the literature, practical applications have outcomes have often been in low trust environments where compliance and monitoring regimes are in place. The utility of such a role has however declined as networks have increased in prominence as actors within public services rendering bureaucratic methods of control impossible (Rhodes, 1997; Klijn & Koppenjan, 2000). Instead, governance of networks has tended to emphasise the role of trust and relationship building to ensure end goals are met (Klijn et al., 2010). As governance has changed, several key challenges which outcomes present to traditional public administration have been emerged in the public administration literature: • Outcomes represent goals at a system level rather than an organisational level, and are affected by many different factors outwith direct control of public agencies to manipulate through bureaucratic control (Provan and Milward, 2001; Mayne, 2007) • The factors driving outcomes are often poorly understood and a path towards outcomes cannot be pre-specified: outcomes are ‘humbling’ for managers (Bovaird, 2014). Congrès international de l’IISA, 2015 - Rio de Janeiro - Juin 2015

31th International Congress of Administrative Sciences

• Following from the last point, the direction of travel between many organisational activities and outcomes is often uncertain, and since many outcomes take a long time to occur, can only be understood in retrospect • Outcomes are innately co-produced by the individuals who receive services – without the individual’s active cooperation or at least compliance, outcomes cannot be achieved (Parks et al., 1981). Aggregate outcomes mask the fact that public service users are a diverse population, and desirable outcomes vary from individual to individual (Simmons, 2009).

Because of these points, traditional managerial approaches may find be limited in effectiveness in many situations (Boyne and Law, 2005; Heinrich 2002). Recent scholarship, however, has broadened understanding of the multiple roles that outcomes can play. Tunstill and Blewitt (2013) argue that two value-systems are at play in the drive towards outcomes: one is the extension of managerialism into the realm of outcomes, the other reflects a practitioner commitment to doing what ‘matters’. Miller (2012) meanwhile, usefully delineates between two agendas in the usage of outcomes in social care: the first is the familiar managerialist agenda of ‘proving’ impact, however the second agenda is ‘improving’ services by adopting of person-centred understandings of outcomes, which recognise and exploit the individual variation of desirable outcomes. In contrast to the role of outcomes as performance management tools, relatively little scholarly attention has been directed towards the role of outcomes as improvement tools outside of social care, or how this role can be operationalized to remedy the aforementioned deficiencies of a managerialist approach. It is this issue which this paper aims to address, firstly through developing complexity theory as an explanatory framework in opposition to the dominant managerialist approach to outcomes improvement, and secondly applying this framework in the context of empirical qualitative data collected over a 6 month period on the Early Years Collaborative (EYC), a multi-agency outcomes-focussed improvement collaborative in early-years children’s services in Scotland. Theoretical Framework Complexity theory (CT) has been drawn upon in many contemporary studies in public administration to explain behaviour and guide design of interventions (Bovaird, 2008; Butler et al., 2008). This paper argues that complexity theory can provide a conceptual framework for how the improvement role of outcomes can be exploited. CT’s focus on processes of self-organisation and emergence has been found useful in the analysis of networked governance settings (Klijn, 2008; Bovaird, 2008). As outcomes are commonly tackled by networks, self-organisation processes have a large role to play in the determination of many outcomes. It is argued that adequately chosen outcomes which represent ‘what matters’ can provide the ‘shared goals’ necessary for trust-based working relationships to develop (Gillespie and Mann, 2004). Outcomes can in these cases function as ‘rallying points’, uniting diverse actors around common goals, and providing platforms for innovation. Research Design The EYC represents a major vehicle to achieve policy aims outlined of the Scottish government (Scottish Parliament, 2008). The EYC is a multi-agency improvement collaborative which aims to achieve four ‘stretch aims’, or outcomes, at a population level. This represents a rare example of outcomes being used in a post-bureaucratic way, and as such an ideal situation to test how traditional bureaucratic and emergent complexity frameworks can explain progress towards outcomes. A multiple embedded case study design (Yin, 2014) was chosen as the appropriate research design. Following Yin’s (2014) logic of ‘replication’, the same frameworks are applied in three local authorities in Scotland. Analysis was conducted at both at the strategic or macro level, and at several (embedded) operational or local levels within each case study. This was so that the contentious relationship between strategic direction and decentralised control could be examined, and the character of local self-organisation and global emergence can be determined. The data will be drawn from around 30 semi-structured interviews, six months of non-participatory direct observation of meetings, and document review of relevant materials. References Bovaird, T. (2008). Emergent strategic management and planning mechanisms in complex adaptive systems: the case of the UK Best Value initiative. Public Management Review, 10(3), 319-340. Bovaird, T. (2014). Attributing outcomes to social policy interventions–‘gold standard’or ‘fool’s gold’in public policy and management?. Social Policy & Administration, 48(1), 1-23. Boyne, G. A., & Law, J. (2005). Setting public service outcome targets: lessons from local public service agreements. Public Money & Management, 25(4), 253-260. Butler, M. J., & Allen, P. M. (2008). Understanding policy implementation processes as self-organizing systems. Public management review, 10(3), 421-440. Gillespie, N. A., & Mann, L. (2004). Transformational leadership and shared values: the building blocks of trust. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 19(6), 588-607. Heinrich, C. J. (2002). Outcomes–based performance management in the public sector: implications for government accountability and effectiveness. Public Administration Review, 62(6), 712-725. Hughes, O. E. (2012). Public management and administration. Palgrave Macmillan. Klijn, E. H., & Koppenjan, J. F. (2000). Public management and policy networks: foundations of a network approach to governance. Public Management an International Journal of Research and Theory, 2(2), 135-158. Klijn, E. H. (2008). Complexity theory and public administration: What’s new? Key concepts in complexity theory compared to their counterparts in public administration research. Public Management Review, 10(3), 299-317. Lowe, T. (2013) New development: The paradox of outcomes – the more we measure, the less we understand, Public Money and Management, 33(3) 213-216 Mayne, J. (2004). Reporting on outcomes: Setting performance expectations and telling performance stories. Canadian Journal of Program Evaluation, 19(1), 31-60. Mayne, J. (2007). Challenges and lessons in implementing results-based management. Evaluation, 13(1), 87-109. Miller, Emma. Individual Outcomes: Getting back to what matters. Dunedin Academic Press, 2012. Parks, R. B., Baker, P. C., Kiser, L., Oakerson, R., Ostrom, E., Ostrom, V., ... & Wilson, R. (1981). Consumers as coproducers of public services: Some economic and institutional considerations. Policy Studies Journal, 9(7), 1001-1011. Rhodes, R. A. W. (1996). The new governance: governing without government1. Political studies, 44(4), 652-667. Simmons, R. (2009). Understanding the ‘Differentiated Consumer’ in Public Services. The Consumer in Public Servcies: Choice, Values and Difference, 57-76. Scottish Parliament. (2008). Getting it Right for Every Child. Edinburgh, Scottish Government, available online at www. scotland.gov.uk/Topics/People/Young-People/childrensservices/girfec. Tunstill, J., & Blewett, J. (2013). Mapping the journey: outcome-focused practice and the role of interim outcomes in family support services. Child & Family Social Work. Wimbush, 72

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E. (2011). Implementing an outcomes approach to public management and accountability in the UK—are we learning the lessons?. Public Money & Management, 31(3), 211-218. Yin, R. K. (2014). Case study research: Design and methods. Sage publications.

Esa KAYHKO1 1 Ministry of the Interior Trust and Ethics in Public Governance The idea of my paper is to analyze and reconsider the relationship between public trust and ethics from the perspective of citizens. Trust and ethics as an interrelated relationship refer to the conciliation of democratic and bureaucratic values. Where the democracy emphasizes participation, equality, responsiveness and a bottom-up approach to decision-making, the bureaucracy defends efficiency, hierarchy and top-down decision making. However, the notion that bureaucracy derives its legitimacy as a policymaker from its expertise and that there is no place for citizen participation in the ideal bureaucracy; this statement has been changed since the exercise of final authority receives its legitimacy from the citizens. On the other hand when we discuss either value-based ethics or compliance-based ethics we should bear in mind that these two are not contradictory approaches to organisational and individual life. In modern networked governance is required integrative leadership with partners across organizational and sectorial boundaries, that is, public leadership. A new view of ethics is needed to understand the nature of leadership as self-organizing, and as such, closely linked to ethics. We can clearly sense the need for an ethical paradigm that could break down the current, rather reserved attitude towards the real possibilities of citizens to exert an influence in reforming public administration and social policy. The structural innovations of organisations have not developed towards a communication network between internal and external morality that underlines multiple values, but rather the Weberian tradition has retained, or even strengthened its place in managerial practices. The paper emphasizes the conceptualisation of public trust and ethics. Interpretations of new public leadership will be analysed in the sense of the quality of democratic governance. Theoretical analysis and empirical examples show that there is conclusive evidence for opportunities between trust and legitimacy. Network-level outcomes will be more and more significant in the future times of scarce public resources. The internet use and e-government have also impacted significantly on personal, interpersonal, institutional and organisational trust and have equally stressed internal and external legitimacy. A shift in democratic and bureaucratic values will be examined in the light of the findings of the World Values Survey and the European Social Survey. This includes comparisons between different countries.

EGLE VAIDELYTE1, Egle Butkeviciene2 1 Kaunas University of Technology, 2Kaunas University of Technology Two Faces of the Coin: Public Governance and Public Trust in Lithuania If some citizens are dissatisfied with government, there are reasons to consider this a normal element of democratic process (Dalton 2000), but what’s about the issue if some public officials are unfavorable to the citizens and civil society? What are the faces and presumptions of trust? Together with economic, social and political changes as well as with a shift from a normative public administration model “rooted with the idea of rational choice” (Denhardt/Denhardt 2003) to a new public governance, national governments experience challenges of involving and empowering new actors as well as facing new aspects of responsibility and cooperation. Kelly (1998) argues, that the traditional dichotomy between politics and administration that has dominated in the public administration literature for many decades should be replaced by a different theory relating to the relationship between elected officials and citizens and non-profit sector. The paper is dwelling on the two-fold approach: public trust in governmental institutions and government approach towards citizens involvement in governance process. Public trust in national governmental institutions is still rather low in Lithuania and no relevant positive changes could be noticed in the last decade. In comparison with other EU members that joined EU in 2004, Lithuanians are the most skeptical about national institutions comparing to Estonia, Latvia, Check Republic, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia. Lithuanians trust national government even less than Bulgarians and Romanians (European Values Study 2006, European Social Survey 2012). On the other hand, public governance in Lithuania in comparison of other EU countries is often identified as not involving citizens in public governance. Thus, the question that appears is what the reasons of the public distrust or why public officials do not trust citizens in Lithuania? Is it a legacy of soviet system, a lack of civil mentality or a result of political corruption? Newton and Norris (2000, p. 59) argue that there are three theoretical approaches explaining public confidence and trust in public institutions: “those who focus on socio-physiological features of individuals, those who look to the cultural environment of individuals, groups and communities and those that emphasize governmental performance”. The paper is mainly focused on the approach that the key of citizens’ confidence and trust in public institutions is the actual performance of government. In this context the level of public trust in public governance depends on government action – “institutions that perform well are likely to elicit the confidence of citizens; those that perform badly or ineffectively generate feelings of distrust and low confidence” (Newton and Norris 2000). Nevertheless, the assumptions made by della Porta (2000) that governmental performance could be the reason and the consequence of public trust is taken into account as well. Speaking about citizen involvement, some theorists (Denhardt/ Denhardt 2003, Nalbandian 1999, Pateman 1970) argue that government could play an active role in encouraging citizen involveCongrès international de l’IISA, 2015 - Rio de Janeiro - Juin 2015

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ment in public decision making. As Denhardt (2003) points out “there also seem an important role for government in encouraging community building and civil society”, Putnam (2000) o contrary, argues that democratic tradition is dependent on the existence of civically engaged citizens, active in governmental units. A lack of citizen participation in modern governance reduces the capacity of government to be representative and responsive. Meanwhile, Denhardt and Denhardt (2003) emphasize that “citizens would do what they are supposed to do in a democracy – they would run government”. Thus, facing the above discussed issues the following relevant questions occur: Do citizens trust government in Lithuania and does government give an importance for the citizen trust? Who is identified as the responsible actor in the cooperation and in public governance? And what are the peculiarities of these tendencies in Lithuania? Seeking to answer the questions mentioned above, the empirical evidence is based on two-fold empirical data reflecting different approach towards the same issue: the quantitative research conducted in 2013 as a part of the project “Coordinating for Cohesion in the Public Sector of the Future” (COCOPS) that is focused on trends in public administration across Europe and their effects and implications for the public sector and society more generally and surveys attitudes of senior public sector executives. The quantitative data is illustrated by the qualitative research with NGO members and public officials conducted in 2013 that at some extent could reveal the deeper insights towards the two faces of trust coin in Lithuania. The comparative parallels with statistical data are discussed in the paper as well.

Welles ABREU1, Ricardo Gomes2 UnB, 2UnB What do we expect from open budget institutional changes? 1

Khagram, Fung and Renzio (2013) argued that the open budget institutional framework has three moments (transparency, participation and than accountability). According to Ling & Roberts (2014), the institutional changes relating to transparency, participation and accountability can promote better impacts on countries’ social development results. It is worth to highlight that the variables of transparency, participation and accountability are interrelated and mutually reinforcing. Thus, based on the fact that budgetary institutional changes occur by stages (two) among three moments (transparency, participation and accountability) and the existence of relationship between transparency, participation and accountability with social development, this piece aims to verify evidences that better social development happens after open budget institutional changes. According to Gomes & Calmon (2012), the institution’s elaboration, transformation, maintenance and division can be explained by the stakeholders’ behavior actions. Depending of the type of stakeholders that the institution is involved, it goes to different ways (changes). Then, the institutional actions of change needs to consider the behavior of the stakeholders engaged. Countries need governance to ensure more transparent institutions in the structure of the decision-making process and citizen’s free participation to achieve a state of open access (North et al., 2009). Prosperous countries have institutions (formal or not) enabled to structure and organize themselves (by use of enforcement), promoting inclusive public policies in a democratic framework (Acemoglu & Robinson, 2012). As Abreu & Gomes (2013) argued, the government budget represents the consensus that results from the complex interactions among stakeholders trying to solve problems of collective actions. In this line of thinking, the availability of budgetary information provides basic transparency and accountability for a more participative process. Moreover, the budget process should be open for the purpose of including stakeholders to ensure the realization of social desires. Considering what Khagram et al. (2013) and Ling & Roberts (2014) contended, given the institutions and stakeholders theoretical framework, we can observe that transparency (T), participation (P) and accountability (A) are related to social development (D), and it is associated with the occurrence of open budget institution changes. So, considering ‘k’ as the constant and a ‘?’ the residual, mathematically equations can express the open budget moments: • 1st moment: D (X1) = k + T.X1 + ? (1) • 2nd moment: D (X1; X2) = k + T.X1 + P.X2 + ? (2) • 3rd moment: D (X1; X2; X3) = k + T.X1 + P.X2 + A.X3 + ? (3) Therefore, from the open budget theoretical contributions and focus on piece’s aim, we can observe the following hypotheses: 1. The three equations above (1, 2 and 3) are related to each respective moment, and they have significant (? < 0.05) regressions; 2. The explanation power (adjusted R-squared) of each equation increase from 1 to 3; and 3. Democratic countries have better open budget results rather than the non-democratic countries. The hypothesizes above inclusive using as reference the cited equations - were tested by regressing the dependent variable Social Progress Index (D) from Social Progress Index (SPI, 2014) on Transparency (T), Participation (P) and Accountability (A) independents variables from the World Bank (WB, 2014), The Economist (2014) and Public Expenditure and Financial Accountability Program (PEFA , 2014), respectively. We also calculated the factorial reduction on T, P and A for generating the Open Budget Reduced Index (OBRI), that could be used in combination with a Democracy dummy variable (DEM) to observe the democratic variations that arise according to increases in the social progress development dependent variable. The main contribution of this piece is – considering the occurrence of institutional changes by open budget moment, as well as the existence of relationship between transparency, participation and accountability with social development – empirically proving that better social development are likely to be expected after open budget institutional changes. By promoting empirical validations, we found statistical evidence that there is positive relationship between transparency, participation and accountability and social development. According to the democracy regime control, democratic countries present higher values of social development (comparing with similar level of open budget countries) rather than non-democratic ones. 74

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However, it is very important to mention that this is a preliminary study of this theme, and other researches – either with more data or different indexes – are likely to explore news issues, by including alternative perspectives. Finally, expecting to expand our knowledge on this pressing issue – assuming our great lack of information about new open budget theory –, it is worthy to register the importance of new researches to analyzing by qualitative methods the results of this research, seeking evidences to describe how stakeholders and institution behave in open budget processes. References: Abreu, W. M. and R. C. Gomes (2013), ‘O orçamento público brasileiro e a perspectiva emancipatória: Existem evidências empíricas que sustentam esta aproximação?’. Revista de Administração Pública, Vol. 47, No. 2, pp. 515-540. Acemoglu, D. and J. A. Robinson (2012), Por que as nações fracassam: As origens do poder, da prosperidade e da pobreza, (Campus, Elsevier Brasil, Rio de Janeiro). Gomes, L. D. O. M. and P. C. D. P. Calmon (2012), ‘Mudança institucional no setor público: Uma abordagem alternativa’, paper presented at the ENAPG, City, 28-39 nov. Khagram, S., A. Fung and P. De Renzio (2013), Open budgets: The political economy of transparency, participation, and accountability, (Brookings Institution Press, Washington). Ling, C. and D. K. Roberts (2014), Evidence of development impact from institutional change: A review of the evidence on open budgeting. Report for WB (Washington). North, D., J. Wallis and B. Weingast (2009), Violence and social orders, 1 edn., (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge). PEFA (2014), Https://www.Pefa.Org/en/content/resources. Available online (accessed 11/10/2014). SPI (2014), Http://www.Socialprogressimperative.Org/data/spi. Available online (accessed 03/08/2014). The Economist (2014), Http://www.Eiu.Com/public/topical_report.Aspx?Campaignid= democracyindex12. Available online (accessed 11/10/2014). WB (2014), Http://web.Worldbank.Org/wbsite/external/topics/extpublicsectorandgovernance/ 0,,contentmdk:23118772~pagepk:148956~pipk:216618~thesitepk:286305,00.Html. Available online (accessed 11/10/2014).

