

CHRYSALIS Spring 2020 | Volume XII The Undergraduate Journal of International Development Studies
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Chrysalis is annually published by the International Development Studies Students’ Association (IDSSA) of McGill University in Montreal, Canada. To view electronic copies of the journal, visit www.idssamcgill.com/publications. ISSN(Print) : 1198-6123 ISSN(Web) : 2369-8624 The opinions expressed in Chrysalis are those of the authors and contributors, and do not necessarily reflect those of the editorial board, the peer review board or McGill University. Les opinions présenté dans Chrysalis représente celles des autheurs et des contribueurs, et non celles des éditeurs, de l’IDSSA ou de l’université McGill.
1
Land acknowledgement McGill University is located on land which has long served as a site
of
meeting
and
exchange
amongst
Indigenous
peoples.
Currently, we reside in Tiohtià:ke (Montréal), which is located on the larger Turtle Island (North America). We exist on unceded traditional territory, where by the Haudenosaunee and Anishinabeg nations, specifically the Kanien’kehá:ka peoples, also known as the Keepers of the Eastern Door, are the traditional stewards of these lands and waters. It is important that we move forward keeping this constantly
in
our
minds,
so
that
we
can
actively
resist
neo-
colonialism in all of its shapes, forms, and manifestations. L’Université McGill est située sur une terre qui a longtemps servi de lieu de rencontre et d’échange entre les peuples autochtones. Nous résidons actuellement à Tiohtià:ke (Montréal), qui est située sur
la
plus
grande
île
aux
tortues
(Amérique
du
Nord).
Nous
existons sur un territoire traditionnel non cédé, où les nations Haudenosaunee
et
Anishinabeg,
en
particulier
les
peuples
Kanien’kehá: ka, également connus comme les Gardiens de la porte orientale, sont les gardiens traditionnels de ces terres et de ces eaux. Il est important que nous allions de l'avant en gardant cela constamment dans nos esprits, afin de pouvoir activement résister au
néo-colonialisme
sous
toutes
ses
formes,
formes
et
manifestations.
2
Foreword IDSSA 2019/20 VP Publications, Alanna Sereboff As the 2019-2020 Editor-in-Chief of this journal, it is my distinct pleasure to present the Spring 2020 edition of Chrysalis, as well as my formidable responsibility to briefly introduce this issue, summarize its content and themes, and frame its goals. And a formidable task it is, as the contents of this journal are but one of many possible answers to the question I know many of us receive when we talk to our friends and family about our program: “what does it mean to study international development?” International development is sociology and economics, it is geography and political science, it is culture and agriculture, and it is everything in between. International development relates to our cities, our institutions, our businesses, our foods, and so much more. Crucially, it is both local and global. I am so proud that this journal represents the diversity of subjects, disciplines, and voices in this field. This journal is the result of months of labour from the dedicated, motivated, and dexterous team that every Editor-in-Chief dreams of. Thank you to the outstanding authors, whose dedication to improving their already fantastic manuscripts and openmindedness to the feedback they received made working with them a delight. I am forever indebted to the members of the editorial board, who sifted through dozens of brilliant submissions, selected these seven truly exceptional pieces, and worked tirelessly with our authors to further develop and polish their work. I am similarly grateful for the phenomenal peer review team and their professor mentors, whose expertise, insight, and time were invaluable in shaping the contents of this journal. Thank you to the translation team, who helped ensure that we produced an inclusive final product that honours our bilingual community. Finally, I extend my gratitude to our layout editor, whose creativity and eye for detail transformed this journal from a series of Google documents into the polished, visually stunning work it is. I am humbled by the patience, grace, and care that every member of this team has demonstrated this year. This journal is very much a snapshot of the moment we are in right now. It reflects the issues we are facing, the information we are working with, and the ideas we hold. But it is also timeless in the questions it asks. What is power? How do we understand it, who has it, and why? Where do we see power functioning-- and where might we be overlooking? What responsibilities do we have towards one another? How can we help? It is my hope that all who engage with this journal keep these questions close, both as they read these pieces and as they move throughout their studies and lives. With gratitude, Alanna Sereboff
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En tant qu'éditrice en chef de ce journal pour l’année 2019-2020, c’est un plaisir distinct de présenter l’édition Printemps 2020 de Chrysalis, ainsi que ma formidable responsabilité d’introduire brièvement cette parution, résumer son contenu et ses thèmes, et encadrer ses objectifs. Et quelle tâche formidable en effet, alors que le contenu de ce journal est une des nombreuses réponses possibles à la question que tant d’entre nous recevons lorsque nous parlons du programme avec nos amis et notre famille: “qu’est-ce qu'étudier le développement international signifie réellement?” Le développement international, c’est de la sociologie et de l'économie, de la géographie et des sciences politiques, de la culture et de l’agriculture, et tout ce qui se trouve entre. Le développement international est en rapport avec nos villes, nos institutions, nos commerces, notre nourriture, et bien plus. Crucialement, c’est à la fois local et global. Je suis si fière que ce journal représente la diversité de sujets, disciplines, et de voix dans ce domaine. Ce journal est le résultat de mois de labeur d’une équipe dévouée, motivée, et agile dont rêve tout Éditeur-en-chef. Merci à tous les auteurs exceptionnels, dont le dévouement à améliorer leur manuscrits déjà fantastiques, ainsi que leur ouverture d’esprit face aux commentaires qu’ils ont reçu, ont enchanté cette collaboration. Je suis à jamais reconnaissante aux membres du comité éditorial, qui ont parcouru des dizaines de contributions brillantes, sélectionné ces sept articles vraiment exceptionnels, et travaillé inlassablement avec nos auteurs pour développer et polir davantage leur travail. Je suis similairement reconnaissante envers la phénoménale équipe de pairs examinateurs et professeurs mentors, dont l’expertise, la perspicacité, et le temps ont été inestimables pour façonner le contenu de ce journal. Merci à l'équipe de traduction, qui a contribué à s’assurer que nous créions un produit final inclusif qui honore notre communauté bilingue. Finalement, j’étends ma gratitude à notre éditrice de mise en page, dont la créativité et l’œil pour le détail ont transformé ce journal d’une série de documents Google en ligne en un ouvrage brillant et stupéfiant. Je fais amende honorable à la patience, la grâce, et le soin que tous les membres de cette équipe ont démontré cette année. Ce journal est comme une photo du moment que nous sommes en train de vivre. Il reflète les problèmes auxquels nous faisons face, l’information avec laquelle nous travaillons, et les idées que nous tenons. Mais il est aussi intemporel dans les questions qu’il pose. Qu’est-ce que le pouvoir? Comment le comprenons-nous, qui le possède, et pourquoi? Où voyons-nous ce pouvoir fonctionner-- et où est-il négligé? Quelles responsabilités avonsnous l’un envers l’autre? Comment pouvons-nous aider? J'espère de tout cœur que tout ceux qui interagiront avec ce journal garderont ces questions en tête, que ce soit en lisant ces articles ou en avançant dans leurs études et leurs vies. Avec gratitude,
Alanna Sereboff
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ARTIST statement Layout Editor, Sabrina Gill The theme of this year’s Chrysalis Journal is street art. When we often think of what is considered art, priceless paintings and high end museums come to mind (often found in developed nations, frequently featuring stolen pieces). Very few and elite pieces of work are praised and exhibited, and thus are only representative of a very small percentage of artists. However, street art speaks the truth of the people, and is a medium of expression that is accessible to all. Although art styles vary across the world, street art can be found all over the globe, reflecting the unique community and culture where it is located. As such, we wanted Chrysalis’ theme to be street art, as it is a stylistic method of communicating diverse and local realities, for and by the people. The cover features a mural located at the National Butterfly Center — a butterfly conservatory located along the US-Mexican border, that is actively resisting the creation of a border wall. The organisation has filed a restraining order against any construction efforts or machinery owned by the U.S. Customs and Border Protections. The artist, Anan Ronen, is an immigrant to the United States. Given this information, the symbolism of this artwork speaks volumes. Monarch butterflies are often viewed as a symbol of migration and human rights, while the joint hands indicate unity — the antonym of wall construction. We chose this piece because the rapidly increasing severity of the global refugee crisis is a defining moment in our generation’s history, and intersects with several other gaps in international development. The logo was revamped this year to more accurately reflect Chrysalis. A Chrysalis is a cocoon, i.e. a transitional phase of growth for a butterfly. As the IDSSA/IPDCC’s logo reflects a consistent pattern of overlaid blue and green shapes, I created a more representative variation of Chrysalis’ own logo to be used for future publications teams. The colour of this journal features teal colours, which Alanna and I thought would be ideal, as it is a combination of IDSSA’s classic blue and green colours. Teal brings about feelings of revitalisation and clarity of thought, which compliments Chrysalis’ mandate of featuring diverse and articulate pieces. The fonts used in this journal are diverse, from decorative to sans serif. However, you will notice that the font of all of the abstracts and Land Acknowledgement are different. In order to make this journal as accessible as possible to all audiences, the abstracts are written in the font ‘Dyslexie’ — a font specifically designed to be more legible for readers with dyslexia. I hope that this is a step forward in the right direction, in continuing to grow as an inclusive and accessible organisation.
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Le thème du Chrysalis Journal de cette année est le street art. Lorsque nous pensons souvent à ce qui est considéré comme de l'art, des peintures inestimables et des musées haut de gamme viennent à l'esprit (souvent trouvés dans les pays développés, présentant fréquemment des pièces volées). Très peu d'œuvres d'élite sont louées et exposées, et ne sont donc représentatives que d'un très faible pourcentage d'artistes. Cependant, le street art dit la vérité des gens et est un moyen d'expression accessible à tous. Bien que les styles artistiques varient à travers le monde, le street art peut être trouvé partout dans le monde, reflétant la communauté et la culture uniques où il se trouve. En tant que tel, nous voulions que le thème de Chrysalis soit le street art, car c'est une méthode stylistique de communiquer des réalités diverses et locales, pour et par les gens. La couverture présente une peinture murale située au National Butterfly Center - une serre de papillons située le long de la frontière américano-mexicaine, qui résiste activement à la création d'un mur de frontière. L'organisation a déposé une ordonnance d'interdiction de tout effort de construction ou machinerie appartenant aux douanes et aux frontières américaines. L’artiste, Anan Ronen, est une immigrée aux l’États-Unis. Compte tenu de ces informations, le symbolisme de cette œuvre d'art en dit long. Les papillons monarques sont souvent considérés comme un symbole de la migration et des droits de l'homme, tandis que les mains jointes indiquent l'unité - l'antonyme de la construction du mur. Nous avons choisi cette pièce parce que la gravité rapidement croissante de la crise mondiale des réfugiés est un moment décisif dans l’histoire de notre génération et recoupe plusieurs autres lacunes du développement international. Le logo a été remanié cette année pour refléter plus précisément la Chrysalide. Une Chrysalide est un cocon, c'est-à-dire une phase transitoire de croissance pour un papillon. Comme le logo de l'IDSSA / IPDCC reflète un motif cohérent de formes bleues et vertes superposées, j'ai créé une variante plus représentative du logo de Chrysalis à utiliser pour les futures équipes de publication. La couleur de ce journal présente des couleurs sarcelles, ce qui, selon Alanna et moi, serait idéal, car il s'agit d'une combinaison des couleurs bleues et vertes classiques de l'IDSSA. Teal apporte des sentiments de revitalisation et de clarté de pensée, qui complètent le mandat de Chrysalis de présenter des pièces diverses et articulées. Les polices utilisées dans ce journal sont diverses, de la décoration à sans serif. Cependant, vous remarquerez que la police de tous les résumés et la reconnaissance foncière sont différentes. Afin de rendre cette revue aussi accessible que possible à tous les publics, les résumés sont écrits dans la police «Dyslexie» - une police spécialement conçue pour être plus lisible pour les lecteurs dyslexiques. J'espère que c'est un pas en avant dans la bonne direction, en continuant à grandir en tant qu'organisation inclusive et accessible.
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Our team Editor in Chief Alanna Sereboff
Editorial Board Engy Adad Katherine Cheung Gayatri Chirambath Suraiya Foss-Phillips Gabriela McGuinty Max Shapiro Robin Vochelet Sophie Wirzba
Peer Reviewers Zach Beresin Savannah Dube Renee Lehman Grace Liu Helia Mokhber Ottilia Scott Erin Wiebe
Professor Mentors Francisco Amodio Manuel Balan Oliver Coomes Daniel Douek Paola Perez-Aleman Kazue Takamura
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Translators
Suraiya Foss-Phillips Gabriela McGuinty Robin Vochelet
Layout Editor Sabrina Gill
With Special Thanks to the 2019/20 IDSSA Executive Team Asa Ford Zofi Hasan Elina Lugbull Aaditya Malhotra Shivanshi Malhotra Léo-Michelle Trepanier Geneva Yang
Table of contents China’s Gendered Dormitory Labour System: Discipline and Control in the China Elton Electronics Factory in Shenzen, Guangdong by Rachel Gertin……………………………………………………………………………………………………….……..…..……9 Bodies for Sale: The Implementation of a Regulated Compensated Kidney Trade Market in India by Azra Hirji ………….………………………………………….…………………………………………………………………….29 Building Trust: Social Capital in Civil-Society Planned New Cities by Louis-Thomas Kelly……………………………………………….……………………………………………….………….49
The Price of Foreign Aid: A Story of Sexual Violence and Coercion by Anna Lazaris …………………………………………………….……………………………………………………….………65 Food as Cultural Identity: How Colonialism Stole Indigenous Food Practices, and Using Food Sovereignty as Decolonization by Aspen Murray……….………………………………………….……………………………………………………….……….83 The Rise of FDI and the Philippine Service Sector in the Post-Marcos Era by Cesar Ramirez ………….………………………………………….……………………………………………….………..103 State Exclusion of Vulnerable Migrant Populations and the Civil Society Organisations that Serve to Include Them by Cristina Venegas ………………………………………………….……………………………………………….………..129 Submission and Review Process…………………………………………………………………………………………148
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9
RACHEL GERTIN China’s Gendered Dormitory Labour System: Discipline and Control in the China Elton Electronics Factory in Shenzhen, Guangdong Abstract
productivity and lower costs by
China has evolved into a global over
production
the
providing
past
powerhouse
four
factory
decades,
consolidating the domestic and work life. Dormitory systems of labor allow factory managers to
labour
to
further
multinational
corporations
at
advantages
the
possible
lowest
cost.
these
complete
economic
by
exercising
control
of
their
Driving the country’s enormous
laborers through use of explicit
economic
surveillance
development
is
its
and
discipline
continuous dependence on cheap
strategies. By examining one of
and
China’s
disposable
labourers,
who
largest
live and work within extensive
systems,
dorm-factory
The
Electronics Factory, this paper
a
finds the dorm labor system to
dorms
systems.
concentrate
the
dorm-factory Elton
predominantly female workforce
be
as
concentrating female workers to
a
means
to
extract
highly
China
gendered,
10
create
self-regulation
constant extensive While
through
monitoring
punishment
the
creation
of
sisterhood
bonds,
manipulates
and
systems.
dormitories
foster
inter-ethnic management
these
gendered
groupings to increase employee skills
and
resistance. female dorm
mitigate
outward
Exploitation
manufacturing systems
thus
labor
of in
underpins
the virility of China’s economy, making its immediate dissolution unlikely.
Abstraite La Chine est devenue une puissance
de
mondiale
cours
au
des
quatre
dernières décennies, fournissant de la main-d'œuvre industrielle aux multinationales au coût le plus bas possible. Le moteur de l'énorme
développement
économique dépendance
du
pays
continue
à
est
sa
l'égard
d'une main-d'œuvre bon marché et jetable, qui vit et travaille dans
des
vastes
dortoirs.
prédominance permet
en
domestique
employeurs, féminine,
et
de
ce
réduire
consolidant et
de
dortoirs
d'accroître
productivité coûts
systèmes
Les
concentrent
11
production
la
à qui la les vie
professionnelle.
Les
systèmes
permettent
de
aux
dortoirs
direction manipule ces groupes
directeurs
sexospécifiques pour augmenter
d'usine de renforcer d’avantages
les
compétences
économiques
et
atténuer
contrôle
en
exerçant
total
sur
un
leurs
la
L'exploitation
des
employés
résistance. de
main-
travailleurs grâce à l'utilisation
d'œuvre
de stratégies de surveillance et
dortoirs renforce la virilité de
de
l'économie Chinoise, rendant sa
discipline
explicites.
En
féminine
la
examinant l'un des plus grands
dissolution
systèmes de dortoirs en Chine,
probable.
contrôlé
par
China
dans
immédiate
les
peu
Elton
Electronics Factory, cet exposé constate
que
le
système
de
dortoirs de travail est sexiste vue qu’il soumet les femmes à l'autorégulation surveillance systèmes Alors
par
constante
de que
punition les
et
une des
étendus.
dortoirs
favorisent la création de liens de fraternité interethniques, la
12
Introduction
labour relations under capitalism thus
The dormitory labour system in
largely focus on the operational systems
China has drastically fuelled an
in factories to highlight working
overdependence on millions of female
conditions and instances of exploitation.
migrant workers and fueled the global
Since the 1980s, factory regimes have
production chain for the past five
been structured to support booming
decades. Since the country established its
manufacturing regions through labour-
four special economic zones (SEZ) in the
intensive production that emphasises total
late 1970s, foreign-run companies have
workforce control. Management invokes
employed a predominantly female labour
additional productive value from
force to simultaneously live and work in
employees throughout the work day using
their factory- dorms. Regardless of the
strict control and surveillance, making
nature of manufacturing or of ownership,
factory investigation and analysis
the majority of factories employing female
essential to the understanding of
migrants use this type of private
manufacturing labour conditions3 .
accommodation. By combining residency
However, while much of work
with work, the dormitory system places
culture is often reflected in the relations
daily labour reproduction entirely in the
observed and documented on the factory
hands of foreign- invested companies,
floor, extending this disciplinary focus to
who strategically discipline and control
live-in dormitories is crucial to developing
their workers to extract economic gains.
a comprehensive understanding of
Historically, live-in work
modern industrial control strategies. The
organizations were most common in
dormitory system is instrumental in
apprenticeship programs and certain
maximizing availability of cheap labour for
occupations, such as nursing1. Most other
global production through subsidization of
employment operates a spatial separation
cost of living by manufacturers4. By
of work and home life, creating a closure
examining the ways in which employers
of workers’ time2. Conventional studies of
provide housing to their labour force to
1Edward
Montgomery and William Wascher, “Race and Gender Wage Inequality in Services and Manufacturing,” Industrial Relations26, no. 3 (1987): pp. 284-290, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-232x.1987.tb00713.x) 2Chris
Smith, “Living at Work: Management Control and the Dormitory Labour System in China,” Asia Pacific Journal of Management20, no. 3 (2003): pp. 333-358, https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1024097432726) Aihwa Ong and Donald Macon. Nonini, Ungrounded Empires the Cultural Politics of Modern Chinese Transnationalism(New York: Routledge, 1997) 3
4
13
Chris Smith, Living at Work: Management Control and the Dormitory Labour System in China, 334.
extract productivity, it is possible to gain
docile and productive female workers.
greater insight into the treatment and
First, it will give a theoretical analysis of
experiences of manufacturing workers in
governmentality and its application in SEZ
contemporary developing economies.
dorm-factories. Next, it will contextualize
Being that the discipline of employees has
the case by providing a brief overview of
extended into on-site dormitories, it is
Chinese special economic zones and the
especially useful to closely examine these
female labour they employ. Finally, it will
conditions and how they translate into
provide an in-depth analysis of the China
lucrative efficiency outcomes for large
Elton Electronics factory-dormitory
multinational corporations today. This
system as a site of gendered control and
lens of study is therefore essential in
resistance. This paper will make evident
understanding the economic
the unrelenting, all-encompassing and
underpinnings that drive the dominant
highly gendered command and
labour organizations seen in special
manipulation fostered through factory
economic zones in China.
dorms.
This paper will highlight the importance of integrating culture into the
Governmentality in the Gendered
study of development by examining the
Dormitory System
way dormitory governmentality shapes
The dormitory system used by
the gendered labour system in China’s
manufacturing corporations in China’s
special economic zones. One case in
special economic zones relies upon
particular, China Elton Electronics, stands
various forms of governmentality to shape
out as an exceptionally profitable factory
and control the female labour they
while also employing live-in labour. By
employ. Governmentality is the state’s
drawing on the case of the China Elton
imposition of absolute control of its
factory in Shenzhen, Guangdong, this
subject’s daily behaviours5 . Forms of
paper will argue that the dormitory labour
control can target many areas, notably
system’s surveillance and disciplinary
women’s reproduction or the
strategies were explicitly developed by
management of female bodies in general6 .
factory managers to direct the creation of
The governing body uses disciplinary and
5
Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (1st American ed. New York: Pantheon Books, 1977)
6
Nicole Bourbonnais, Birth Control in the Decolonizing Caribbean, 2016. 14.
14
control technologies, self-regulation and a
control of populations found in
governing mentality to create a licit-illicit
disciplinary institutions, such as
binary from a discourse that develops into
psychiatric institutions. State-facilitated
l a w 7. W h i l e t h e g o v e r n m e n t i s a
work-life systems in Chinese SEZ
predominantly political code of conduct
dormitories create the ideal conditions for
established in an attempt to shape human
this continuous direct and indirect control
behaviour, governmentality is a way of
of female workers to take place. Under a
thinking about such governmental
dormitory labour system, the managerial
tactics8. A comprehensive definition of
staff of private foreign-invested
governmentality emphasises three key
companies can exert unprecedented
tenants: it is the ensemble of institutions
command over their workforce.
that allows for the exercise of power over
Employees have no access to a domestic
a population, it has the tendency for pre-
space separate from the corporation,
eminence over all other forms of
thus allowing for the flexible utilisation of
governmental power, and it results in a
laborers time by employers11 .
societal transformation into complete political order 9.
Governmentality arises from the modern state’s desire to control an
Neoliberal governmentality is a
individual’s behavior through high
form of this control focused on conditions
interference in individual affairs12 . One
of decentralised power, where individuals
specific strategy reliant on metaphorical
a c t i v e l y r e g u l a t e t h e i r o w n s e l f-
spatial control is the symbolic panopticon,
g o v e r n a n c e 10 .
of
which aims to create a dual morality
governmentality is not limited to general
between good subjects, who are docile
state politics and can be applied to several
and productive, and bad subjects13 . The
other instances of modern biopolitical
state will often emphasise docility under
This
type
7
Tania Murray Li, Governmentality, (Anthropologica 19, no. 2, 2007) 275.
8
Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison 95.
Graham Burchill, Colin Gordon, and Peter Miller, The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmental Nationality(London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991) 9
15
10
Tania Murray Li, Governmentality, 275.
11
David Harvey, Spaces of Capital: towards a Critical Geography (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007). 108.
12
Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, 135.
13
Foucault, Discipline and Punish, 221.
regimes of governmentality, as it means
individuals will consistently adhere to
individuals will have become obedient,
rules in order to avoid punishment.
manageable, and most importantly,
The panopticon ideology can be
submissive to authority14 . By molding
f u r t h e r e x t e n d e d s y m b o l i c a l l y, i n
citizens into docile workers, the state can
institutions outside of the prison system
increase the exploitative quality of the
that employ similar tactics of random
institution while limiting the likelihood of
observation to maintain order over a large
organized group resistance. Literal spatial
number of individuals. While common
strategies of control involve enforcement
examples of the symbolic panopticon
of rule from a single external source,
include schools, hospitals, and the
while metaphorical spatial control is a
military, the dorm-factory system almost
n o n - t e r r i t o r i a l exe r c i s e o f p o w e r
perfectly exemplifies these traits17. The
unreliant on a boundary and is often
panopticon uses two apparatus of
implemented amongst a population15 . The
discipline, both of which are found
panopticon, based on constant
prominently throughout the case of SEZ
expressions of power, is a means to
dormitories. First, factory management
maintain spatial control from within a
applies strategies of surveillance,
population16. This notion is illustrated
deterrence, and punishment in spatial
through the example of a prison system
enclosures to restrict the labour mobility
where a single guard watches over all
of female factory workers, who are rarely
inmates in a hidden tower. This form of
permitted to leave the site and remain
observation renders the prisoners unable
subject to their rules at all times. Second,
to distinguish between when they are
the production of moral norms, modern
being watched or not and results in self-
subjectivity and eventual self-regulation
regulated disciplinary practices. By
based on a discursive disciplinary power
creating uncertainty through the
is a necessary product of the successful
possibility of constant surveillance,
dorm living system18 . As this paper will
Diane Elson and Ruth Pearson, Nimble Fingers Make Cheap Workers: An Analysis of Women’s Employment in Third World Export Manufacturing (Feminist Review, no. 7, 1981). 93-95. 14
Graham Sewell and Barry Wilkinson, Someone to Watch Over Me: Surveillance, Discipline and the Just-in-Time Labour Process (Sociology 26, no.2, 1992) 271-80. 15
16
Bernard Harcourt, Jeremy Bentham’s Panopticon� (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2015) 6.
17
Ibid., 96.
18
Tania Murray Li, Governmentality, 280.
16
later discuss, the sustained cognizance of
through self-regulating journalists21 . This
individual surveillance molds female
same strategy is found in the dormitories,
workers into self-disciplining bodies that
as the liberalisation of labour allows for
follow rigid and dehumanizing work-life
female economic participation to occur
schedules out of a discursive fear of
alongside the strict direction of workers
punishment.
t h a t w o u l d e v e n t u a l l y f o r c e s e l f-
The dormitory system exemplifies
disciplining practices. The next section of
contemporary governmentality through
this paper will elaborate on the Chinese
internalized surveillance based on a list of
context through which the lens of
disciplinary rules, subtle external
governmentality can be applied.
surveillance, and the creation of selfregulation through supervision of
The Context of China: Special Economic
workers' everyday lives19 . Embedding
Zones
governmentality into the dormitory system
China is known internationally as a
is in the best interest of the factory
“world factory�, attracting business from
owners and the state of China, as creating
transnational corporations all over the
well-trained female workers maximises
world for its specialisation in production
economic output20. This system relies on a
and manufacturing22 . The Guangdong
convergence of liberalisation and control
province on the Southern coast is the
to maintain its legitimacy, similar to the
primary hub for this global economic
effects
media
activity. Its major cities, Shenzhen,
commercialisation detailed by Daniella
Dongguan, and Guangzhou serve as bases
Stockmann. For Stockmann, the
for labour-intensive factory jobs largely
authoritarian regime could maintain
held by female migrant workers due to
control by tolerating the distribution of
significant economic privileges provided
commercial newspapers but
b y t h e C h i n e s e g o v e r n m e n t 23 .
simultaneously controlling its content
Guangdong’s trade accounted for one-
of
Chinese
Chris Smith, Ngai Pun, The Dormitory Labor Regime in China as a Site for Control and Resistance, (The International Journal of Human Resource Management, no.8, 2006) 1456 19
Ngai Pun, Gendering the Dormitory Labor System: Production, Reproduction and Migrant Labor in South China (Feminist Economics13, no. 3-4, 2007) 252 20
Daniella Stockmann, Media Citizenship in China (Media Commercialization and Authoritarian Rule in China, n.d.d, 2012) 23. 21
17
22
Smith and Pun, The Dormitory Labor Regime, 1456.
23
Pun, Gendering the Dormitory Labor System, 252.
third of the country’s total GDP in 2006 at
rural location, which further limits
USD 520 billion and one-fourth of the
potential income opportunities and their
country’s foreign direct investment at USD
age and marriage status makes migration
12.5 billion24. The region’s significant
more socially and economically
economic activity relies heavily on
plausible28 . The compounding of these
massive labour surpluses migrating from
demographic factors therefore
rural areas 25. There are over one
constructs young, rural and unmarried
hundred million internal migrants, the
female labour as the ideal target for
majority of whom are women, moving
factory work in special economic zones.
within the country each year to live and work in special economic zones 26.
Secondly, government labour management offices directly facilitation
Young female migrants make up
transportation to coastal factories, since
approximately seventy percent of factory
the state benefits exponentially from this
workers in China’s major toy, electronics
economic activity29 . Companies who
and garment industries27 . The forces
contract Chinese labour management for
driving female-domination in this labour
these services also order specific
sector are two-pronged. First, lack of
screening for young, female applicants as
e d u c a t i o n a n d v i l l a g e - e m p l o y m e nt
they best fit the temporary labour
opportunities create structural
requirements needed for their economic
inequalities that leave young rural women
model30. This double conditioning creates
in China with little choice but to migrate.
a migration process that underpins the
Factory owners capitalise on
the
success of the factory-dorm system: rural
intersectional vulnerabilities experienced
women are encouraged by the
by these women in order to secure
government to work in these industrial
c o n s i s t e n t l a b o u r fl o w s . T h e s e
urban areas and their social constraints
populations are also constrained by their 24
China Daily, Guongdong Notches up $520b FDI (2007)
25
Ngai Pun, Made in China: Women Factory Workers in a Global Workplace (Durham, Duke University Press, 2005) 39.
26
Smith and Pun, The Dormitory Labor Regime, 1456
Ching Kwan Lee, Gender and the South China Miracle:Two Worlds of Factory Women (Berkeley, CA: Univ of California Press, 2001) 5. 27
28
Ngai Pun, Gendering the Dormitory Labor System: Production, Reproduction and Migrant Labor in South China. 250.
Ching Kwan Lee, Working in China: Ethnographies of Labor and Workplace Transformation (The China Journal60, 2008) 38. 29
30
Pun, Gendering the Dormitory Labor System, 243.
18
prevent and even make unthinkable most
vulnerability to exploitation is thus
other settlement patterns.
intensified in these systems, where social
The modern dormitory system was
and economic conditions limit their ability
adopted in the early 1980s to aid in the
to demand a better working
daily reproduction of labour while
environment34. As China becomes further
embodying constant worker control.
entrenched in international trade and
Capitalist models have long employed
production circuits through the WTO,
dorm-labour arrangements in both
reliance on dormitories and the economic
Western and Eastern industrialisation
productivity they ensure will likely only
contexts, but China’s system is unique,
increase with time.
with the state actively involved and in support of the process31. Dorms located
A Case Study of China Elton Electronics
on factory compounds in the country’s
This section will analyse in detail
special economic zones are constantly
the China Elton Electronics Factory,
available to industries and workers,
owned by a Hong Kong company and
facilitating short labour terms of female
situated in the Shenzhen special economic
migrants. The Chinese government
zone in the Guangdong district. The
provides most of these dormitories for
factory was established in 1991, with its
factories to rent, playing an integral role
directors and managers primarily from
in constraining labor mobility since
Hong Kong, and circa 2003 had built up a
workers are not permitted to live
workforce of 4500. The company
elsewhere32. Being separated from their
produced advanced electronic devices
homes, families and the rural life they
including cell-phones, MP3 players and
know, female workers undergo a process
speakers for distribution to Japanese
of homogenisation where they become an
buyers like Sony and Samsung35 . China
individual worker responsible for their
Elton is positioned at the end of the global
behavior without the tie of former
production chain, as it has three Chinese
c o m m u n i t y b o n d s 33 . W o r k e r s '
subcontractors that provide electronic
31
Martin Lockett, Gail Hershatter, The Workers of Tianjin, 2900-1949, (Man23, no.1, 1986) 13.
32
Lee, Gender and the South China Miracle, 7.
Ngai Pun, Becoming Dagongmei (Working Girls): The Politics of Identity and Difference in Reform China, (The China Journal42, 1999) 5. 33
19
34
Andrew G. Walder, Communist Neo-Traditionalism: An Introductory Essay, (1988) 36.
35
Smith, Pun, The Dormitory Labor Regime, 1462.
components, and other small local
approximately USD 110, while the
producers that conduct final packaging
predominantly male managerial staff
operations. By relying on subcontractors
made on average of USD 247 per month.
from mainland China, production costs
These were average wages for productive
can be kept extremely low. Recognizing its
labor in 2003 Shenzhen, and were much
economic potential, the local government
higher than any wage possible in rural
granted China Elton resources such as
farm work from the areas employees
land, facilities, and exemptions on taxes
often migrated from39. However, workers
and import/export practices36. With these
were only compensated USD 0.50 per
privileges, the company attracted foreign
hour for overtime, despite the law
investments of USD 3.7 million in the early
stipulating a 150 percent increase at a
1990s and was able to build two three-
minimum. The workday in China Elton was
story production facilities, and an
ten to twelve hours six days per week,
attached management block and
totalling a seventy-two-hour work week40 .
dormitory housing in the most expensive
These hours directly violated the 1995
area of the Shenzhen SEZ37.
Chinese Labour Law standards, which set
The standards of work imposed,
forth a maximum of forty hours over a
and compensation provided in the China
five-day week and thirty-six hours of
Elton factory was relatively low, with
overtime work per month. It was also
almost no code of conduct in place. In
nearly impossible for factory workers to
2003, seventy percent of the factory’s
take a leave of absence outside of public
employees were women between twenty
holidays, even in the case of personal
and twenty-six years old and almost all
illness41.
were migrants from other Chinese regions38 . At this time workers were
Discipline and Control
employed for a period of two to three
China Elton built its new
years and paid an hourly rate of USD 0.40.
dormitories in 1995 to better comply with
Monthly wages usually amounted to
the international labour monitoring
36
Pun, Gendering the Dormitory Labor System, 248.
37
Smith, Pun, The Dormitory Labor Regime, 1463.
38
Ibid., 1462.
39Pun,
Gendering the Dormitory Labor System, 249.
40
Smith, Pun, The Dormitory Labor Regime, 1463.
41
Pun, Gendering the Dormitory Labor System, 250.
20
system standards for work conditions
provisions44 . Reinforcement of the
whilst simultaneously exerting complete
command hierarchy through spatial
authority over their productive labour42.
dormitory arrangements was crucial in
By 2003 the housing system was
maintaining complete control of factory
extensive: four buildings for workers and
labour. By solidifying differences based on
one for managers surrounded by an iron
gender and class in the dorms, workers’
gate and tall enclosing walls monitored
consciousness of their subordinate
twenty-four hours by security guards.
position in the work-life system could be
Workers were given no choice but to pay
sustained throughout all hours of the day.
RBM 50 for a month’s living
To control such a considerably
accommodation and RBM 3 per meal,
sized workforce, management adopted an
even if living outside of the factory
exhaustive set of regulations for their
grounds was preferred 43. While it is
female labourers that extended past
arguable that workers reduced their
factory hours and into dormitory life.
travelling costs and some living expenses
There was a total of twenty rules, each
they might incur without the dorms, they
explicitly connected to its punishment to
still lacked the opportunity to decide for
further China Elton’s discursive
themselves on their living circumstances.
disciplinary power and reinforce licit-illicit
Furthermore, the gender and status
binaries of resident behavior45 . Some
hierarchy of accommodation in the
major regulations included a RMB 10 fine
factory-dorm system was pronounced.
for dirty rooms and spitting, a RMB 20 fine
While the predominantly male managerial
for losing one’s identity card or eating in
staff resided in comfortably furnished
one’s room, a RMB 50 fine for changing
flats, female factory workers remained
bunks, unspecified penalization for any
packed into hospital-like dormitories.
noise or leaving the compound after
Eight to twelve workers were housed in
midnight and immediate dismissal for
each room, with no storage space, barely
fighting, arguing, property damage or
operational fans and minimal sanitary
t h e f t 46 . M a n a g e m e n t p o s t e d a
Ngai Pun, Global Production, Company Codes of Conduct and Labor Conditions in China: A Case Study of Two Factories (The China Journal54, 2005) 102. 42
21
43
Pun, Gendering the Dormitory Labor System, 250.
44
Ibid., 251.
45
Foucault, Discipline and Punish, 104.
46
Smith, Pun, The Dormitory Labor Regime, 1464.
comprehensive list of all disciplinary
dormitory system is therefore highly
regulations throughout the dorms as a
Foucauldian, relying on both hard
means of continuously shaping desired
disciplines and subtle surveillance
“civilisation” and docility of workers, since
technology to assert total authority49 .
job retention hinged on one’s ability to
Although male workers faced the same
comply with strict rules even when off
working conditions as their female
duty. Arguably, by forcing female
counterparts, the methods of control and
employees into the dormitory system each
discipline overwhelmingly targeted female
night, workers were never off duty.
labor, thus explaining the disparate
Factory management justified such strict control and punishment techniques
gender ratio observed and propagated in the factory.
by asserting the necessity for the “protection” of female workers 47. This
Resistance
rationalization relied on the distinct
A primary threat to the
gendered binary between male managers
maintenance of control throughout China
and female factory workers. By citing
Elton’s dorm-factory system was outward
p a t e r n a l i s t i c - l i ke c o n c e r n f o r t h e
labour resistance. Outward resistance in
wellbeing and safety of the young women
a company involves collectivisation and
they employed, factory management could
direct revolt against the factory
maximize their reach of power into all
employers, while inward resistance
hours of the day. The dormitory system
consists of minute and banal coping
bridges the separation between domestic
strategies for the difficulties of day-to-day
and work spheres and is thus imperative
dorm life. The dorms were structured to
to extracting effective productive labor.
be completely reliant on employee docility
With discipline and punishment
and submissiveness , so group
techniques as the first stage of control,
collectivisation against the various forms
the work-life system also creates a
of authority would devastate the
discourse of self-discipline that ultimately
company’s productive system. In order to
produces an ideal set of docile and
maintain command over their labour
productive workers 48 . The modern
force, management strategically
47
Ibid., 1465.
48
Pun, Gendering the Dormitory Labor System, 252.
49
Alan McKinlay and Ken Starkey, Managing Foucault: Foucault, Management and Organization Theory (1998) 2.
22
manipulated forms of minimal inward
younger members and facilitate their
resistance within the sexist framework of
quick assimilation into factory life51 .
the dorm-factories to perpetuate a
Managerial staff manipulated the
continuous cycle of control. The cycle
formation of these networks by rewarding
began with employers allowing for daily
model groups over others and fueling
“resistance” in the form of kinship ties and
inter-group competition through
sisterhood bonding in the dorms. The poor
production line quotas. The production
living conditions, overcrowding, and
volume of each group was written on
exhaustive human interaction forged
factory boards each day and by the week’s
bonds between workers based on both
end a bonus was rewarded to the
their common fate and gender. Employees
winner52 . By encouraging connection
relied heavily on the emotional links of
based on gender and ethnicity and under
sisterhood that the dorms fostered, and
the guise of friendly competition in the
often supported each other throughout
close quarters of the dormitories, China
various criticisms of the management and
Elton was able to better extract
other work-life grievances50. Gendered
productive labor.
bonds were further reinforced by
Although the communal spirit found
extensive kinship networks prevalent
in China Elton was a testament to the
throughout the female workforce, with
virulent influence that kinship, ethnicity,
many new employees being recruited to
and, overwhelmingly, gender have in such
the factory through ethnic group
capitalist models, employers strategically
connections.
capitalized on the connections between
While comforting to the female
workers to increase their training, skills,
factory workers, these group ties were
and sense of belonging in the work-life
highly beneficial to industrial capital,
system53. Hence, a cycle of continuous
cycling into the hiring, training and
command arose in the dormitory labour
disciplining processes of new workers.
system, and became an inherent
Each ethnic set had a “big sister” system,
contradiction used to the employer's
where older women would care for their
advantage. The same networks that
50
Pun, Gendering the Dormitory Labor System, 253.
51
Smith, Pun, The Dormitory Labor Regime, 1467.
52
Pun, Gendering the Dormitory Labor System, 253.
Mary B. Rankin, Emily Honig, Sisters and Strangers: Women in the Shanghai Cotton Mills, 1919-1949 (The American Historical Review92, no. 4, 19867) 36. 53
23
workers used to build bonds of solidarity
line. While offering the potential for
against employers could be relied upon by
cheaper work, greater efficiency and
employers to discipline their workers. The
maximized profits, the costs of daily
intense and intimate connections formed
reproduction control felt by female
between women living in the dorm-factory
migrants are often hidden from the
system were translated carefully by
international gaze.
upper factory management into controlled
Female labourers endure grueling
daily resistance that, in turn, increased
work hours, illegally low wages, physical
productivity.
and psychological abuse from male factory managers and untold pressures
Conclusion
from relocation and subsequent isolation
The Chinese dormitory labour
in dormitories55 . Due to China’s increasing
s y s t e m i s i n d i c a t i v e o f a l a r g e r,
competition for foreign investment, the
international phenomenon, where China’s
state also continuously neglects the
accession into the WTO has fueled a global
blatant labour violations that occur in the
reliance on cheap disposable labor. The
factory-dorms56 . The dormitory labour
nature of the dormitory system allows
system is highly gendered, concentrating
China to mobilize its working-class and
female labour to nurture self-regulation
capitalise on the necessity for rural
through punishment and surveillance
women to participate in the country’s
technologies and feeding acute yet subtle
growing economy54 . With few other
daily exploitation. Factor management
income opportunities, female migrants
utilises these gender hierarchies by
who enter the dormitory labour system
creating a cycle of productivity control
through state encouragement are
reliant on sisterhood and ethnic group
inevitably prone to its exploitative working
bonding, both of which are explicitly
conditions. Employers use factory-dorm
fostered in the dorm system. To break this
systems to link female rural-urban
cycle of patriarchal control and discipline
migration patterns and labour
would be to call into question the
reproduction as a way to squeeze
economic viability of the dorm factory
productivity into the global production
system, and must extend to a capitalist
54
Lee, Working in China, 38.
55
Rankin, Honig, Sisters and Strangers, 19.
56
Pun, Gendering the Dormitory Labor System, 255.
24
struggle beyond the scale of daily re s is t a n ce . For ei gn investors and organizations are now faced with a question of both economics and morality; how much profit accumulated from Chinese companies is worth the overwhelming cost of such human rights violations.
25
Bibliography Bourbonnais, Nicole. Birth Control in the Decolonizing Caribbean. (Cambridge University Press, 2016) 14. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316339930. Burchill, Graham, Colin Gordon, and Peter Miller. The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmental Nationality. London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991. Elson, Diane, and Ruth Pearson. "'Nimble Fingers Make Cheap Workers': An Analysis of Women's Employment in Third World Export Manufacturing." Feminist Review, no. 7 (1981): 87-107. Accessed February 6, 2020. doi:10.2307/1394761. Foucault, Michel. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. 1st American ed. New York: Pantheon Books, 1977. “Guangdong Notches Up $520b FDI.” China Daily, March 2, 2007. http://www.china daily.com.cn/china/2007-03/02/content_817482.htm. Harcourt, Bernard E. "JEREMY BENTHAM’S PANOPTICON." In Exposed: Desire and Disobedience in the Digital Age, 80-106. CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS; LONDON, ENGLAND: Harvard University Press, 2015. Accessed February 6, 2020. www.jstor.org/ stable/j.ctvjghwmm.6. Harvey, David. Spaces of Capital: towards a Critical Geography. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007. Lee, Ching Kwan. Gender and the South China Miracle: Two Worlds of Factory Women. Berkeley, CA: Univ. of California Press, 2001. Lee, Ching Kwan. “Working in China: Ethnographies of Labor and Workplace Transformation.” The China Journal 60 (2008): 185–87. https://doi.org/10.1086/tcj. 60.20648010. Li, Tania Murray. "Governmentality." Anthropologica 49, no. 2 (2007): 275-81. Accessed February 6, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/25605363. Lockett, Martin, and Gail Hershatter. “The Workers of Tianjin, 1900-1949.” Man23, no. 1 (1988): 13. https://doi.org/10.2307/2803063.
26
Mckinlay, Alan, and Ken Starkey. “Managing Foucault: Foucault, Management and Organization Theory.” f, n.d., 1–13. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446221686.n1. Montgomery, Edward, and William Wascher. “Race and Gender Wage Inequality in Services and Manufacturing.” Industrial Relations26, no. 3 (1987): 284–90. https:// doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-232x.1987.tb00713.x. Ngai, Pun. “Becoming Dagongmei (Working Girls): The Politics of Identity and Difference in Reform China.” The China Journal42 (1999): 1–18. https://doi.org/10.2307/2667638. Ngai, Pun. “Gendering the Dormitory Labor System: Production, Reproduction, and Migrant Labor in South China.” Feminist Economics13, no. 3-4 (2007): 239–58. https:// doi.org/10.1080/13545700701439465. Ngai, Pun. “Global Production, Company Codes of Conduct, and Labor Conditions in China: A Case Study of Two Factories.” The China Journal54 (2005): 101–13. https://doi.org/ 10.2307/20066068. Ngai, Pun. Made in China: Women Factory Workers in a Global Workplace. Durham,: Duke University Press, 2005. Ong, Aihwa, and Donald Macon. Nonini. Ungrounded Empires the Cultural Politics of Modern Chinese Transnationalism. New York: Routledge, 1997. Rankin, Mary B., and Emily Honig. “Sisters and Strangers: Women in the Shanghai Cotton Mills, 1919-1949.” The American Historical Review92, no. 4 (1987): 19-36. https:// doi.org/10.2307/1864080. Sewell, Graham, and Barry Wilkinson. "'Someone to Watch Over Me’: Surveillance, Discipline and the Just-In-Time Labour Process.” Sociology 26, no. 2 (1992): 271-89. Accessed February 6, 2020. www.jstor.org/stable/42855010. Smith, Chris, and Ngai Pun. “The Dormitory Labour Regime in China as a Site for Control and resistance.” The International Journal of Human Resource Management, no. 8 (2006): 1456–70. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585190600804762.
27
Smith, Chris. “Living at Work: Management Control and the Dormitory Labour System in China.” Asia Pacific Journal of Management20, no. 3 (2003): 333–58. https://doi.org/ 10.1023/a:1024097432726. Stockmann, Daniela. “Media Citizenship in China.” Media Commercialization and Authoritarian Rule in China, n.d., 222–36. https://doi.org/10.1017/ cbo9781139087742.013. Walder, Andrew G. “Communist Neo-Traditionalism: An Introductory Essay.” Communist Neo-TraditionalismWork and Authority in Chinese Industry, 1988, 1–27. https://doi.org/ 10.1525/california/9780520064706.003.0001.
Image Credits Reuters
28
29
Azra Hirji Bodies for Sale: The Implementation of a Regulated Compensated Kidney Trade Market in India Abstract
in
bodily organs is acceptable has
With the drastic increase
taken center stage in the realm
demand
of health and development, as
transplants many
around
global
various
for
kidney the
world,
citizens
inequality
gaps
perpetuated by the exploitation
socio-economic
of poor individuals with kidneys
have
relentless
in
exhausting
various
been
discovering
need of kidney transplants. In response
acquiring for themselves, or for
debate
their
underprivileged
loved
ones, to
avenues
and
to lend to wealthy individuals in
of
need
being
from
backgrounds
they
are
the
survive.
organs As
the
developing
to
this
contentious
which
sees
individuals
countries
in
pressured
demand for healthy kidneys has
into “selling their bodies� for a
escalated,
profit, there has been an outcry
surrounding
an
ethical
the
debate
narrative
of
whether or not buying or selling
for
the
regulation
of
the
exchange of kidneys similar to
30
the
Iranian
monitored
model
of
transactions
kidney
become
in
in-depth
the
suggested
In
regulated
India a
specifically,
regulated
the
need
exchange
of
market
tackling
reduce
inequality
that
the
the
exploitative
renal
black
risks
market
poses to the poorer demographic of the nation and swiftly attend to the rapidly rising amount of end-stage kidney failure (ESKF) patients essay
in
a
country.
specifically
advantages of
the
This
outlines
the
and
disadvantages
regulated
compensated
kidney argues
transplant such
a
positively underprivileged candidates
in
market
and
market
could
impact
the
kidney India.
donor It
will
be
the the
this
that
features
kidney
will
kidneys is urgently required to
following
analysis
world of academia and health.
for
31
evident
the
of
a
transplant
beneficial
in
perpetuated poor
population
of India is faced with by the rest of the world.
Abstraite
par
Avec drastique
l’augmentation
de
la
demande
pour
l’exploitation
pauvres donnés
dont aux
les
plus
des
plus
reins
sont
riches
ayant
les transplantations de reins à
besoin d’une transplantation. En
travers le monde, beaucoup de
réponse à ce débat contentieux
citoyens
qui
de
différents
milieux
socio-économiques inlassablement
ont
vu
les
privilégiés
individus des
moins
pays
en
et
développement qui se retrouvent
options
forcés à “vendre leurs corps”
pour obtenir pour eux ou leurs
pour le profit, il y a eu un tollé
proches les organes dont ils ont
pour la régulation de l’échange
besoin pour survivre. Alors que
des reins similaires au modèle
la demande pour les reins sains
iranien
augmente,
surveillées
envisagé
entourant
découvert
a
différentes
un la
débat
éthique
narrative
selon
milieux
de
transactions
de
reins
dans
les
académiques
et
laquelle acheter ou vendre des
sanitaires.
organes
est
particulièrement, le besoin pour
acceptable a pris le devant de
un échange régulé des reins est
la
urgent
scène
corporels
de
la
développement,
santé alors
et
que
du les
écarts d’inégalité sont perpétrés
et
réduire
En
Inde
nécessaire les
d’exploitation
que
plus
afin
de
risques le
marché
32
noir rénal pose aux plus démunis de la nation ainsi que s’occuper de
l’augmentation
rapide
des
patients en insuffisance rénale terminale
dans
le
pays.