Roberto JANNELLI1, Noemi Rossi2, Cristina Tesone3, 1 University of Sannio and Partner KPMG, 2University of Cassino, 3KPMG (Italy) Transparency in the Public Sector: trust in Consolidated Financial Statement! The purpose of this paper is to analyze the evolution of the concept of transparency in the Italian Public Administrations, and in particular, the main features of Regional Public Group. It comprises a set of bodies with legal autonomy, directly or indirectly controlled by a single entity. The analysis consider the Consolidated Financial Statement as a supporting instrument to increase the degree of transparency and accountability. The Public Administrations should ensure a rich, timely and accessible information system to the different stakeholders that characterize the “administered community”: public, private, third sector and organized citizens. The widespread interest for a «transparent» and «accountable» Public Administration has entailed, as a natural consequence, the diffusion of the anti-corruption rules. These rules have represented the answers to the mandatory requirements to align with the demands of European Commission. The analysis was carried out considering the Consolidated Financial Statements of Regional Public Group as an effective tool for the evaluation of economic and financial information. This instrument is compliant with the needs of the verification of financial and non-financial performance. It represents a document able to guarantee a broader transparency for representing the overall regional performance that comprises the individual and overall performance of «public groups» at the head of which it lies.

François E.J. de BREMAEKER1, Luis Estevam LOPES GONÇALVES2 1 Observatório de Informações Municipais, 2Getulio Vargas Foundation The practice of participatory budgeting The main purpose of the research paper is to observe how does happen, in the field, the adoption of the participatory budgeting practices, in the context of large demographic Brazilian local administrations. (municipalities). After verification of the practice of participatory budgeting in the population of 37 municipalities - with a population over 500 thousand inhabitants – a municipal profile is drawn which will allow to identify the various mechanisms adopted by the local administration – executive level - and compare their managerial strategies. Focus will be directed to the types of relationships between government and society, the issues involved in this interaction, and the technical criteria that lead to the distribution of resources to attending to the society’s demands. Not less important is the study of the priorities of society and the mechanisms adopted for monitoring the achieved results, and influences in the declared satisfaction level of the society. François E. J. de Bremaeker and Luiz Estevam Gonçalves

Andrea BONOMI SAVIGNON1 1 University of Rome Tor Vergata Towards the Collaborative Society: Patterns in the Italian Social Innovation Ecosystem An increasingly crucial role is played by nonprofit organizations (NPOs) as actors of collaborative governance arrangements for both the prioritization and direct provision of public interest services (Mariani & Cavenago, 2013). Ever since the seminal study by Solomon & Anheier (1996), the drivers behind the rise in dimension and relevance of the third sector have been analyzed from different standpoints: with specific reference to the theories originally proposed in the 1996 piece, one of them is based Congrès international de l’IISA, 2015 - Rio de Janeiro - Juin 2015

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on Trust as a main driver, since “non-distribution constraints make nonprofit organizations more trustworthy under conditions of information asymmetry, which makes monitoring expensive and profiteering likely”. It is now relevant to analyze nonprofits not only as substitutes or complements to “classical” economic sectors such as Government, but also the Private for-profit sector. The types of relationships between socio-economic actors can be recognized as preconditions for explaining structural developments in knowledge-based economies, with a transformative impact on production modes and specifically on innovation ecosystems. With specific reference to analyses suiting the Knowledge society, it is particularly interesting to consider the roles of outcome-oriented organizations as key actors for social innovation. A relevant explanatory framework, which has gained recognition in recent years, is the Triple Helix Model (Etzkowitz and Leydesdorff, 2000). This approach was originally employed in analyzing existing dynamics between key actors (Government, Businesses and Universities) in fostering innovation and knowledge transfer. The model is rising to be a key reference also for social innovation processes. In this paper, we enquiry to what extent the Triple Helix approach to Social Innovation is diffused in the Italian context, and whether this affects the financial sustainability, collaborative orientation, accountability and readiness for innovation of Italian NPOs. To pursue these research objectives, we employ recent data produced by the National Institute of Statistics (ISTAT) – specifically, the Nationwide Census of Industry and Services carried out in 2011 and published in July 2013. We intersect this secondary data with a nationwide survey of Italian NPOs conducted in 2013, specifically designed in order to gain deeper understanding of the revenue structures, organizational characteristics and features of collaborative relationships of such organizations – that is, highly contingent aspects at the micro level which the ISTAT census does not cover.

Hiroko KUDO1 1 Bocconi University Citizen and Social Sector as Partners of Local Government Many Japanese local governments introduced NPM in the late Nineties, introducing various managerial techniques and following the Anglo-Saxon examples. There are, however, evidences that some local governments have already shifted from NPM-driven management to post NPM orientation. On the other hand, there is almost no academic attention on New Public Governance (NPG) in Japan. To understand this gap between the practices and the literatures, the paper first conducts reviews of international and domestic literatures, identifying the Japanese characteristics on participation and co-production, which are keys to NPG, in international literatures and the missing links in domestic literatures. The paper, then confronts the features explored among literatures with the survey results, regarding the local governments perception on public sector reform and the citizens, and the citizens’ perception of public sector reform, focusing on their mutual trust, in order to explain the peculiarities of Japanese participation and co-production.

Fang LU1, Xiao-Juan PAN2 1 CHINA UNIVERSITY OF POLITICAL SCIENCE AND LAW, 2China University of Political Science and Law «Stewardship» or «Agency» ? - The impact of trust on public service contract outsourcing of Chinese local government

Our results highlight significant differences in the behavior and outcomes for those NPOs who adopt a systemic collaboration approach with other actors in the socioeconomic system. Based on this initial evidence, we propose reflections and indications for future research in the discussion section.

The prevalence of “shadow employees” in Chinese local governments has attracted worldwide attention. However, many questions remain about the extent, distribution, and work benefits of “shadow employees,” whether in government staffing management or financial departments. This paper presents a series of case studies, developing a linear analysis in order to provide an objective description of the extent, distribution, and work benefits of sub-district office “shadow employees”, whose inappropriate professional and financial conduct has undermined in grass-roots government.

Keywords: social innovation, collaboration, innovation, triple helix.

Key Words :public service; government contracting ;shadow employee

FERNANDO ANTONIO FRANCA SETTE PINHEIRO JUNIOR1 1 Escola de Administração de Empresas de São Paulo Popular participation in the process of Government Planning in Minas Gerais: The role of Popular Participation Commission

Cristina MITITELU1 1 University of Rome Tor Vergata Goals, nature and impact of citizen participation: evidences from Italian and Romanian local governments

The government planning is essential for government management more effective and efficient. However, proper management despite being essential, is not the only factor that needs to analyze whether a government will be successful or not. In an increasingly complex society, and increasingly decentralized in which decisions must be taken in accordance with the specificity of each territory and that more and more citizens participating in decision making - with the related increase in human capital levels and social capital - it is hard to imagine only guidelines (DE FRANCO, 2006). Thus, participatory institutions «well designed» can contribute to inclusion and interaction of a broad spectrum of actors, for the narrowing of the gaps between them, and from interactions focused on negotiation and dialogue. (COELHO; FAVARETO, 2008) Participation should occur everyday form, since many of the goals to be achieved are difficult to achieve or even if they are intangible seek solve individually. Thus, participation is not just a way to express the opinion, but also to defend interests and opinions on what occurs in the territory. But so that this participation can stay there are big challenges, especially those that involve negotiation and consensus building, resource allocation and interaction, collective decision-making processes, priority setting and monitoring (TEXEIRA, 2002). This is due to the fact that within the significant decisions economic system are closely related by policy mix, ie the use of power. Thus the economic analysis of development should be made taking into account the relationship between social classes and groups of forces that manifest (Furtado, 2008). Thus, it becomes a challenge, which requires the formulation of new methods for decision-making approach, planning and evaluation. The Resolution No 5.117 of Legislative Assembly of Minas Gerais, adopted in 1992, specifically addressed the process of public hearings in the State, being incorporated into the Internal Regiments of the house in 1997. After many discussions the project was approved with its original proposals ensuring that popular participation would deliberative nature (FLEURY, 2009). In 2003 with the creation of the Popular Participation Commission - CPP in the Legislative Assembly of Minas Gerais simplified access to civil society in the legislative process. From the creation of this committee was possible to propose proposals for legislative action on the part of civil society that, if approved, it becomes the proposition of Popular Participation Commission. Its creation was inspired by the Participative Legislation Committee of the House of Representatives, so has similar functionality to it. Civil society can present the CPP proposals for improvement of legislation; and proposals for legislative actions such as amendments to bills in progress, bill, a public hearing request and public consultation, and includes assessment of the budget bill and the PPA bill. Thus, the Popular Participation Commission comes to the function of collecting society proposals to be analyzed and, if relevant, are incorporated into the PPA. It should be noted that the participation of civil society can occur through direct proposition to be sent to the CPP and / or the public hearings monitoring and / or in the preparation / review of the PPA. Therefore, the aim of this study is to analyze how does the popular participation in government planning process in the State of Minas Gerais. For this, the paper will present the literature discussing the public policy process, emphasizing the importance of community participation. From this framework, to stand as the government of Minas Gerais makes room for popular participation in its formulation process of public policies within the government planning. Finally, we examine how it is performed the structuring and development of this process in ALMG through data on the proposal of amendments to government planning. 76

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Over the last decades, parameters of action of the public administration lead to increased consideration of the citizen’s role in public administration (OECD, 2005). Local governance has been remolded by the introduction of the direct participatory procedures, with emphasize on various arrangements under which citizens can be engaged in public decision-making. The new means of interaction made possible the centrality of citizen role in defining goals, priorities, assessing and evaluating services provided by the public administration (Pasquier & Villeneuve, 2012). New Public Management (NPM) market-oriented principles (Brewer, 2007) repositioned citizen as a service customer, while New Public Governance Agenda recognized citizen nature and its role in playing an effective co-producer of policies and services (Spanon, 2003; Villeneuve, 2007). Yetano et al. (2010) asserts that citizen participation should not be an end in itself, but a tool to achieve a goal. Svara & Denhardt (2010) argues for the normative and instrumental rationales of the citizen engagement initiatives. A more systematic framework on the importance of citizen participation is needed, likewise in understanding “what the participation is intended to achieve and its impact”. Addressing the drivers behind increasing citizen participation initiatives, Welch et al. (2004) recognizes the decline of public confidence in the government performance, while Nye (1997) and Peters (1999) argues the discrepancies between expectation and perceived performance of public administration as critical factors to the decline of public trust. On this grounds, citizen engagement process gained an emerging instrumental aim. Cooper et al. (2006) and Yang (2005) argues for citizen participation as a driver to improving trust in government, and Fung (2006) acknowledge it as a process to enhance governmental legitimacy. The purpose of the paper is to analyze the state of the art of the citizen participation process in Italian local government and contrast it with the Romanian local government experience. The research stick to the study of the public administration initiated citizen participation and proposes a comparative analysis of local government institutional policy arrangements and reforms strategies. In a nutshell, research aims: a) to explore a conceptual, theoretical framework mapping main characteristic components of the public management models and their impact on citizen’s role, from a passive to an active role at different stages of the policy cycle. On a similar vein, the research proposes an integrated conceptual framework, though the lens of two main research questions ‘why’ and ‘how’, mapping goals of the public servants imitating a participatory process, methods of participation and the impact of citizen participation in local governance.

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b) to describe, though the evidence of the case study analysis at municipal level, the institutional arrangements and strategies for citizen participation in a comparative perspective, with specific focus on the goals, mechanisms and impact of the participatory process. The selected best practices in Italy were retrieved from the participatory observatory database of ‘Emilia Romagna Region’, one of the leading regions in participatory governance; while, in Romania were retrieved from the Center of Resources for Public Participation database. The research method aims to introduce a comparative local government policy arrangements in both countries. Data collection and analysis are based on a triangulation method, and that involves case studies analysis, literature and legislation infrastructure studies and survey. The relevant literature on citizen participation conceptual frameworks is reviewed. The conceptual, theoretical framework is integrated by empirical evidences gathered through surveys at municipal level. The survey was structured on the theoretical framework, in order to assess the current goals, mechanisms and impact of citizen participation through the direct experience of the respondents. Findings show low trust building in the relationship local government – citizens over past few years. The direct citizen participation does not take place at all the levels of the policy cycle, rather fragmented initiatives with citizen participation in the decision-making process. However, the importance of citizen participation as a lever, to foster satisfaction with services, legitimacy and quality of decision-making seems on a positive stream. Keywords: citizen/customer, citizen participation, local government, public decision-making.

MANOEL CARLOS OLIVEIRA JR1, LUIZA REBELO2, Manoel Oliveira Jr3, Andreia Santos4 1 Escola de Serviço Público Municipal, 2Escola de Serviço Público Municipal de Manaus, 3Escola de Serviço Público Municipal de Manaus, 4Escola de Serviço Público Municipal de Manaus La maîtrise d’idiomes: une occasion d´améliorer la prestation des services publics et responsabilité sociale de la Municipalité de Manaus. Depuis le choix de Manaus comme un des sièges de la Coupe du Monde de Football – 2014, les agents publics et privés de la ville ont démarré une série d’études d’opportunité d’investissements pour la réalisation de l’événement en vue de contribuer au développement de la cité. L’une des nécessités identifiées par le gouvernement municipal, grâce à l’École du Service Publique Municipal (ESPI), a été celle de la préparation de ses employés qui travailleraient, directement ou indirectement, à cet événement. La maîtrise d’idiomes s’est montrée l’une des actions principales à être mises en place, vu le profil du public qui serait attiré par les jeux. Ainsi, depuis 2011, le projet des cours d’idiomes est devenu l’une des principales actions pédagogiques de l’ESPI, ayant été perfectionné et consolidé en 2013, avec la définition du public cible : les serviteurs des aires de la santé, de la garde municipale, du trafic et du tourisme. On a vérifié qu’un 2013 le projet a atteint la phase de maturité, avec l’élaboration de matériel didactique exclusif, orienté à chacune des aires et construit à partir de réunions pédagogiques entre l’équipe de coordination du Projet et les équipes des secrétariats partenaires, pour identifier les thèmes/contenus qui font partie des activités quotidiennes de chacun. Une équipe de professionnels a été recrutée pour travailler dans ce projet, sur lequel se sont inscrits plus de 600 serviteurs, qui ont participé des séances théoriques et pratiques. Cette année a été marquée aussi par l’amplification du projet, motivée par le changement d’objectif de l’ESPI, qui a passé à être responsable des programmes d’inclusion sociale et éducative de la Mairie de Manaus. On a observé l’opportunité pour diversifier le public cible du programme, pour le faire arriver aux permissionnaires des foires et marchés, qui sont des locaux sous la responsabilité du pouvoir public municipal et aussi un point d’attraction touristique dû à la concentration du commerce de produits régionaux. De plus, l’action s’est configuré comme une action de responsabilité sociale et d’inclusion socio-éducative de ces personnes, ayant vu que, plusieurs fois, sa fonction dans la société est considérée moins importante, dû à la simplicité et au peu de connaissance formelle exigée pour sa réalisation. À cette étape, plus de 250 permissionnaires ont été assisté, qui ont répondu positivement à la proposition du programme. Également, pour cette catégorie a été élaboré un matériel didactique spécifique, avec focalisation sur trois segments : artisanat, viande/poisson et des plats régionaux. La proposition didactique a cherché aussi à s’adapter à la réalité du public, ainsi qu’à sa diversité de caractéristiques, dont faisaient partie des gens avec différents niveaux de formation scolaire et d’âge. Le Programme a été avalisé par l’Administration Municipale comme un triomphe et les témoignages à propos de l’importance du projet et ses impacts sur l’activité et sur la vie de participants indiquent l’obtention des résultats attendus. Dans ce qui concerne la quantité, 951 individus ont été atteint, parmi des agents directs et permissionnaires. L’inventaire du niveau de satisfaction des participants vis à vis du programme évidence aussi la concrétion des objectifs définis. Cette action a pu unir deux axes importants du pouvoir public : l’éducation et l’inclusion de la population socialement fragilisée.

Joaquim FONTES-FILHO1, Michelle Bronstein2 1 Getulio Vargas Foundation , 2Unigranrio Municipal Council Governance and the Importance of Trust and Participation of Civil Society? This work aims to study the composition mechanisms of the municipal councils, institutions of the Brazilian municipal organization, from a multi case study. The aim is to describe the participation processo ordinary citizens, as representatives of civil society, in building regulations, forms of monitoring and controls, and governance standards in municipal councils of diferente nature (health, agriculture, city and environment). According to Hodgson (2004), since the 1990s civil society has become increasingly participant 78

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of policy initiatives, particularly in actions for social benefit and against inequality. These initiatives based on joint actions and various partnerships, have blurred the boundaries between civil society and the state. Considering how these interests of civil society are established and how are compounds such councils, this study aims to assess whether there are traces of a «civil society manufactured» (Hodgson, 2004), or if in fact there is a legitimate participation based on trust, with a citizen devoid of personal interest. A counselor, by definition, is an individual with some experience, political representation, professional experience, or knowledge gained in one area and that, due to these skills, has the capacity and legitimacy to advise. Governance, in turn, is a term for which there is no fully accepted definition, but generally reflects, in the case of organizations, the manner in which the representatives of the owners or beneficiaries are organized for decision making, and for the guidance and control of management. Regarding the governance structure of the Municipal Councils, the interest of this study is to understand the composition of these councils and, mainly, the motivation for participation of their voluntary members. Generally these councils have a majority of representatives of public agencies, but also representatives of civil society. However, preliminary empirical evidence indicates that, in the composition of these councils can be individuals or groups who, although formally representing the concerns and the composition of the civil society, are in fact a mixture of non-governmental organizations (NGO) with specific interests – protection of the environment, education, trade unions – or NGOs dependent on public resources and, in a way, advocates of state positions. In Brazil, the municipal councils have the regulatory framework defined by the Constitution of 1988. Both the Federal Constitution of 1988 as successive Constitutional Amendments indicate the need for participation of workers, retirees, employers, community, population, the civil and users of public services in general society. Conceptually, the central idea that is present in this form of government organization is that local councils are more open spaces for citizen participation, which presupposes a more democratic governance, as these councils are directly linked to the municipal public administration. In this sense, after the presentation of the field research results with a set of municipal council members, we discuss the benefits that may result from involvement of society in these councils. Since each director is representative of a larger community, these councils can bring more legitimacy to the issues proposed and discussed on the meetings. We also analyze the limitations of this participation, to the extent that the citizen who is not associated with any formal entity representation may feel alienated from their right to civil participation. The survey results indicate that local councils are generally composed of mixed form, for members of civil society and government representatives, the latter occupying management positions (President, Vice-President, or Secretary). The upside for the participation of representatives of government, in most cases Municipal Secretaries and career civil servants, is that their participation provides them with more opportunities to listen and meet the demands of citizens, and to discuss with its representatives. However, it should be considered that the symbolic authority (BOURDIEU, 1998) of public official can inhibit the flow of discussions and dominate the agenda of the councils, reflecting on how the rules are constructed, the forms of monitoring and controls, and governance standards of each council . From these considerations we seek, through literature review on governance and legal foundations that guide the existence of municipal councils, discuss what is the participation of civil society in the governance of these bodies. The work is divided into four sections. The first section discusses the concept of governance of organizations and governance structures and its application in the public area. The second deals with the presentation and analysis of the regulatory framework that guides the creation, operation and maintenance of the municipal councils. The third section presents the research methodology and the result of a documentary analysis in internal regulations and minutes of meeting of different natures councils (health, agriculture, city and environment). From the analysis of these documents we identified three key areas for discussion: operating rules of each council; ways to monitor the functioning of the council; internal control mechanisms. Analyzing these three key points it was assumed a pattern of governance adopted by these bodies. Continuing in an attempt to identify the effectiveness of the participation of ordinary citizens and representatives of civil society in building such key points, was conducted a series of interviews with several council members. The interview method was chosen to be quite efficient and less obstructive (McCraquen, 1988). At the end of the work, in the fourth section, we present a summary of interviews and an analysis of the relationship between the responses of informants and listed key points.