Cet
essai expose les avantages et les
inconvénients
d’un
de
transplantation
marché rénale
régulé, et soutient qu’il pourrait avoir des impacts positifs pour les candidats donneurs de rein les moins privilégiés en Inde. Il sera
évident,
au
vu
de
cette
analyse en profondeur, que les caractéristiques suggérées d’un marché rénale pour
de
régulé
transplantation serait
s’attaquer
subies
par
les
aux
bénéfique inégalités
populations
pauvres d’Inde face au reste du monde.
33
Introduction
community and society at large, it has
Since the first kidney transplant
brought about an ongoing ethical debate
surgery in 1950 1, transplant science has
over the “buying and selling” of kidneys
jumped leaps and bounds, from technical
internationally. This inevitable debate of
advances for surgical procedures to the
placing monetary value on kidneys
introduction of medicines preventing
(referred to as commercial kidney
tissue rejection. With the increase in non-
donation) has been at the forefront of
communicable diseases such as
organ transplant discussions over the
cardiometabolic diseases, the significant
past two decades and continues to
rise in end-stage kidney failure (ESKF)
dominate the sphere of society that faces
cases, and the aging demographic
terminally ill conditions3 .
worldwide, there is an exponentially
The care of patients with ESKF in
increasing demand for kidney transplants
India is largely guided by economic
with a relatively stagnant supply. The US
considerations. As a developing country,
D e p a r t m e nt of H e a l t h a n d Hu m a n
the cash-strapped Indian government
Services has
determined that kidney
allocates most of its funds towards more
waitlists gain over 3000 new patients per
pressing issues, such as population
month, with the average wait time for an
control, clean drinking water and the
individual kidney transplant being 3.6
eradication of communicable diseases.
years2. Organ transplant surgeries have
India has a dual health care delivery
evolved from being exclusively conducted
system that divides patients according to
in rare specialized surgical settings to
their economic status and class.
taking place in a wide array of diverse
Economically disadvantaged patients visit
clinical settings. While they were
the state-run clinics while wealthier
previously limited to related donors and
individuals tend to use private clinics. The
recipients, modern-day operations now
state-run hospitals, although subsidized
occur between unrelated recipients and
for dialysis and transplant surgeries, are
living donors. Whilst this is a
often overpopulated and have lengthy
commendable evolution for the medical
waitlists. As these clinics are
Debra Budiani-Saberi and K.A. Karim, The Social determinants or organ trafficking: a reflection of social inequality (Social Medicine, 2009), 48. 1
2
“Organ Procurement and Transplant Network, OPTN, accessed March 30, 2020, https://optn.transplant.hrsa/gov/)
3
Asif Efrat, “Organ Traffickers lock up people to harvest their kidneys” (The Washington Post, 2016), para.5.
34
overwhelmed with patients, they seldom
compensated market is the most effective
conduct follow-up healthcare for ESKF
way to combat organ trafficking in India.
patients resulting in many avoidable health complications for the economically
Part One
disadvantaged populations. On the other
Unregulated Kidney Trade and Transplant
hand, private clinics tend to have shorter
Tourism in India
waitlists and offer adequate post-
India, along with Pakistan and
treatment health care to patients.
Turkey, has a reputation for being one of
Furthermore, the private sector is
the “greatest kidney bazaars” of the
authorized to accept paid or unpaid kidney
world5 . Wealthy upper-class Indians and
donations from unrelated donors whereas
foreigners in need of kidney donations
all the state-run hospitals in India only
travel to areas such as Kolkata and
permit kidney transplants from genetically
Chennai to meet with potential donor
related donors4. This research paper will
candidates, whom they were referred to
analyze how the implementation of a
by underground brokers and gangs. This
regulated and compensated kidney
is referred to as transplant tourism6. This
transplant market can positively impact
organized trade network involving
the underprivileged kidney donor
middlemen and alleged surgeons
candidates in India. Part one will compare
advertises kidneys through online
the informal kidney transplant market in
“package deals” ranging from $15, 000 -
India with the Iranian model of paid
$150, 000 per kidney7 . The average
regulated kidney donation. Part two will
targeted donors are between twenty to
evaluate the various arguments for and
forty years old who are either illiterate or
against commercial donations.
Lastly,
have not had access to secondary
part three will serve as a culmination to
education, thus making them very
the argument that a regulated
susceptible to “duplicitous offers and tempting financial incentives”8 . Depending
Sunil Shroff, “Current Trends in Kidney Transplantation in India,” Indian Journal of Urology : IJU : Journal of the Urological Society of India 32, no. 3 (2016): 173–74, https://doi.org/10.4103/0970-1591.185092. 4
Tazeen H. Jafar, “Organ Trafficking: Global Solutions for a Global Problem,” American Journal of Kidney Diseases 54, no. 6 (December 1, 2009): 1145–57, https://doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2009.08.014., 1148. 5
Timothy Caulfield and Amy Zarzeczny, “Curbing Transplant Tourism: Canadian Physicians and the Law,” CMAJ 188, no. 13 (September 20, 2016): 935–36, https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.160497. 6
35
7
Jafar, “Organ Trafficking,” 1145.
8
ibid
on the demand within the market and the
provided with sufficient pre and post-
level of poverty that the donor is
operational healthcare, and they do not
associated with, brokers adjust the price
seek medical advice when they experience
of the kidney, and donors are often
post-surgery complications because they
unknowingly coerced into accepting
fear the consequences of participating in
extremely low prices out of sheer
an illegal transaction10 . During the
desperation. The varying price of kidneys
operation itself, safety standards are
determined by the supply and demand of
seriously compromised because they are
the market not only deepens national
often conducted in buildings or clinics
exploitation, but also perpetuates
which lack access to appropriate
international discrimination, as recipients
equipment and sanitation for the
favour kidneys from certain countries
procedure. Therefore, unregulated
over others. One report stated that Indian,
transplants tend to lead to high rates of
African, and Filipino kidneys are relatively
graft loss and transmission of infections,
less costly than kidneys originating from
such as Human Immunodeficiency Virus
Turkey or Peru because recipients have a
and Hepatitis, for both the donors and the
personal preference to the latter9 . The
recipients11 . Furthermore, the element of
continuous preference that is shown
fi n a n c i a l i n c e n t i v e c a n l e a d t o
towards kidneys from specific areas,
manipulation of the system whereby
therefore, perpetuates and further
donors purposely choose to avoid
solidifies the current existence of an
disclosing pertinent medical information
inequality gap between nations.
which could jeopardize their chances of
This informal exchange of kidneys
securing the exchange. This unregulated
poses many risks to both the donors and
system of exploitation breeds deception,
recipients involved, as most black-market
as the recipients are usually unaware of
surgeries provide no long-term follow up
all the risks involved in the procedure or
healthcare for the donors. Donors from
choose to ignore their doubts because
developing countries are usually not
Saradamoyee Chatterjee, “The Illegal Kidney Trade: Who Benefits,” European Review of Organized Crime 4, no. 2 (2017): 4–26. 9
10
Caulfield and Zarzeczny, “Curbing Transplant Tourism”
Dominique E. Martin and Sarah L. White, “Financial Incentives for Living Kidney Donors: Are They Necessary?,” American Journal of Kidney Diseases: The Official Journal of the National Kidney Foundation 66, no. 3 (September 2015): 389–95, https://doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2015.03.041. 11
36
proceeding through the black market is
agents such as cyclosporine, azathioprine,
often their only resort.
prednisone, and mycophenolate, which would otherwise be inaccessible to
Iranian Model of Paid and Regulated
underprivileged donors, are made
Kidney Donation
available at a subsidized cost by the
To overcome their overflowing
I r a n i a n g o v e r n m e n t 15 . T h e r e n a l
renal transplant waitlist, an incentivized
transplant teams work for government-
regulated kidney transplantation system
run hospitals and all surgeries are
was legally adopted in Iran in 198812. This
conducted in professional settings with
system requires potential Iranian donors
appropriate tools and hygiene. While there
and recipients to undergo a rigorous
are still many risks involved in the
process of questioning, preparation, and
procedure, pre and post-operation
evaluation to determine whether it is safe
medical appointments are available to
and suitable for them to commence with
both the donor and recipient to ensure
the surgery. Living-related patients are
that no preventable complications occur
preferred, however if the recipient has no
from the surgery.
living-related donor, they are referred to
Eleven
years
after
the
the Dialysis and Transplant Patients
implementation of this program, Iran
Association (DATPA) where they are
reported that their renal transplant
matched with a living unrelated donor
waitlist had diminished and that current
from a donor pool13 . In this state-run
demands were met through their
program, the donor is compensated with a
regulated system16. A key aspect of the
fixed price of USD $1200, which is
Iranian model is that it does not allow
processed via the government, leaving no
foreign nationals to take part in the
role for external brokers or agencies14.
exchange. The exploitation of kidney trade
Within this program, immunosuppressive
is intensified by two key parties: informal
12Ahad
J. Ghods and Shekoufeh Savaj, “Iranian Model of Paid and Regulated Living-Unrelated Kidney Donation,” Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology: CJASN 1, no. 6 (November 2006): 1136–45, https://doi.org/10.2215/ CJN.00700206. Bahar Bastani, “The Iranian Model as a Potential Solution for the Current Kidney Shortage Crisis,” International Brazilian Journal of Urology : Official Journal of the Brazilian Society of Urology 45, no. 1 (2019): 194–96, https:// doi.org/10.1590/S1677-5538.IBJU.2018.0441. 13
37
14
Ibid.
15
Martin & White, “Financial Incentives for Living Kidney Donors”, 2019.
16
Ghods & Savaj, “Iranian model of paid and regulated living-unrelated kidney donation.”
brokers or agencies and tourists, both of
but due to the already existing market for
whom are excluded from this system.
kidneys, actions must be taken to regulate
Despite the extensive ethical debates
this trade to ensure that abuse is avoided.
surrounding the commercial transaction
By outlawing the commercial trade of
of kidneys, this system has saved the lives
kidneys, world leaders are unintentionally
of many ESKF patients and ensures that
placing more importance and
the healthcare of donors and recipients is
responsibility into the hands of corrupt
not compromised during the process.
brokers and agencies which perpetuates the current exploitative cycle. In one study
Part Two
with transplant nephrologists and
The Inevitable Pressure of Market Forces
surgeons from Sydney, participants
and Contesting Double Standards
agreed that “everything in life is driven by
Like in all other industries, when
the market”, acknowledging that while the
demand exceeds supply, a market for
sanctity of the body must be respected, a
buying and selling is created. Within this
capitalist system still influences the health
context, when wealthy individuals are
sector17 . In order to counteract the black
aware that people in lower financial
markets, it is important that donors are
standings can provide for their needs, the
offered a financial incentive or at least
production of a market is inevitable. If this
some sort of reimbursement to ensure
market is not legally permitted, the
that they do not get lured in by tempting
uprising of a black market soon comes
financial offers.
into play as a way around the law. While
Another point to consider is that
the arguments against the financial
incentives for blood, sperm, and egg
transaction of body parts such as kidneys
donations are accepted because they are
may be justified, one must consider the
considered “renewable resources”. This
present situation and assess whether the
poses the question of whether kidneys
alternative (a black market for kidneys)
can also be considered renewable
puts society in a better or worse position.
resources. Some of the surgeons and
In an ideal world, all kidney donations
nephrologists in the Sydney study stated
would be altruistic and non-commercial,
that kidneys can be considered a
Allison Tong et al., “Perspectives of Transplant Physicians and Surgeons on Reimbursement, Compensation, and Incentives for Living Kidney Donors,” American Journal of Kidney Diseases 64, no. 4 (October 1, 2014): 622–32, https:// doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2014.02.019, 629. 17
38
renewable resource because they have a
high-risk occupations – despite the ethical
hyper-filtrating nephron which allows for
implications of surrogacy, mothers are
one kidney to make up for the loss of the
permitted to gain compensation for
other18. If kidneys were considered in this
becoming surrogates. “People do all sorts
manner, it would be morally inconsistent
of things with their time and their bodies
to prohibit the commercial donation of
for money,” claimed one surgeon19. This
kidneys yet accept the incentivization of
could include trial participation in
regenerative bodily material like eggs and
questionable studies, or in a non-literal
sperm. That is not to say that it is
sense, individuals selling their brains for
acceptable to sell any type of organ, but
money in the form of excessive, unhealthy
kidneys are unique in the sense that
work hours. Similarly, kidney donors can
humans can live without both kidneys –
be understood as providing something of
which is an important factor to consider
value to recipients and to society at large-
when an individual’s life can be saved by
thus, it is reasonable to provide them with
one kidney.
something in return. Compensating firefighters, policemen or surrogate
Justice and Donor Deservingness
39
mothers does not diminish the value of
The prohibition of commercial
their act nor does it imply that their
kidney trade also brings into question the
intentions are solely financial. Moreover,
legitimacy of compensated individuals
incentivization does not immediately result
who have high-risk occupations, such as
in exploitation; kidney compensation can
firefighters and soldiers. Jobs such as
only become an exploitative trade if it is
these place human lives in life-threatening
not regulated. Out of principle, kidney
situations, and at times require them to
donors should be compensated in some
sacrifice their lives. If it is considered a
manner, whether this be through cash or
selfless act to pay individuals in these
health benefits such as life insurance or
occupations, surely selfless acts like
tax credits. Their contribution to the
kidney donations should be reimbursed or
health system, hospitals, and health care
compensated in some sort of way. In
providers should be rewarded with some
principle, this argument is not limited to
sort of compensation just as other high-
18
Ibid., 625.
19
Tong et. al, “Perspectives of Transplant Physicians,”, 625.
risk occupations and healthcare
transactions (particularly the low-class
providers are.
donors and the critically ill recipients) and regulation would provide an efficient
Maximizing Utility and Extenuating Ethical
process to move money from one sector
Circumstances
of society to the other without any
With the growing critical demand
preventable health effects. Through
for kidneys, it is important to identify the
careful regulation and stringent donor
most effective way to increase rates of
assessment, donors and recipients could
transplantation. In a recent report from
be selected based on their immunity and
the US National Living Donor Assistance
previous health records.
Centre (NLDAC), donors who qualified for
Another instance to consider is that
support reported that their average travel
of extenuating ethical circumstances. It is
costs amounted to $2762 and the overall
easy to point out the unethical
process accounted for 39% of lost
implications of paid kidney donations
wages20. One study found that a majority
when viewing the subject from a
of people are “willing to donate a kidney to
eurocentric, Western perspective in which
a loved one” showcasing that motivation is
individuals have a much higher quality of
not the crucial barrier in the US21 .
life and a steady income. One male
However, research increasingly proves
nephrologist in Australia expressed, “Who
that financial barriers are the primary
are we to pontificate and say, no, you’re
preventatives that discourage potential
not allowed. Your son deserves to die
donor candidates from becoming “living
because we don’t want you to sell an
related donors”. Given the impact of
o r g a n . I s t h a t e t h i c a l ? ” 22 . T h i s
financial incentives on potential donor
nephrologist is illustrating that it is
candidates, permitting commercial
important to consider which side of the
transplants could immensely boost the
spectrum the ethical perspective is
current kidney supply and combat the
coming from. While it may be true that
premature loss of life of ESKF patients.
selling organs is unethical, in the case of
Commercial donations would allow for
life or death, which is the case for several
lives to be saved on both sides of the
donors from developing countries, it is
20 21 22
Martin & White, “Financial Incentives for Living Kidney Donors,” 392. Ibid., 392. Tong et. al, “Perspectives of Transplant Physicians,” 626.
40
also immoral to make such life-changing
term follow-up could be guaranteed.
decisions for them. Their individual
Within this system, the question arises as
autonomy should be respected by
to what price would be allocated to each
properly informing them of the risks of the
kidney. Kidneys are valued differently by
operation and what it may do to their
different people and as a result, it would
health.
They should have the choice to
be difficult to reach a consensus. Even if a
make an informed decision for
consensus was reached through
themselves.
deliberation from various different actors (nephrologists, transplant surgeons,
Practicality of Regulation and Complexity
government officials, social workers,
of Organ Valuation
members of the public and other experts),
In most of the literature
one common price in all countries could
surrounding the debate of a regulated
lead to inequitable valuation. Purchasing
kidney trade, there lies the question of the
Power Parity is the theory that goods in
practicality of such a system. The success
one country will not cost the same in
of the Iranian model is in part due to the
another country unless their exchange
fact that it is limited to Iranian nationals
rate is applied23. Assuming a
exclusively and does not allow for any
sold for USD $15,000 in India and the U.S,
transplant tourism. If this system were to
the price of USD $15,000 would be of
be expanded so as to include foreign
much higher value for the average Indian
individuals, there may be a discrepancy of
donor than it would be for the average
what “regulation” is interpreted as. With
U.S. donor. This could imply that the value
the diverse range of cultures in India
of an Indian kidney is higher than that of
itself, this term may also differ from
an American. Alternatively, suppose a
region to region. Further, the variation of
system did not revolve around “paid
wealth indexes among countries could
donation” and rather reimbursed donors
make it difficult to ensure ground rules
for their time off work. This would result
are respected and legal complexities are
in differing values for each kidney
conformed to. A regulated system would
depending on one’s job title, which implies
only be feasible in countries whereby
that a banker would be reimbursed much
long-term donor health care and long-
more money than a cleaner. This form of
Mary Hall, “What Is Purchasing Power Parity (PPP)?,” Investopedia, February 19, 2020, https:// www.investopedia.com/updates/purchasing-power-parity-ppp/. 23
41
kidney is
kidney donation (reimbursed donation)
Part Three
could foster prejudice, which highlights
Alternative Solutions
the fact that any donation besides non-
Many have suggested that efforts
commercial donation would require
and resources should be focused on
profound collective thought to ensure that
innovation to increase the donor pool,
kidneys are valued equally across the
such as investing in technologies to
world.
increase incompatible transplants. In the Contemporary scholarship theories
past, transplant surgeries could not be
suggest that removing disincentives to
completed between patients who had
donations is a more effective solution to
different blood groups unless one of the
this issue than simply adding incentives.
patients had blood type O (universal
This is believed to be much more ethical
donor). The first process, called
and is preferred by many nephrologists,
kidney exchange, is when a living kidney
surgeons and other medical
donor is incompatible with the recipient,
professionals. Their belief is that by
and so exchanges kidneys with another
expanding the reimbursement criteria to
donor/recipient pair (see diagram in
include tax breaks, discounted health
Appendix A and B). The second process,
insurance premiums, and other indirect
plasmapheresis, removes the plasma of
fi n a n c i a l i n c e n t i v e s , t h e i n t r i n s i c
the blood which contains the antibodies
volunteerism and altruism involved in the
that detect and destroy incompatible
act of donating will be safeguarded (Tong,
blood groups. Once the transplant has
2014)24. Whilst this suggests public and
taken place, the patient receives an
professional resistance to market
intravenous replacement of immune
influences in the arena of living donation,
globulin which replaces the antibodies to
it is important to acknowledge the
ensure proper functioning post-surgery.
opinions of the donors and recipients
This novel strategy has addressed the
themselves. To date, there is no solution
incompatibility issues faced by existing
that could show tremendous success in
donor candidates and helps others who
addressing the national shortage of
are considering making an altruistic
organs like the regulated paid organ
donation. However, this is not a sufficient
paired
donation model in Iran.
24
Tong et al., “Perspectives of Transplant Physicians�
42
solution to meet the current demand for
immediately putting a stop to the
kidney transplants.
exploitation and undignified clinic settings donors are prisoners to. The logistical
Intervention of a Regulated Compensated
aspects of this system would be far from
Kidney Trade Market in India
simple,
as they would require thorough
In India, the regulated compensated
consideration and collaboration from a
kidney trade system would be organized
multitude of perspectives. With a national
and run through a regional organ
kidney recipient waitlist of 200,000
procurement organization. This
recipients, any such intervention would
organization would have a pre-
require mass intervention from
established national criterion, reviewed by
policymakers, government officials and
a panel consisting of nephrologists,
medical professionals25 . Therefore, the
transplant surgeons, social workers and
Iranian model can serve as a basis for
OPO coordinators. To assure national
such a system that could be piloted in the
reporting and oversight, the organ
wealthier cities of India with reliable
procurement organization can coordinate
health systems and if it is successful, it
donor evaluation, allocation and follow-up,
could become a nationwide project.
and charge an acquisition fee to the recipient to ensure this process
is self-
sustained.
Conclusion Ultimately, it has become evident
There is no denying that the issue of
through this analysis that the benefits of
overburdening kidney demand is an
permitting financial compensation for
ethical dilemma and whilst there are valid
underprivileged kidney donor candidates
arguments against the payment towards
in India outweigh the harms. As
kidney donors, it appears to be the most
demonstrated through a comparison of
viable solution to tackle this problem.
the unregulated kidney trade in India with
Through the implementation of a
the regulated kidney trade model in Iran,
regulated and compensated kidney trade
paid kidney donation would prevent many
market in India, many of the corrupt
avoidable risks of the underground kidney
underground kidney donation agencies
economy. This point is validated through
will be found and forced to shut down –
an analysis of the existing inevitable
Sundeep Singh Sachdev, “The Current Scenario of Kidney Transplants in India,� Narayana Health Care (blog), April 15, 2019, https://www.narayanahealth.org/blog/kidney-transplants-in-india/. 25
43
p r e s s u r e of m a r ke t fo r c e s w h i c h
also
significantly decrease waitlist
perpetuate the exploitation and insolence
deaths, improve the overall survival rate
within the industry. There are several
of ESKF patients, and shut down the
reasons as to why a regulated,
corrupted, unregulated black markets
compensated market system should be
which fundamentally establish the
deemed acceptable as it contests double
negative consequences of this trade.
standards within the health industry, justice and donor deservingness, while m a x i m i z i n g ut i l i t y . T h e a r g u m e nt s outlining the limited operational feasibility of such a regulated system are explained to express the strenuous, yet possible, planning and execution of a compensated regulated system in India. The above points are not intending to invalidate all the arguments against commercial kidney donations, but they express the necessity of such a system and the reasons why autonomy should prevail in this matter. By prohibiting the poor from selling a kidney out of moral high ground, they are essentially shoved into accepting situations that place them in much worse conditions. This research paper has argued that donors should have the right to choose if they wish to sell their kidneys in order to improve their livelihoods – they should be well-informed of the risks involved in the procedure, but the ultimate decision should lie with them. Not only will this give potential donor candidates the opportunity to better their lives, but it will
44
Appendix Appendix A
(“Comprehensive Transplant Center,” n.d.)
45
Appendix B
(“Comprehensive Transplant Center,” n.d.)
46
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Image Credits WebMD, “What Happens in Surgery” https://www.webmd.com/healthy-aging/what-expect-surgery#1
48
49
Louis-thomas kelly Building Trust: Social Capital in Civil-Society Planned New Cities Abstract
which
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and
territorial
jurisdictions,
present
strategies
towards
global
top-down
projects
practice urban development. The the
developing
led,
as
attracting
are
for
geared
investment a means of
integration into lucrative global markets.
The
subsequent
cementing itself within the built
commodification of urban space
environment
to
creates an interference, thereby
Urbanisations
impeding the development of a
state.
from
state
transformative
capacities
are
articulated
by
the
infrastructures
tying
governed
to governing, and the means by
cohesive
sense
place.
contemporary
In
of
common new
cities, the urban experience is characterized
by
a
dissonance
50
between
person,
purpose,
and
Abstraite
place. This paper investigates a
La poursuite inlassable de
contrasting approach arising out
standards
of
une
civil
society
led
new
city
améliorés
pulsion
entraîne
directrice
pour
la
initiatives in Magarpatta, India
transformation spatiale, tout en
and in Touba, Senegal. Through
imposant des critères normatifs
a
à la pratique du développement
divergence
quo
of
new
from
the
city
status
planning
urbain.
L’étendue
practices, these urban settings
mondiaux
avoid the externalities of top-
et
down
infrastructure
qui
while
exhibiting
capital
within
projects
robust the
social
structures
governing people and place.
défie
frontières
les
s’inscrit
état.
marchés
juridictions
territoriales,
environnement à
des
dans
construit
Les
un
d’état
capacités
transformatives l’urbanisation
ce
sont
de articulées
par des infrastructures qui lient le dirigeant aux dirigés et les moyens initiatives
par
lesquelles
sont
conçues.
ces Dans
le contexte du développement, les projets de nouvelles villes
51
dirigées
par
l’état
pyramidale comme
sont
des
de
façon
nouvelles villes dirigées par la
présentées
société civile à Magarpatta en
stratégies
la
Inde, et Touba au Sénégal. A
croissance
socio-économique
travers la divergence du status
orientées
pour
quo des nouvelles pratiques de
opportunités comme dans
un les
attirer
les
d’investissement
moyen
d’intégration
marchés
lucratifs.
pour
La
globaux
subséquente
des
nouvelles
villes,
ces
milieux
évitent
les
externalités
projets
urbains des
d’infrastructure
commodification
de
urbain
interférence,
capital social robuste dans les
ainsi
le
structures
d’un
sens
crée
une
empêchant développement cohérent Dans
d’espace
les
l’espace
planification
qui
démontrent
gouvernant
un
les
individus et les endroits.
commun.
nouvelles
contemporaines,
pyramidaux
villes
l’expérience
urbaine est caractérisée par une dissonance entre individus, buts, et une
endroits.
Ce
approche
papier
étudie
contrastée
qui
émerge des initiatives pour les
52
Introduction
within the conception and proliferation of
We find ourselves as spectators to
these large-scale urban projects. Civilian
urban metamorphosis, wherein human
interest advocates, such as Bianca Wylie,
settlements are rapidly adapting to meet
highlight concerning features of the
the needs of growing populations. The
technocratic new city planning tradition,
pursuit of socio-economic growth and
“It’s about our neighborhoods, our cities,
improved living standards has shifted the
how we want them to work, what
norms of urban development. A trend
problems should be solved, and which
gaining prominence in the developing
options should be looked at”2 . The
world is the emergence of master-
commodification of urban space creates
planned new cities. An approach to urban
an interference, thereby impeding the
planning, curating landscapes to project
development of a sense of cohesive
state ideology has become a novel
common place. Thus, in most new cities,
approach to urban planning. Specifically,
the urban experience is characterized by
this strategy attempts to erect large-scale
a dissonance between person, purpose,
urban projects on space once declared a
and place.
blank slate.
This paper will examine an
As Shatkin points out, these
alternative approach to constructing
transformative state interventions
large-scale new city initiatives. Since the
reconfigure
the urban experience
state and private interests tend to follow
through the commodification of the the
economic incentives, as opposed to the
city’s resources, and subsequently
collective interest, social movements bear
integrating market functions to the urban
the responsibility to implement their own
form at the expense of social cohesion 1.
approaches to urban planning3 . Civil
In response, critical voices denounce the
society is defined as the autonomous
elitism and lack of civilian representation
space outside the organization of public
1Gavin
Shatkin, “Planning Privatopolis: Representation and Contestation in the Development of Urban Integrated MegaProjects”. In Worlding Cities: Asian experiments and the art of being global, ed. Ananya Roy & Aiwha Ong (Chichester, UK: Blackwell Publishing Limited, 2011): 77. Laura Bliss, “Meet the Jane Jacobs of the 21st Century”, Citylab. 28 December 2018, https://www.citylab.com/life/ 2018/12/bianca-wylie-interview-toronto-quayside-protest-criticism/574477/ 2
Mario Lopes Souza, “Social movements as critical urban planning agents”. City: analysis of urban trends, culture, theory, policy, action 10, no.3 (2006): 339. 3
53
and private sectors, an independent actor
diverse, public interests enhance these
advocating civilian interests4. Civil society
s t r u c t u r e s .T h e i n c l u s i v i t y o f t h e
actors have the capacity to conceive a
subsequently built environment actively
p l a c e fo r t h e p e r s o n , a r a d i c a l l y
engages citizen engagement within
alternative socio-spatial strategy5. This
municipal management, strengthening the
civil society-led approach is committed to
associative bonds tying people to place in
the development of robust social capital
M a g a r p a t t a a n d To u b a . T h e t w o
within new human settlements. According
grassroots-planned new cities under
to Fukuyama, social capital is defined as
investigation were not conceived for
the norms of community cooperation,
revenue-generating purposes, but rather
which upholds a radius of trust binding
were organized with community cohesion
individuals together
In other words,
in mind. Through a divergence from the
social capital is the quality of the
status quo of planning practices, new city
associative bonds between co-inhabitants
initiatives guided by civilian leadership
of a political community.
circumvent the externalities of market
6.
Through the analysis of the civil
commodification by promoting social
society planned new city projects in
capital enriched governance structures.
Magarpatta, India and Touba, Senegal,
This analysis will demonstrate the civil
this essay will argue civil society led new
sector’s effectiveness in the production of
city initiatives foster inclusive urban
people-oriented places.
communities, possessing associative bonds enriched by social capital, while
Magarpatta: Collective Governance and
avoiding the externalities arising out of
Social Capital
the commodification of the urban form.
Literature Review: Urbanisation and the
The argument will be supported by the
Commodification of Land in Developing
evidence of inclusive, civil society-oriented
Contexts
governance structures that are
Urbanisation has reconfigured
accountable to the common good.
landscapes - transfiguring the urban form
Evidence further shows that a pooling of
and altering the functional dimensions to
Tyler Dickovick and Jonathan Eastwood, Comparative Politics: Integrating theories, methods, and cases. (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2018): 52. 4
5
Souza, “Social movements as critical urban planning agents,”339.
6
Francis Fukuyama, “Social Capital, Civil Society and Development,” Third World Quarterly 22, no.1 (2001):7-8.
54
the built environment. Emerging out of
social space, and the potential threat of
developing contexts in Asia, a particular
local dispossession9 .
kind of urbanisation has curated the built form
Magarpatta, originally a small
urban integrated mega-projects
village in Pune District, is “a unique
(UIMs) are large-scale developments built
example of how farmers solidified
on a for-profit basis in that they
themselves an integral part of the
“represent a vision for the transformation
urbanisation process” 10 . In the 1990s, the
of the urban experience through the
resident Magar clan witnessed the
wholesale commodification of the urban
transformative effects of urbanisation on
fabric”8. The shift toward UIMs produces
the local landscape. In response, and with
a speculative marketplace, lured by global
little faith in public and private actors, the
market integration, and a state agenda
farmers formed a joint company with
geared toward entrepreneurial
rallying around Satish Magar’s civil
infrastructure. In practice, contemporary
leadership, to develop the land themselves
new city developments exhibit a retreating
11.
public sector, allowing for private actors
of land commodification and forced
to dictate the terms and conditions of
displacement, civil society intervention
urban life. Contrary to this urbanisation
enabled the persistence of existing land
strategy, Shukla and Laghate’s research
tenureship.
7
Research reveals that despite the fears
demonstrates that Magarpatta, India embodies an alternative approach to the
Incorporating Inclusion: The Magarpatta
proliferation of place. The built form and
Partnership Model & Collective
resident community arising out of
Responsibility
Magarpatta prove to be driven by an
In the case of Magarpatta, the point
elusive ideal of collective governance, in
of convergence amongst the farmers was
opposition to the commodification of
the common resistance to market externalities, and the legitimization of their
7
Shatkin, “Planning Privatopolis” 80.
8
Ibid.
S. Shukla and K. Laghate, “Rural innovation and entrepreneurship at Magarpatta City,” International Journal of Indian Culture and Business Management 6, no.1 (2013): 49. 9
10
Shukla and Laghate, “Rural innovation and entrepreneurship at Magarpatta City,” 50.
Keeton, R. (2011). “Magarpatta,” In Rising in the East: Contemporary New Towns in Asia, (Amsterdam, NL: International New Town Institute, 2011), 283. 11
55
entitlement to land holdings, seeking to
co-inhabitancy, mirrored by the
uphold traditional socio-spatial
settlements’ collective orientation around
relationships12. Through the formation of
a centralized, collectively curated green
a legitimate union, the farmers
space14 . The urban form materialized on
empowered their political voices, through
Magarpatta’s territory demonstrates the
collective organization autonomous from
centrality of reconciling the natural and
market and state. By pooling their land
social environments. Through a collective
and interests together, the farmers
ownership model that allowed for
mobilized under the Magarpatta Township
common access to land parcels, an
Development Construction Company
inclusive settlement rich in social capital
(MTDCC). They were successful in
fl o u r i s h e d w i t h i n M a g a r p a t t a ’ s
empowering the collective's successful
jurisdiction. This phenomenon contrasts
retention of land tenureship premised on
the generally profit-driven agendas of
the account of company share-holding13.
private and public sector UIMs. Thus,
The proportionate distribution of land
Magarpatta as a civil society-led project
parcels among MTDCC stakeholders
projects the potential for successful and
mirrors Magarpatta's spatial inclusivity.
sustainable people-oriented urban
Members of the community are bound
development.
together through their collective ownership of the land and the
Civilian Orientation: Highlighting
administrative body they collectively
Magarapatta’s Inclusive Governance
formed to govern it.
The formation of the MTDCC
The built environment emerging out
ensured the civilian interest was an
of the MTDCC master plan was principled
integral component to the UIM slated for
on equitable access to land, fostering
the area. In the case of Magarpatta. both
social cohesion over time, and through
private and government interests were
space. As noted by Keeton, Magarpatta’s
equally keen on exploring the land’s
spatial distribution elucidates the
potential profitability15 . However, by
settlement’s core values of solidarity and
forging a responsive civil society bond, the
12
Shukla and Laghate, “Rural innovation and entrepreneurship at Magarpatta City,” 51.
13
Ibid., 52.
14
Keeton, “Magarpatta,” 290.
15
Shukla and Laghate, “Rural innovation and entrepreneurship at Magarpatta City,” 51.
56
farmers avoided the commodification of
seeking to associate over the labour that
their land for market purposes. The
underpins urban life undertake both the
MTDCC emerged as the central actor
administrative and technical functions of
throughout the planning and proliferating
the urban environment. Active civic
of the project. Furthermore, as a means of
engagement within the administration of
e n s u r i n g c i v i c e n g a g e m e nt i n t h e
urban life upholds strong associative
management of their common space, the
bonds between inhabitants. Therefore, by
MTDCC passed measures ensuring civic
resisting the real estate market’s
engagement in the governance process.
lucrative lure, generally exhibited by
The political arena amplifies the civilian
UIMs, the MTDCC as a civil society
voice in the political arena through the
organization has been the principal actor
formation of an elected City Council;
in nourishing robust bonds of local trust,
functioning as principal mediator between
strengthening the power of social capital
citizens and the development company,
within Magarpatta’s boundaries.
safeguarding collective participation in local governance. With collective action embedded within the local sphere, citizens of
Touba: Reproducing Sacred Space Literature Review: State-Led PlaceBuilding Trends in the Islamic World
Magarapatta are within reach of the
The diffusion of the global market,
decision-making process, as the citizens'
in function with infrastructure
integral role in the allocation of public
interventions on the state’s agenda, the
works contracts articulates.
built form portrays the inclinations of
Shareholders are encouraged to bid and
political projects. In order to analyze the
compete to undertake the essential
construction of identity within the built
services crucial to daily public life, such
environment of new cities, it is essential to
as “supplying raw material for
follow Sarah Moser’s research, which
construction activity, labour contracts,
identifies “a primary objective in many
vending contracts, landscaping and
master-planned cities is to construct,
beautification contracts, security and
communicate, and normalize a particular
maintenance contracts”16. Thus, civilians
sense of identity to the citizenry”17. An
16
Ibid., 53.
Sarah Moser, “New cities in the Muslim world: The cultural politics of planning an Islamic city,” In Religion and Place: Landscape, Politics, and Piety, (Springer, 2013). 39. 17
57
emerging trend within new cities
both for nation-building purposes and to
scholarship furthers the argument that
further global market integration. Global
new cities are microcosms of national
competition has local manifestations, as a
political and economic contexts. In such
sacred standard for public architecture
cases, symbolic icons and images are
has transmitted across the states seeking
embedded within the public sphere,
to solidify their international standing.
“particularly in the context of new state-
Thus, nations competing in the pan-
funded cities, constituting a key scale at
Islamic marketplace mobilize the built
which pan-Islamic imaginings are made
form as a political instrument, deploying
material ''18. The urban form, decorated
I s l a m i c i d i o m s a s m e c h a n i s m s of
with markers of collective identity,
comparative economic advantage, and
cements political ideologies into the shape
consequently commodifying the urban
of the public realm. Symbolic
form.
representations of ideas and identities
However, contrasting urbanisation
prompting collective imagination, and for
strategies exist, such as the case of Touba
state’s competing for a place in the global
in rural Senegal. The holy city of Touba
market, large-scale infrastructure
was formed with sacred functions in mind,
projects showcase state ambitions.
as the municipality was planned and
New cities function as catalysts to
constructed in homage to the deceased
economic growth, but also ensure
sacred figure Bamba Mbacké
exposure to national ideological rhetoric,
political legacies persist in Touba, as the
through an intended experience of urban
Murid Order are a major institution in
life showcasing Islamic ideals. Cities
Senegalese civil society and wield
around the Muslim world are “competing
legitimate authority in Touba. Apart from
with one another for foreign direct
the city’s role as a spiritual hub, it is
investment, tourists, and international
equally a politicized space fostering
events”19 . The global diffusion of political
collective action. The city has a unique
and economic rationales idealizes,
political status; it is a municipal
conceives, and constructs Islamic spaces,
jurisdiction entirely run by a civil society
18
Moser, New cities in the Muslim world,” 40.
19
Ibid., 55.
20 .
Sacred
Eric Ross, “Touba: A Spiritual Metropolis in the Modern World,” Canadian Journal of African Studies 29, no.1 (1995): 222. 20
58
organization, acting in pursuit of the
physical
and
metaphysical
common good. Academic literature
configuration”22 . Spirituality manifests
detailing Touba’s urban growth states the
itself within the city’s socio-political
city avoided a commodification of urban
organization, but also in its spatial
space, resisting the temptation of
configuration. The Murid govern both
deploying iconographic representations of
people and place, as well as the common
pan-islamic ideals, thereby side-stepping
resources binding the two together. The
the lure of competing in the globalized
municipal management of Touba is
marketplace.
carried out to be fully autonomous of traditional state structure23 . As a result,
Creating Common Place: Urban form as a
the civil society organization operating the
Catalyst to Convergence
city follows an independent mandate - one
The site on which Touba is located is rooted in mystic tradition and
that seeks to materialize the metaphysical principles governing people and place.
religiosity. Sheikh Ahmadu Bamba,
The centrality of communal space is
follower of Bamba Mbacké, envisioned a
evident in Touba’s urban form: “One of the
sacred site on which he could build a city
distinctive features of Touba’s urban
and settle the sacred community disciples.
design is the deployment of public squares
Bamba named the place Touba, the site for
in the center of residential neighborhoods
a time with his family and closest
configured according to a grid plan […] It
disciples, continuing to isolate himself and
was an attribute of places of power that
his community, continuing to experience
were initially secular, then later religious.
mystic insights21 . From its inception,
This plan was conducive to developing a
Touba’s planning rationale was driven by
sense of community and to promoting
community, and the enshrinement of
conceptions of authority and identity
sacred space. The sacred structure to the
within it”24 . The civil society-planned and
city materializes within the social and built
managed city possesses both built form
environments, as “various layers of
and land use structured to promote
meaning are communicated by Touba’s
associative bonds between inhabitants.
Eric Ross “Touba: A new Sufi city emerges in West Africa,” In S. Moser, New Master-Planned Cities, Islam, and Identity ed. Sarah Moser (New York, NY: Routledge, 2019): 2. 21
59
22
Ross, “Touba: A Spiritual Metropolis in the Modern World,” 222.
23
Ibid., 222.
24
Ross, “Touba: A new Sufi city emerges in West Africa,” 9.
Touba’s urban morphology, orchestrated
This legislation holds more than
by mystic tradition, develops a space for
simply spiritual significance ― Bamba’s
cohesive community relations, fostering a
ode delineates the socio-political order
socio-spatial community with robust
within Touba’s sacred jurisdiction. The
social capital.
presence and influence of the public and private spheres are limited in Touba. With
Urban Management by Divine Order The boundaries of Touba outline a space of religious refuge in which a
neither public service, nor private agency, spiritual order upholds the terms and conditions of urban life.
common spiritual bond governs through
In Touba, a sacred civil sector
time and space. Around the turn of the
possesses a monolithic presence. “Touba
2 0 t h c e n t u r y, i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h
has been built entirely outside of the
traditional Senegalese land acquisition
structures of the modern territorial state.
customs, Bamba Mbacké’s followers
Nowadays, the state is the principal agent
cleared the land around Touba for
in the creation, design and production of
development. Ross’ inquiry into Touba
new cities”26 Subsequently, evidence
asserts the following:
suggests Touba’s planning process was
It was also during these early
alternative in theory, and in practice. In
years in Touba that Ahmadu Bamba
this case, an institution representing
composed an ode, which is
common interests was the principal
considered by Murids to be the
planner and architect, “the process in
founding charter of the sacred city.
Touba has been quite different. The
The ode contains references to the
principal agent in Touba has been an
sacred status of the place, the many
institution of civil society ”27 . With no
graces God has bestowed upon it,
legitimate government authority, citizens
and the privileges accorded to
are governed by religiously-rooted
those who will build it and reside in
associative bonds. Civil society unites,
it.25
houses and governs the Murid people. Therefore, Touba’s representation of sacred symbolism diverges from the
25
Ross, “Touba: A new Sufi city emerges in West Africa,” 3.
26
Ibid., 17.
27
Ibid., 18.
60
contemporary trend of Pan-Islamic
reshaping the urban experience. For the
competition. By avoiding the
purpose of better understanding the
commodification of religious space
phenomenon, it is critical for scholarship
propagated by global market integration,
to further investigate the socio-political
the alternatively planned sacred Islamic
processes that shape new cities in
city incubates robust social capital,
developing contexts. In the case of
present within the associative bonds tying
Magarpatta, it will be important to
residents together.
observe the impacts of rapid urbanisation in Pune District, and whether civil society
Conclusion Considering that socio-political
the lure of lucrative real estate
agendas present themselves as principal
commodification. In addition, as the global
architects of urban form and civic life, to
diffusion of Islamic city planning practices
uphold the common good, it is critical for
circulates, it is crucial to follow Touba’s
civil society groups to cement their place
response. Will the city’s urban
in the decision-making process. New cities
environment change under the pressures
led by civil society stimulate community
of globalization transformative powers
cohesion through active citizen
over the built form, or will it uphold
engagement in urban management, and a
traditionally community-orientation? It
citizen-oriented built form. In the cases of
remains to be seen.
Magarpatta and Touba, social capitalenriching political practices drove the development of cohesive community spaces. These two fundamentally grassroots community projects subvert the status quo of urban planning and produce cohesive new settlements. Considering the subject of masterplanned new cities is still relatively new, it presents numerous research opportunities. New cities are constantly
61
associations are strong enough to endure
Bibliography Laura, Bliss. “Meet the Jane Jacobs of the 21st Century.” Citylab. 28 December 2018. https://www.citylab.com/life/2018/12/bianca-wylie-interview-toronto-quaysideprotest-criticism/574477/ Dickovick, Tyler and Eastwood, Jonathan. Comparative Politics: Integrating theories, methods, and cases. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. 2018. Fukuyama, Francis. “Social Capital, Civil Society and Development”. Third World Quarterly 22, no.1 (2001): 7-20. Keeton, Rachel. “Magarpatta.” In Rising in the East: Contemporary New Towns in Asia, edited by Rachel Keeton, 283-305. Amsterdam, NL: International New Town Institute/ SUN. 2011. Moser, Sarah. “New cities in the Muslim world: The cultural politics of planning an Islamic city.” In Religion and Place: Landscape, Politics, and Piety, edited by Peter Hopkins, 39-55. Springer, 2013. Ross, Eric. “Touba: A Spiritual Metropolis in the Modern World.” Canadian Journal of African Studies 29, no.1 (1995): 222-259. Ross, Eric. “Touba: A new Sufi city emerges in West Africa.” In New Master-Planned Cities, Islam, and Identity, edited by Sarah Moser, New York, NY: Routledge. 2019. Shatkin, Gavin. “Planning Privatopolis: Representation and Contestation in the Development of Urban Integrated Mega-Projects.” In Worlding Cities: Asian experiments and the art of being global, edited by Ananya Roy and Aiwha Ong, 77-97. Chichester, UK: Blackwell Publishing Limited, 2011. Shukla, Smita. & Laghate, Kavita. “Rural innovation and entrepreneurship at Magarpatta City.” International Journal of Indian Culture and Business Management 6, no.1 (2013): 47-55. Souza, Marcelo Lopes.“Social movements as critical urban planning agents.” City: analysis of urban trends, culture, theory, policy, action 10, no.3 (2006): 327-342.
62
Image Credits Franco Visintainer, January 2013. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Touba.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported MarketsandMarkets Building in Magarpatta City, Pune, India. December 2017. https:// www.justdial.com/photos/empire-construction-hadapsar-pune-builders-1qrmjn3pc-42175340-sco-497zt3ff
63
64
65
ANNA LAZARIS The Price of Foreign Aid: A Story of Sexual Violence and Coercion Content Warning
General
of
the
Sexual and gender-based
during a press
release: “I am
violence.
afraid
clear
there
is
UN
declared
evidence
that acts of gross misconduct Abstract
have
In 1992 for the first time a report the
was
UN
written
peacekeepers
misconduct Peacekeepers
in are
sent
transition
process
state.
sexual
Somalia. the
personnel
stable
denouncing
to
military
help
the
towards
shameful
place.
thing
for
This the
is
a
United
Nations to have to say, and I am
absolutely
outraged
by
it.� (UN Press Release 2005). This paper focuses on the case of
sexual
misconduct
peacekeepers
in
Haiti
by
through
1992,
both the political and cultural
allegation of sexual abuse have
lens to understand what factors
littered
facilitate
reports
Since
a
taken
regarding
UN
peacekeeping missions. In 2005,
abuse
Kofi
missions.
Annan,
then
Secretary
or
during
explain
sexual
Peacekeeping
66
Avertissement de Contenu
évidentes
Violence sexuelle et genrée
faute
grave
C'est
une
Abstraite
Nations
En 1992, pour la première fois,
un
rapport
a
été
rédigé
ont
j'en
scandalisé
»
actes
été
honte
Unies
et
des
commis.
pour
d'avoir suis
de
à
les dire
absolument
(communiqué
de
pour dénoncer les abus sexuels
presse des Nations Unies 2005).
des soldats de la paix de l'ONU
Ce exposé se concentre sur le
en Somalie. Les soldats de la
cas de l'inconduite sexuelle des
paix sont le personnel militaire
soldats de la paix en Haïti à
envoyé pour aider le processus
travers
de
état
culturel pour comprendre quels
1992,
des
facteurs facilitent ou expliquent
sexuels
ont
transition
stable.
vers
Depuis
allégations
d'abus
un
les
le
abus
jonché des rapports concernant
missions
les missions de maintien de la
paix.
paix de l'ONU. En 2005, Kofi Annan, alors secrétaire général de l'ONU, a déclaré lors d'un communiqué de presse : « Je crains qu'il y ait des preuves
67
cela,
que
prisme
sexuels de
politique
pendant
maintien
de
et
les la
Introduction
Secretary-General of the UN, declared
The United Nations created
during a press release: “I am afraid there
Peacekeeping Operations (PKOs) as a form
is clear evidence that acts of gross
of support for regions in conflict. While
misconduct have taken place. This is a
their mandate varies depending on the
shameful thing for the United Nations to
context of deployment, PKOs are meant to
have to say, and I am absolutely outraged
provide stability by supporting legitimate
by it.”.3 The UN then introduced the Zero
political processes (such as elections), the
Tolerance policy, which was intended to
rule of law and protect civilians from
outlaw any sexual relation between
armed militias.
Peacekeepers are the
peacekeepers and local women. However,
military personnel sent to help the
reports from Burundi, Liberia and Haiti
transition process towards a stable state.
proved that the UN had failed to enforce
As the influence of the organisation grew,
the Zero Tolerance policy.4
so did the number of PKOs. The UN has
This paper explores the case of
completed 57 Peacekeeping Missions
sexually abusive peacekeepers in Haiti by
since the 1940s and has 13 ongoing
adopting a political lens and taking a
missions to date. In 1992, UN
cultural approach, in an attempt to
peacekeepers’ sexual misconduct in
understand why sexual exploitation
Somalia
was denounced in a report for
o c c u r s i n t h i s c o n t ex t . To b e t t e r
the first time.1 Since then, allegations of
understand the political context, the first
sexual abuse have littered reports
section of this paper will focus on the
regarding UN peacekeeping missions.
shortcomings of international and
Peacekeepers in Congo, Côte d’Ivoire,
domestic judicial institutions, as well as
Liberia, and Central African Republic all
uneven power relations and political
faced allegations of sexual misconduct
instability. This section will illustrate the
and were accused of “coercing young
consequences of political instability and
girls into sex” in exchange for food, shelter
weak institutions on the relationships
and money. 2 In 2005, Kofi Annan, then
between peacekeepers or humanitarian
Vanessa Kent, “Peacekeepers as Perpetrators of Abuse,” African Security Review 14, no. 2 (January 1, 2005): 85–92, https://doi.org/10.1080/10246029.2005.9627358, 85. 1
2
Kent, “Peacekeepers as Perpetrators of Abuse,” 85.