IRENE LITARDI1, Gloria FIORANI2, Cristina Mititelu3 1 University of Tor Vergata, Rome, 2University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, 3University of Rome “Tor Vergata” Stakeholder engagement and co-design in public policy of UE Level. The CSR Multi-stakeholder Forum case The research aims to explore the EU participatory approach in the policy making, looking into policy issues, level of participation and instruments, with particular attention to the CSR policy and practice. The research primary objectives aims to: (1) sketches out a conceptual and theoretical framework defining the particularities of the multi-level governance, linking policy issues, methods and instruments of participation in the policy process. (2) perform a descriptive analysis of the EU CSR participation models, with particular attention to the consultation and CSR Multi-stakeholder Forum emergence. (3) conduct an in-depth analysis of the CSR policy strategy of consultation, identifying findings on EU stakeholder engagement, stakeholder roles, CSR policy importance and implementation and the policy issues raised. The research underlines the raising importance the CSR policy in the EU policy making and the main methods of stakeholder participation used.

Enaleen DRAAI1 1 Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University The efficacy of co-producing sustained organizational trust. An exploration of a customer-centred relationship in the provision of social assistance systems in South Africa. Trust within a democratic governance system is complex and multidimensional. The perception held by citizens of levels of trust in the governance system is defined by social, political, organisational configurations and value systems that regulate a society. Trust is also relational as defined by the actions and interaction by and between politicians, officials, citizens in terms of the Congrès international de l’IISA, 2015 - Rio de Janeiro - Juin 2015

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regulatory framework. Trust is enabling in a representative democracy in that citizens are able to hold both the political elite and public sector accountable to meet the ideals of the governance system where functional mechanisms and systems exist. Trust is therefore more than the development of policies that captures the philosophy and ideology of the governance system, it is defined by the implementation processes and system within the bureaucracy. It is the perception held by citizens of the display of competence, commitment and the willingness by officials to meet service delivery requirements expediently and innovatively. It is, the level of responsiveness perceived by citizens with which the bureaucracy addresses issues deemed as crisis proportion and or particular, such as crime, poverty, poor client services. Levels of trust consequently ebbs and flows. Perceptions of high levels of trust is, therefore, attained by overt positive performance where citizens experience change, whereas low levels of trust or even distrust will be experienced where citizens experience poor service quality. This paper raises the following question: What is the role of clients in sustaining levels of organisational trust in service delivery? The discussion, in addressing this question will explore fundamentals of organisational trust as defined by the relational interaction informed by systems, officials and clients. The paper will explore inputs from citizens as a means to co-producing and sustaining levels of integrity and trust within the organisation. The discussion will analyse the experience and perception held by citizens of the commitment and competence of public officials to provide accurate services timely which defines as rational knowledge-based trust. The discussion brings into question the integrity of organisational systems that facilities expedience, reliability and accountability to meet the needs of vulnerable citizens in receipt of social assistance. The paper will explore the findings of a study that assessed the perception of customer satisfaction with service quality in relation to the provisions of social assistance to vulnerable groups within the Eastern Cape in South Africa. The discussion will in particular direct attention to perceived level of competence of officials in terms of the display of knowledge and timeliness with which services. Furthermore, attention will be directed to the customer care-communication system and redress mechanism implemented as enabling means to improved and sustained trust in the service provided. Finally, lessons will be drawn from the analysis of and inter-relationship between service quality, customer satisfaction and trust.

NORMAN NHEDE1 1 University of Pretoria The role of government in the provision of social protection in Africa The social protection phenomenon has become a global concern in recent years. IN Africa many people are becoming destitute and unable to fend for themselves due to economic challenges that the African continent is struggling to extricate itself from. The livelihoods of ordinary people have been devastated by the poor performance of the economy which has triggered massive retrenchments and abrupt company closures in some African countries. Natural calamities have not done Africa any good. Due to these catastrophes many people have been left incapacitated and vulnerable to the hazards and vicissitudes of life even if they were gainfully employed at some point in their lives. The purpose of this paper is to determine the role of government in the provision of social protection against a background of incessant rising unemployment and natural disasters. To establish the extent to which government can provide social protection to marginalised members of the community, an interrogation of available literature on social security is adopted. An examination of journal and newspaper articles on social protection suggests that social protection has not meaningfully cushioned people against economic hardships. The existing social protection strategies are fragmented and have not been inclusive enough to include all segments of society. The informal sector largely remains excluded from formal social protection strategies. Resultantly, many people in Africa require social protection against economic shocks which have become a challenge to African governments that have be finding it hard to create more jobs for the growing population. It is the obligation of government to periodically review existing social protection intervention strategies in order to determine the relevance of its provisions to current economic challenges. Governments should come up with social security policies that strive to achieve social inclusivity. It is imperative that government should create an enabling environment that supports the participation of multiple players. Africa needs the adoption of different social protection strategies for the different challenges unique to each of the different communities. Nonetheless, these different social protection mechanisms require synchronisation. Fragmented social protection strategies perpetuate social exclusion which has a detrimental effect on economic development. Africa requires a multidimensional approach if the problem of social exclusion is to be addressed.

RICHARD M. MTHETHWA1 1 University of Pretoria Social security coverage in SADC countries: issues, trends and options Financial support is the life blood for the formation of strategies for the implementation of universal social protection systems. Limited resources and sustainable financing, interventions from government in this area will have challenges in achieving their ultimate goals. For this reason, the pursuit of financial support to finance the extension of social security is an issue that lies at the heart of the concerns of policy makers in social protection. The most important goal for international organisations like World Commission and International Labour Organisation (ILO) Global Campaign on social security and coverage for all is the formation of a comprehensive, consistent and properly coordinated social security system that can provide universal protection against social risks. The purpose of this paper is to explore the complexity of social security coverage amongst the SADC countries, in order to provide an analytical view of the experiences of countries in different parts of the region, so that other countries can better understand the processes involved. The feasibility of extending social protection and the economic and political capacity of 80

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a country goes hand in hand to generate sustainable resources to make the public funding of such initiatives viable in the long term. This paper does not attempt to quantify the financial requirements of financing social security. Instead, it analyses the practical experiences of some SADC countries that have made significant progress in extending social security. From an analysis of national experience, it provides lessons, makes conclusions and recommendations related to the formation of financial support, taking into account the major advances achieved and practical challenges encountered by these countries in creating the financial support structure for extending social security to the marginalised.

DINA MOHAMED WAFA1 1 THE AMERICAN UNIVERISTY IN CAIRO Preventive Participatory Anti-Corruption Principles in the Arab World The Arab region tends to be characterized by a social contract patronage and a prevalence of political and socio-economic and institutional factors that deepen the regions paternalist social contract and create a rich culture for the manifestation of corruption, yet several variances may be observed. The Arab states are generally characterized by high poverty, illiteracy, unemployment, inequality, low pay for civil servants, prevalence of conflict and economic rent; all socio-economic factors that create a rich culture for the manifestation of corruption (AKR, 2009; Jamali et al, 2013; Touati, 2013; World Bank, 2014). Political and institutional challenges also face the Arab world as they mainly depend on a paternalist social contract, or what is termed a rentier state, whereby the state is the main source of welfare and services in exchange for political allegiance (AKR, 2009; Beck, 2013; Beblawi, 1987; Jamali et al, 2013). The year 2015 has been declared the International Year of Evaluation to work on stimulating evaluation and evidence-based policy making for creating more responsive governments in line with the new millennium development goals, Sustainable Development. Creating a participatory approach is necessary to create a balance of power to enhance accountability and combat corruption. Yet civil society groups and the media in the region seem to struggle to assume their role as watchdogs and advocates for change. Creating an enabling environment and a committed political will is necessary for facilitating a transparent and accountable system driving toward a transformation of the existing social contract patronage in the Arab world. This research attempts to analyze the preventive participatory anti-corruption principles in the Arab world in accordance with article five of the United Nations Convention Against Corruption (UNCAC) and the new set of Millennium Development Goals on sustainable development. The main focus will be on prevention methods mainly focusing on preventive policies, transparency, participatory evaluations, social accountability and societal participation (UNCAC, 2014).

YASIN TASPINAR1, Ali SAHIN2 1 Selcuk University Faculty of Economics and Administratice Sciences, 2Selcuk University, FEAS Trust of Public Institutions in the Community: A Field Study The studies, which focus on the issue of trust, are generally concerned with the trust of individuals in other individuals or institutions. There is no doubt that, interpersonal and institutional trust is essential for the provision of social cooperation and continuity of democratic institutions. Trust relationship must be addressed in additional characteristics beyond the ones such as cognitive, emotional or value dimensions. Among those factors, one is the focal point of this study. That factor is mutuality. Mutuality in the trust relationship is one of the major factors contributing to trust environment. Individuals trusting in another individual or an institution, likewise expect the other party to trust themselves. Mutuality encourages them to rely on the other side. It should not be ignored that; individuals are not only rational beings; not only their own interests, but also the interests of the society, which they have common values with, are effective on their attitudes and behaviours. Among those shared and common values, there is trust, which the basic element of social capital. Therefore, trust increases while it is shared, such as the other socially common values. On the other hand, sharing of trust is possible, by its mutuality. In this regard, the «secret weapon» in trust relationship is mutuality. When the trust relationship between the government and citizens is dealt, one of the parties is the government and the other one is the society. Therefore, the trust of citizens in public administration interacts with the trust of government, which is the administrative apparatus of the state, in the society. If so; when trust is taken into account in the scientific and sector-specific area of public administration, one of the issues to discuss is the trust of government in the society. Then, how can that trust be measured? One of the basic assumptions of our research is that: trust of government in the community can be measured through the trust of public employees and public officials in the citizens. Our other assumption is that: the scales of individual and institutional trust and the factors having impact on individual and institutional trust can be taken as a basis in analysing the trust of government in the society. In this study, a scale will be constituted in the light of the past theoretical and applied studies, in order to measure the trust level of the public employees and public administrators in the citizens. Using the scale to be formed, the trust of government in the society in Turkey will be analyzed. Additionally, it will be tried to shed light on the factors effecting government’s trust in society. In the study, trust of governments in the citizens being in the first place; the literature about trust concept and the issue of public institutions’ trust in the society will be briefly dealt; and then the main focal points of the scale will be discussed. After giving information about the main points of the scale and subscales, findings of the field study will be put forward. In the applied part; field study research method, in which the data obtained through questionnaires will be analysed, will be used. Distributed questionnaires, will be controlled using consistency and reliability tests. Data in the properly filled out questionnaires will be coded and uploaded to the statistical analysis program. Data collected during the field study will be analysed using SPSS 16.0 (Statistical Packages for the Social Sciences) software. Findings obtained through the study are expected to give information

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about the society in the perspective of government, and the trust of public employees and public administrators in the citizens. It is also thought that; the findings about the trust of Turkish public institutions in the society and that impact level of a variety of factors on that trust will be useful in illuminating the trust dimension of government-public relationships.

Johanne QUEENTON1, Jacques Gagnon Professeur2 1 Université de Sherbrooke, 2Université de Sherbrooke Le soutien politique comme un déterminant de l’innovation pour les OBNL à vocation sociale : Une synthèse d’études de cas et des pistes d’action Le contexte actuel de rareté des ressources redessine les contours de la gouvernance locale en économie sociale. Ainsi, ce papier présentera les déterminants de l’analyse de l’environnement externe des organisations à but non lucratif (OBNL) en insistant sur le soutien des appuis politiques et institutionnels, l’opposition politique ainsi que sur de multiples collaborations avec les élus et administrateurs publics qui contribuent grandement aux innovations sociales. Les résultats de cette recherche exploratoire, basée sur vingt études de cas d’organisations innovantes du tiers secteur dans un même territoire, permettent de mettre en lumière une réalité souvent ignorée : Les OBNL n’attendent pas les progrès de la science pour créer des innovations. De plus, les actions répertoriées ont facilité la recherche de pistes de soutien pour les acteurs locaux et régionaux qui veulent appuyer l’innovation sociale sur leurs territoires.

Tereza CAHLIKOVA1 1 University of Lausanne Is Transparent Policy-Making Unwelcome in Switzerland? The Cases of Electronic Voting and SmartVote Application The most frequently cited arguments in favour of the introduction of digital democracy and e-Participation regard the electronic tools as a response to the high perceived corruption of governments, dissociation of political world from the population and, in general, to the lack of opportunities for citizens’ participation on public affairs (Hague & Loader, 1999; Pena-Lopéz, 2011; Akrivopoulou & Garipidis, 2013; Hoff et al., 2000; Rostiashvili, 2012). While valid in other countries, these reasons are for the better part not applicable in Switzerland. The Swiss political system is based on direct democracy and consensus government composed of representatives of the strongest political parties, which additionally belongs among the most trusted government bodies in the world (OECD, Better Life Index). Direct democracy tools such as referendums on laws and popular initiatives have a long tradition in Switzerland and their number has been increasing progressively since their introduction in 1848 (Swiss Federal Constitution of 12 September 1848). Despite the civic participation tools that Swiss citizens have already at their disposal, the introduction of e-Participation is comparatively reluctant and happens in a heterogeneous manner mainly on the regional level. The 2013 annual report on the state of e-Government in Switzerland admits that in the international comparison Switzerland scores less than average values for most of considered indicators. The introduction of e-Participation and the connected issue of citizens’ empowerment relate to the question of trust on different levels. In order for governments to be willing to delegate more responsibilities regarding the public policy making to citizens, the former have to trust the latter. Additionally, public officials have to believe that the new technologies will be implemented and used correctly and that the chances of misuse are minimised. It is evident that the Swiss authorities attribute a substantial level of trust to citizens in regard to the co-production of public policies, which can be initiated, modified or rejected based on the result of a popular initiative. However, with the new technologies and the transformation of traditional interactions that accompanies their introduction, the question of trust of public authorities in citizens is redefined. One of the main objectives of our research is to evaluate whether the attitudes of public officials towards the new technologies hinder a more advanced and homogeneous development of e-Participation in Switzerland. We will aim to answer questions such as: Are politicians and public officials ready to delegate more decision-making powers to citizens? What are the limits of the decision-making powers that public authorities are willing to confide in citizens? What is the nature of attitudes of public officials towards new technologies? Are the attitudes influenced by political or/and administrative traditions and organisational culture? We suppose that the additional transfer of decision-making competences to citizens acts as an obstacle to the introduction of e-Participation from the point of view of public officials. Snellen and van de Donk (2002) state that « every kind of decision that can be put in an algorithm will sooner or later be automated. » On the other hand, they also observe that politicians are mostly not prepared to participate in discussions with the electorate online. An important issue regarding the civic engagement in Switzerland is the decreasing voters’ turnout, which was observed over the last decades. There are several reasons that could explain this phenomenon. To name a few: growing apathy of voters, satisfaction with the political climate in the country, “saturation” of citizens with democratic procedures as a consequence of the civic participation possibilities that Switzerland offers through its direct democracy tools. The question that we seek to answer in this regard is whether electronic participation tools have the potential to engage wider common interest in politics and public affairs in the general population. We will be particularly interested in the positive effects that electronic participation tools could generate in a country that already substantially empowers its citizens in regard to the participation on public affairs and where, as a consequence, the needs to further legitimate public policies and increase trust in government are but marginal. The question of the e-Participation utility in Switzerland constitutes an important premise for the multidimensional research on e-Participation conducted in the framework of author’s PhD thesis. The results of the PhD project aimed at identifying the most important brakes to the e-Participation in Switzerland will constitute an important contribution to the issue of the introduction of technologies in public administrations and also to the larger theme of the redefinition of historically embedded ways and times of interaction between public administrations and citizens. To sum up, our research proposal adopts a two-dimensional approach – the first is the analysis of attitudes of public officials towards the new technologies (including the issue of government’s trust in citizens), the second is the assessment of e-Participation utility in Switzerland. The empirical part of the research

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will be based on the analysis of data obtained from semi-structured qualitative interviews conducted with politicians, public officials and technological experts. The selection of interviewees will be based on considerations such as the participation, experience or influence in the framework of projects falling within the scope of digital democracy and electronic government. Data collected from the interviews is not expected to be objective and, in this case, it is exactly the subjectivity of attitudes that we look for. We expect to find shared patterns of reaction, jargon, communication styles, values and historical context. Qualitative analysis will involve the coding of interview transcriptions, identification of core topic categories and important social processes. Collected data and results of the analysis will be used to confirm or reject pre-defined hypotheses. References Akrivopoulou, C. & Garipidis, N. (2013). Digital Democracy and the Impact of Technology on Governance and Politics. Information Science Reference, IGI Global. Hague, B. N. & Loader B. D. (1999). Digital Democracy: Discourse and Decision Making in the Information Age. London & New York, Routledge. Hoff, J.; Horrocks, I.; Tops, P. (2003). Democratic Governance and New Technology : Technologically mediated innovations in political practice in Western Europe. London & New York, Routledge. Pena-Lopez, I. (2011). The disempowering Goverati: e-Aristocrats or the Delusion of e-Democracy. JeDEM 3(1), pp. 1-21. Available online (www.jedem.org/article/view/50/69), accessed on 10 April 2014. Rostiashvili, K. (2012). Information Society and Digital Democracy – Theoretical Discourse. Scientific Journal in Humanities, 1(1), pp. 11-15. Snellen, I. & Van de Donk, W. (2002). Electronic governance: implications for citizens, politicians and public servants. International Review of Administrative Sciences, 68(2), pp. 183-198.