United Nations Office of the Secretary General , Sexual abuse in peacekeeping report 'hard and unvarnished look' at serious problem, reforms must be quickly implemented, says Secretary-General, acessed December 2018, https:// www.un.org/press/en/2005/sgsm9778.doc.htm 3
4
Kent, “Peacekeepers as Perpetrators of Abuse,” 87.
68
workers and local women. The second
peacekeepers in Haiti. The Washington
section will explore the issue through a
Post reported that the sexual abuse was
cultural lens, first by looking at gendered
“carried out by peacekeepers from
and structural violence. and then by
Bangladesh, Brazil, Jordan, Nigeria,
understanding their long-term social
Pakistan, Uruguay and Sri Lanka.”.6 The
repercussions, and finally by focusing on
UN’s investigation led to an internal report
sexual agency. This section is meant to
in 2017 that was later leaked to the media.
highlight why women are more at risk of
They discovered the details of the
sexual violence and what the long-term
investigation and followed up on hundreds
effects of sexual violence causes.
of allegations of sexual abuse on women and children. In an interview, a young girl
Minustah : United Nations Stabilisation
reported that “from ages 12 to 15, she had
Mission in Haiti
sex with nearly 50 peacekeepers,
In 2004, rebel forces in Haiti
including a “Commandant” who gave her
removed then-President Jean-Bertrand
75 cents”.7 In many cases, peacekeepers
Aristide from power This plunged the
promised food and supplies to coax young
country into political turmoil.5 The UN
girls to follow them back to their camps;
deployed peacekeepers to help maintain
afterwards “dozens of Haitian women say
stability and peace while also coordinating
they were raped”.8 Other forms of sexual
humanitarian efforts. The United Nations
exploitation were occurring in Haiti from
Stabilisation Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH)
2004 and 2007. For instance, survival sex,
was initiated in 2004 and lasted thirteen
which is a form of prostitution women are
years until the Security Council voted
forced into when they have no other way
unanimously to end the mission in 2017.
to escape their socio-economic
That same year, a scandal had erupted
circumstances; had become for many
and news outlets were reporting
women the only way to sustain themselves
allegations of sexual misconduct by
financially.9 Yet despite hundreds of
Paisley Dodd, “UN Peacekeepers in Haiti Ran Child Sex Rings, Raped Women,” Global News, April 14, 2017, https:// globalnews.ca/news/3380202/un-peacekeepers-child-sex-haiti/. 5
Somini Sengupta, “U.N. Votes Unanimously to End Peacekeeping Mission in Haiti,” The New York Times, April 13, 2017, sec. World, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/13/world/americas/un-peacekeeping-haiti-cholera.html. 6
7 8 9
69
Dodd, “UN Peacekeepers in Haiti Ran Child Sex Rings, Raped Women.” Dodd, “UN Peacekeepers in Haiti Ran Child Sex Rings, Raped Women.” Dodd, “UN Peacekeepers in Haiti Ran Child Sex Rings, Raped Women.”
reports of rapes and sexual abuse, none
to apply to sex trafficking or kidnapping.
of the peacekeepers stationed in Haiti
During the post-Second World War Tokyo
ever faced legal repercussions. This
War Crimes Trial, mass rape was added to
situation is not a unique incident, as
the charges and were prosecuted, but the
reports of sexual misconduct have
use of comfort women to replenish
surfaced from all of the UN’s
Japanese soldiers was not mentioned. Yet,
peacekeeping missions.10
as early as 1934, women were forced or coerced into providing sexual services for
The Political Lens
s o l d i e r s b y t h e s t at e u nt i l Ja p a n
The Inefficiency of International Law
s u r r e n d e r e d i n A u g u s t 1 9 4 5 . 12
Sexual crimes are a recent addition
Recruitment methods varied: women were
to international law, but there are still
either kidnapped, misled and then
taboos regarding the implementation of
transformed through force into comfort
these laws.
The Declaration on the
women, or had to “order local leaders to
Elimination of Discrimination against
provide comfort women”.13 A total of 400
Women, adopted in 1967, is the first
comfort facilities were established in
document that addresses women’s rights
China, which were estimated to house 150
directly. It was only in 1979 that a
women.14 In the case of Japanese comfort
convention “articulating the nature and
women, the subject became a taboo and
meaning of sex-based discrimination” was
revisionist politicians in Japan even
adopted. 11 Not all forms of sexual violence
denied involvement or responsibility until
are prosecuted or denounced. While
the late 1990s, when historians
international law is easy to apply to acts of
discovered official government documents
mass violence, like rape and sexual
“indicating [their] deep involvement”.15
assault, it has proven particularly difficult
Cassandra Mudgway, “Sexual Exploitation by UN Peacekeepers: The ‘Survival Sex’ Gap in International Human Rights Law,” The International Journal of Human Rights 21, no. 9 (November 22, 2017): 1453–76, https://doi.org/ 10.1080/13642987.2017.1348720, 1454. 10
Muna Ndulo, “The United Nations Responses to the Sexual Abuse and Exploitation of Women and Girls by Peacekeepers During Peacekeeping Missions,” Berkeley Journal of International Law 27, no. 1 (2009): 127–61, https:// doi.org/10.15779/Z38V94Q, 131. 11
Hayashi Hirofumi, “Japanese Comfort Women in Southeast Asia,” Japan Forum 10, no. 2 (January 1, 1998): 211–19, https://doi.org/10.1080/09555809808721614, 211. 12
13
Hirofumi, “Japanese Comfort Women in Southeast Asia,” 213.
14
Hirofumi, “Japanese Comfort Women in Southeast Asia,” 213.
15
Hirofumi, “Japanese Comfort Women in Southeast Asia,” 212
70
Furthermore, other sources of
Agreement (SOFA) to ensure their troops
international humanitarian law, such as
have absolute immunity when deployed.18
conventions or protocols regarding
The international power dynamics and
gender rights, have to be adopted and
political influence of some states,
then ratified by UN members to become
generally those providing aid, cannot be
active, meaning states with terrible
ignored. In this case, the perpetrators of
human rights record can refuse to sign
the abuse often come from developed
treaties to avoid prosecution. Since the UN
countries that dominate international
has no military or coercive power to push
politics. Indeed, countries that are
states to sign conventions, countries like
receivers of aid may face international
Saudi Arabia or Yemen who ranked
backlash if they denounce sexual abuse by
respectively 1st and 9th worst country for
peacekeepers from the Global North. For
women to live,16 can refuse to be
example, it would be difficult for Haiti to
prosecuted for their crimes against
denounce the sexual abuse of local
women. Additionally, International
women by American citizens when USAID
tribunals are difficult to convene and
alone has provided close to 2.3 billion
mainly prosecute large scale war crimes
dollars to Haiti’s development since June
(genocide, mass murder or rape) in post-
2012.19
conflict situations, limiting their use in addressing ongoing violence.17
Developed countries have an important influence over international
International law falls short of
institutions. For instance, the UN’s
expectations regarding their ability to
Security Council members, who control
mitigate violence against women for a
the UN’s ability to send Peacekeeping
number of reasons. These shortcomings
missions, are mainly from developed
are particularly flagrant when applied to
nations. This creates a bias that favours
military peacekeeping personnel, who are
the Global North. Additionally, although
exempt from international law. In fact,
countries adopt conventions on human
countries can negotiate a Status of Forces
rights as well as women’s rights and
Erica Sanchez and Leah Rodriguez, “Closing The Gender Gap: The 10 Best and Worst Countries For Women,” Global Citizen, December 18, 2018, https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/best-worst-countries-for-women-2018-listranking/. 16
Cenap Çakmak, A Brief History of International Criminal Law and International Criminal Court (New York: Palgrave Macmillan US, 2017), https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-56736-9, 207. 17
18Ndulo, 19
71
“The United Nations Responses to the Sexual Abuse and Exploitation,” 151
“FAQ on USAID Funding in Haiti,” USAID.com, September 27, 2012, https://www.usaid.gov/faq-usaid-funding-haiti.
freedoms, this does not obligate them to
a comparatively widespread basis in
create legislature domestically to protect
c o n fl i c t a r e a s i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e
women. This illustrates how international
peacekeepers committing these acts
law may fail to translate into domestic
either do not view the acts they engage in
reality. Therefore, international
as wrong or that they fear no serious
humanitarian law and by extension
negative repercussions for their
international institutions have very limited
actions.”21 This highlights that there may
power and mostly rely on the good-will of
be an understanding among
member states to function, making them
peacekeepers that they cannot be held
unreliable tools to redress sexual
accountable for their actions during PKOs.
misconduct by peacekeepers.
The power dynamics that characterize these missions are often
The Role of Power Relations in Political
inherently unequal/problematic.
Instability States
Relations between local populations and
The
relations
between
aid workers or peacekeepers are
peacekeepers and local populations,
regulated by the modern versus
specifically women, are heavily impacted
t r a d i t i o n a l b i n a r y . Vo l u n t e e r s o r
by the political instability of the country
humanitarian workers are often seen as
they are in. Peacekeepers become a
experts from the developed world
stabilizing tool in post-conflict areas,
bringing aid to developing states by local
which contributes to raising their social
beneficiaries. Developing countries are
status in the eyes of local populations. The
associated with traditional societies, while
inequalities at play between men and
workers from the West are associated
women are exacerbated in peacekeeping
with modernity and development, granting
regions, which contributes to an increase
them moral superiority. Furthermore, the
in gender-based violence in post-conflict
power dynamic between peacekeepers
regions where PKOs are deployed. 20 As
and local women are dominated by men
Ndulo reports : “The fact that sexual
and the misogyny embedded in military
violence, exploitation and abuse occur on
organisations.22
While men enter these
Mayra Buvinic et al., “Violent Conflict and Gender Inequality: An Overview” (The World Bank, February 1, 2013), http:// documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/270811468327340654/Violent-conflict-and-gender-inequality-an-overview, 120. 20
21 22
Ndulo, “The United Nations Responses to the Sexual Abuse and Exploitation,” 144. Ndulo, “The United Nations Responses to the Sexual Abuse and Exploitation,” 159.
72
relationships with a greater social status,
as well as political unrest. Faced with a
they also enjoy a temporary status as
weak government and violence,
military personnel who are on six-month
peacekeepers become a symbol of safety
rotations. This increases men’s belief that
and security. Their social status is further
they are safe from severe punishment and
exa c e r b at e d b y t h e i r i m m u n i t y t o
feeds the dominant “culture of impunity”23,
international law, making it highly unlikely
making it more likely for them to engage in
for them to face legal backlash. Under
abusive or coercive behaviour towards
international law, local government is the
local populations. This feeling of
only entity that can prosecute the
invincibility also exacerbates abuses of
peacekeepers. The procedure to do so is
power by the predominantly male
complex and costly, particularly if they
peacekeepers towards vulnerable women
lack a functioning state structure. The
who already have a low socio-economic
state capacity is already significantly
status within their community.24 In 2006,
decreased in times of crisis, which opens
357 cases of misconduct had been
the door to corruption that further hurts
r e p o r t e d t o t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s . 25
the legitimacy of the state. In the case of
Considering the difficulties related to
Haiti, the 2010 earthquake “delivered a
reporting, these statements likely
severe blow to [the] country's already
represent only a fraction of crimes.26 Aid
shaky economy and infrastructure”, the
workers use their image as providers and
government was in a state of constant
humanitarians to form relationships with
crisis management, having to fight a food
women in precarious situations and then
shortage while attempting to rebuild
demand payment in the form of sexual
infrastructure and the economy. In the
favours for providing food or money.27
midst of such issues, the state has little
Peacekeeping missions commonly
power over its population, let alone over
take place in countries faced with
peacekeepers who are there to support
economic and institutional weaknesses,
the state.
23 24
Ndulo, “The United Nations Responses to the Sexual Abuse and Exploitation,” 131. Ndulo, “The United Nations Responses to the Sexual Abuse and Exploitation,” 146.
25
Ndulo, “The United Nations Responses to the Sexual Abuse and Exploitation,” 142.
26
Ndulo, “The United Nations Responses to the Sexual Abuse and Exploitation,” 143.
27Sabine
Lee and Susan Bartels, “‘They Put a Few Coins in Your Hand to Drop a Baby in You’: A Study of PeacekeeperFathered Children in Haiti,” International Peacekeeping 27, no. 2 (December 2019): 177–209, https://doi.org/ 10.1080/13533312.2019.1698297, 5.
73
The Importance of being an Authoritative
repatriated to their home country.29
State
Ultimately, no peacekeeper active during In times of crisis, the host state
MINUSTAH ever faced legal prosecution.
does not have the monopoly of coercive
Furthermore, peacekeepers are typically
violence within its own borders, which
deployed on six-month rotations which
both explains the presence of
gives the host country very little time to
peacekeepers and increases their ability
prosecute the crime. Once those
to break the law. In cases where their
peacekeepers or humanitarian workers
home country’s laws differ from those in
are out of the country, extradition can be a
the host states, peacekeepers may be
very difficult process or even impossible.
enticed to commit abusive actions that
Some states simply do not have the
would be illegal back home. This is a moral
necessary treaties, such as extradition
hazard issue: peacekeepers are trusted
treaties, in place for such legal processes
as morally superior individuals, yet once
to be attempted.
they are no longer being monitored, their
Additionally, host countries, like
behaviour becomes more predatory and
Haiti, generally have little or no
abusive.28 While political instability soared
international influence to support them in
in from 2012 to 2017, Haiti saw its
case of backlash from countries sending
population, particularly women being
peacekeepers or from the UN. In the case
s ex u a l l y a b u s e d a n d ex p l o i t e d b y
of Haiti, international aid had and still
peacekeepers. AS previously mentioned,
continues to have an important impact on
the host state is the only entity that can
local populations, as they supply much-
prosecute the peacekeepers, however, a
needed food and basic supplies. Since
difficult and lengthy legislative process
2010, multilateral organisations (-ie
may be out of the reach of the host states
USAID, Red cross, ect) and the UN have
because of its financial cost. In the case of
disbursed 9.49 billion dollar
Haiti, local police were able to imprison a
which is close to “three times the revenue
few of the peacekeepers guilty of abuse,
of the Government of Haiti ($3.17
but it was only short-term until they were
billion)” .30 If the state needs foreign aid, it
28 29
to Haiti,
Ndulo, “The United Nations Responses to the Sexual Abuse and Exploitation,” 144. Lee and Bartels, “A Study of Peacekeeper-Fathered Children in Haiti,” 20.
30Office
of the Secretary-General’s Special Adviser on Community-Based Medicine and Lessons from Haiti, “Key Statistics: Haiti Relief,” LessonsFromHaiti.com, 2020, https://www.lessonsfromhaiti.org/lessons-from-haiti/keystatistics/.
74
may not be willing to publicly condemn the
affected by unemployment and low
actions of aid workers for fear of
literacy rates. Employment rates for
repercussions. Major aid providers like
15-49 year olds are 44% and 26% for
the United States and the IMF have many
women and men respectively, highlighting
conditions tied to the foreign aid they
the vulnerability of women.
provide, which they can use to justify
context, women have little to no control
stopping the supply of aid.31 It is possible
over their own sexuality or livelihood.34
for states to deny aid to countries that
C o n fi n e d t o a s t r u c t u r e w h e r e
denounce human rights violations by
employment is scarce, some women who
employees of the organisation meant to
are unmarried or widowed are forced to
monitor human rights.
resort to survival sex, which involves
33 In
this
engaging in sexual acts to ensure their The Cultural Lens Gendered and Structural Violence
survival.35 Second, laws regarding women’s
In the case of Haiti, women in
rights and freedoms are difficult to
conflict zones are predominantly at risk of
implement, and it takes years to introduce
sexual abuse and gender-related
legislation in countries faced with political
violence.32 Women’s traditional gender
or economic instability. By contrast,
role tends to leave them more at risk of
Canada, a stable high-income country,
sexual abuse. First, women in politically
only started regulating and criminalizing
unstable regions tend to hold a lower
domestic abuse in the 1960-70s. Many
social status, and, often facing greater
developing countries are still in the
barriers to employment than their male
process of creating legislation to protect
counterparts, they depend on male family
women or are still struggling to apply
members for their survival. In the case of
such legislation, making it very difficult for
Haiti, women are disproportionately
Rodney Ramcharan, “How Does Conditional Aid (Not) Work?,” SSRN Scholarly Paper (Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network, November 1, 2002), https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=880266, 4. 31
Charlotte Bunch, “Women’s Rights as Human Rights: Toward a Re-Vision of Human Rights,” Human Rights Quarterly 12, no. 4 (1990): 486–98, https://doi.org/10.2307/762496, 486. 32
Luissa Vahedi, Susan A. Bartels, and Sabine Lee, “‘Even Peacekeepers Expect Something in Return’: A Qualitative Analysis of Sexual Interactions between UN Peacekeepers and Female Haitians,” Global Public Health, December 30, 2019, 1–14, https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2019.1706758, 2-4. 33
75
34
Bunch, “Women’s Rights as Human Rights,” 486-87.
35
Mudgway, “Sexual Exploitation by UN Peacekeepers”, 1455.
women to turn to the state for help if
were generally of mixed ethnicity, meaning
needed.
these children are physically different, which
contributes
to
their
“Peacekeeping Babies” and Social
marginalisation. Mothers are not the only
Repercussions
ones that suffer the consequence of
W h i l e p e a c e ke e p e r s ’ a b u s i v e
peacekeepers’ misconduct as the child left
actions generally occur over a short-term
behind may suffer long-term abuse by the
period, women live with the social
community.38
consequences much longer. The sexual
Another issue is women’s
misconduct of peacekeepers sometimes
precarious financial situation. In Haiti, the
results in pregnancy, leaving hundreds of
average person lives on US$2.50 a day,39
babies in single-parent households in low-
but women’s status makes it unlikely for
income countries. Many of the Haitian
them to reach such a revenue. Women are
women who denounced peacekeepers
limited in their ability to find work,
reported being pregnant and left behind
generally dependent on their family or
by the fathers.36 The UN’s report does not
husbands. women who engaged in
address this issue and so it is difficult to
survival sex with peacekeepers did so by
know the extent of the situation in Haiti,
necessity, as they were unable to find
although close to 24 500 “peacekeeping
other adequate forms of employment.40
babies” were found in Cambodia.37 These
Those who then became mothers were
babies can contribute to women’s long-
unable to get child support from the
term persecution by their community.
fathers because of “their inability to reach
Haiti is still highly controlling of women’s
the men in their domestic countries”.41 Not
sexuality, which leads to the existence of
only did the peacekeepers act coercively
taboos related to sexual relations out of
to obtain sexual favours, they also avoid
wedlock and the marginalisation of
any long-term repercussions by
unmarried mothers. In Haiti, peace babies
circumventing prosecution, childcare or
36
Vahedi, Bartels, and Lee, “‘Even Peacekeepers Expect Something in Return,’” 9.
37
Ndulo, “The United Nations Responses to the Sexual Abuse and Exploitation,”. 157
38
Ndulo, “The United Nations Responses to the Sexual Abuse and Exploitation,” 157.
39Dodd,
“UN Peacekeepers in Haiti Ran Child Sex Rings, Raped Women.”
40
Vahedi, Bartels, and Lee, “‘Even Peacekeepers Expect Something in Return,’” 11.
41
Ndulo, “The United Nations Responses to the Sexual Abuse and Exploitation,” 158.
76
child support.42 Women are left with heavy
consent. Their actions are automatically
financial responsibilities, no support from
portrayed as survival sex or rape, which
the fathers or from their community
strips women from their complexity and
which contributes to creating long-term
makes them unidimensional actors. This
consequences to peacekeepers’ abuse.
approach infantilizes women by denying them the ability to give consent. The West,
Sexual Agency and Cultural Clash
through the UN and research, contributes
Throughout this essay, women have
to painting women in precarious
been addressed through the lens of
situations as victims. This representation
victimhood, their circumstances
of women contributes to controlling
described as the outcome of male
women’s sexual behaviour and
m i s o g y n y o r s e x u a l a b u s e . 43 To
reinforcing the traditional idea that
understand why the UN’s Zero Tolerance
women cannot and do not want to be
policy was not successful, it is important
sexually active outside of wedlock. Despite
to remember that even in times of war
their position as aid providers, the UN
women still have agency, or in this case,
with, the support of developed countries,
sexual agency. Not all sexual relations
unintentionally contributes to reinforcing
between peacekeepers and women were
the idea that in this context women have
defined as rape or coercion, some women
no agency and no power.
consented to sexual relations with
The image of women projected on
peacekeepers for reasons other than
the international scene creates a cultural
survival sex.44 Testimony from research
clash between women in host countries
conducted in Bosnia after the PKOs in the
and peacekeepers. While women are
regions revealed that some women had
looking for “help” or more generally
relations out of
love or simply because
financial support, peacekeepers are
they wanted to. 45 Though the Zero
hoping to extract sexual favors. This
Tolerance policy is meant to stop sexual
facilitates the exploitation of vulnerable
abuse of women, it also erases women's
women by exchanging promises to provide
ability to express sexual agency and give
food or pay for schooling for sexual
42
Ndulo, “The United Nations Responses to the Sexual Abuse and Exploitation,” 158.
Olivera. Simic, Regulation of Sexual Conduct in UN Peacekeeping Operations (Berlin: Springer, 2012), https://doi.org/ 10.1007/978-3-642-28484-7, 13. 43
77
44
Simic, Regulation of Sexual Conduct in UN Peacekeeping Operations, 9.
45
Simic, Regulation of Sexual Conduct in UN Peacekeeping Operations, 9.
relationships.46 Constantly describing
lens of victimhood, which contributed to
women through the lens of victimhood
silencing their voices and controlling their
contributes to silencing their voices and
sexual behaviours. Moving forward, it is
controlling their sexual behaviours, but it
important to explore more varied lenses in
also convinces men that they are
order to understand the complex issue of
powerless, which prompts them to act
sexual relations between women and
abusively knowing women have little
peacekeepers.
ability to fight back. Conclusion In sum, the relations between women and peacekeepers are quite complex. The power dynamics at play and the political instability in place facilitate the sexual abuse of local women by peacekeepers and humanitarian workers. Their immunity to international law combined with the inability of host states to prosecute them gives peacekeepers the freedom to act with impunity. Approaching this topic through a cultural lens clarifies how women’s traditional representation as vulnerable and submissive individuals makes them vulnerable to sexual violence. The sexual abuse scandal surrounding many of the UN’s Peacekeeping Missions spread the word about the effects of male misogyny, but also contributed to reducing women to victims. The media and then scholarly work started discussing women in regions with PKOs through the
46
Vahedi 2019, 9
78
Bibliography Bunch, Charlotte. “Women’s Rights as Human Rights: Toward a Re-Vision of Human Rights.” Human Rights Quarterly 12, no. 4 (1990): 486–98. https://doi.org/ 10.2307/762496. Buvinic, Mayra, Monica Das Gupta, Ursula Casabonne, and Philip Verwimp. “Violent Conflict and Gender Inequality : An Overview.” The World Bank, February 1, 2013. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/270811468327340654/Violentconflict-and-gender-inequality-an-overview. “Çakmak - 2017 - A Brief History of International Criminal Law and .Pdf.” Accessed April 10, 2020. https://link-springer-com.proxy3.library.mcgill.ca/content/pdf/ 10.1057%2F978-1-137-56736-9.pdf. Çakmak, Cenap. A Brief History of International Criminal Law and International Criminal Court. New York: Palgrave Macmillan US, 2017. https://doi.org/ 10.1057/978-1-137-56736-9. Dodd, Paisley. “UN Peacekeepers in Haiti Ran Child Sex Rings, Raped Women.” Global News, April 14, 2017. https://globalnews.ca/news/3380202/un-peacekeeperschild-sex-haiti/. USAID.com. “FAQ on USAID Funding in Haiti,” September 27, 2012. https:// www.usaid.gov/faq-usaid-funding-haiti. Hirofumi, Hayashi. “Japanese Comfort Women in Southeast Asia.” Japan Forum 10, no. 2 (January 1, 1998): 211–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/09555809808721614. Kent, Vanessa. “Peacekeepers as Perpetrators of Abuse.” African Security Review 14, no. 2 (January 1, 2005): 85–92. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/10246029.2005.9627358. Lee, Sabine, and Susan Bartels. “‘They Put a Few Coins in Your Hand to Drop a Baby in You’: A Study of Peacekeeper-Fathered Children in Haiti.” International Peacekeeping 27, no. 2 (December 2019): 177–209. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/13533312.2019.1698297.