Guilherme MARQUES1, Bianor Cavalcanti2 1 Getulio Vargas Foundation, 2Getulio Vargas Foundation Advances and obstacles of the brazilian program evaluation system as a generating tool of government trust in society The economic and social transformations in effect over the last decades in Brazil has paved the way for the establishment of major reforms to the State and public administration. The reform and modernization of its internal processes toward the continuous strengthening of the democratic ideal through the establishment of mechanisms of economy, dynamism, efficiency and accountability have gained increasing importance in the political and social agenda in all areas and levels of government. Is in face of this background that the implementation of program evaluation systems is legitimated in discourse and practice. The evaluation activity is intrinsically linked to the accountability process, being characterized by the collection, analysis and interpretation of information in order to evaluate the design, implementation, operation, effects, justifications and social implications of public programs (JANN & WEGRICH, 2007), here understood as an organized action oriented to improve the well-being of the population (ROSSI & FREEMAN, 1989). Therefore, the evaluation plays an important feedback function in the development and management of these programs, helping the government to get higher degrees of trust and credibility by society. The evaluation process is structured as one of the successive stage of the Public Policy and Program Cycle. This separation in stages bring attention to the different emphasis of a process that begins on 1) identification of a problem, passing to 2) design, 3) implementation of government action and, finally, 4) the evaluation of this action by measuring its impacts. In short, the evaluation practice paves the way to evaluate the design, implementation, results and efforts achieved regarding its respective goals, allowing to identify the possible reasons for which the programs are or not being successful (KUSEK & RIST, 2004). In this way, the structure of this paper will focuses on the descriptive perspective of the ex post evaluation experience of social programs developed in Brazil. The objective is identify its forms, functioning, dynamics and institutional insertion, aiming to correlate the play of its activities with the acquisition of higher degrees of Government trust by Brazilian society. The research will be based on documental analysis, specialized literature and critical interviews with Brazilians academics and practitioners experts on the theme. The intention of the study is to contribute to advance the knowledge on the crucial importance of programs evaluation practices and its continuous development in order to maximize the efficiency and results of the social public policies as a way to build increasingly consolidated democracies.

References JANN, W.; WEGRICH, K (2007). Theories of the policy cycle. En: FISCHER, F. et al (Ed.). Handbook of public policy analysis: theory, politics and methods. Boca Raton: CRC Press, p. 43-62. KUSEK, Jody Zall; RIST, Ray C. (2004). Ten Steps to a Results - Based Monitoring and Evaluation System. Washington: The World Bank. ROSSI, P. H. y FREEMAN, H. E. (1989): Evaluation: A systematic approach, 4ª edición, Sage.

Anna SIMONATI1 1 University of Trento - Faculty of Law/Law School Strategic Spatial Planning in Italy: a New Model for Two-Way Trust in Administrative Action Strategic planning starts working in Italy at the beginning of the XXI century, even if there are not specific rules of law. Therefore, the adoption of a strategic spatial plan corresponds to a voluntary choice by the single authorities.

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The paper describes the main characteristics of the tool, which are fragmentation and heterogeneity of contents. However, there is a common dimension to the various Italian experiences: the importance of administrative procedure as a method to allow co-decision of choices (horizontally in the relation among local authorities, but especially in a bottom-up perspective). The analysis, based on the main best practices and on the general rules of administrative law, shows that nowadays in Italy strategic spatial planning may improve public communication, disseminate among the citizens the knowledge of the public interest choices and produce trust from the authorities to society as a reliable partner in order to common develop.

Salvatore ROMANAZZI1, Gabriella Ambrosino2 1 Italian Ministry of Economy and Finance, 2University of Salerno (Italy) Satisfaction as a driver of trust. Evidence from the Italian Chambers of Commerce. The changing global environment of recent decades has generated a need of continuous renewal in the Public Administration (PA) that has mainly resulted both in a series of legal provisions designed to make these changes more effective and in a new framework originally firm-oriented for the public context. This trend, that can be summarized in “to make the public sector more business-like” which is to make the public sector less bureaucratic, inefficient and ineffective, has generated processes more tailored to the community needs in a multi-sectoral view that takes in a higher consideration the different stakeholders’ and citizens’ interests. Moving in such a direction, the PA has adopted suitable managerial and organizational solutions to meet the increasingly strong demands for effectiveness, efficiency and transparency, also in order to promote consensus of the community to the public sector. This requires the consolidation of a trust based relationship between the citizen and PAs that justifies a new legitimacy of public action. In Italy, however, especially after the corruption scandals of the early 1990s, there has been a loss of confidence in the government and public administration. It is known that a low level of trust in public organizations have an undesirable impact on governance at all levels of government as public administration distrust results in weak support, commitment and participation in collective action and motivation. This started the process of gradual evolution of the PA which firstly resulted in a new view of the overall public sector. Secondly, the involvement of the citizen to be ‘included’ up to the point of generating a pro-active behavior that can support the PA’s management. Thanks to the bad vision of the public sector, the government is encouraged to compensate for the failure to pay or to make reforms, which in turn, further worsens its performance and, ultimately, the public trust, causing the so-called ‘fatalist syndrome’, a vicious circle of low confidence in a society that does not see the citizens take an active part in political life and political decision-making. In order to recover the eroded trust in government, politicians begun to make decisions that get the public sector closer to the people, even if at this stage the citizens played just a passive role. Going on, it became clear the need to involve citizens in the decision-making process focusing on the public needs and trying to build a “offer” of services able at satisfying them in the best way. Thus the focus has to shift to the citizen and its needs; the following step seems to be the involvement of citizens in decision-making processes in a way that they co-design and co-produce public services. To such an extent it is essential assess the perceived quality of the services provided by the PA, including customer satisfaction surveys. Systematically assess the degree of customer satisfaction can be helpful to build and maintain a new model of administration-citizen relationship based on trust and based on the ability to provide timely and relevant services to the real needs of the reference community. In this paper, we focus our analysis on the case of a quite large sample of Italian Chambers of Commerce (CCIAAs), as it is a particular public agency whose “customers” are mainly companies, consultants and freelance professionals. The Chamber of Commerce offers a wide range of services and their mission is expected to be the “point of contact” between the public sector world and private firms one. This gives them a strategic role as they play a crucial role in local economic development to accomplish their mission. CCIAAs made several efforts to improve their services “offer” over time, but a kind of distrust still seems to remain. Here we investigate the reasons starting from customer satisfaction surveys’ results. In light of the above discussion, and in order to investigate the relationship between customer satisfaction and trust in the context of the CCIAA, we used ad hoc officially collected data. Firstly, we processed results of customer satisfaction surveys from a stratified sample of Italian CCIAAs. This was lilely a ‘modified’ SERVQUAL questionnaire which was adapted for the CCIAAs, adding some items, but not performing the gap analysis since respondents were not asked about the ideal CCIAA. Secondly, in order to estimate drivers of trust in the CCIAA four ratios were calculated: (1) overall satisfaction, (2) overall performance trend, (3) customer retention, (4) Chamber promoter score. With the aim to test our hypotheses, we then performed four different regressions by relating the items of the questionnaire with each of the four dimensions of trust (ratios). Most of these regressions returned interesting results in terms of the positive correlation between customer satisfaction items and each trust dimension (ratios). Going ahead, in order to obtain a global driver of trust, we have linked the customer satisfaction items with all four dimensions of trust (ratios) simultaneously. So as to perform this last regression, we previously reduced the four trust dimensions (ratios) to one using a principal component analysis and took the first component as dependent variable since it explained a satisfactory percentage of variance. This final regression returned interesting results both for academic and for practitioner purposes. More specifically, testing customer satisfaction as trust driver, the analysis highlighted that the former can be regarded as a driver for at least three of the four dimensions of trust, since positive correlations emerged. Moreover, positive correlation also exists between customer satisfaction and the overall trust driver dimension. Finally, some geographic differences emerged in different areas throughout the country. The paper provides some interesting explanations about such geographical differences and their connections with different approaches 84

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to trust in the CCIAAs. The paper provides advancements by focusing the attention on the evolution of the relationship between the citizen and the PA through the concept of trust. On the one hand it can appear almost anachronistic, but on the other hand it can viewed as a strong change driver that government can use to foster a new relationship with citizens, also improving consensus and satisfaction.

Subtheme 3 / Sous-thème 3

Administrative Trust in Public Administration Reforms: inner-trust, civil servants’ trust and interorganisational trust / La confiance de l’administration dans les réformes d’administration publique : confiance interne, confiance des fonctionnaires, et confiance interorganisationnelle ANDRE AQUINO1, André Feliciano Lino2, Ricardo Rocha de Azevedo3 1 University of Sao Paulo, 2University of Sao Paulo, 3University of Sao Paulo Courts and municipalities relationship, a case of inter-organisational trust in local governments in Brazil This paper analyses the relationship between Courts of Accounts and Brazilian municipalities (specifically the Department of Finance) and proposes that inter-organisational trust is based on technical collaboration and strategy to avoid penalties under an asymmetric information scenario. The analysis challenges the expectation that the Court of Accounts (i) acts in alignment with the legislative branch, as defined by the Constitution, and (ii) operates in a neutral way in relation to municipalities. The literature suggests the usage of audits and inspections as mechanisms to reduce information asymmetry to lead with the lack of trust (distrust) (e.g. Bouckaert, 2012). In order to promote transparency and responsiveness, the accounts of the incumbent government are scrutinised by the Legislative branch, supported by a Court of Accounts, prompting two inter-organisational trust issues. As the Legislative branch - due to its political orientation - can choose whether or not to follow the technical recommendation from the Court of Accounts to reject or approve the Executive accounts, the Court of Accounts and the executive branch from audited municipality will be more (or less) confident on the neutrality of the legislative branch. The relationship between the Legislative and Executive branch at the municipal level is naturally driven by a principal-agent relationship, relying on audit and inspection mechanisms to certify performance of politicians. In Brazil, the executive branch from the more than 5,000 municipalities is audited by one of the 29 subnational courts at state level, the courts’ opinion on the incumbent government accounts is judged (accepted or not) by the local legislative branch. Since the Fiscal Responsibility Law was enacted, the role of the Courts of Accounts was expanded to cover the enforcement of fiscal targets as well. As technical staff from Courts of Accounts could not believe in the legislative neutrality and instead strive to reduce fiscal and budgetary non-conformities, they launch initiatives (such as IT solutions and training programs) to develop under a multiple-period interaction a calculus-based trust with the bureaucracy from the audited department. Another strategy is to develop the Internal Auditing function in the municipality. As the Constitution stipulates that each municipality must have its own local internal auditing, Courts of Accounts begin promoting best practices for Internal Auditing at the local government-level, suggesting that the local governments under its jurisdiction implement it. Thus, the Courts of Accounts create – and promote incentives for – the use of accountability mechanisms, in the form of audits and inspections, in a trust-based relationship (specific trust – Court and Department of Finance), to raise transparency and responsiveness, which will eventually increase the citizens’ trust (diffuse trust) in the incumbent government. On one hand, trust could be created via recurrent interaction, which promotes collaboration and reinforces the trust in question, while, on the other hand, it could also merely be a strategic response from Secretary of Finance to legitimise itself to the auditors at the Courts of Accounts. The Department of Finance, as a calculus-based trust actor, will act according to the interests of the Courts, given the threat of penalties for violating the trust and the rewards of being audited by a “friendly” organisation. This pattern, as a side effect, will stimulate the Courts to develop interpersonal networks with civil servants from the Department of Finance, approaching the Court in terms of municipality bureaucracy, more so than the legislative branch (as one could originally and ideally expect). Depending on local organisational architecture, the Courts can accept the internal auditing body directly subordinate to the CFO (politician-appointed, chief of the Department of Finance), which would, a priori, represent a governance problem due the lack of autonomy to fully scrutinise public accounts. Through secondary data analysis and interviews with Court of Accounts’ auditors and civil servants from the Department of Finance in five municipalities, our preliminary findings confirm that, in practice, subnational Courts of Accounts operate more closely to the local government bureaucracy, exercising some influence on accounting processes and other technical issues. This unbalanced position (closer to the executive branch) can, at an extreme level, constitute a dysfunction as the auditors become advisors. This work contributes to the development of a less studied perspective in public trust literature, namely, the internal - or organisational - perspective (Oomsels & Bouckaert, 2012; Battaglio & Condrey, 2009), regarding auditing and accounting functions.

Congrès international de l’IISA, 2015 - Rio de Janeiro - Juin 2015

31th International Congress of Administrative Sciences

Marloes CALLENS1 1 KU Leuven Organisational Information Exchange and Trust: A Case Study of the Flemish Juvenile Justice Chain Subtheme: Administrative Trust in Public Administration Reforms: inner-trust, civil servants’ trust and interorganisational trust Authors: Marloes Callens, KU Leuven, Public Governance Institute Marloes.Callens@soc.kuleuven.be Abstract: Information dependency is perceived as a the main dependency between public entities cooperating within the juvenile justice chain. Information flow between organisations depends on relational dimensions such as interorganisational trust. Within this paper three types of information sharing between juvenile justice organisations are distinguished and the role of trust within each of these types is explored. Interviews were conducted with members of the different organisations of the juvenile justice chain. Formal information sharing requires least trust to keep flowing and has little power to create trust. Informal information, although determinant for the decision making process, needs more interorganisational trust to keep flowing and has more power to create trusting ties. Confidential information, which should not be exchanged between the entities but is seen as sometimes necessary to share, requires much trust to be shared, and can create strong trust ties but can also easily blow up an interorganisational relation.

George CARAYANNOPOULOS1 1 University of Sydney Trust in the face of crisis, the importance of coordination across government Subtheme: Administrative Trust in Public Administration; interorganisational trust. Research Methodology: Qualitative, Comparative Case Study Analysis, Document Analysis, Elite Interviews In recent times, crises and disasters have increased in both in their scale and severity. Major events at the international level such as the crises in the Middle East, Ebola pandemic, downing of MH 17 and localised natural disaster events have emphasised the important role that governments play in responding to these events. It is evident that the management of crises is seen as crucial by the public and that the perception of a successful or a failed response can be seen as a critical outcome arising from the management of a crisis situation. It is also noteworthy that governments are crucial in the preparation for, response to and recovery from crisis and disaster events. This provides a unique level of responsibility and trust which has been cited as part of the social contract between governments and their citizens and illustrates that whilst these may be low probability events they are high impact and demand significant resources from the public sector. This paper will seek to understand the way in which moves towards connecting or joining-up government impact on the management and response to crises, it will suggest a means to understanding these events by providing a conceptual framework around understanding characteristics which may impact on the ability to successfully manage crises across government. The paper will then review the conceptual material presented through an analysis of two disaster response case studies in Australia; the 2009 Victorian Bushfires and the 2011 Queensland Floods two large scale significant events and finally provide directions for future research regarding how government responses to crises can further be analysed for the purpose of academia and professional practice. The incidence and scale of crisis events comes against a backdrop where governments have increasingly recognised that joining-up, connecting or acting in a whole of government way across the political, bureaucratic and operational levels is critical given that no one government department, agency or minister is alone capable of responding to large and complex events. It is also clear that there has been a departure from command and control response models and a suggestion that decentralised response mechanisms offer the most appropriate means for response patterns given that a response at the most local level is often more attuned to the realities that may be occurring. Arguably in many ways, shifts towards more horizontal modes of working can also be seen to be a response to the fragmentation in government that may have occurred as a result of the move towards New Public Management (NPM) and the emphasis on performance goals, KPIs, metrics and targets which may have meant that individual or agencies have prioritised individual goals over collective action. As a result there has been renewed interest in attempts to reintegrate across government in the Anglophile countries, particularly Australia and there is a small but developing field which attempts to understand how whole of government responses to crises occur. As a result, this paper will seek to understand what may be the key characteristics or determinants which impact on the successful management of a crisis across government including; the nature of the crisis, leadership, coordination and social capital between actors. These characteristics have been cited as critical to understanding the way in which responses occur and as a result impact on the crisis. It will seek to provide an analysis of these within a public sector framework. Within this it will pay particular attention to the importance of trust and relationships across the different strands of government i.e. political, bureaucratic and operational response agencies to understand how the quality of relationships and the nature of the trust or lack thereof may mediate or impact on the outcomes of the crisis The conceptual material in the paper will be supported by insights from a comparative case study which has been undertaken surrounding the response to natural disaster events in Australia, given that Australia experiences a significant number of these events which have sustained and significant impact on the impacted communities. The research undertaken employed a qualitative case study methodology in examining different outcomes, particularly through document analysis and elite interviewing with senior government and public service figures. The case studies, the 2009 Victorian Bushfires and the 2011 Queensland Floods are the two most significant natural disaster events in recent history and arguably are some of the most significant in Australia’s history. The Australian disaster management system is characterised by its decentralised nature, where state governments are primarily charged with the response to these events and the federal government is only called in where the disaster response capacity is exhausted. The comparative case studies will allow comparison across states with 86

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different public sector and institutional structures, geographical features and risk profiles. The primary emphasis will be the review of the whole of government arrangements around each of the events to understand what each of these events may tell us about the key thematic areas which are seen as critical to a crisis response including the nature of the crisis, the leadership response, coordination across government and the importance of social capital in the relationships between key actors. Finally the paper will suggest a potential research agenda for both academia and public administration and management practitioners around the management of crises. It is suggested that research into connected responses to crises and disasters remains an important yet underdeveloped field of research and that further research at both the national level for domestic events and at the international level for cross-border crises remains critical to better equipping governments at the political, bureaucratic and operational levels to respond to these events.

PETER OOMSELS1, Geert Bouckaert2 1 KU LEUVEN-INSTITUUT VOOR DE OVERHEID, 2KU LEUVEN-INSTITUUT VOOR DE OVERHEID Mechanisms of interorganisational trust in the Flemish administration: Relating interorganisational interaction aspects with trust dimensions The objective of this paper is to better understand what drives interorganisational trust in public administration. We provide a theoretical framework to approach this problem, and conduct a mixed- method nested analysis of trust in interorganisational interactions between administrative entities and ‘horizontal’ coordinating departments in the Flemish public administration. Our analysis suggests that the trust process is driven by perceptions of trustworthiness with an institutional (formal and informal) and relational basis. This perceived trustworthiness, extended by additional institutional (formal and informal) and calculative considerations, constitutes ‘good reasons’ that influence boundary spanners’ willingness to be vulnerable in a particular interorganisational interaction. Boundary spanners’ willingness to take this ‘leap of faith’ influences organisational risk-taking behaviour, but is mitigated by the boundary spanners’ discretion to decide alone over their organisations’ risk-taking behaviour in the interorganisational interaction. We also find that the relative importance of these mechanisms differs if the starting position is one of interorganisational trust or interorganisational distrust. Recommendations for public managers are formulated on the basis of these conclusions. We suggest in conclusion that the trust research field would merit from integration between rational, relational and institutional theory in a neo-institutional framework of the underlying mechanisms of this complex social phenomenon, instead of continued discussion between the proponents of calculative, relational, and institution-based trust.

Long YANG1 1 Nankai University Fonctions of Trust in the Intergovernmental Cooperation in China Trust in the Intergovernmental Cooperation in China Abstract Trust can reduce inter-organizational and interpersonal uncertainty. There is no affiliation between local governments or their associated government departments across different provinces in China. Nevertheless, local governments and government departments regularly need coordination and cooperation in government process and administrative process, therefore making trust in intergovernmental cooperation essential. This paper analyzes the role of trust in Chinese intergovernmental cooperation through the lens of trust theory in sociology and China’s vertical and horizontal intergovernmental relations. In China’s vertical intergovernmental relations, interpersonal trust is the key factor maintaining the relationship between central and local governments, both at higher and lower levels. Meanwhile trust between organizations play a secondary role. China has a unitary system, with no regional autonomy. Its power system is centralized and the top-down power structure from the central authorities to the provincial, the municipal, county and village (town) governments. Local officials are selected by the central, junior officers are selected by senior ones. In Chinese bureaucracy, trust from the central to the local, the superior to the junior is the key. The central does not promote the officials whom they do not trust to local leadership positions. Similarly, the superior does not promote people they do not trust to the junior positions. Another layer in vertical Intergovernmental relations is the system between the central and local in functional departments. There is a vertical trust built in departmental systems, namely the internal trust from top down. Another source of internal trust among functional departments is the shared expertise and the same professional language. Therefore, trust in functional departments has certain exclusivity. Trust in vertical intergovernmental relations has positive outcomes such as precise implementation of the policy and better administrative efficiency. But vertical trust should be kept within the boundaries of administrative ethics, otherwise it is likely to transform to bureaucratic dependency, possibly leading to internal loyalty to form small groups of sectarianism and small group mentality. In addition to loyalty, vertical trust system is likely to decrease motivation to innovate for junior officials, and to increase decision-making pressure for their superiors. Internal trust in department system may have by-products: for instance, the exclusive interests of a single department may lead to barriers for other department. In the horizontal intergovernmental relations, trust between organizations is the key factor influencing the cooperation among local governments and departments, with interpersonal trust playing a secondary role. An important function of Chinese local governments is intergovernmental cooperation, and every provincial government has agencies in charge of cooperation with other local governments. These agencies are founded in major local governments, such as the capital, Beijing, or other locations with many cooperation activities, acting as a local government representative. Horizontal cooperation among local governments requires mutual trust, and trust among organizations in horizontal intergovernmental relations is prevalent in China. Friendship among local leaders plays another important role in intergovernmental cooperation. In addition, there are other factors in play affecting trust in intergovernmental cooperation. Congrès international de l’IISA, 2015 - Rio de Janeiro - Juin 2015

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First, common interests of local governments, such as rivers, lakes watershed areas, and the shared resources create the need to build trust among several local governments to manage the resources collaboratively. Secondly, two geographically adjacent local governments have close contacts of people and economic activities. Therefore, their intergovernmental cooperation is frequent, and trust is essential in the cooperation. Thirdly, China embraces diverse regional cultures mainly based on geographical locations. Each regional culture usually spans several administrative regions, so this will naturally form trust as social capital. Furthermore, Chinese local leaders usually have worked in different provinces. They can always take advantage of their past personal network to form new partnership in their current positions. The biggest challenge for horizontal intergovernmental trust is that it is not strong enough. One reason is there is no specific law regarding cooperation between local governments. Moreover the competition among local governments decreases incentives to cooperate. Since the local governments report to their vertical superiors, here is no awareness to establish partnership relations among themselves. For intergovernmental cooperation, horizontal trust is more important than vertical trust. Therefore, the main task to promote Chinese intergovernmental cooperation is to form horizontal intergovernmental trust.

Manuela BARRECA1, Manuela Barreca2 1 Universita della Svizzera Italiana, 2Università della Svizzera Italiana, USI How to restore civil servants’ trust in Government? Count on public service motivation and leadership but avoid red tape Trust or better distrust in Government is a crucial issue in modern societies. All around the world Governments have to deal with “unconfident” people, being those citizens or civil servants, and have to find new ways to address them. The decrease in the confidence of citizens has typically received great attention; on the contrary, the “distrust” of civil servants has been largely neglected, when the confidence of employees in their organizations is a crucial factor for the organizational success. In this perspective, the aim of the paper is to explore the determinants of the civil servants’ confidence in Governments. In particular, we will explore the impact of four factors on the civil servants’ trust: public service motivation, managerial leadership, political leadership and red tape. Results suggest that all the four predictors are significant. This paves the way to some important considerations about the measures to implement in order to restore the civil servants’ confidence in Government.

Michael BAUER1, Michael Tatham2 1 University of Administrative Sciences Speyer, Germany, 2University of Bergen, Norway Trust in the state in times of crisis – Insights from Regional Bureaucrats in 11 European Countries The sovereign debt crisis in the European Union has sharpened discussions about the optimal way to organise our societies, especially with regards to economic policy. As a response to the crisis, European states have carried out various reforms. In the process, they have often sought to readjust the balance between free-market logics and the role of government. These reforms often have consequences for, and are partly implemented by, regional administrations. However, little is known about the governance preferences of the élite civil servants populating these administrations. What are their views on the regulation of the economy, the role of government, and that of the free market? Do they trust more in the economy or in the role of the state? Are these views related to 1) early life socialisation, 2) educational pathways, 3) professional interests, or 4) the capacity of their own administration? To answer these questions, we assembled a unique dataset by interviewing 742 administrative élites from 63 regions and 11 countries. Overall, we find some supporting evidence for all four explanations. More specifically, individual characteristics such as the birth year, graduation degree specialisation, or job motivation of these élites matter. Contextual factors, however, such as the region’s quality of government or its unemployment level, seem to matter more.

Ken COGHILL1, Ken Coghill2, Julia Thornton3 1 Monash University, 2Monash University, 3RMIT University Politicians, ethical codes and trust Ethical conduct is a key factor affecting the trust of civil servants and the public in members of legislatures (parliaments) and hence the legislatures. This paper reports on original research conducted as part of a larger project investigating how the knowledge, skills and attitudes of legislators (parliamentarians) is enhanced. The paper focuses on a particular aspect, the ethical behaviour of legislators. The research has been conducted in a wide range of jurisdictions representing established and more recent democracies, parliamentary and executive presidential constitutional models, and global regions. It included a survey of Commonwealth of Nations parliaments (i.e. parliaments of UK and former and current colonial, national, subnational and territory jurisdictions) and interviews with legislators and senior staff of legislatures. The survey attracted a relatively high response rate and approximately two thirds of respondent parliaments reported having some form of code of conduct. However, the instruments varied widely in their (i) title, formal structure and status (from a simple resolution following each general election to a permanent Act), (ii) types of conduct affected (from matters such as requiring courteous behavior to proscribing the acceptance of inducements), (iii) provisions for disclosure and publication of potential conflicts of interest, (iv) providing for independent ethical advice, (v) providing for independent investigation to determine the facts concerning alleged breaches, and (vi) effective sanctions where breaches are found. The relative strengths of the features of codes were explored in interviews. The paper discusses a number of factors which seem to influence trust as affected by ethical behaviour within 88

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legislatures, including attitudes and cultures which may develop amongst the members, or some groups of members, of a legislature. More generally, the paper explores special features of education and training to enhance the knowledge and skills of legislators as members of an occupational group with unique characteristics. Desirable features of programs to enhance knowledge, skills and attitudes are discussed. The paper concludes with proposed benchmarks for codes of conduct for legislators and suggests directions for further research into enhancing ethical conduct by legislators including compliance with codes of conduct and evaluation of the effectiveness of enhancement measures.

James Daniel DOWNE1, Richard Cowell2, Karen Morgan3 1 Cardiff University, 2Cardiff University, 3University of Bristol Trust in public administration: assessing the impact of an ethical code of conduct and the role of leadership Leadership is widely seen as having an important role in fostering ethical conduct in organizations, but the way that leaders intersect with formalised ethical codes in shaping conduct has been little researched. This paper examines this issue through a qualitative study of the operation of the ‘ethical framework’ for English local government; which entailed all councils adopting inter alia a code of conduct to regulate the behaviour of politicians. Local government exemplifies an under-considered aspect of ethical leadership research – the effects of multiple people in leadership roles (managers and politicians) – and demonstrates the value of translational models of power to understand how agency is exercised on ethical conduct. The study finds that organizations with persistently good conduct have multiple leaders that demonstrate good conduct, who act and interact to pre-empt the escalation of problems, but also that such leaders act to minimise explicit, direct use of ethics regulation.

Ivana Giselle GONZALEZ1, Gustavo Edgardo BLUTMAN2 1 Center for Research in Public Administration - Faculty of Economics - UBA, 2Universita de Buenos Aires The participatory strategic planning as a tool for the generation of confidence in the management of public policies Debates, contributions and discussions about the importance of the strengthening of the link between the State and Civil society for the improvement of the efficiency of public policies are nowadays one of the conditions necessary to think of strong and lasting democracies that allow models of development with a view to the future. However, his approach is not one-dimensional but that the variables involved in them are multiple. Among them is the idea of governance, governance, social participation, the idea of development, among others, as well as the different public management technologies that could contribute to increasing the levels of State capacity to achieve better compliance with goals and objectives of the different areas of Government. Taking into account the complexity facing each of these topics is object of this work address the comparative analysis of the resulting experience of the implementation of the management technology of participatory strategic planning in agencies of the Government of Argentina. In this framework, the approach we propose resumes importance if we start from the basis that today the strengthening of democracies does not depend only on institutional arrangements that promote formulas, rules or formal procedures, but it it is rather generate capacities that will allow the management of networks of actors, which are defined by processes of interaction established between public actors and interest groups or individuals involved.Modern trends in planning aim to encourage and promote participatory instances in which multiple and heterogeneous actors are linked to feel involved in the development of a plan, thereby generating processes and spaces in which different mechanisms are deployed: cooperation, conflict, persuasion, negotiation and mediation, among other strategies which aim ultimately to generate a shared vision for the future. In the words of Oszlak (2009) interactions that take place can be analyzed in terms of a relationship that takes into account three types of links through which, the contents of the current social agenda and ways of resolution of the issues that comprise it are resolved. These links could be summarized at the following levels: the level of functional relations, in which is displayed the social role of each of the actors involved by defining a type of State intervention; the material, related to the field of the distribution of social surplus, and finally, the field of domination whereby power resources are exchanged and can mobilize the State and society in the pursuit of interests and values.According to this author we could say that the study of the participation of actors in the formulation of policies involves refer to study the intersection of goals, interests, values and resources that display the State and social actors at different levels that we noted previously (Oszlak, 2009). The management of networks requires the adoption of a relational, interactive, complex, strategic and adaptive management perspective, through which facilitates the generation of new patterns of interaction among the actors through the production of new games. In this sense, we understand that the strategies of the players depend on resources that they can mobilize their knowledge, perceptions and individual strategic visions. Congrès international de l’IISA, 2015 - Rio de Janeiro - Juin 2015

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In this context, and on the basis that the involvement of actors in public management can occur through different modalities, the particularity of the experiences presented (agro-food and agro-industrial Strategic Plan 2010-2020, project of modernization of the Honorable Chamber of Deputies and Plan national strategic insurance 2010-2020), resides in the role and initiative that has taken the State in recent years promoting institutionalized participation spaces for the design, implementation and evaluation of public policies through a strategic view of public administration. Since the installation of the weberian paradigm and its management model bureaucratic - and with more focus after the processes of reform-it has become to put in discussion the role of the State in the formulation and implementation of public policies, questioning the ability of the State and the need for an institutional reconstruction on new bases. Effective State capabilities for the formulation and implementation of policies, in the context of an increase in the quality of institutions and the involvement of civil society, become predominant issues to keep in mind, and thus management technologies to be used to achieve reasonable chances of success. Ultimately, the use of tools such as participatory strategic planning raises a challenge forward; This means to put into play not only the capacity of actors to interact in the framework of processes and areas that rebuild confidence, but also the ability of the State to achieve a shared vision of future jointly built.

Melvin J. DUBNICK1 1 University of New Hampshire Accountability, The Problematics of Agency and Discretionary Spaces This paper is a composite of two presentations based on a project to initiate the development of a theory of accountable governance. The first part of the paper (presented at the TAD11 meeting in Boston, 6 June) opens with a brief critique of current theoretical frames, including the “folk theories” of accountability and theories associated with distinct approaches to amorphous conceptualizations of accountability. This is followed by developing an alternative framework based on the “problematics of agency” which generates four types of “accountable agents”: the responsible agent, the answerable agent, the attributable agent and the blameworthy agent. The framework is then applied to two «somewhat random» cases to test its use as a heuristic, and this is followed by a consideration of its value as a basis for use as a theoretical frame. The second part of the paper (deve;oped for the Rio meeting) introduces another “problematics of agency” scheme (adapted from earlier work; see Dubnick & Justice, 2014) focusing on four alternative “accountability spaces” within which accountable agents exercise various degrees of discretion. These spaces are formed through a combination of TRUST and CONTROL -- demonstrating that different agents are subjected to different «spatial» combinations of discretionary authority emerging from the the trust-control nexus. The four «discretion spaces» (constitutive, regulatory, managerial and performative) are briefly discussed, especially their complementarity with the accountable agents frame.

Melissa GODOY1, Cibele Franzese2, Maria Fernanda Alessio3 1 Planning Secretariat, 2Getulio Vargas Foundation, 3Getulio Vargas Foundation An inter-federative alliance for housing: overcoming internal and external resistances to bring efficiency and efficacy of public service delivery to the next level This paper analyses the housing policy in Brazil in order to discuss the building of intergovernmental trust into a federative partnership designed and put in practice between the Brazilian federal government and the state government of São Paulo. The analysis is based on the information collected in 2014, for the Policy Evaluation Program from the state of São Paulo, that showed some very important and surprisingly positive results. Considering the previous context of high distrust that characterizes Brazilian intergovernmental relations in general and inside the housing policy specifically, it was not expected that such positive results could be achieved. In order to explore possible explanations of this success, as well as some of the future challenges of this policy, we will use the Oomsels & Bouckaert trust and distrust analytical framework to enrich this debate, still little discussed in Brazilian literature.

Aline DE MENEZES SANTOS1, Alketa Peci2, Yara Duque3 1 DECEA, 2EBAPE - FGV, 3EBAPE - FGV Quo vadis regulator? An analysis of professional and political trajectories of state regulators in Brazil Independent regulatory agencies (IRAs) were established to regulate public services and economic and social sectors, in three levels of government. Provided with decision-making, administrative and financial autonomy, with fixed terms for its leaders and not identical to the Executive, have an «identity» itself to ensure the independence inherent to the regulatory activity. Assuming that the quality of regulations depends on the quality of regulators, key decision-making borrowers under the regulatory agencies, the present study sought to understand some important aspects related to autonomy as it is manifested in practice: expertise levels of regulators and the dynamic capture them. To this purpose, a database containing information on 90

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state regulators was built, highlighting features related to the IRAs and individual characteristics of regulators from graduation, previous experience and postgraduate courses, conduction and mandate renewals, until placement professional post-office. The analysis, descriptive, indicates that nearly 50% of state regulators are engineers and economists, the rest being distributed among various professions, especially the area of law, indicating a legalistic tradition in Brazilian IRAs, as well as many of the listed to take over as leader confirms previous experience in the regulated sector. However, the expertise differs according to the region of the country and the type of regulatory agency, being lower in the northern and largest region in the southeast, also dominated more specialized agencies. Also it notes a tendency to create a regulocratas network: regulators that stand out for a professional trajectory between agencies. When data are looked at from the capture theories, it is emphasized that, unlike the US regulators, most state regulators remains in the public sector after leaving the executive board. The party conduction and renewals indicate predominance of parties as PSDB and PMDB, however it is perceived that renewals take place independent of party power, indicating the strength of the Brazilian model.