79
“Levine and Bowden - Protection from Sexual Exploitation and Abuse in h.Pdf.” Accessed April 10, 2020. https://www.fmreview.org/sites/fmr/files/ FMRdownloads/en/displaced-children-and-adolescents/levine-bowden.pdf. Levine, Iain, and Mark Bowden. “Protection from Sexual Exploitation and Abuse in Humanitarian Crises:” Forced Migration Review 15 (October 2002). https:// www.fmreview.org/displaced-children-and-adolescents/levine-bowden. Mudgway, Cassandra. “Sexual Exploitation by UN Peacekeepers: The ‘Survival Sex’ Gap in International Human Rights Law.” The International Journal of Human Rights 21, no. 9 (November 22, 2017): 1453–76. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/13642987.2017.1348720. “Ndulo - The United Nations Responses to the Sexual Abuse a.Pdf.” Accessed April 10, 2020. https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi? article=1058&context=facpub. Ndulo, Muna. “The United Nations Responses to the Sexual Abuse and Exploitation of Women and Girls by Peacekeepers During Peacekeeping Missions.” Berkeley Journal of International Law 27, no. 1 (2009): 127–61. https://doi.org/10.15779/ Z38V94Q. Office of the Secretary-General’s Special Adviser on Community-Based Medicine and Lessons from Haiti. “Key Statistics: Haiti Relief.” LessonsFromHaiti.com, 2020. https://www.lessonsfromhaiti.org/lessons-from-haiti/key-statistics/. Ramcharan, Rodney. “How Does Conditional Aid (Not) Work?” SSRN Scholarly Paper. Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network, November 1, 2002. https:// papers.ssrn.com/abstract=880266. Sanchez, Erica, and Leah Rodriguez. “Closing The Gender Gap: The 10 Best and Worst Countries For Women.” Global Citizen, December 18, 2018. https:// www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/best-worst-countries-for-women-2018-listranking/.
80
Sengupta, Somini. “U.N. Votes Unanimously to End Peacekeeping Mission in Haiti.” The New York Times, April 13, 2017, sec. World. https://www.nytimes.com/ 2017/04/13/world/americas/un-peacekeeping-haiti-cholera.html. Simic, Olivera. Regulation of Sexual Conduct in UN Peacekeeping Operations. Berlin: Springer, 2012. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-28484-7. United Nations Office of the Secretary General, Sexual abuse in peacekeeping report 'hard and unvarnished look' at serious problem, reforms must be quickly implemented, says Secretary-General. Accessed December 2018. https:// www.un.org/press/en/2005/sgsm9778.doc.htm Vahedi, Luissa, Susan A. Bartels, and Sabine Lee. “‘Even Peacekeepers Expect Something in Return’: A Qualitative Analysis of Sexual Interactions between UN Peacekeepers and Female Haitians.” Global Public Health, December 30, 2019, 1– 14. https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2019.1706758.
Image Credits UN Photo/Isaac Billy. February 2014. https://www.unmultimedia.org/s/photo/detail/ 579/0579020.html
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82
83
ASPEN MURRAY Food as Cultural Identity: How Colonialism Stole Indigenous Food Practices, and Using Food Sovereignty as Decolonization Content Warning
identity.
Colonialism, colonial violence.
have
However,
presented
solution: Abstract Canada
is
a
nation
the
movement,
which
mobilizes
oppressed
communities
colonialism
significant
One
of
to
food.
culturally This
on
currents forms is the theft of
history
and
traditional
food
traditional food in what is now
practices, which is exceptionally
known as Western Canada and
damaging because food holds a
how
tremendous amount of cultural
has and can continue to be a
significance, such meaning that
grassroots
losing
also
Indigenous communities. It will
cultural
present the case study of the
Indigenous
food
practices
loss
of
food
settler
essay
focuses
a
most
access
to
prevalent
entails
its
legacies.
potential sovereignty
reclaim
its
a
food
currently grappling with settler and
activists
its
colonial
impact
sovereignty
on
already
solution
for
84
1976 Manitoba Hydro Churchill
Avertissement sur le Contenu
River Diversion, its impact upon
Colonialisme, violence coloniale
O-Pipon-Na-Piwin Cree Nation (OPCN),
and
the
response
through
nation’s a
project
Abstrait Le Canada est une nation qui
called IMP, or ‘Food from the
lutte
Land’.
It
will
argue
colonialisme
because
of
both
their
current
successes
that
evident
and
their
potential
for
expansion,
Indigenous
food
sovereignty
projects and
represent
integral
step
decolonization.
a in
tangible Canada’s
présentement and
contre
son
le
héritage.
Une de ses formes prévalentes actuelle
est
pratiques
le
vol
des
alimentaires
traditionnelles
des
autochtones,
ce
peuples qui
est
exceptionnellement nocif car la nourriture
occupe
une
signification culturelle capitale, ce qui signifie qu’une perte des pratiques aussi
une
alimentaires porte
culturelle.
85
de
implique l’identité
Cependant,
activistes
ont
présenté
solution
potentielle:
des une le
mouvement
de
alimentaire,
la
souveraineté
qui
communautés
mobilize
oppressées
les pour
un projet intitulé IMP, ou ‘Food from
the
Land’.
évidents
culturellement
d’expansion,
Cet
soutiendra
que, de par leurs succès actuels
récupérer l’accès à la nourriture importante.
Il
et
un les
potentiel projets
de
essai se concentre sur l’histoire
souveraineté
du colonialism and son impact
autochtones
sur la nourriture traditionnelle
étape tangible et intégrale dans
dans
aujourd’hui
le processus de décolonisation
Canada
de
du Canada.
comment
la
connu
ce
qui
comme
l’Ouest
le
et
souveraineté peut
est
alimentaire
continuer
solution
à
populaire
communautés
a,
être,
alimentaire
représentent
une
et une
pour
les
autochtones.
Il
présentera une étude de cas de la
Manitoba
River
Hydro
Diversion
de
Churchill 1976,
son
impact sur la Nation O-PiponNa-Piwin
Cree
(OPCN),
et
la
réponse de la nation à travers
86
Introduction
expansion, Indigenous food sovereignty
It is a common misconception that
projects represent a tangible and integral
injustices toward Indigenous peoples
step in Canada’s decolonization. I will
occurred only during colonization;
examine the detrimental impacts of
however, they very much continue into
colonialism and settler colonialism in what
today. Decades of abusive, genocidal, and
is now known as Western Canada, with a
otherwise colonially-rooted practices
specific focus on settler theft of traditional
have defined settler colonialism through
food practices. Then, I will elaborate upon
disease, starvation, residential schools,
how significant food is to cultures and
and upheld colonial policies. Presently, the
identities, and how detrimental its theft
theft of traditional food practices from
can be. Finally, I will argue in favour of
Indigenous communities is one of the
food sovereignty as a potential solution by
most prevalent forms of settler
analyzing the case study of the 1976
colonialism. The erasure of Indigenous
Manitoba Hydro Churchill River Diversion,
food practices is exceptionally damaging
its impact upon O-Pipon-Na-Piwin Cree
because food holds a tremendous amount
Nation (OPCN), and the nation’s response
of cultural significance, such that losing
through a project called IMP, or ‘Food
food practices also entails a loss of
from the Land’.
cultural identity. However, the food sovereignty movement provides a
Canada’s Colonization: A Brief History
potential remedy to this issue. 1 This
Before providing a history into
movement, which works to provide the
Canada’s colonization and its settler
right to culturally relevant food options,
legacies, I will explain the distinction
has assisted Indigenous peoples recently
between colonialism and settler
in reclaiming their traditional food
colonialism. The main differences between
practices as a method of decolonization. 2
the two, according to Tate A. LeFevre, lie
In this essay, I will argue that
w i t h i n b ot h t h e i r g o a l s a n d t h e i r
because of both their evident current
timelines. 3 Throughout colonialism,
successes and their potential for
colonizers’ goals are to extract resources
Matties, Zoe. "Unsettling Settler Food Movements: Food Sovereignty and Decolonization in Canada". Cuizine 7, no. 2 (2016). https://doi.org/10.7202/1038478ar, 3. 1
Coté, Charlotte. “‘Indigenizing’ Food Sovereignty. Revitalizing Indigenous Food Practices and Ecological Knowledges in Canada and the United States.” Humanities 5, no. 3 (2016): 57. https://doi.org/10.3390/h5030057, 1. 2
3
87
LeFevre, Tate A. “Settler Colonialism.” In Oxford Bibliographies, 2015.
and amass wealth, and then to eventually
grown internationally were cultivated in
return to their home country. However,
the Americas before the arrival of
the goal of settler colonialism is to
Europeans.7 Moreover, in Grand Rapids
assimilate and eliminate the Indigenous
and Misipawistik Cree Nations, community
population in order to occupy the land
members have historically hunted,
permanently.4 In other words, as Elkins
gathered, and trapped, with a focus on
and Pederson define it, settler colonialism
sturgeon and whitefish.8 Kamal et al.
is “not the past...but rather the
argue that Indigenous food systems
foundational governing ethic of this ‘new
thrived upon cultivating seasonal
world’ state.”.5 Settler colonialism has
medicines and foods. However, these
been, and continues to be, extremely
practices suffered once — as Elder
prevalent in what is now called Canada.
Thomas Spence stated — “colonization
As such, this essay’s scope will include
intervened in the form of trade and
past and enduring settler colonialism in
treaties.”9
Western Canada.
Each individual Indigenous
Canada’s colonization officially
community among what is colonially
began following the Royal Proclamation of
known as Western Canada had, and still
1763, which King George III issued to set
do have, varying experiences with
out European occupation and settlement
colonialism — all of which merit
of what is now known as North America.6
discussion, but cannot be explored with
Prior to contact, Indigenous communities
the thoroughness they deserve in the
had an extensive history of practicing
confines of this paper. Therefore, this
agriculture; 52% of the crops currently
section seeks to highlight only a few. In
4
Ibid.
Elkins, Caroline, and Susan Pedersen. Settler Colonialism in the Twentieth Century: Projects, Practices, Legacies. New York: Routledge, 2005, 3. 5
Hanson, Erin. “The Indian Act.” Indigenous Foundations. University of British Columbia. https:// indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca/the_indian_act/#amendments. 6
Rudolph, Karlah Rae, and Stephane M. Mclachlan. “Seeking Indigenous Food Sovereignty: Origins of and Responses to the Food Crisis in Northern Manitoba, Canada.” Local Environment 18, no. 9 (April 2013). https://doi.org/ 10.1080/13549839, 1082. 7
8
Ibid, 1083.
Kamal, Asfia Gulrukh, Rene Linklater, Shirley Thompson, Joseph Dipple, and Ithinto Mechisowin Committee. “A Recipe for Change: Reclamation of Indigenous Food Sovereignty In O-Pipon-Na-Piwin Cree Nation for Decolonization, Resource Sharing, and Cultural Restoration.” Globalizations 12, no. 4 (June 12, 2015). https://doi.org/ 10.1080/14747731.2015.1039761, 560. 9
88
1869, the Dominion of Canada officially
reducing their agency. Measles broke out
acquired Western Canada, which forever
dramatically among Saulteaux people in
altered its land as well as the livelihoods
1875.14 Tuberculosis — which was only
of its Indigenous peoples.10 Over a decade
known as an American disease before the
of starvation, disease, and blatant
1880s — debilitated many Indigenous
eradication perpetrated by the colonial
communities after they experienced
Canadian government ensued. 11 As
settler contact.15 Moreover, medical
settlers and traders moved to the plains,
research identified this particular strain
they commodified and rapidly eliminated
of tuberculosis as caused by malnutrition
its buffalo and bison populations,
and lack of protein, a significant detail
removing a crucial, culturally important
given the suppression of Indigenous food
food source for Indigenous peoples who
sources at the time.16 Starvation was so
resided there. In turn, this theft greatly
widespread that trader Charles Napier
reduced Indigenous food sovereignty and
Bell wrote to interior Liberal minister
broader cultural independence. 12
David Laird that “many Indians had eaten
The arrival of settlers also caused
their horses, dogs, buffalo skins and in
smallpox outbreaks, killing at least 2,500
some cases their snowshoe laces &
among the Niitsitapi people alone.13 The
moccasins and then died.”17
federal government responded to these
In spite of letters like these, which
outbreaks by dispatching only regional
sought to detail the rampant diseases and
priests, bishops, and a small number of
famines which Indigenous populations
local physicians. This lack of medical
were suffering, the government combated
assistance only exacerbated issues of
them only with “half-hearted relief
poor health and nutrition among
measures...which kept plains people in a
Indigenous communities, thus also
c o n s t a n t s t a t e o f h u n g e r.”18 T h e
Daschuk, James W. Clearing the Plains: Disease, Politics of Starvation, and the Loss of Aboriginal Life. Regina, Saskatchewan: University of Regina Press, 2019, 72. 10
89
11
Ibid, 72.
12
Daschuk, 100.
13
Ibid., 73.
14
Ibid, 87.
15
Ibid., 95.
16
Ibid. , 102.
17
Ibid. , 96.
18
Ibid. , 102.
government acknowledged how abnormal
peoples’ loss of agency over their
it was that bison and buffalo populations
livelihoods.22
were decreasing so rapidly.19 However,
The Indian Act also played a
their response was to transition
detrimental role in eradicating traditional
Indigenous peoples to colonial farming
Indigenous food practices through the
practices — thus entirely depriving them
Residential School system.23 This form of
of access to these animals, which were
cultural genocide forcibly took young
culturally traditional food sources.20 The
children away from their homes and
federal government further propagated
placed them in institutions designed for
the transition to colonial agriculture by
a s s i m i l a t i o n .24 C u l t u r a l g e n o c i d e ,
implementing the reservation system. Part
according to Reyhner and Singh, occurs
of the Indian Act of 1876, this system
when change is forced, particularly in
allocated designated portions of land to
schools where students have no other
Indigenous communities and allowed
way to receive educations.25 Residential
Canada to legally own the remainder.
schools provided an insufficient amount of
Reserves physically removed Indigenous
food, and what was available included
access to an abundance of traditional
processed and artificially sweetened
food resources and practices.21 Such
items that Indigenous children were
suppression was, as Kepkiewics and Dale
unfamiliar with. One survivor reported
argue, “a key method of dispossession and
that although their school had a vegetable
assimilation” and furthered Indigenous
garden, the children were not permitted to eat them, as the food was for teachers
19
Ibid.
20
Daschuk, 103.
Hanson, Erin. “The Indian Act.” Indigenous Foundations. University of British Columbia. https:// indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca/the_indian_act/#amendments. 21
Kepkiewicz, Lauren, and Bryan Dale. “Keeping ‘Our’ Land: Property, Agriculture and Tensions between Indigenous and Settler Visions of Food Sovereignty in Canada.” The Journal of Peasant Studies 46, no. 5 (March 21, 2018): 983–1002. https://doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2018.1439929, 7. 22
23
Hanson, Erin.
Coté, Charlotte. “‘Indigenizing’ Food Sovereignty. Revitalizing Indigenous Food Practices and Ecological Knowledges in Canada and the United States.” Humanities 5, no. 3 (2016), 3. https://doi.org/10.3390/h5030057, 3. 24
Reyhner, Jon, and Navin Kumar Singh. “Cultural Genocide in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United States: The Destruction and Transformation of Indigenous Cultures.” Indigenous Policy Journal XXI, no. 4 (2010). 25
90
and employees.26 To compensate for their
Other consequences of settler
lack of nutrition, many children stole
colonialism have persisted along with the
potatoes from the kitchen, which they ate
pervasive health problems which still
raw.27 One child also suffered from such
impact numerous Indigenous
poor dental health that, later in his life, he
communities. Within what is now known
eventually lost all of his teeth.28 Type 2
as Canada, the Indian Act still greatly
diabetes, hypertension, and obesity have
polices Indigenous lives through the
all also been legacies of the residential
reservation system.31 In colonially-named
school system in both Canada and the
North America, there are many examples
United States. 29 So many residential
of land grabbing and development on
school survivors suffered from poor
Indigenous land, such as the Dakota
health and severe malnutrition that the
Access Pipeline which cut through
total number of those who died as a
Standing Rock Indian Reservation, British
consequence of the system is unknown —
Columbia’s Site C dam, or Manitoba’s
and malnutrition is one of many
Grand Rapids Dam and Generating System
intergenerational legacies of the
on both Misipawistik Cree Nation and
residential school system. Thus far, the
Grand Rapids Métis settlement.32 Finally,
Truth and Reconciliation Commission,
in the colonially-named Northern Alberta
which the Canadian government created
tar sands, capitalism and colonialism have
in 2007 to study the lasting impacts of
rendered not only the Athabasca River but
residential schools, has estimated this
also the nearby Boreal forest entirely
number to be around 3,200.30
polluted and uninhabitable.33
26
Coté, 3.
27
Ibid.
28
Ibid.
29
Coté, 5.
“Canada’s Residential Schools: Missing Children and Unmarked Burials.” The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. Vol. 4, n.d. 30
Hanson, Erin. “The Indian Act.” Indigenous Foundations. University of British Columbia. https:// indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca/the_indian_act/#amendments. 31
Kepkiewicz, Lauren, and Bryan Dale. “Keeping ‘Our’ Land: Property, Agriculture and Tensions between Indigenous and Settler Visions of Food Sovereignty in Canada.” The Journal of Peasant Studies 46, no. 5 (March 21, 2018): 983–1002. https://doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2018.1439929, 8. 32
Bagelman, Caroline. “Unsettling Food Security: The Role of Young People in Indigenous Food System Revitalisation.” Children & Society 32, no. 3 (April 6, 2018): 219–32. https://doi.org/10.1111/chso.12268, 220. 33
91
The Cultural Significance of Food
their food rituals to distinguish
In 1825, Brillat Savarin stated, “[t]ell
themselves as civilized beings.37 Learning
me what you eat and I will tell you what
to cook food using fire and heat was “the
you are.” 34 The implications in this
invention which made human beings
comment were that food is intrinsically
human” — that is, cooking as an activity
tied to identity and, more collectively,
adds an extra step to the food, and
culture — making colonialism’s negative
changes it from natural to cultural.38
impact on Indigenous food practices all
Certain Indigenous communities
the more damaging. Moving forward, I will
s p e c i fi c a l l y c o n s i d e r c u l t u r a l l y
further interrogate how and why food is
appropriate foods to be less of a diet and
so important to culture, both generally
more of a gift. Islam and Berkes state that
and for Indigenous peoples specifically.
sharing is an intrinsic part of Cree
Not only are foods themselves culturally
culture, wherein any food that community
significant, but the practices surrounding
members hunt or otherwise obtain is
their consumption are equally meaningful.
distributed among everyone. 39 This
Such practices include manners,
significance has been recognized by
preparation, or settings, among
organizations such as Food Secure
multitudes of other practices.35 Moreover,
Canada, which spearheaded the addition
Anne Murcott argues that eating food is
of a seventh pillar to the official definition
not only a way to meet psychological,
of food sovereignty.40 This pillar states
physiological, and individual needs, but
that ‘Food sovereignty understands food
also a way to satisfy a sense of cultural
as sacred, part of the web of relationships
belonging. 36 Anthropologist Lévi-Strauss
with the natural world that define culture
additionally suggests that humans use
and community.’41 The second portion of
“The Cultural Dimension of Food.” Barilla Center for Food & Nutrition. https://www.barillacfn.com/m/publications/ pp-cultural-dimension-of-food.pdf, 17. 34
Murcott, Anne. “The Cultural Significance of Food and Eating.” Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 41, no. 2 (June 1982). https://doi.org/10.1079/pns19820031, 203. 35
36
Ibid., 203.
37
Ibid., 204.
38
Barilla Center for Food & Nutrition, 6.
Islam, Durdana, and Fikret Berkes. “Indigenous Peoples’ Fisheries and Food Security: a Case from Northern Canada.” Food Security 8, no. 4 (November 2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-016-0594-6, 820. 39
Desmarais, Annette Aurélie, and Hannah Wittman. “Farmers, Foodies and First Nations: Getting to Food Sovereignty in Canada.” The Journal of Peasant Studies 41, no. 6 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2013.876623, 1166. 40
41
Ibid., 1166.
92
this pillar highlights how significant food is
depend upon it, and must not take it for
to Indigenous cultures.42 Citing Earle,
granted.46 These Indigenous perspectives
Cidro et al. have also stated that “[c]ulture
demonstrate how inherently important
— a determinant of health, is intricately
food is to livelihoods and cultures.
tied to traditional Aboriginal foods.” 43 Each
Moreover, this section has demonstrated
of these elements demonstrate just how
how the cultural significance of food is
inseparable food practices are from
recognized across cultures; indeed, the
culture for many Indigenous communities.
sharing of food and the practices
Additionally, the hunting and
surrounding it are at the core of any
cultivating of food holds significance in
culture. Exploration of this relationship
most Indigenous communities. This theme
provides insight into how detrimental it
is often represented in Indigenous art,
has been and continues to be for
such as the work of Melissa Colleen
Indigenous communities to suffer from a
Campbell, who has analyzed the
lack of access to their traditional food
Indigenous play Calling All Polar Bears.
practices, because it also represents a
Campbell recounts the main character’s
loss of cultural identity and belonging.
belief that humans and animals share a reciprocal trust and respect.44 This
Food Sovereignty Efforts and Projects as
cultural reference demonstrates how
a Method of Decolonization
Indigenous hunters work to prioritize and
Moving forward, I will argue that
k e e p i n m i n d t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p . 45
the food sovereignty movement, enacted
Indigenous peoples such as botanist
through Indigenous food reclamation
Robin Wall Kimmerer, a member of the
projects, present a meaningful,
Citizen Potawatomi Nation, also
productive, and integral step forward in
understand that food comes from the
Canada’s decolonization. Indeed,
land, and that people are unobliged to it,
colonialism has removed (and continues
42
Ibid.
Cidro, Jaime, Bamidele Adekunle, Evelyn Peters, and Tabitha Martens. “Beyond Food Security: Understanding Access to Cultural Food for Urban Indigenous People in Winnipeg as Indigenous Food Sovereignty.” Canadian Journal of Urban Research 24, no. 1 (Summer 2015), 32. 43
Campbell, Melissa Colleen. "Reclaiming Indigenous voices and staging eco-activism in norther Indigenous theatre." Cosmopolite Journal of Art and Politics (December 10, 2014). http://www.seismopolite.com/reclaiming-indigenousvoices-and-staging-eco-activism-in-northern-indigenous-theatre, 5. 44
45
Ibid., 5.
Coté, Charlotte. “‘Indigenizing’ Food Sovereignty. Revitalizing Indigenous Food Practices and Ecological Knowledges in Canada and the United States.” Humanities 5, no. 3 (2016). https://doi.org/10.3390/h5030057, 1. 46
93
to remove) access to many traditional
the aspirations and needs of those
Indigenous food practices through
who produce, distribute and
assimilation, deprivation, and settler
consume food at the heart of food
colonial development projects. A lack of
systems and policies rather than
access to these practices therefore also
the demands of markets and
represents exclusion of Indigenous
corporations.48
peoples from an integral part of Indigenous cultures. Cidro et al. discovered that many urban Indigenous peoples in what is now known as Winnipeg identified relearning and reconnecting with Indigenous food practices as pertinent for addressing food insecurity. 47 Reclaiming these practices through selfdetermination may participate in reclaiming cultures as a whole. F o o d s o v e r e i g n t y i s d e fi n e d b y representatives at the 2007 Nyéléni International Forum for Food Sovereignty as: Food sovereignty is the right of peoples to healthy and culturally appropriate food produced through ecologically sound and sustainable methods, and their right to define
their own food
and agricultural systems. It puts
According to Desmarais and Wittman, the goals of strengthening community, livelihoods, sustainability, and access to culturally significant food are most important in this framework.49 However, one important caveat about this definition is that Indigenous peoples did not participate in its creation, meaning it may not completely reflect Indigenous histories and values. Indeed, scholars Taiaiake Alfred and Joanne Barker argue that this term should be Indigenized to highlight historical Indigenous struggles and resilience.50 There are a great number of examples of Indigenous food sovereignty efforts and projects, but I have chosen to highlight the case study of the impact of the 1976 Manitoba Hydro Churchill River Diversion on O-Pipon-Na-Piwin Cree Nation (OPCN), which was located near
Cidro, Jaime, Bamidele Adekunle, Evelyn Peters, and Tabitha Martens. “Beyond Food Security: Understanding Access to Cultural Food for Urban Indigenous People in Winnipeg as Indigenous Food Sovereignty.” Canadian Journal of Urban Research 24, no. 1 (Summer 2015), 33. 47
Coté, Charlotte. “‘Indigenizing’ Food Sovereignty. Revitalizing Indigenous Food Practices and Ecological Knowledges in Canada and the United States.” Humanities 5, no. 3 (2016). https://doi.org/10.3390/h5030057, 8. 48
Desmarais, Annette Aurélie, and Hannah Wittman. “Farmers, Foodies and First Nations: Getting to Food Sovereignty in Canada.” The Journal of Peasant Studies 41, no. 6 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2013.876623, 1155. 49
50
Coté, 9.