ESTELA NAJBERG1, NELSON BARBOSA2, Vicente Ferreira3, Marcos Sousa4 1 Universidade Federal de Goiás, 2SES-GO, 3FACE-UFG, 4IFG Analysis of health social organizations in Goiás State The Brazilian Unified Health System (SUS), Brazil’s publicly funded health care system, has faced, as main challenge to its consolidation, the process to improve its ability to manage scarce resources in a service with: (1) great demand; (2) considerable part of the population uses only this service; (3) sensitive sector to the state presence and public policies; (4) scale service (capillarity in a country of continental dimensions); (5) demographic and epidemiological characteristics in transition, case of aging and growth trend of non-transmissible chronic diseases which are responsible for 70 % of deaths in Brazil (IBGE, 2014) . Recent strategies used are focused on decentralization, with the increasing importance of municipalities in providing services with the following actions: a) increasing volume of transferred resources to the sector; b) investment in education and workers training and; c) the search for new management models, especially for hospitals, considering the complexity of the management of these proceedings. The implementation experiences of new management models have as matrix the State’s crisis and the resulting proposals to face them (SANTOS; ANDRADE, 2009). Discussions on the best use of public resources and larger transparency in accountability have been the state reforms tonic occurred in many countries. These State reforms have reached Brazil in 1990 and have as speech criticism of bureaucratic rigidity and the need for change with the incorporation of the principles of new public management (BRESSER-PEREIRA, 2001; IBAÑEZ; VECINA NETO, 2007). The principles that guided the State’s reform, as well as the dimensions of innovation and benchmarking adopted in this process of change have influenced and encouraged the development of changes as new management models in the public sector, with consequences for the health sector. The process of incorporating all Brazilian population to the SUS was the major innovation in terms of public health policy in Brazil (SANTOS; ANDRADE, 2009), whereas until then, there was a pension system, in which the access to health services offered by the public sector was conditioned to the payment of contribution to the system. To design and to implement SUS architecture, under a process of shared management among the three agencies of Federation: Federal, State and Municipalities require continuous creative efforts. In this context, the management of hospitals, by their complexity, cost and importance in the health care network has received a special attention and has become propositions object (BRASIL, 2011). Among the proposals, the one which has won the highlight was the creation of Health Social Organizations (OSS). These new legal forms, derived from the administrative reform of 1995, delegate to non-state public organizations the task of managing, on behalf of the government, state public hospitals. The relationship of these public organizations is mediated by a management contract establishing objectives, goals and commitments between the parties. Studies on OSS have shown advantages related to: (i) the system of procurement of goods and services, for their flexibility and agility; (ii) the adoption of benchmarks related to the use of existing resources (installed capacity); (iii) the implementation of a monitoring culture and results evaluation compared to the procedures adopted in the direct administration. These advantages, however, to be potentiated, require improvement in the control mechanisms by the public sector (IBAÑEZ, VECINA NETO, 2007; BARBOSA, ELIAS, 2010) Studies indicate possibilities and limits of this model, emphasizing productivity gains in the process of procurement of goods and services and the difficulties in the integration of these units in the network, the risks in relation to the selection of customers and the difficulties to operate under a control logic that has not joined the direct administrative operating culture management by results. Currently this is the experience that is most disseminated in the country, with São Paulo State hosting the largest number of units managed by this model. In Goiás State, all the hospitals run by the Ministry of Health of Goiás (SES -GO) operate within the OS mode since 2013 (GOIÁS, [s.d.]). Given this situation, this paper seeks to develop an analysis of the OS management model adopted in the health field in Goiás State. The categories of analysis are the dimensions proposed for data structuring, which cover: characterization of selected units; legal and regulatory framework of the OSs deployment process, strategies used for implementation of contracts and reach of agreed targets in management contracts. The data are from documentary secondary sources related to the implementation process and development of the proposed management model (OS), such as: legislation that regulates entities qualification process as social organizations; management contracts between the State Department of Health of Goiás State and OSS; monitoring reports on implementation of management contracts drawn up by the Internal Comptroller of the Goiás State. Congrès international de l’IISA, 2015 - Rio de Janeiro - Juin 2015

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References: BARBOSA, N. B.; ELIAS, P. E. M. As Organizações sociais como forma de gestão público/privado. Revista Ciência e Saúde Coletiva, v.15, n.5, p. 483-495, ago. 2010 BRASIL. Lei No 12.550, que autoriza o Poder Executivo a criar a empresa pública denominada Empresa Brasileira de Serviços Hospitalares - EBSERH BrasilPresidência da República, , 2011. BRESSERPEREIRA, L. C. Do Estado patrimonial ao gerencial. In: Um século de transformações. São Paulo: Cia da Letras, 2001. GOIÁS. Entenda o que são Organizações Sociais. Available in: . IBAÑEZ, N.; VECINA NETO, G. Modelos de gestão e o SUSCiência & Saúde Coletiva, 2007. IBGE. Pesquisa nacional de saúde 2013. Rio de Janeiro: [s.n.]. SANTOS, L.; ANDRADE, L. O. M. SUS: o espaço da gestão inovada e dos consensos interfederativos. 2. ed. Campinas - SP: Saberes Editora, 2009. p. 165

Chancel AKO TAKEM1, Augustin Essoh 1 Ministère de la Fonction Pubilque et de la Réforme Administrative La confiance de l’administration dans les réformes d’administration publique : L’expérience camerounaise à travers le système de gestion des personnels de l’Etat. Les politiques de réforme de l’administration ont connu, depuis plusieurs décennies, un fort développement dans la plupart des pays africains. Cohéritier des modèles institutionnel français, le Cameroun n’échappe pas à ce phénomène, revendiqué en France, depuis les années 1990, sous le label maximaliste de « réforme de l’Etat » . A la suite de la grande crise de récession économique qui s’est imposée dans l’environnement camerounais à la fin des années 80, discours de propagande électorale, discours à la nation du Chef de l’Etat, déclaration et engagements à plusieurs sommets et instances de concertation nationale et internationale se sont succédés. Le but certain étant de provoquer des changements dans la manière pour l’administration d’appréhender le mal. La plupart des discours dès lors sont tournés autour de la lutte contre la pauvreté et le développement du Cameroun visant à priori à replacer l’administration au centre des actions de développement. C’est une période de crise traduite par une baisse drastique des revues agricoles, la fermeture de nombreuses entreprises, la montée du chômage, la contraction des salaires autant dans le public que le privé. Ces maux ont eu pour conséquence de favoriser l’introduction de la corruption, principale gangrène de l’administration, au point où le Chef de l’Etat dans son discours de prestation de serment le 03 mars 2004 prescrivant la voie à suivre relevait que : « la fraude et la corruption se sont malheureusement infiltrés dans l’administration qui devrait pourtant donner l’exemple… Il faudra que l’administration se reforme et retrouve le sens de l’Etat ». Dans le cadre des présents travaux scientifiques du Congrès International de l’IISA qui se tiennent en 2015 à RIO de Janeiro au Brésil, il m’échoit de proposer une communication qui rentre dans le sous-thème 3 portant sur « la confiance de l’administration dans les réformes d’administration publique ». De manière spécifique, cette communication va porter sur une réforme engagée par l’administration publique camerounaise qui a su rétablir la confiance autant de l’administration dans ses initiatives que des bénéficiaires. Il s’agit de la réforme sur la déconcentration de la gestion des personnels de l’Etat et de la solde appuyée par le Système Informatique de Gestion Intégré des Personnels de l’Etat et de la Solde (SIGIPES). En effet, la période qui a précédé la mise en place de la réforme sur la déconcentration de la gestion des personnels de l’Etat et de la solde, a laissé constater une forte centralisation tenue par le Ministère en charge des finances, en ce qui concerne la solde et le Ministère en charge de la de la Fonction Publique en ce qui concerne le personnel (hormis ceux relevant de certains statuts spéciaux). Cette situation a multiplié un certain nombre de dysfonctionnements qui ont porté préjudice d’une part, à l’efficacité de l’administration et d’autre part, à la qualité du service rendu à l’usager. En outre, pour être proche du citoyen et lui fournir un large éventail de services de qualité, l’administration ne saurait s’accommoder d’une centralisation qui a fait son temps et montré ses limites. L’efficacité de son fonctionnement passe par une décentralisation/déconcentration sur plusieurs plans, dont celui de la gestion des ressources humaines. Cette évolution s’est imposée au moment où le processus de modernisation de l’Administration Publique Camerounaise à été introduite à la faveur du diagnostic posé dans le cadre du Programme National de Gouvernance en 2000. Le dit diagnostic a fait apparaitre la nécessité pour, le pouvoir politique au Cameroun de s’appuyer sur une « administration publique plus performante, plus simple et plus expéditive, plus compétente et plus responsable » (BIYA P., 1986 : 54). Dans ce contexte, l’élaboration d’une stratégie nouvelle de gestion des ressources humaines qui met l’accent sur la responsabilité des départements ministériels utilisateurs du personnel de l’Etat, devient un des principaux facteurs clés de la politique gouvernementale au triple plan de la maîtrise des effectifs et leur adéquation en nombre et en qualité avec la mission des administrations. Il s’est agit à travers cette réforme de redonner confiance à la capacité de l’administration de proposer des réformes dont les résultats sont aujourd’hui perceptibles si l’on se réfère aux résultats qui touchent à la rationalisation et l’amélioration du système de rémunération ainsi que celle de la maîtrise des effectifs.

BOUJEMA BOUAZZAOUI1, BUUAZZAOUI BOUJEMA2, 1 UNIVERSITY, 2university The Trust of Moroccan Government in Reforms of Civil Service The principal constraints of Moroccan civil service are; first, a discrepancy between human resources and the needs of the administration. Second, inexistence of a direct link between the remuneration paid and the real value of the contribution made by civil servants. Third, poor civil service management and absence of a resource management culture based on merit, competence and performance. Addressing these weaknesses the government had revised the General Civil Service Statute (GCSS), at least fourteen times. The primary objective of these reforms was to provide Morocco with a modern civil service that could contribute to the competitiveness of the economy and to the sustainable development of the country, while ensuring the viability of its macroeconomic framework. Additionally, they worked on improving government efficiency in budget management and human resources management, consolidating and controlling the public payroll; improving service delivery and simplifying public procedures through e-Government. Keywords: Government, Reform, Civil Service, Civil Servants, Public Administration, Trust, Management of Human Resources. 92

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MEITA KARTIKANINGSIH1, Adi SURYANTO2 1 National Institute of Public Administration, 2National Institute of Public Administration Bureaucracy Reform Impacts on Public Trust to Government in Indonesia: Lessons Learned to Jokowi’s Civil Service ‘Mental Revolution’ Public trust to government is considered as a crucial issue at all levels of governance. In order to enhance public trust, bureaucratic reform plays critical role as decrease of the trust in governments often, is influenced by quality of bureaucracy. This paper aims to examine the impact of the reform to public trust in government. This paper asks the question what extent level of public trust to government in the era post implementation of bureaucratic reform in Indonesia. Subsequently, this paper evaluates to what extent the design of bureaucratic reform in Indonesia has been directed and implemented toward building public trust to government in Indonesia. The data involved result from Edelman Trust Barometer survey conducted by Edelman, the data from Worlbank Worldwide Governance Indicators, the survey results on Public Service Integrity by the Indonesian Corruption Eradication Bureau, other secondary data and observation. This paper concludes that public trust tended to be higher in general perception at macro level, which are not solely the outcome of bureaucratic reform. Impact of bureaucratic reform to public trust to government has not been significant. Further evaluation on the implementation of the reform reveals several drawbacks in Indonesian bureaucratic reform. Finally, this paper provides insights with regard to civil service apparatus ‘mental revolution’ in Indonesia that has been coined by President Joko Widodo.

GODFREY MANYIBE1 1 KENYA SCHOOL OF GOVERNMENT - EMBU An assessment of challenges facing Kenya’s national assembly Public Accounts Committee (PAC) on its oversight role on public finance management The purpose of this paper is to explore some of the challenges constraining the Public accounts committee (PAC) from acting as an effective accountability tool in its oversight role on public finance management in Kenya and to proffer solutions. PAC is Kenya’s National assembly’s committee mandated to help the assembly to fulfill its oversight role in public spending. Many institutions are entrusted with public money for recurrent expenditure and development, thus an oversight to avoid blanket trust. This is a conceptual paper and relies on extensive review of literature. The questions we have tried to answer include: What is the political affiliation of the PAC members? What are their fields of competence? Can they use well technologies? Have they any competing interests? Does any rivalry among PAC members hinder the PAC effectiveness in it’s over sighting role? The reviewed literature has indicated a strong relationship of the above challenges and the extent to which the committee has been successful. Some of our recommendations include: Embracing and integrating relevant technology to help the group execute their mandate; The national assembly to come with a formula on how committees can complement each other instead of rivalry; The committee to benchmark with other renowned committees of its like in other parliaments globally; a well-staffed secretariat to be installed to assist the committee in fulfilling its mandate by complementing the competencies of the committee members. This paper also aims at sparking discussions on the relevance of these kinds of committees and on what can be done to equip and assist them to meaningfully add value in guiding and monitoring public spending for the general good of the public they serve.

KEDIBONE PHAGO1 1 UNIVERSITY OF LIMPOPO Trusting the local government performance management system in south africa One of the key consideration for performance management systems in the public sector is to ensure that officials are able to meet the targets set by their institutions. This achievement of the set targets is understood to be a necessary indicator of local government system which responds to the societal needs. In this way, a consistent achievement of set targets could positively influence the level of trust over a local government institution. The Department of Cooperative Governance and Traditional Affairs (CoGTA) which is directly responsible for managing and regulating local government activities in South Africa has introduced Performance Management Framework for municipalities. This framework is aimed at empowering communities to demand better services and further hold municipalities accountable. That is, the more municipalities are seen to be achieving their goals, the more they are believed to be accountable and could be trusted by stakeholders. This paper undertook to determine whether the introduction of performance management system (PMS) in Mbombela Local Municipality (MLM), Mpumalanga Province has had effects on service delivery, and therefore, whether it is trusted by its citizens and other key stakeholders. It is generally believed that municipalities in South Africa tend to focus mainly on complying with legislative requirements other than implementing performance management system to enhance the delivery of services to the community. The question this paper raises is whether performance management system serves as a reliable instrument to determine municipal accountability and societal trust to render sustainable services to the society? This study used a qualitative approach and thereby employing semi-structured interviews for its data collection. The formulation of semi-structured questions was also informed by the research question and even more so by the official documents that report on and/or guide municipal activities. This methodological outlook is necessary and relevant as considerations are needed to understand

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and describe the manner in which performance management system within the MLM could be related to aspects of accountability and societal trust. In the final analysis of this case, it became clear that some of the findings point to a mixed bag results as data reveals achievement of performance targets in several cases while in several cases the municipality has failed to properly implement its PMS. However, in the main, it is clear that PMS integrity within the MLM faces major problems in relation to its implementation and requires urgent intervention to make it functional and a useful tool. Therefore, a properly implemented PMS could serve as a reliable instrument to determine municipal accountability and societal trust only when key aspects of the set targets are achieved.

Andrew EWOH1 1 Texas Southern University Performance Management in Public Service: Challenges and Opportunities in Some African Countries Performance Management in Public Service: Challenges and Opportunities in Some African Countries Scholarly discourse on performance management in public service has been triumphed in the academic literature. This dialogue among scholars was prompted by the new public management movement that required governments everywhere to demonstrate their efficiency in spending taxpayers’ resources and show that program results or outcomes are related to their effectiveness as generated by its activities. The purpose of the proposed paper is to explore experiences of some African countries in their usage of performance management system as part of their bureaucratic reform measures and offer recommendations on how to implement successful performance management system (PMS). The analysis will begin with a historical review of the literature. This will be followed by a discussion of the applications and types of performance management tools, their limitations and benefits, and a comparative analysis of performance management efforts in six African countries (Kenya and Tanzania in the East African region; Ghana and Nigeria in the West African region, and Botswana and South Africa in the Southern African region). In sum, on the basis of these selected nations’ PMS implementation experiences, the paper will discuss their challenges as well as opportunities, and offer some recommendations in the form of solutions.

open call / appel ouvert Eckhard SCHROETER , Manfred Roeber 1 Zeppelin University, 2University of Leipzig What Top Administrators Think About Administrative Reform: Job-Related Attitudes of Senior Bureaucrats in German Federal and State Governments 1

While waves of administrative reforms have swept government bureaucracies in the past two decades, we still know very little about how those changes are being perceived by members of the administrative elite. By the same token, our understanding of future reform trajectories could greatly benefit from a deeper understanding of higher civil servants’ problem perception and their views of up-and-coming challenges to the established ways and manners of doing public management. Against this background, the proposed paper seeks to shed light on prevailing attitudinal patterns among Germany’s top civil servants at the federal and state government levels. Leading administrators in government departments and agencies have been exposed to powerful pressures for change, pushing and pulling them into different directions ranging from increased exposure to politicization and heightened attention for participatory approaches to public management, a constant drain on available financial and human resources, a shift towards increased use of hived-off or corporatized agencies and public-private partnership agreements, and the quest for more genuinely manageralist approaches to public sector guidance and steering. Based on our survey research, the proposed paper looks more specifically into the ways how top administrators evaluate the current reform agenda and how that might differ from their own perceptions of future challenges and needed reform measures to address them properly. In particular, the paper is geared to investigate to what extent high-ranking officials are attached to certain notions of the proper role of government vis-à-vis society and economy, how they are affected by current reform trends, and how they assess the value of specific reform instruments in the light of current pressures for change. The paper draws on a recent comprehensive survey completed in 2013 - based on some 800 questionnaires and about 100 exploratory interviews - of the two top ranks of career officials in German government departments at federal government and state government levels, as well as sub-ordinated federal and state government agencies. In doing so, the research design allows for a comparative perspective across departmental lines (administrative affairs vs. substantive policy fields), levels of government (federal vs. state government) as well as types of public organization (ministerial department vs. sub-ordinated agencies). Conceptually, the paper is informed by the established tradition of comparative administrative elite studies, blending the interest in political attitudes and role perceptions with an inquiry into job motivation and managerial role understandings.

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Cláudia PASSADOR1, Claudionei Nalle2, João Luiz Passador3 1 University of Sao Paulo, 2University of São Paulo, 3University of Sao Paulo A proposal for characterization of brazilian municipalities After the neoliberal cycle experienced in the late twentieth century, we have at the beginning of XXI century changes that led to the need for broader action of States, through increased interaction with the economy, politics, social work, health, education and other areas that represent direct need of citizens, increasing the importance and participation of public policies for development. At the same time, it is necessary to know the characteristics of the various territories which will be applied as a way to better understand local conditions and thus provide more appropriate and effective policies for each social group. In this sense, the issue of territoriality appears in several studies, which have provided a more theoretical view to technical analysis of various kinds, showing that the question should be increasingly studied and understood, mainly from their participation as a support element for public policies. This leads to the idea of regionalization of public policies, from which the role of government is not simply restricted to resolve certain population problems, but encourage communities to mobilize for them to develop their potential and vocation, and from hence, resolve their problems. In Brazil, every decade, the IBGE publishes the results of the census surveys on the composition of the population. However the set of indicators produced is not easy to interpret, which can lead to blurred perceptions of the territory and consequently limit the effectiveness of development policies. The study aimed to characterize the municipalities from the perspective of development, through the incorporation of public data. These were obtained from the tabulation and microdata consolidation provided by IBGE: 2010 Population Census, National Research by Household Sample and Survey of Basic Municipal Information; microdata generated by INEP: Census of Basic Education, Higher Education Census, Brazil Exam and ENEM; microdata from the Ministry of Health: microdata Datasus, Information System Mortality and Health Status Indicators. Thus, the proposal of a new characterization of the Brazilian territory shows up to provide interesting, above all, a new vision of Brazilian locations, and thus becoming a mechanism of political participation, enable greater citizen participation in proposing and management local development policies. The characterization work of Brazilian municipalities concentrates its efforts on understanding the development phenomenon and is inserted in a complex context, it uses concepts from different disciplines such as geography, economics, sociology, management and political science. These indicators were created from the quantification of the results achieved to describe empirical situations and have been widely used as measures for the social research and evaluation of public policies. The choice of social indicators used in the formulation and policy evaluation should be guided by their adherence to a set of desirable properties and the structural logic of the application, which will define the type most appropriate indicators. Criteria such as validity, reliability, territorial scope, sensitivity and specificity and theoretical adequacy must be followed by its proponents (Araújo; CONDE; LUZIO, 2004; COSTA; Castanhar, 2003; Jannuzzi, 2001; 2005; FAVARETTO et al, 2005). Therefore, we collected nationwide data, provided by public agencies. Thus, it was possible to synthesize the data and the production of information analysis and indicators to aid characterization of Brazilian municipalities. The study was to research universe the 5,565 Brazilian municipalities existing in the reference year 2010. Therefore, the municipal information was raised from census form, ie they cover the entire universe. Therefore, no further statistical tests and evaluation of assumptions, which are important when working with sample data. This body of data allowed contribute to the discussion on territorial development, its measures and practices, as well as understand the dynamics of territoriality of particulars from which to build public policy. The work, to better characterize the country, confirmed the need for further action and ratings for greater adaptation of public policy proposals to the issue of development. From the chosen theoretical framework and data analyzed, it was possible to identify a distortion in the characterization currently used and the reality observed in everyday locations.