94
Southern Indian Lake (SIL).51 Much of this
fish which were part of the lakeside
analysis originates from scholarly
environment.54 Although Manitoba Hydro
research conducted in a paper by Asfia
initially provided partial subsidies to
Gulrukh Kamal, Rene Linklater, Shirley
community members, they ended the
Thompson, Joseph Dipple and the Ithinto
program in 2012 without any
Mechisowin Committee.52
explanation.55 In general, members of OPCN completely lost autonomy over their
Background
own livelihoods and were forced to rely
In the 1960s, Manitoba initiated a
upon the Canadian state through social
series of hydroelectric power projects
assistance, and to survive without access
with the blatant goal of benefitting and
to their traditional food resources.56
‘modernizing’ Indigenous communities in the area which lay near the Nelson River
A Solution
system.53 This project is now widely
IMP, or ‘Food from the Land’ is an
regarded as paternalistic and resulted in
OPCN community-led Indigenous food
disastrous consequences, including the
sovereignty program which works to
river rising so high that the entirety of the
reclaim traditional wild food practices.57
population was eventually forced to move.
As Kamal et al. state, it fights to decolonize
Additionally, the river was contaminated
food preparation activities and to reclaim
by mercury. As a result, the community
the land upon which they occur.58 The
lost not only their homeland, but also
program was designed and implemented
access to almost all of the culturally
in 2012 as a response to the community’s
significant food sources associated with
struggle to access sustainable, culturally-
it. This included the plants, medicines, and
relevant food in light of the Churchill River
Kamal, Asfia Gulrukh, Rene Linklater, Shirley Thompson, Joseph Dipple, and Ithinto Mechisowin Committee. “A Recipe for Change: Reclamation of Indigenous Food Sovereignty In O-Pipon-Na-Piwin Cree Nation for Decolonization, Resource Sharing, and Cultural Restoration.” Globalizations 12, no. 4 (June 12, 2015). https://doi.org/ 10.1080/14747731.2015.1039761, 561. 51
95
52
Ibid., 561.
53
Ibid., 561.
54
Ibid., 563.
55
Ibid., 563.
56
Kamal et al., 563.
57
Ibid., 565.
58
Ibid., 565.
Diversion. 59 Moreover, IMP seeks to
foods gain it, which ties back to the social
empower youth through activities which
a g g r e g a t i o n d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r. 63
connect them with their land, such as
Moreover, this project incorporates
hunting and preparing wild food.60 These
integral aspects of Indigenous culture,
programs seek to re-establish
including elder teachings through
wechihituwin — a holistic view of
storytelling, which occur through
resources which takes into account not
pasekonekewin, the youth empowerment
only their value as commodities but also
program of IMP.64 This program also
their cultural value.61 The concept of
supports the sustainability of the project
wechihituwin acknowledges that food is
by ensuring that youth have and use the
not merely a provider of sustenance; it
information which their relatives and
also acts as a vessel for stories and
elders provide to them. Finally, inherent to
memories that rebuild community and
this project is the underlying importance
cultural identity. Therefore, revitalizing
of learning to live off of the land, another
Indigenous food practices provides much
core tenet of Indigenous livelihoods.65 The
more than a surface-level impact.62 It is a
independence and freedom that this
method of deep-rooted decolonization,
fosters is emblematic of a deeper
reclamation, and cultural celebration.
teaching, one which is also inherent to
This case highlights several
food sovereignty as a movement: that of
strengths that contributed to the project’s
self-determination of Indigenous peoples.
overall success. First of all, this project
Thus, overall, the IMP project is
was created by and for Indigenous
decolonizing Canada by creating space for
peoples, and incorporates valued aspects
OPCN to reclaim their traditional food
of revitalization and community-building.
practices, to use them freely and
This project also emphasizes support:
independently upon their land, and
capable community members ensure that
therefore to reclaim their cultural
those who struggle to access cultural
independence and sovereignty.
59
Ibid., 565.
60
Ibid., 567.
61
Ibid., 570.
62
Ibid., 570
63
Kamal et al., 567
64
Ibid., 567.
65
Ibid.
96
This project presents many
kinds of projects could potentially learn
encouraging and empowering results, and
from the most successful elements of IMP
it is not the only example of such an effort.
as a way to promote the success of their
For instance, according to Bagelman,
own. Collectively, all of these projects are
there are a number of collaborative food
paving the way for future, broader
sovereignty projects taking place on what
decolonization efforts.
is now known as Vancouver Island which have successfully participated in
Conclusion
transferring traditional knowledge from
Indigenous food sovereignty and its
elders to youth.66 These projects include
corresponding efforts and projects
experiential and visual learning, as well as
represent a world of opportunity and
discussion and art-making.67 Additionally,
potential. This essay has presented a
community members of Grand Rapids and
detailed history and present analysis of
MCN Nations are exploring numerous
how colonialism and its legacies impact
pragmatic food sovereignty efforts.68 As a
Indigenous communities and their
comparable international example, Patty
traditional food practices. Moreover, it
Talahongva has analyzed food sovereignty
has provided insight into how the inability
efforts in response to health problems
to access culturally significant foods and
that she traces back to her experiences in
food-related practices can be to all
an American residential school.69 Such
cultures, and even more so to Indigenous
projects include Indigenous chefs
cultures. Finally, it discussed the case
reclaiming traditional, sustainable foods
study of the 1976 Manitoba Hydro
by opening restaurants. In other cases
Churchill River Diversion and its impacts
organizations have launched charities; for
upon O-Pipon-Na-Piwin Cree Nation
example, Honor the Earth sells wild rice to
(OPCN), as well as their IMP food
protect surrounding waterways.70 These
sovereignty project as a response, in
Bagelman, Caroline. “Unsettling Food Security: The Role of Young People in Indigenous Food System Revitalisation.” Children & Society 32, no. 3 (April 6, 2018): 219–32. https://doi.org/10.1111/chso.12268, 228. 66
67
Ibid. 228.
Rudolph, Karlah Rae, and Stephane M. Mclachlan. “Seeking Indigenous Food Sovereignty: Origins of and Responses to the Food Crisis in Northern Manitoba, Canada.” Local Environment 18, no. 9 (April 2013). https://doi.org/ 10.1080/13549839, 1094. 68
69
Ibid., 1094.
Talahongva, Patty. “No More ‘Die Bread’: How Boarding Schools Impacted Native Diet and the Resurgence of Indigenous Food Sovereignty.” Journal of American Indian Education 57, no. 1 (2018): 145. https://doi.org/10.5749/ jamerindieduc.57.1.0145, 150. 70
97
order to argue in favour of food sovereignty as a concrete decolonization effort. It also provided several other examples of similar Indigenous projects which have the potential to expand the food sovereignty movement. I argued that Indigenous food sovereignty projects represent a tangible and integral step forward in Canada’s decolonization which other scholars, policymakers, and Indigenous communities could look to as a framework for similar projects. However, it is important to note that food sovereignty is not an all-encompassing form of decolonization. Colonial legacies, laws, policies, and outdated ideologies will present a limitation to the success of food sovereignty for as long as they exist, and it is important to remember this as a point of nuance within the movement. However, alongside other forms of decolonization, food sovereignty efforts can initiate concrete, successful change through not only reclamation of traditional Indigenous food practices, but also of overarching cultures.  
98
Bibliography Bagelman, Caroline. “Unsettling Food Security: The Role of Young People in Indigenous Food System Revitalisation.” Children & Society 32, no. 3 (April 6, 2018): 219–32. https://doi.org/10.1111/chso.12268. “The Cultural Dimension of Food.” Barilla Center for Food & Nutrition: 1-36. https://www.barillacfn.com/m/publications/pp-cultural-dimension-of-food.pdf Campbell, Melissa Colleen. "Reclaiming Indigenous voices and staging eco-activism in northern
Indigenous theatre." Cosmopolite Journal of Art and Politics
(December 10, 2014). http://www.seismopolite.com/reclaiming-indigenous-voicesand-staging-eco-activism-in-northern-indigenous-theatre “Canada’s Residential Schools: Missing Children and Unmarked Burials.” The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. Vol. 4, n.d. Cidro, Jaime, Bamidele Adekunle, Evelyn Peters, and Tabitha Martens. “Beyond Food Security: Understanding Access to Cultural Food for Urban Indigenous People in Winnipeg as Indigenous Food Sovereignty.” Canadian Journal of Urban Research 24, no. 1 (Summer 2015): 24-43. Coté, Charlotte. “‘Indigenizing’ Food Sovereignty. Revitalizing Indigenous Food Practices and Ecological Knowledges in Canada and the United States.” Humanities 5, no. 3 (2016): 57. https://doi.org/10.3390/h5030057. Daschuk, James W. Clearing the Plains: Disease, Politics of Starvation, and the Loss of Aboriginal Life. Regina, Saskatchewan: University of Regina Press, 2019. Desmarais, Annette Aurélie, and Hannah Wittman. “Farmers, Foodies and First Nations: Getting to Food Sovereignty in Canada.” The Journal of Peasant Studies 41, no. 6 (2014): 1153–73. https://doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2013.876623. Elkins, Caroline, and Susan Pedersen. Settler Colonialism in the Twentieth Century: Projects, Practices, Legacies. New York: Routledge, 2005. Islam, Durdana, and Fikret Berkes. “Indigenous Peoples’ Fisheries and Food Security: a Case from Northern Canada.” Food Security 8, no. 4 (November 2016): 815–26.
99
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-016-0594-6. Hanson, Erin. “The Indian Act.” Indigenous Foundations. University of British Columbia. https://indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca/the_indian_act/#amendments. Kamal, Asfia Gulrukh, Rene Linklater, Shirley Thompson, Joseph Dipple, and Ithinto Mechisowin Committee. “A Recipe for Change: Reclamation of Indigenous Food Sovereignty In O-Pipon-Na-Piwin Cree Nation for Decolonization, Resource Sharing, and Cultural Restoration.” Globalizations 12, no. 4 (June 12, 2015): 559– 75. https://doi.org/10.1080/14747731.2015.1039761. Kepkiewicz, Lauren, and Bryan Dale. “Keeping ‘Our’ Land: Property, Agriculture and Tensions between Indigenous and Settler Visions of Food Sovereignty in Canada.” The Journal of Peasant Studies 46, no. 5 (March 21, 2018): 983–1002. https:// doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2018.1439929. LeFevre, Tate A. “Settler Colonialism.” In Oxford Bibliographies, 2015. Matties, Zoe. “Unsettling Settler Food Movements: Food Sovereignty and Decolonization in Canada.” Cuizine Research 7, no. 2 (December 22, 2016). https://doi.org/ 10.7202/1038478ar. Murcott, Anne. “The Cultural Significance of Food and Eating.” Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 41, no. 2 (June 1982): 203–10. https://doi.org/10.1079/ pns19820031. Reyhner, Jon, and Navin Kumar Singh. “Cultural Genocide in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United States: The Destruction and Transformation of Indigenous Cultures.” Indigenous Policy Journal XXI, no. 4 (2010). Rudolph, Karlah Rae, and Stephane M. Mclachlan. “Seeking Indigenous Food Sovereignty: Origins of and Responses to the Food Crisis in Northern Manitoba, Canada.” Local Environment 18, no. 9 (April 2013): 1079–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/13549839. 2012.754741.
100
Talahongva, Patty. “No More ‘Die Bread’: How Boarding Schools Impacted Native Diet and the Resurgence of Indigenous Food Sovereignty.” Journal of American Indian Education 57, no. 1 (2018): 145. https://doi.org/10.5749/jamerindieduc.57.1.0145.
Image Credits Photo credit: Tyman, John. "Inuit: People of the Arctic," Bill Hillman's EduTech Research Project, at Brandon University, Canada, 2009. Copyright the Pitt Rivers Museum at the University of Oxford.
101
102
103
Cesar ramirez The Rise of FDI and the Philippine Service Sector in the Post-Marcos Era Abstract Once a negligible part of
country
and
expense
of
grown
its
at
the
Primary
and
the country’s economy, foreign
Manufacturing Sectors. It must
direct investment (FDI) in the
be
Philippines underwent significant
performance
growth following the end of the
Manufacturing Sector surpasses
Marcos
dictatorship
the Primary Sector and enjoys a
return
of
and
democracy.
the This
noted,
more
however,
preponderance
corresponded
Sector,
changes
in
composition
with
both of
noticeable
the the
size
and
country’s
of
promising
increased FDI has subsequently
in
that
the
future.
of
the
turn,
the
The
Service
has
been
illustrative of the fact that this increased
FDI
has
not
been
gross domestic product (GDP).
equitably felt by the country’s
In
Philippines’
different economic sectors nor
Service Sector has received the
its population or labour force.
lion’s
The emergence of the Philippine
particular,
share
foreign
the
of
the
increased
investment
in
the
Service
Sector
has
104
consequently
continued
to
Abstraite
stimulate investment flows into the
country;
Business (BPO)
notably
Process
into
the
Outsourcing
Industry.
à
l’étranger
Philippines
(IDE)
qui
vers
les
étaient
une
the
partie négligeable de l’économie
Service Sector is expected to
du pays ont subi une importante
retain its position as the main
augmentation depuis la fin de la
component
dictature
economy.
of
the
Thus,
Les investissements directs
country’s
de
Marcos
et
le
retour de la démocratie. Cette augmentation correspond
à
des
de
IDE
remarquables
changements dans la taille et la composition du Produit Intérieur Brut
(PIB)
particulier,
du le
pays.
secteur
En des
services des Philippines a reçu une
part
importante
investissements l’étranger grandi
au
secteur
105
dans
le
de
ces
directs pays
détriment
de
primaire
de
et
a
son et
manufacturier. Il doit être noté,
sa position de secteur privilégié
cependant, que la performance
de l’économie du pays.
du
secteur
surpasse
manufacturier
celle
du
secteur
primaire et fait face à un futur prometteur.
La
prépondérance
du secteur des services, quant à
elle,
illustre
le
fait
que
l’augmentation des IDE n’a pas été équitablement ressentie par les
différents
secteurs
de
l’économie du pays, ni par sa population
ou
sa
force
de
travail. L’émergence du secteur Philippin
des
services
a,
par
conséquent, continué à stimuler les le
flux
d’investissement
pays,
notamment
dans dans
l’industrie de la sous-traitance. Ainsi,
il
est
attendu
que
le
secteur des services maintienne
106
Introduction
manufacturing and primary goods
The Philippine economy, as a whole,
sectors. The paper begins by defining
has yet to experience the relatively high
basic concepts, followed by a historical
levels of growth and prosperity
context of the Marcos dictatorship. It then
experienced by both its Northeast Asian
moves on to analyse foreign investment
counterparts, Japan and South Korea, as
since the dictatorship, the fall of the
well as its regional neighbours, such as
manufacturing and primary sectors as
Indonesia and Thailand. While the
proportions of the Philippine GDP, and
economy has shown improvement
concludes with an evaluation of the rise of
throughout its history, the era of
the country’s service sector as the
dictatorship under Ferdinand Marcos
primary facet of its GDP.
severely impeded the economic growth and development of the country in a
107
Definitions and Concepts
number of ways. Notably, this
This paper delves into the changing
authoritarian period experienced
composition of the Philippine’s GDP, which
incredibly low foreign investment,
can be defined as a measurement of “the
hampering the possible gains from this
monetary value of final goods and
avenue of capital. Since the fall of the
services… produced in a country in a
M a r c o s r e g i m e h o w e v e r, f o r e i g n
given period of time.”1 GDP therefore
investment in the Philippines has steadily
represents the total value that domestic
risen, coinciding with tremendous
production adds to a country’s economy
advances in the country’s service sector.
and can include final products, unfinished
This paper explores the effects of the
products, or both.
incremental, but consistent, increases in
different economic sectors and industries
average foreign investment throughout
of the country but omits certain facets of
the post-Marcos era on the Philippines’
the economy, such as unpaid labour or the
Gross Domestic Product (GDP), notably the
black-market.2 Despite this limitation, a
substantial growth of the service sector
country’s GDP is considered an indicator
vis-à-vis its proportion of GDP; and the
for the size and performance of its
concurrent declining shares of GDP of the
economy.3 Furthermore, GDP can be
1
Tim Callen. "What Is Gross Domestic Product?" Finance and Development 2008, 48.
2
Callen, “What Is Gross Domestic Product?” 48.
3
Callen, “What Is Gross Domestic Product?” 49.
GDP contains the
differentiated between nominal and real
industries such as business-process
GDP. 4 Nominal GDP is measured based on
outsourcing (BPO) and retail. Foreign
the daily current prices. Real GDP,
investment, meanwhile, specifically
conversely, bases the value of goods on a
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), can be
constant dollar value by accounting for
defined as firms directly investing in
inflation and price changes. For the
production facilities in a foreign country
purposes of this paper, GDP and other
or creating a subsidiary in that country.
values are held constant by the current
Moreover, FDI may manifest itself in the
value of the US dollar as measured by the
establishment of a completely new
World Bank.
venture in that foreign country, or in the
In turn, when measuring GDP, local
procurement of, or partnership with, a
industries of a country can be broadly
firm in that country. This foreign control of
categorised into three sectors: primary,
local industries subsequently exports
manufacturing, and service. The primary
economic decision-making power and
sector includes those industries involving
creates circumstances that can result in
raw materials and natural products, such
an un-equitable distribution of FDI’s gains
as agriculture and mining. The
and benefits.
manufacturing sector comprises those industries associated with the production
Historical Context
of industrial and mechanical products,
Although the Philippines has a
including, but not limited to, construction
history of democracy dating back to the
and shipbuilding. Finally, the service
American government’s establishment of
sector “produces intangible (invisible)
elections in 1901, its democratic path was
outputs – the application of labor, skills,
interrupted by the Marcos dictatorship.6
and technology – that change the
Ferdinand Marcos was first elected
condition of products or persons, or that
president in 1965 and retained the
facilitate transfer of knowledge or
position through extralegal means until
ownership, among others”5 and includes
h i s o u s t i n g i n 1 9 8 6 .7 N ot a b l y, h e
4
Ibid
National Economic and Development Authority, “The Philippine Services Sector and APEC” (Manila: National Economic and Development Authority, 2015). 5
Erik Kuhonta, The Institutional Imperative: The Politics of Equitable Development in Southeast Asia (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2011), 197. 6
David Chaikin and J.C. Sharman, Corruption and Money Laundering A Symbiotic Relationship (New York: Palgrave Macmillan), 154-155. 7
108
implemented martial law in 1972 to
political and social instability that
circumvent presidential term limits and
transitioned the Philippines from being “a
extend his rule.8 Following this imposition
focus of foreign investment in Pacific Asia”
of arbitrary rule, Marcos subsequently
to “the least favored site for foreign
embezzled from the country throughout
investment” in the region.13 Accordingly,
his presidency by exploiting the national
the Philippines received little of the
treasury for personal use and
substantial foreign investment that
establishing a system of crony capitalism
entered the region during that time.14 The
that established monopolies for his family
evolution of foreign investment in the
a n d f r i e n d s .9 B y t h e e n d o f h i s
Philippines during (1972-1986) and after
dictatorship, Marcos’ economy of self-
(1986-2018) the authoritarian era of
serving crony capitalism had heavily
Marcos thus provides an adequate
indebted the country. 10 During his
starting point for this analysis.
authoritarian era of 1972-1985, the
As noted earlier, little foreign
Philippines’ average GDP amounted to
investment flowed into the Philippines
US$23,880 billion. The post-Marcos era
during the Marcos era of 1972-1985. The
(1986-2018), meanwhile, averaged a GDP
average FDI inflows over that time span
of US$133,416 billion.11 Consequently, the
amounted to a mere US$74,309 billion.15
legacy of the Marcos era has become “the
However, FDI in the post-Marcos era has
extensive pillage of the nation’s
displayed consistent growth, indicating
economy.” 12 The regime’s economic
the increasing profitability of the
policies and practices concentrated
Philippines. In particular, FDI in the
industry in the hands of Marcos’ family
Philippines has experienced a gradual,
and friends, creating an environment of
stage-like rise following the return of
8
Chaikin and Sharman, Corruption and Money Laundering A Symbiotic Relationship, 155.
9
Ibid
10
Kuhonta, The Institutional Imperative: The Politics of Equitable Development in Southeast Asia, 210-211.
The World Bank, “ GDP (current US$) – Philippines,” raw data. (Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, November 10, 2019). 11
12
Kuhonta, The Institutional Imperative: The Politics of Equitable Development in Southeast Asia, 211.
13
William H. Overholt, “The Rise and Fall of Ferdinand Marcos,” Asian Survey 26, no. 11 (November 1986): 1145.
14
Ibid
“Foreign direct investment, net inflows (BoP, current US$) – Philippines,“ World Bank Open Data, The World Bank, accessed November 10, 2019, https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/BX.KLT.DINV.CD.WD? end=2018&locations=PH&name_desc=true&start=1972. 15
109
democracy that has since coincided with
the consistent increases in the country’s
increasing average annual growth rates
GDP,19 the effects of mounting foreign
of the country’s GDP.16 The rising levels of
investment have not been equitably felt
FDI have, in large part, been attributed to
amongst the country’s different sectors.
the country’s deliberate attempts to open up to foreign investment during the
The Fall of the Philippines’ Manufacturing
mid-1990s. These were part of broader
and Primary Sectors
economic reforms that transitioned the
The intensification of FDI in the
country away from import-substitution
Philippines has not resulted in the
policies, henceforth eliminating import
convergence of the growth rates of the
restrictions and reduced tariffs.17
The
country’s manufacturing and primary
consistent increase in FDI can thus be
sectors. 20 From 1986 to 1992, the
delineated into three different stages:
manufacturing sector’s average annual
1986-1992; 1992-2010; and
growth rate amounted to 3.31%, while the
2010-2018. 18 During the first period of
primary sector grew by 2.19%. During the
FDI growth (1986-1992), the average FDI
1 9 9 2 - 2 0 1 0 p e r i o d , t h e s e fi g u r e s
inflows into the country numbered
increased to 3.41% and 2.54%,
US$462,142 million and the country’s GDP
respectively. This pattern changed over
grew by an average of 3.35%. By the
the course of the 2010-2018 period,
second stage (1992-2010), these numbers
however, wherein the manufacturing
jumped to US$1,456 billion and 4.07%,
sector averaged a tremendous growth
respectively. The most recent surge
rate of 7.32% and the primary sector’s
(2010-2018), in turn, saw a further
growth contracted to 1.31%. Nonetheless,
expansion of these figures to US$5,527
this increased growth in the
billion and 6.34%. Still, while the rise of FDI
manufacturing sector could not thwart
in the Philippines has aided the growth of
the downward trend of both the
the economy as a whole, as illustrated by
manufacturing and primary sectors in
16
Appendix: Figures 1 and 2
Jamshid Damooei and Akbar Tavakoli, “The Effects of Foreign Direct Investment and Imports on Economic Growth: A Comparative Analysis of Thailand and the Philippines (1970-1998),” The Journal of Developing Areas 39, no. 2 (Spring 2006): 87. 17
The World Bank, “Foreign direct investment, net inflows (BoP, current US$) – Philippines,” raw data. (Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, November 10, 2019). 18
19
Appendix Figure 3
20
Appendix Figure 4 and 5
110
terms of their respective proportions of
agricultural sector pays wages that are
the country’s GDP.21
even lower than low-end jobs in the
The fall of the Philippines’ primary
manufacturing and service sectors.26
sector has partly been a result of the
Externally, the higher levels of growth and
consistently declining share of agriculture
investment in other sectors has
in the country’s GDP.22 While agriculture
contributed to the primary sector’s
and the primary sector are not falling in
consistent decline.27 The decline of the
absolute terms, as demonstrated by the
primary sector has resulted in
primary sector’s continued increase in
unemployment, such that a sector that
value added to the Philippines’ GDP,23 it
employed 35% of the workforce in 2008
has failed to mirror the growth rates of
e m p l o y e d o n l y 2 4 % i n 2 0 1 8 . . 28
other sectors in the economy. The
Furthermore, 2018 saw the sector
stagnation of agriculture has been
amount to a mere 9.28% of the Philippines’
attributed to a number of factors, such as
GDP (US$30,722 billion) and grow by only
the lack of diversification and low
0.89%, indicative of the sector’s
productivity of the sector.24 However, it
marginalisation.29
has also been argued that the decline of
While the Philippines’ neglect of
the agricultural sector is rooted not in its
agriculture has resulted in the decline of
productivity levels, but rather the “failures
its primary sector, the experience of the
and shortcomings in the policy and
country’s manufacturing sector has not
institutional environment,” such as
been so stark. In 2018, it accounted for
protectionist agricultural policies and
19.05% of the Philippines’ GDP (US$63,050
inadequate investments. 25 Moreover, the
billion) and grew by 4.93%.30 The sector,
21
Appendix Figures 6 and 7
Cielito F. Habito and Roehlano M. Briones, “Philippine Agriculture over the Years: Performance, Policies and Pitfalls,” in Policies to Strengthen Productivity in the Philippines, (Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, 2005), 1. 22
Ernesto O. Brown, Reynaldo V. Ebora, and Fezoil Luz C. Decena, “The Current State, Challenges, and Plans for Philippine Agriculture,” FFTC Agricultural Policy Platform (FFTC-AP), November 21, 2018, http://ap.fftc.agnet.org/ ap_db.php?id=941; Appendix Figure 8 23
24
Brown, Ebora, and Decena, “The Current State, Challenges, and Plans for Philippine Agriculture.”