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The research confirms that Brazil is characterized by being a country of inequalities, aggravated by urban-industrial trend of Brazilian public policy. This trend, along with the concentration of income, because the lack of resources needed for development to occur naturally and widely. In all dimensions used for this proposed characterization of Brazilian municipalities can realize high levels of variance, which characterizes the structure of inequality which leads to the marginalization of the population living in cities with lower structural conditions to average conditions. In summary, from the junction of the various indicators, it was found that inequality intensifies in Brazil in municipalities with less than 50,000 inhabitants. Cultural facilities, access to secondary and higher education, equipment and basic sanitation services, economic output and income distribution are significantly better in municipalities with more than 50,000 inhabitants. In this sense, we observed that the absence of broader policies, limits access of this group to such structures, condemned to conditions considered underdeveloped. As managerial contributions, the study brings an underdeveloped vision of Brazil in numbers and as a better characterization of the territories can contribute to the construction of more suitable development of public policies that enable timely identify regions and municipalities should receive appropriate treatment public management, which particularly focus the shortcomings observed in small municipalities and serve, therefore, as an accompanying measure to the administration. Finally, it is believed that this, to propose the use of public data for the construction of indicators for better interpretation of the conditions of Brazilian municipalities, transcends management tool to function and carries a strong policy message, it may be especially useful for those who make politics out of the government, and thus provide support for a development that is imbued with values such as political and citizen participation, thus contributing to the vision of indicators as a way of doing politics.

Luis GRACA1, Rafael De Souza2, Andressa Falconiery3 Fundação Getúlio Vargas, 2Fundação Getúlio Vargas, 3Fundação Getúlio Vargas Extending accountability: the budgetary mosaic. 1

The constant demands for more government transparency has generated as a reaction the increase on how much data the State and it´s agencies make available on the internet. Brazil´s law on access to information, sanctioned 2012 bears the possibility that the amount of public information disclosed in the country will be expanded in the next few years. In principle, a citizen with access to a vast array of information can build more accurate perceptions of the reality and make better judgment of the state administration. Between the availability of data and the citizen’s ability to take note of these, however, there is a long way. Public data, especially those related to academically established fields, are usually available in database format and technical jargon. This common procedure restricts the number of those who can really apprehend information from such sources. It raises the question: is the act of making available information without any communication strategy an enhance in accountability? This article discusses the restrictions on accountability that public data characteristics exert on the average citizen and the possibilities of action on this issue. We use the example of the budget data available from SIGA (Senate) and the «Mosaic Budget» tool built by FGV-DAPP. The aim is to show that there is room for innovation from public data already available, diminishing the gap between the citizen and important public policy discussions.

Hyun Joon KIM1, Heungsuk Choi2 1 Korea University, 2Korea University Service Design Approach for Citizen-Centered Public Service Provision Citizen-centered approaches emerged as an alternative administrative method to overcome the limitations of traditional public service provision. Citizen-centered public administration is often equated with participatory administration. Potentially positive effects of participatory methods can be limited because citizens are treated as either passive consumers that the government should satisfy or merely the sources of information helping the government to better understand the policy context. One alternative to overcome the limitations of the traditional government-centered administration and the participatory public service provision can be found in an emerging field of service design. This study illustrates the present state of service design use in Korea by analyzing cases. Our brief analysis of the 19 Korean cases of service design projects shows that most of the projects belong to the very early stage of maturity. Yet, some projects showed the evidences of reaching the next level, incorporating service design thinking into the organizational routines.

Zhiwei LIU1 1 Chinese Academy of Governance The Answer to the Dilemma of Citizens’ Trust in Public Administration: The practice of a village in China The village committee is the lowest level of public administration of China. Currently, there are about 700,000 village committees all over China. The Hou Chen village committee, which is one of them, is located in Zhejiang, an eastern coastal province of China. In 1990s, the Hou Chen village committee sold the collective land for RMB 19,000,000. The committee’s management and

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operations of this vast sum of money, though, were extremely chaotic, triggering lengthy distrust, conflict and dispute between villagers and the committee for more than ten years. On June 18th, 2004, the first “Supervision Committee of village affairs” in China was founded in Hou Chen village. The committee was elected by the villagers’ representative conference, and responsible for the conference, setting one director and two committeemen. At the same time, the committee enacted two institutions-“Village Management Institution” and “Village Supervision Institution”, specifying that the supervision committee has the right to supervise the villagers’ concerns, including the management of the village collective asset, the management, distribution and use of the land acquisition costs, the villagers’ housing approval, allowance of village cadres, and the management of the village financial revenues and expenditures. In addition, the two institutions also specifically stipulated various matters, such as the property, status, rights, duties, and obligations of supervision committee and representative conference, the channel and procedures of their rectification and deposition, the liaison between representatives and villagers, the publication of village affairs, the hearings involved by villagers, and the cadres’ reports and appraisals. Within past ten years, there were four terms of committees in Hou Chen village, investing over RMB 20,000,000 for the construction of the village, during which, yet, the new policies brought about a decade of zero violation of cadres, zero petition of villagers, zero complaint of projects, and zero record of illegal expenditures. In January 2006, the “Supervision Committee of village affairs” became one of the finalists of “Chinese Local Government Innovation Award”. By the end of November 2009, all the over 30,000 administrative villages in Zhejiang province had founded the supervision committee, the coverage reaching 100%. In this case, we can get the conclusion that the answer to the dilemma of citizens’ trust in public administration is to give citizens the right to supervise the administration’s management of the local affairs.

GAO XIAOPING1, Lin Zhen2 1 Chinese Public Administration Society, 2Chinese Public Administration Society On the Enhancement of Government Accountability through Government Streamlining At present, China is devoting major efforts to deepening reform of the administrative system and building a modern service-oriented government that is based on the rule of law. Among them, the innovation in the administrative system, which features streamlining of approval procedures and delegating of some powers to lower-level authorities, or government streamlining, plays an active role in enhancing the government accountability. In this paper, the author will make a theoretical and empirical analysis on enhancing people’s trust in government through streamlining by the Chinese government. • In the process of government streamlining, we are clearly defining the relations between government and the market, and between government and society, and clarifying the boundary of the government power, thus giving full play to the respective roles of the visible hand of the government, the invisible hand of the market as well as the autonomous hand of the social organization. Once the government positions itself properly and does not act beyond its authority, the vitality of the market and society can be released and the initiative of the market players and members of the society can be greatly aroused. Before, the government concentrated many of its powers and efforts in the prior review and approval, and this administrative mode has many drawbacks. First, many of the standards for the administrative review and approval are too subjective and cannot serve as essential factors for the process. Second, many of the events to be reviewed and approved have not occurred yet and it is hard to accurately apply the standards. Third, this may easily lead to rent-seeking and corruption, thus adding to the cost for the enterprise. Fourth, many of the entities that do not apply for administrative review and approval do not undergo the administrative procedures and are not subject to the administration. Fifth, as there is room for rent-seeking in the administrative review and approval, it has given rise to repeated violations of laws and regulations in the administration. This administration mode that places great emphasis on the review and approval while neglecting the regulation has brought negative effect to the administrative vitality, efficiency and order. In recently years, Chinese governments at all levels have carried out reform and innovation in the administrative system and mechanism. With reform in the administration and review system as the point for breakthrough, the number of items for administrative review and approval has been reduced and many of them released to lower-level authorities, which has greatly promoted the standardized development of market and helps curb the rampancy of corruption of officials. The number of small and medium-sized enterprises and social organizations has greatly increased. • In the process of government streamlining, we explore into the administration mode of relaxing control over the prior approval and imposing strict control and supervision in the process that follows, putting many of the items for prior administrative review and approval in the past under control and supervision during and after the review and approval process, while devoting major efforts of the government authorities to providing favorable policy environment. In addition, we push forward the development for the system of introducing the power list, negative list and list of obligations. We adhere to the principle that absence of legal prohibition means freedom for the market players and give full play to the role of market mechanism in terms of survival of the fittest, while the government concentrates on the administration over entities that have survived in the competition. In doing so, we can implement the strict system for performance management and administrative accountability, thus enhancing the accountability of the government. • In the process of government streamlining, the government transfers to the industrial and social organizations many of its functions, including those in the industrial management and coordination in the formulation of the rules, regulations and technical standards in the industry, the statistical analysis and information warning, review and spreading of academic and scientific achievements in the industry, and settlement of disputes, those in the management and service of social affairs, and those in the market control and supervision and technical services. In addition, we strengthen the legal and administrative guidance over the social organizations, support the social organizations in establishing modern governance structure, enhance the self-discipline so as to better enhance the ability of the social organizations in serving for the citizens, legal persons and other organizations, thus giving full play to the roles of the social organizations in the evaluation of public services and accreditation as well as management of relevant industries, attracting more social resources to the public undertakings, serving for the citizens and benefiting the society.

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• In the process of government streamlining, we further clarify the responsibilities and authorities of governments and departments at various levels, delegating administration to the governments at grass-roots levels many of the items of economic and social affairs that directly face and occur at the grass-roots levels, are broad in coverage and whose administration is more convenient and efficient at the grass-roots levels. Formerly, to a great extent, there exists similar structure in terms of functions and powers of Chinese governments at higher and lower levels. Over recent years, the Chinese government has carried out differentiated reform in the vertical disposition of administrative authorities according to the specific scope of coordination of economic and social activities and requirements on the subjects for administration. As there are relatively more difficulties in the administration over matters concerning political issues, social stability and public security, the administration shall be undertaken by government authorities at provincial and municipal levels. As to routine affairs, the administration shall be delegated to government authorities at county (county-level city) and district levels. For government powers in the administrative licensing, administrative sanction, administrative imposition, administrative supply and administrative affirmation, they shall be put under government authorities at municipal and county levels. The supervision over the market players shall be undertaken by government authorities at municipal and county levels. For those with smaller scope of activities, the administration shall be delegated to districts under the jurisdiction of the municipal government, townships and sub-district offices so as to enhance the effectiveness and timeliness of the supervision. In areas without enough technical strength, they can purchase services outside of the areas. In particular, for the items whose principle and standards for handling have been stipulated in existing laws, regulations and policies and for which only necessary procedures need to be gone through, they shall all be delegated to governments at grass-roots levels. In doing so, we may resolve the past contradiction between the administrative items for review and approval and the corresponding administrative levels with authorities of supervision and control, thus making the public feel that government is just around everyone

Xun ZHOU1, Huifang Zhang 1 Sichuan Administration Institute Citizens’ Trust in Governments via the Social Media: The Role of Government Microblog in China Sina microblog is the most popular social media in China. From 2010, Chinese government integrate microblogs into modern public management strategy, to promote government-citizen communication and improve the efficiency of public management. However, representative and reliable researches on citizens’ trust in governments via Chinese microblog are limited. Based The theory of social capital, social trust and new media communication, with the method of questionnaire survey , this study analyzed one of the most enormous influence government microblogs in China “@ChengDu Release”. The study demonstrated that Chinese government microblog contributed to positive effects to citizens’ trust in governments. The study found many factors that restrict the level of trust construction in government microblogs. Some suggestions about how to promote citizens’ trust function of Chinese microblogs as a promising public management are discussed.

Cláudia PASSADOR1, João Luiz Passador2, Luna Ferolla3, Lilian Ribeiro Olivaira4 1 University of Sao Paulo, 2University of São Paulo, 3University of Sao Paulo, 4University of Sao Paulo Different kinds of fiscal federalism: benefits and drawbacks of each model in terms of public policy resources allocation A fiscal federalism refers to a partnership among federative entities, providing balance between centralizing and decentralizing forces, in pursuit of providing local power with resources and autonomy to implement proper public policies, according to its reality specificities. This study attempts to perform a bibliometric analysis of fiscal federalism literature in the last ten years (2004-2014), aiming to identify evidences of advantages and disadvantages of each model in terms of public policy resources allocation. 42 papers were reviewed. Contribution from theoretical and empirical sides, at this matter, converge. The major challenges faced by governments that adopt fiscal federalism are: 1) to find a balance between local government autonomy to ensure adequate response to local demands and central government control, to ensure a minimum level of public services of national interest; 2) find an adequate mechanism of calculation for grants and intergovernmental transfers; 3) minimize political influence and conflicts. Financial resources distribution has to serve both to reallocate wealth and to consolidate good practices. Accordingly, public policies management in federative governments must be a matter of cooperation, thereby allowing that the mentioned challenges are addressed properly.

EDWIN JAIR RAMIREZ CHARRY1, Didier Antonio Sepulveda2, , 1 Escuela Superior de Administración Pública, 2Escuela Superior de Administración Pública Politics of Privatization in Public Education and its Impact in the Human Right for Education: The Case of School Grants in Colombia This document proposes a methodology to evaluate the impact of the models of privatization in public education, particularly of the school grants, from the perspective of the focus of the human right for education. The school grants are a new exercise for public policy in which the actions of the State and the private sector are coordinated to offer quality public education. Yet, until now, the assessments that have been done about the achievement of said grants have been reduced to the analysis of a very small number 98

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of variables (quality measured by results of standardized testing, coverage and desertion), which has impeded to amply discuss about the capacity of these mechanisms of educational offers about the guaranteed integral right towards education. First, the States should guarantee rights to their citizens as a fundamental way to generate social confidence in the governmental institutions, the way and the reach these rights have is subject to the fundamental pacts agreed to in the constitutions. For the case of the right for education, authors such as Tomasevski indicate that this right should be verified by four fundamental dimensions: Affordability, Accessibility, Acceptability and Adaptability. When the State in an autonomous manner or conjoined with the private sector implement actions to provide educational services, these must guarantee the specific fulfillment of the right to the terms agreed upon in the constitution. When evaluating the development of the policy for school grants as a public policy, one must ask about the way in which this policy is contributing to the compliance of the right for education, as it has been highlighted before, in Colombia, the study of the phenomena of grants involving a limited number of variables that are necessary to guarantee the right, which are not enough to explain in their entirety. The evaluation from the focus of rights is in the practice of the development of a mechanism of integral evaluation of the performance of school grants that can be applied in various ways: to analyze the impact of school grants in the right for education, to compare them with other kinds of education management (traditional management, models of contracting with the private sector, new educative experiences in public-private alliances, etc.) This work presents a methodology (developed in an investigative process of three years) in which a series of indicators is constructed, those which are related to each of the dimensions of the right for education in the terms referred to by Tomasevski. This tool pretends to objectify the results of each one of the ways of school management present in education policy, and allows comparisons between these models of management of the education offer to establish which (or which ones) of them allow the guarantee of the right for education in the most efficient way. The framework of study will go in depth in the ambit of the unprivatization through the evaluation of the school grants and their impacts in public education policy and the description of the role, operation and performance of the private agents and the State as social agent in the development of a directed education toward a focus of the human right and the policies of quality, institutional efficiency to control the public expense in the light of the public confidence as central purpose.

Ziyafat HABIBOVA1 1 The Academy of Public Administration under the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan Transition from economic growth to human development as a current prospect of public administration Transition from economic growth to human development as a current prospect of public administration. In present times human potential constitutes the most valuable resource in any society, and the satisfaction of human needs, as well as achievements of its development act as a very important criterion of social and economic progress. Human development serves to promoting development of innovations, to achieving high results in the competition, to adapting the national economy to globalization process, as well as to achieving a highly efficient public administration in the socio-economic sphere of the state. Azerbaijan currently stands at a crossroad, where it is necessary to choose the future development path of the country - to either continue the industrial development of the economy or to choose a vector of innovative economy as an economy of post-industrial type being driven by the successful example of European countries. The issue of long-term and high-quality reproduction of the human potential in these conditions is crucial. The close relationship of progressive human development and innovation modernization process will bring the country’s economy to a new level of development, which meets the requirements of the time. There is a high degree of correlation of human potential and competitiveness of the country as integrated indicators of a group of socio-economic factors. Relationship of human potential development as a single system, which determines the competitiveness of the economy, remains underexplored. Therefore it is necessary to solve scientific issues of studying the critical role of human potential in the process of competition of the country and the establishment of methods for determining the number of measures to enhance the human potential in connection with the acceleration of economic growth. In the course of our study, we found that the most important factor to create a new quality of the society and the economy, i.e. high level of education increases along with the growing influence of human potential. In this case it is necessary to ensure public support through implementation of educational policy, to restore the active role of the state in this area, as well as the responsibility, to conduct a comprehensive and deep modernization of education by allocating the necessary resources and creating mechanisms for their effective implementation. The issues of developing innovative educational system and its effective work should be a priority in the socio-economic development of Azerbaijan. The system of science and education creates human potential and is an essential factor in economic growth, and therefore it finds an adequate support at every level that occurs in almost all countries. Introduction of established mechanisms of commercialization of innovations, implementation of actions to stimulate patent activity, the importation of advanced foreign technologies and the process of merging with the international scientific community should be made systematically and with the full support of the state. The most important and so far unresolved issue is the issue of establishing cross-links between universities, research institutions, businesses, government agencies and manufacturers. General positive growth trend of the human potential in the country reflects new patterns of behavior and needs, the pursuit of national human resources for innovations and development through reforms in the institutional sphere is the condition and the factor, and the indication of restructuring of the national economy due to changes in economic models. In this case, however, creation of conditions of justified financial support, evaluation of the human potential by scientific and analytical criteria in the process of reproduction, as well as the forecast for its development in the information economy are the most important issues of public administration. In addition, development of methodological baselines and methods of human development is crucial in the country. Analysis of public administration specifics in our country allow to speak about the need for a strategic approach to the administration process of human potential development, which should be based on the following principles: efficiency and goal orientation, immanent changes, long-term, targeted natured, denial of power influence, contextuality, the balance between contradictions and maintaining of a certain order. Currently, the human potential is the main driving force of social development. Its formation is made by close interaction and the influence of external and internal factors, Congrès international de l’IISA, 2015 - Rio de Janeiro - Juin 2015

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such as the economy, family, communications, public relations and more. The state holds a special place among these factors, because it has a great potential of human influence. The institute of state responsible for the creation and maintenance of a favorable social climate, i.e. favorable conditions for human’s life, work and development. Development of human potential is the major task for the country. The human potential accumulated and engaged in the country directly affects the competitive advantages of the economy, ways of its modernization. People with education and qualifications, experience affect the boundaries and possibilities for changes in society’s development. Along with this, the human potential is becoming a major driver for innovations and improvement of the effectiveness of management in all spheres of country’s life and national economy. We believe that in next ten years prioritized task for the state would be investing in the future, which includes measures to improve the quality of human potential resources in Azerbaijan in the long term.

Shi-Chul LEE1, Hyun-ju Park2 1 Kyungpook National University, 2Kyungpook National University, Korea Exploring nudge approach in policy regulation: With a focus on urban public space Traditionally, policy compliance had long been suggested to be closely related with government enforcement, its key components being the degree of sanction and detection efforts, both in tandem with calculated motivation of individuals. Since ‘regulatory pluralism’ in fostering policy compliance has emerged over the past decade, a mixture of policy means have been attempted to secure the effectiveness of policy implementation, resulting in some positive outcomes. In an extension, this paper explores ‘nudge approach’ in shared spaces in urban areas. As widely known, this approach based on libertarian paternalism is neither new nor has been fully explored in public policy literature. It attempts to change human behavior for the better by well-designed circumstances, not by coercive intervention or enforcement. The issue of cities’ shared spaces also leaves ample room for not only academic discussion but practical application in many geographical settings, including South Korean cities. We will examine a limited number of existing studies on nudge way of thinking, along with behavioral economics, and on urban shared spaces at the outset of the manuscript. Following several practices in the real world, an analytic discussion will lead to a set of arguments - one of which being ‘choice architect’ is a significant factor of nudge. Furthermore, it is suggested that position changes in built-environment in cities are more likely to modify citizens’ attitudes and behaviors, thereby yielding increased level of public concern on the road, traffic signals, public safety, etc. Examples of diverse nudge approaches, small and large, in Korean cities would include: i) relocating of crosswalks near a university campus, so that jaywalks occur with less frequency; ii) a city-wide wall removal campaign that resulted in much lower crime rates and higher property values; and, iii) creating safer communities by employing a renowned strategy of Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED), for example, street lights upgrading, appropriate design of shrubbery and street furniture that maximize visibility and social interaction in community. Additionally, it is to be noted that nudge approach should be employed as a supplementing way, not as the only and whole set of implementation measures. Nudge appear to serve as a foundation or nutriment for more direct enforcement or regulations; both approaches complete each other. Particularly under the current trend of deregulation or regulation mitigation in South Korea, this nature of research would have significance in both academic and practical fields.

Jenny HARLOCK1, Iestyn Williams2, Glenn Robert3, Glenn Robert4 University of Birmingham, 2University of Birmingham, 3King’s College London, 4King’s College London The perils and pitfalls of decommissioning: understanding planned service removal, replacement and reduction in health care 1

Healthcare systems face increased pressures to balance the need to make efficiency savings whilst also maintaining highquality care, and this creates challenges for those responsible for planning or commissioning healthcare services. As well as implementing new interventions and services, attention has increasingly turned to the need to cease performing activities that are no longer deemed essential or effective. A range of terms have been used to refer to such processes; for example: disinvestment; divestment; de-insurance; exnovation; reverse innovation, and; service discontinuance/termination (Kimberly 1981; Giacomini et al. 2000; Geva-May 2004; Schmidt 2012). However, whilst progress has been made in the formal identification of candidates for withdrawal or replacement, actual implementation of change remains comparatively rare (Baker et al. 2013), leading to a condition that has been described as being ‘stuck with the old and overwhelmed by the new’ (Elshaug et al. 2007). Adopting the terminology of decommissioning to denote the spectrum of reduction, replacement and removal activities found in the literature, this paper sets out to analyse the causes of this impasse and to address the question: what factors and processes facilitate the successful implementation of decisions to decommission healthcare services? In order to answer this question a three round Delphi study of 30 international experts was undertaken to explore decommissioning both as it should be done and as it is currently carried out in practice. The most common driver for decisions to decommission identified by

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survey respondents was improved cost effectiveness. Improved clinical effectiveness and improved patient experience were cited by survey respondents as the next most common drivers. Open comments provided by survey participants to explain or support their responses included that, in practice, decommissioning decisions are not necessarily always ‘evidence-based’ (a common theme also throughout the interviews) and, rather, are often driven by a short-term financial (cost-saving) and/or political imperatives. Factors that were deemed to be of very high importance for shaping the extent to which decisions to decommission were implemented as planned included strength of executive and clinical leadership, and clarity of rationale (evidence) for change. Meanwhile, the overall ‘messiness’ of implementation of decommissioning processes was a recurrent theme in the survey responses and interviews, with instances of discontinuation of implementation reported. Political contestation, patient and public views, and the lack of a robust clinical evidence base were cited as key reasons for discontinuation. The findings suggest that implementation of decommissioning in health care, given the political sensitivities involved, will often be characterised by high levels of conflict as well as ambiguity over the criteria upon which decisions ought to be made (Robert et al. 2014; Williams 2011a). This suggests that mechanistic approaches to implementation have an increased likelihood of policy implementation failure. Existing research on decommissioning in healthcare contexts has been couched in terms of health care resource allocation decision making and, in particular, how economic evidence and analytical tools can be used to inform disinvestment decisions (Ham & Robert 2003; Bryan et al. 2007; Elshaug et al. 2009; Cooper 2010; Donaldson et al. 2010; Williams et al. 2012). The findings of this study suggest however that wider organisational, relational and political factors may serve to hinder effective decommissioning. In addition, in practice, policy formulation and implementation stages often overlap and, as a result, the design of one phase will necessarily influence the success of the other. In the words of Anderson (2010, p.98), ‘Policy is being made as it is being administered and administered as it is being made’. Therefore the success or failure of decommissioning programmes will be influenced by the approach to policy formulation and implementation, and the extent of compatibility between these. We therefore draw on insights from the organisational and political sciences to make sense of the decommissioning challenge. We argue that attention to factors such as context, scale and scope, interests and systems promises to both enrich understanding and to improve practice. Inclusion of decommissioning in health care improvement stands an increased chance of success if it is based on a more sophisticated appreciation of each of these aspects and how they cohere and conflict in real world settings.

ARTAN KARINI1 1 Carleton University International aid and PAR: a single case study of Southeast Europe Southeastern Europe (Western Balkans) represents an interesting case in terms of the relationship between the politics of EU accession and absorption of international aid to support reform processes in the region. By addressing some of the challenges encountered in the policy transfer towards PA reform, this paper argues that the attention of the EU (and other donors) should focus more on HRM reform rather than almost exclusively on compliance with ‘acquis communautaire‘. As such, the brief may provide a context for considering the role of international aid in policy reforms in the developing world. Thus, the proposed contribution is intended to examine the implications of international aid for domestic administrative reform in developing countries, Southeastern Europe being a case study. It draws on foreign aid and policy transfer literatures (Riddell 1987, Dolowitz and Marsh 2000, Easterly 2008, Evans 2009) thus addressing a gap recently identified in academic and development research and policy circles on the role of international aid organizations and in particular the EU as ‘transferors’ in policy diffusion and transfer processes in developing country contexts (Common 2001, Evans and Davies 2004, James and Lodge 2011). However, the evidence on the role of aid/donor organizations in those processes is somewhat anecdotal and case studies from the developing world are still lacking. Besides the reports of the EU and the OECD on the progress of administrative reform in the region are somewhat vague and do not sufficiently account for the lack of association between administrative reform as a conditionality for EU accession and the advancement of the integration of the SEE region into the EU. The paper’s conclusion is based on a key argument that the advancement of an HRM capacity development strategy within an EU integration framework may necessitate engaging in more intensive policy dialogue with senior policy-makers to highlight the relevance and benefits of HRM for the broader socio-economic development of the region.

xiaoyong DI1, 1 The study of administrative system reform of China A Research On the Crisis Management of Social Trust The paper by using subjects such as management, sociology, culture ,and empirical analysis as a tool, in a perspective of the current Chinese social trust crisis, so as to trace the evolution of the crisis, summarize the reasons, and on the basis of the objective evaluation of different coping mode, puts forward the control countermeasure of social trust crisis. There are three sections in this article. First of all, the paper summarizes the performance of the public trust crisis and impact. Social trust crisis, show by a way of «Social Wall» is more and more thick, between members of society from each other, between society and capital especially the state-owned capital, and between society and the government and the community public welfare organization, social interaction and transaction costs increased largely, the social wall which has a certain influence of the incidence of the mass, is not conducive to sustainable development and harmonious society. The second part, traces the evolution of

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Chinese social trust crisis, summarize the reasons. Chinese society through acquaintances society, the unit of society, and has been in the period of strangers society. The paper argues that the formation of social trust crisis due to the following factors : on the one hand, social policy deviate from public welfare standard, lags behind the economic and social development, social members disappointment, anxiety, anger, even produces all kinds of antisocial behavior; On the other hand ,the transformation of a government under the rule of law is insufficient thoroughly, the transformation of a service-oriented government is not in a timely manner, the outdated public administration thinking mode is hard to deal with social trust crisis. The last but not the least part, puts forward the model of government to reform the governance on the basis of comparative study responses to this crisis, the governance according to law, truly established public welfare standard of social policy, build a new type of trust crisis control mechanism of a series of suggestions.

Rocco FRONDIZI1 1 University of Rome Tor Vergata Social Innovation and Third Mission: a Pilot Project in an Italian University Social innovation consists in finding new and better solutions to social problems: this most often implies the interaction of many actors coming from different sectors. Universities are starting to include social innovation goals into their strategies, especially by designing a Third Mission, which is to have a positive impact on their communities through a series of action. At the same time, since public spending on culture is decreasing because of the economic crisis, public universities struggle to provide high-quality services with limited funds. As an example of both social innovation and third mission strategies, we carried out a civic crowdfunding project in the University of Tor Vergata, asking stakeholders to donate money to allow the Library to open on Saturdays and be accessible to all the territorial community, therefore creating public value. This paper will analyze both the preliminary stages and the crowdfunding campaign, which was successfully concluded before the deadline. This is one of the first civic crowdfunding projects in Italian public universities, so we will try to outline its key success factors as well as areas that need improvement, and we will conclude by designing a crowdfunding strategy for universities.

Shuaib Ndagi Sayedi1 1 IBB University, Lapai, Niger State-Nigeria Effect of social capital on investment and poverty alleviation of members in RoSCAs in Nigeria The objectives of this study are to examine the effect of social capital on investment and poverty alleviation of members in Rotational Savings and Credit Associations (RoSCAs) in Sabon Gari Market - Zaria, Kaduna state of Nigeria. Lack of access to credit from bank and poverty encourage the traders in the market to partake in RoSCAs by contribution of money as savings/ credits in rotational basis. Design/methodology/approach – This is a descriptive and quantitative research where subjects are measured once with the intention to establish associations between the variables. A field research survey shall be conducted through the use of closed ended questionnaire on a grounded theory. The population of study is 170 traders who are members of six different RoSCAs selling meat, chickens, frozen fish, foodstuff, kitchen utensil, readymade materials, palm oil, gari (cassava flour), yam, fresh tomatoes, medicine, provisional items, cloths, shoes/bags, books/stationary materials, etc. Yaro Yamane sample size formula was used to sample 119 elements of the population with the aid of probability random sampling technique. Questionnaire instrument shall be utilized to collect data and analyzed using SPSS software. Findings – The results of this study shall be of importance to policy makers, management and informal financial industry. Research limitations/ implications – One of the limitations is that different proxies were utilized to measure both dependents (investment and poverty) and independent variables (social capital) by previous research scholars. This study adapted one after slight modification in the models. Implications – The implication of this study is for the informal financial industry to encourage people to partake in RoSCAs that will improve members’ standard of living and mitigate their sufferings through investment. More researches are suggested in area of informal financing that will ease the sufferings of people. Originality/value – The results of the present study shall be unique and worth in solving financial problems that are facing RoSCAs. Network, social trust, social benefit, investment and poverty Godwin Onu1 1 Federal polytechnic Oko (formally Nnamdi Azikiwe university-on leave) Plugging the Ghost worker syndrome and guaranteeing trust in financial Administration: The use of Integrated Personnel and Payroll Information System (IPPIS) in Nigeria’s Tertiary Institutions. The problem of Ghost workers in Nigeria’s Public service has been a subject of concern to successive governments of Nigeria over the years. Consequent upon this, the Federal Government commenced a process of transformation of its public sector by introducing Integrated Personnel and Payroll Information System (IPPIS) with a view to addressing this phenomenon. It is hoped that this measure would ensure prudence, accountability and trust and address the issues of availability and reliability of management information needed for decision making and other systemic deficiencies in the public service. This examines the old financial system in place, x-rays its deficiencies and ascertains how the new system has addressed the old problems,

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taking into cognizance some of challenges and resistance to its successful implementation. It concludes by attempting to interrogate this innovation and how it could impact on the accountability, trust and efficient financial management in Nigerian’s tertiary institutions. eunjin LEE1, Eunjin Lee2, Shi-Chul Lee3 1 Kyungpook National University, South Korea, 2Kyungpook National University (Ph.D student), 3 Kyungpook National University Two concepts, one goal: Exploring Korea’s unfinished green commitment in Mongolia The discussion of ODA (official development assistance) has recently prevailed around the world; there is no shortage in literature and practice. Yet it is not clear that many ODA projects have been successful or sustainable. That is also the case with ‘green ODA,’ a more specific issue in this area. This study explores how and for whom green ODA policy should be carried out, with a case example of Korea’s ‘Green Mongolia.’ The project has been performed by Korea’s Saemaul Undong (new community movement) Center, a government-sponsored agency, since 2010, to combat desertification in Mongolia, not just a Mongolia’s problem. Every year ‘Yellow Dragon (yellow dust)’ occurring in Kubuqi Desert in Inner Mongolia sweeps through not only China but also Korea and Japan. Most developing countries still need development, so there is a big responsibility for donor nations or international agencies to balance the environmental conservation and development which can be also called ‘sustainable development.’ As recognition of seriousness of environmental problems and efforts to make the balance between its protection and development grows, many national governments and international agencies, particularly OECD DAC or NGOs, have increased environment related aids. Korea cannot be an exception to this trend. As the first recipient-turned-donor nation, particularly, a number of public and private organizations in Korea have also started implementing green-friendly ODA projects, which give more priority to developing sustainable environmental-oriented policies. In addition, ‘Green Mongolia’ is one of governance-based projects, in line with the global trend in public-private partnerships in ODA, both internationally and domestically, as Korea’s Saemaul Undong Center launched the project in 2010 in collaboration with Mongolia’s Saemaul Center, an official Mongolian government-approved NGO. Its goal is to address desertification issue, and to eliminate poverty and to establish a foothold to building ‘sustainable Mongolia.’ However, it seems that the project might be going in a ‘wrong’ direction, for instance, according to an evaluation report on tree-planting events, by the Korea’s International Development Cooperation Committee, it was revealed that the aid effectiveness was relatively low compared to the aid scale, mainly due to poor connections between related agencies implementing Green Mongolia. We will examine a limited number of existing studies on ODA in general and newly-emerging green ODA at the outset of the paper. Upon reviewing several practices recently performed by Korean government and other public entities, particularly concentrating on ‘Green Mongolia’, an analytic discussion will be followed, by using Q methodology. Q method is a type of research method that integrates qualitative and quantitative techniques to model patterns of subjectivity within and across individuals, developed by William Stephenspon in the 1930s. In this study, Q statements will be collected from a variety of sources including academic literature, government materials, newspapers, web sites, related to Green Mongolia, interviews with people involved in the Green Mongolia project, and so forth, which show people’s values and opinions, not facts. Then, the statements will be sorted by respondents from each representative group, called P set, for example, Saemaul Undong Center, central and local governments, and environmental groups. After that, factor analysis will be conducted and the statistical results will be interpreted based on each factor to suggest ‘right’ directions of future Green Mongolia. In this paper, we raise four questions including, but not limited to: i) Has Korea’s Green Mongolia worked?: ii) Can the same approach as Korea’s be applied in a different context?: iii) Has the project considered sustainability in the recipient country, if at all?: iv) How have local residents fared in terms of participation and identity? Green ODA is still in its infancy in terms of sustainability. It will take time to see ‘sustainable Mongolia’, but donors cannot just implement as many ODA projects as we can nor provide what an ‘imagined picture of sustainability’ of Mongolia would be. Instead, we should make coherent and effective policies which can apply in a Mongolia’s context. Furthermore, this research can also contribute to raise effectiveness and giving trust to the recipient country.

João Luiz PASSADOR1, Cláudia Passador2, Rafael Campos3 1 Faculdade de Economia, Administração e Contabilidade de Ribeirão Preto - FEA-RP/USP, 2 University of Sao Paulo, 3University of Sao Paulo Contingent Valuation Method for cultural public goods Creative economics is an area of knowledge that has showed an outstanding developed recently. This fact surge because of an awareness of the importance about its sector to society, namely in people development and in terms of social integration, as well as the economic Impact provided by the increased demand for cultural goods. As the research aim to discuss about evaluating cultural property, specifically of Theatro Pedro II, that are non-transactional goods, their economic evaluating becomes impossible using traditional methods, so the focus is to present Contingent Valuation Method as an alternative valuation method. This is an exploratory and deductive research, regarding to its methodology, considered in literature and documents held in scientific papers. It aims to introduce some characteristics of CVM, presenting a comprehensive guide of recommendations to reduce or even prevent a series of bias factors predicted; and demonstrating the social, building architecture and cultural Importance of Theatro Pedro II for Ribeirão Preto and the cities that surrounds it. For the research results, the goal is to analyses the viability of CVM for the evaluation of an improvement project of the Theatro Pedro II and presente recommendations for the reliability and validity of the CVM research for society and accountability standards.

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