25
Habito and Briones, “Philippine Agriculture over the Years: Performance, Policies and Pitfalls,” 6.
26
The World Bank, Philippines Economic Update: Investing in the Future (Washington, D.C.: The World Bank), 38.
Technical Education and Skills Development Authority, Reviewing the Philippines’ Top Industries: Skilled Labor Force Made the Country Best for Investments (Taguig City: Technical Education and Skills Development Authority), ii. 27
111
28
Department of Trade and Industry, Employment by Sector (Makati City: Department of Trade and Industry, 2018).
29
Appendix Figures 7, 8, and 5
30
Appendix Figures 6, 9, and 4
moreover, has experienced a consistent
of all employed persons in the country to
rise in its value added to the economy,
19%.36 Accordingly, it becomes evident
further vindicating its steady growth. 31
that the increasing foreign investment in
Notably, the country’s economic reforms
the post-Marcos period has supported the
that incentivised foreign investment in the
growth of the Philippines’ manufacturing
mid-1990s coincided with a rise in the
sector, unlike the neglect of the country’s
manufacturing sector’s proportion of
p r i m a r y s e c t o r. D e s p i t e t h e
GDP.32 Recent growth in the sector,
manufacturing sector’s solid
meanwhile, has been similarly supported
performance, however, investments have
by increased FDI, notably in the utilities
yet to reach amounts that would enable
a n d s h i p b u i l d i n g i n d u s t r i e s . 33
the sector to emerge as a more prominent
Furthermore, the construction sector,
facet of the Philippine economy.37
although not a major recipient of FDI, has
Moreover, increased “international
aided the growth of the manufacturing
competition in textiles and electronics”
sector as a result of incumbent President
further hampered the sector’s
Rodrigo Duterte’s “Build, Build, Build”
expansion.38 Nonetheless, 2019 saw the
program.34 The recent growth of the
manufacturing sector receive the most
manufacturing sector is thus rooted in an
FDI by a large margin, further illustrating
increased demand for manufactured
its future potential.39 Still, it is evident that
p r o d u c t s a n d t h e s u b s e q u e nt j o b
the general development of the
creation.35 Over the decade of 2008-2018,
manufacturing sector has been offset by
employment in the sector grew from 15%
the preponderance of the service sector
31
Appendix Figure 9
32
Appendix Figure 6
Technical Education and Skills Development Authority Reviewing the Philippines’ Top Industries: Skilled Labor Force Made the Country Best for Investments, 5. 33
Technical Education and Skills Development Authority Reviewing the Philippines’ Top Industries: Skilled Labor Force Made the Country Best for Investments, ii. 34
35
Ibid
36
Department of Trade and Industry, Employment by Sector.
Josef T. Yap, “Foreign Investment, the Manufacturing Sector, and Poverty: The Philippine Case,” Asian Politics & Policy 10, no. 1 (2018): 121. 37
Jana Matia Kleibert, “Strategic coupling in ‘next wave cities’: Local institutional actors and the offshore service sector in the Philippines,” Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography 35 (2013), 250. 38
39
Philippine Statistics Authority, Foreign Investments in the Philippines, 1.
112
in the Philippine economy, illustrated by
1992 to 2010. In the most recent surge of
the sluggish developments, and
FDI (2010-2018), the sector experienced a
consequent declining shares, of the
further boost in its average growth rate,
primary and manufacturing sectors in the
amounting to 6.70%. The service sector,
country’s GDP. 40
akin to the country’s manufacturing sector, thus experienced both rising
The Rise of the Service Sector
average growth rates and value added
In the years following the end of the
throughout the stages of rising FDI in the
Marcos dictatorship, the Philippine
Philippines.44 Moreover, in 2016 and
service sector steadily grew as a
2017, the service sector was the largest
percentage of the country’s GDP.41 The
beneficiary of FDI in the Philippines, which
service sector within the Philippine
led to the sector’s growth nationwide.45 It
context is comprised of “services that
must be noted, however, that the sector’s
facilitate exchange…[e.g. retail and real
growth has been supplemented by the
estate activities]; change the condition of a
remittances of Filipinos living abroad.46
good or product…[e.g. professional,
Consequently, it becomes evident that the
scientific, and technical activities]; or
increase in foreign investment has not
change the physical or mental condition of
been the sole factor in the rise of the
people [e.g. accommodation and food
service sector. Regardless of this fact, or
service activities].”42 During the first
perhaps as a result of it, the sector
p e r i o d o f i n c r e a s e d F D I i n fl o w s
amounted to a considerable 59.97%
(1986-1992), the service sector grew by
(US$187,724 billion) of the country’s GDP
an average of 3.92%.43 This was followed
and grew by 6.77% in 2018.47
by an average growth rate of 4.67% from
Raja Mikael Mitra, “Leveraging Service Sector Growth in the Philippines,” ADB Economics Working Paper Series, no. 366 (September 2013): 3; Appendix Figures 6 and 7 40
41
Appendix Figure 10
42
National Economic and Development Authority, “The Philippine Services Sector and APEC.”
43
Appendix Figure 11
44
Appendix Figures 11 and 12
Technical Education and Skills Development Authority, Reviewing the Philippines’ Top Industries: Skilled Labor Force Made the Country Best for Investments, ii and 8. 45
Technical Education and Skills Development Authority, Reviewing the Philippines’ Top Industries: Skilled Labor Force Made the Country Best for Investments, 9. 46
47
113
Appendix Figures 10, 12, and 11
Since the fall of Marcos in 1986, the
however, has been directed elsewhere.
Philippines has undergone a transition
The sub-sectors that have become the
“from an agricultural economy to a (low-
most prominent beneficiaries of FDI have
end) service economy without developing
been “Information Technology and
a manufacturing sector.” 48 As a result, the
Business Process Outsourcing (IT-BPO),”
majority of workers that migrate out of the
“Real Estate,” and “Administration
agricultural sector transition into the
Support.”53 Although the latter two
service sector, not the manufacturing
received higher amounts of FDI in 2018,
sector.49 Employment in the service sector
the IT-BPO industry is expected to
has consistently grown in recent years,
experience increasing investment in the
increasing from 50% of the country’s
future.54 Moreover, as a result of the
workforce in 2008 to 57% in 2018.50 The
country’s emergence as one of the world
increased employment in the sector has
leaders in the call center industry, the
been a product of its higher wages and
BPO industry as a whole has become the
value added per worker, relative to the
highest earning subsector of the service
primary and manufacturing sectors. 51
sector. 55 Foreign investment in the
M o r e s p e c i fi c a l l y, t h e s u b - s e c t o r
industry has similarly increased.56
“Wholesale and retail trade; repair of
Spurred by linkages between the industry
motor vehicles and motorcycles” contains
and global markets, the revenues of the
the largest share (19.4%) of workers in the
Philippine BPO industry grew from
service sector.52 Foreign investment,
US$350 million in 2001 to US$18.4 billion
48
The World Bank, Philippines Economic Update: Investing in the Future, 49.
49
Mitra, “Leveraging Service Sector Growth in the Philippines,” 1.
50
Department of Trade and Industry, Employment by Sector.
51
Mitra, “Leveraging Service Sector Growth in the Philippines,” 2.
Lisa Grace S. Bersales, “2018 Annual Labor and Employment Status” (Quezon City: Philippine Statistics Authority, 2018). 52
Technical Education and Skills Development Authority, Reviewing the Philippines’ Top Industries: Skilled Labor Force Made the Country Best for Investments, 9. 53
Technical Education and Skills Development Authority. Reviewing the Philippines’ Top Industries: Skilled Labor Force Made the Country Best for Investments, iii. 54
Antoinette R. Raquiza, “Philippine Services Sector: Domestic Policy and Global Markets,” in Southeast Asia beyond Crises and Traps, ed. Boo Teik Khoo, Keiichi Tsunekawa, and Motoko Kawano (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), 231. 55
56
Ibid
114
in 2015.57 The rising importance of the
Philippines and the emergence of “a
BPO industry in the Philippine economy is
consumer class that has fueled the
further supported by its increasing share
domestic services industries.”63 In this
in the country’s GDP58 and expectations
respect, the Philippine service sector has
that it will average 5.6% growth annually
not only been buttressed externally by
until 2022.59
remittances and increased foreign
The rise of the BPO industry has
investment, but by domestic factors as
been stimulated by the youthful
well. However, while employment in the
composition of the population and its
service sector has experienced significant
significant proportion of English speakers,
growth, real wages have failed to keep
two factors which have provided foreign
pace. During the period of 2006-2015,
firms a dependable workforce in the
real wages increased by only 4%, which is
Philippines.60 The prominence of the BPO
highly disproportionate to the increase in
industry arose in 2011 when the
employment over that time span.64 In spite
Philippines surpassed India “as a top
of the industry developing as a whole, the
provider of offshore call centers.” 61
low growth of real wages has provided
Moreover, recent estimates assert that
limited benefits for those employed in the
16-18% of all outsourced call service
industry.65 Thus, it is evident that the
centers around the globe are based in the
benefits of a leading service sector have
Philippines, which demonstrates the
not been experienced equitably. The World
industry’s role as a major component of
Bank has consequently suggested a
the country’s economy.62 The enlargement
number of reforms in the sector that
of the BPO industry has aided both the
could lead to the diversification of the
attraction of investment into the
economy and reduce poverty in the
57
Raquiza, “Philippine Services Sector: Domestic Policy and Global Markets,” 231.
58
Mitra, “Leveraging Service Sector Growth in the Philippines,” 8.
Technical Education and Skills Development Authority, Reviewing the Philippines’ Top Industries: Skilled Labor Force Made the Country Best for Investments, 247. 59
60
The World Bank, Philippines Economic Update: Investing in the Future, 5.
61
Floyd Whaley, “For Many Filipinos, Jobs and the Good Life Are Still Scarce,” The New York Times, June 19, 2013.
Technical Education and Skills Development Authority, Reviewing the Philippines’ Top Industries: Skilled Labor Force Made the Country Best for Investments, 9. 62
63
Raquiza, “Philippine Services Sector: Domestic Policy and Global Markets,” 236.
Technical Education and Skills Development Authority, Reviewing the Philippines’ Top Industries: Skilled Labor Force Made the Country Best for Investments, VIII. 64
Technical Education and Skills Development Authority, Reviewing the Philippines’ Top Industries: Skilled Labor Force Made the Country Best for Investments, 37. 65
115
country, which in turn would provide the
manufacturing sector.67 Yasmine Merican,
potential for increased welfare for the
m o r e o v e r, a s s e r t s t h a t “ D o m e s t i c
nation as a whole.66
Investment and Human Capital” are more relevant and salient to the country’s
Limitations
e c o n o m i c g r o w t h . 68 M e a n w h i l e , a
Despite the correlation between the
regression analysis by Rudra Pradhan
concurrent growths of FDI and the
claims that while there is a lack of
Philippine service sector, the causal links
evidence that FDI has a causal effect on
between the two are neither clear nor
the Philippines’ long-term economic
definitive. As noted above, the sectors that
growth, this does not imply that no
have experienced the greatest growth are
relationship exists in the short-run.69 In
also the sectors that have received the
spite of contrary claims vis-à-vis the
highest levels of investment, leaving open
effects of FDI on the Philippine service
the possibility that increased FDI is
sector, it must be noted that the increased
spurred by increased growth, rather than
FDI flows into the country remain
vice versa. Furthermore, given that the
considerably lower than other Southeast
bulk of FDI in the Philippines has been
Asian countries.70 This relatively low total
directed towards the country’s service
amount of FDI in the Philippines thus
sector, the uncertainty of the strength and
leaves open the possibility that continued
direction of such causal paths permeates
increases in FDI levels, coupled with a
to FDI’s effects on the country’s GDP as a
continued pivot of investments towards
whole. In her study on such linkages,
the manufacturing sector, may have
Laura Alfaro asserts that FDI’s effects on
stronger effects on the country’s GDP.
economic growth are merely ambiguous when directed towards the service sector and positive when targeted at the
The World Bank, “Philippines: Further Reforms In Services Sector Could Diversify Economy, Reduce Poverty—WB Report,” news release, (June 6, 2011). 66
67
Laura Alfaro, “Foreign Direct Investment and Growth: Does the Sector Matter?” (Harvard Business School, 2003), 13.
Yasmine Merican, “Foreign Direct Investment and Growth in ASEAN-4 Nations,” International Journal of Business and Management 4, no. 5 (May 2009): 50. 68
Rudra Prakash Pradhan, “The FDI- Led- Growth Hypothesis in ASEAN- 5 Countries: Evidence from Cointegrated Panel Analysis,” International Journal of Business and Management 4, no. 12 (December 2009): 158. 69
Ozay Mehmet and Akbar Tavakoli, “Does Foreign Direct Investment Cause a Race to the Bottom?” Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy 8, no. 2 (2003): 145. 70
116
Conclusion While the consistent increase in
suggests that it will avoid the fate of the
foreign investments following the fall of
country’s primary sector. Nevertheless,
the Marcos regime has at least partially
the service sector has definitively
facilitated the growth and development of
emerged as the primary component of the
the Philippine economy as a whole, it is
Philippine economy. Although debate
also evident that this growth was not
continues vis-á-vis the extent of foreign
equitably felt by the different sectors of
investment’s impact, it has undoubtedly
the economy. The post-Marcos era saw a
played a notable role in the sector’s rise
sharp divergence in the manufacturing
and is expected to retain this role going
and primary sectors vis-à-vis their
forward. Thus, these trends suggest that
prominence in the Philippine economy as a
the service sector will continue to be the
result of the country neglecting its
predominant sector in the Philippines’
agricultural sector. Despite the fairly
GDP, and could once again become the
stable performance of the manufacturing
primary beneficiary of FDI flows into the
sector, the overall decreasing shares of
country.
the primary and manufacturing sectors in the country’s GDP illustrate the preponderance of the service sector in the Philippines. Spurred by both domestic and international factors, namely foreign investments and remittances from overseas Filipinos, the service sector is expected to continue spearheading the Philippines’ economic growth.71 The BPO industry in particular has emerged as the most profitable sub-sector of the Philippine service sector, which has led to expectations that it will continue to receive substantial foreign investments. However, the aforementioned resurgence
71
117
of FDI in the manufacturing sector in 2019
Philippines Economic Update: Investing in the Future, 49.
Appendix Figure 1:
Figure 2:
118
Figure 3:
Figure 4:
119
Figure 5:
Figure 6:
120
Figure 7:
Figure 8:
121
Figure 9:
Figure 10:
122
Figure 11:
Figure 12:
123
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Mehmet, Ozay and Akbar Tavakoli. "Does Foreign Direct Investment Cause a Race to the Bottom?". Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy 8, no. 2 (2003): 133-56. Merican, Yasmine. "Foreign Direct Investment and Growth in Asean-4 Nations." International Journal of Business and Management 4, no. 5 (May 2009): 46-62. Mitra, Raja Mikael. "Leveraging Service Sector Growth in the Philippines." ADB Economics Working Paper Series no. 366 (September 2013). https://www.adb.org/sites/ default/files/publication/30385/ewp-366.pdf National Economic and Development Authority. "The Philippine Services Sector and Apec." In APEC Philippines 2015. Manila, Philippines: National Economic and Development Authority, 2015. Overholt, William H. "The Rise and Fall of Ferdinand Marcos." Asian Survey 26, no. 11 (November 1986): 1137-63. Philippine Statistics Authority. "Foreign Investments in the Philippines." Quezon City: Philippine Statistics Authority, 2019. Pradhan, Rudra Prakash. "The Fdi- Led- Growth Hypothesis in Asean- 5 Countries: Evidence from Cointegrated Panel Analysis ". International Journal of Business and Management 4, no. 12 (December 2009): 153-64. Raquiza, Antoinette R. "Philippine Services Sector: Domestic Policy and Global Markets." In Southeast Asia Beyond Crises and Traps, edited by Keiichi Tsunekawa Boo Teik Khoo, and Motoko Kawano, 225-49. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017. The World Bank. “Agriculture, forestry, and fishing, value added (% of GDP) – Philippines.” Raw data. Accessed November 10, 2019. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ NV.AGR.TOTL.ZS?end=2018&locations=PH&name_desc=true&start=1972, Washington, D.C. The World Bank. “Agriculture, forestry, and fishing, value added (annual % growth) – Philippines.” Raw data. Accessed November 10, 2019. https://data.worldbank.org/ indicator/NV.AGR.TOTL.KD.ZG? end=2018&locations=PH&name_desc=true&start=1972, Washington, D.C.
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Image Credits World Bank Group, 2017 https://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/photos/ 780x439/2017/sep-1/ph-peu-kf.jpg
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128
129
Cristina venegas State Exclusion of Vulnerable Migrant Populations and the Civil Society Organisations that Serve to Include Them Abstract
marginalization and vulnerability
This
paper
explores
the
such
demographics
role civil society actors play in
Politicization
supporting, advocating for, and
gender,
providing
compound
services
marginalized populations. focus
on
migrant
With
Latina
to
a
specific
citizenship,
and
with
concepts
“deservingness� which
sexuality
populations
to in
of
dictate a
given
in
society are entitled, or not, to
colonias along the US-Mexico
state aid and protection. When
border, undocumented youths in
states fall short on extending
the United States, and LGBTQ
legal rights and protections to
asylum
United
such communities, civil society
invokes
actors often fill that chasm and
seekers
Kingdom, ideas
this of
deservingness identity
to
immigrants
race,
of
face.
in
the
paper
politics
of
compensate
and
of
shortcomings.
politics
for
such
thoroughly
contextualize
the 130
Abstraite
que
La
Cet exposé explore le rôle
citoyenneté,
jouent
race
les
acteurs
de
la
et
du
de
de
genre,
la
la
sexualité
s'accompagne
défense
"méritoire" pour dicter quelles
et
la
fourniture
aux
de
populations
populations
de
de
la
société civile dans le soutien, la
services
concepts
dans
une
de
société
migrantes marginalisées. En ce
donnée ont le droit ou non à
concernant particulièrement sur
l'aide
les immigrants Latinos dans les
l'état.
colonies au long de la frontière
parviennent pas à étendre ni les
entre
droits
les
Mexique,
États-Unis les
et
jeunes
le
sans
et
à
la
Lorsque
ni
juridiques
à
les ces
protection
de
les
ne
états
protections communautés,
papiers aux États-Unis, et les
les acteurs de la société civile
demandeurs
sont obligés de compenser pour
d'asile
LGBTQ
au
Royaume-Uni,
l'exposé
des
de
la
politique
du
de
la
politique
de
idées
mérite
et
utilise
l'identité pour contextualiser la marginalisation vulnérabilité populations
131
politisation
et
la
auxquelles
ces
sont
confrontées.
ces lacunes.
Introduction
life of vulnerable migrants. I am using the
Civil society actors can be
broad topic of migration and development
provisioners of services for developing
as a starting point to address three
areas and nations when states fail to do
specific subcategories of vulnerable
so. This paper seeks to understand the
migrant populations: female immigrants in
role of civil society in the development
colonias along the US-Mexico border,
area of migration. With special attention to
young undocumented immigrants in the
the vulnerabilities women, minors, and
United States, and LGBTQ asylum seekers
LGBTQ peoples face, I hope to understand
in the United Kingdom. The macro-ideas of
civil society’s influence on improving the
politics of identity, intersectionality, and
quality of life for immigrants and refugees.
politics of deservingness are significant to
Before I address the current state of
this development issue because they
migrants and the efforts of, it is key to
reflect the poor conditions of marginalized
define the concepts of politics of
migrants across the world today. Civil
deservingness and politics of identity.
society’s involvement in migrant
Analyzing the politics of deservingness
development compensates for state
serves to conceptualize how states
failure to provide resources and human
construct ideologies of national identity
rights to marginalized migrant
which serve to exclude minority migrants
populations by supplying their assistance
from government services. To best
specifically to the needs of vulnerable
understand why female, youth, and LGBTQ
groups.
communities are disproportionately vulnerable to isolation and exclusion to
Migrants in the United States and the
state resources, it is essential to define
United Kingdom
the politics of identity. Once these two
Immigration is a socially, politically,
concepts are explained, I will outline the
and economically complicated issue with a
state of migrants today and situate the
bevvy of nuanced disagreement and
realities of female, young, and LGBTQ
opinions on the matter. Concepts of
migrants in the United States and the
legality, belonging, and benefit to a nation
United Kingdom. Following this, I will
are highly contentious and debated
discuss the role and significance of civil
subjects in this current political climate
society actors in heightening the quality of
where prejudice and mistrust run high
132
towards immigrants. Legal immigrants in
cuts back on social service provision to
the United States often face societal
push the citizen into an ideal state of self-
isolation and exclusion based on their
sufficiency whereby they do not require
identity and background. Mexican-
NGO or government assistance.4 Along the
American immigrants living in colonias
US-Mexico border, colonias developed as
experience poverty, isolation, an absence
an affordable housing option for poor,
of sufficient housing, and little to no
working Mexican-Americans and their
privatized services.1 The United States’
familial networks.5Precarious situations
Federal Office of Housing and Urban
within the colonias predominantly affect
Development defines a colonia as “an
Latina women due to geographic isolation,
unincorporated community within 150
lack of necessary living requirements and
miles of the U.S.-Mexico border that lacks
limited economic opportunities.6 Women
one or more of the following: potable
bear a disproportionate burden of
water, wastewater, paved roads, and safe
community organizing and advocacy in
and sanitary housing.” 2 In A Jumble of
colonias due in part to the gendered
Needs: Women’s Activism and
nature of neoliberalism and
Neoliberalism in the Colonias of the
socioeconomic vulnerability.7 It is female
Southwest, Rebecca Dolhinow writes,
colonia leaders that manage resource
“Colonia leaders organize their
deprivation when the state relieves
communities to gain the resources they
themselves of the duty to deal with such
lack due to the effects of neoliberalism.”3
problems; such a scenario limits the
There is a complex dynamic between
amount of social change that can arise to
colonias and neoliberalism: in pursuit of
challenge systems of power.8
neoliberal political “projects”, the state
Kazue Takamura, “Neoliberalism and Female Empowerment.” INTD 397: Topics in International Development, (McGill University, Montreal. QC, January 30th 2019). 1
2Rebecca.Dolhinow,
A Jumble of Needs: Women’s Activism and Neoliberalism in the Colonias of the Southwest, (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010) 2-3.
133
3
Ibid., 8
4
Ibid., 9
5
Ibid.,. 7
6
Takamura, “Neoliberalism and Female Empowerment.”
7
Dolhinow, A Jumble of Needs, 2.
8
Ibid., 24
Feelings of hostility towards
gaining thorough legal protections.
immigration policies and immigrants
DREAMer activists stress that America is
themselves in the US currently fosters an
the country they grew up in and call home,
unwelcoming space within the country.9
h e n c e b e i n g d e p o r t e d b e c a u s e of
As of 2016, an estimated 4% of the
“overstaying their welcome” would be
American population is made up of
unconscionable.
unauthorized immigrants10. Since the
undocumented immigrants enter
2000s, however, undocumented youths
adulthood facing employment barriers
and Deferred Action for Childhood Arrival
because of the state of American
(DACA) recipients have evolved from a
immigration affairs. Their undocumented
demographic group to a powerful political
residency makes obtaining government
group, mobilizing out of necessity.11 As
identification, applying for “regular jobs”,
DACA recipients and undocumented
opening bank accounts, and completing
minors age, the legal protections they
college risky and arduous.13 It is this kind
were once granted expire and young
of legal uncertainty about a DREAMer’s
adults who grew up in America risk being
fate which makes undocumented youths
deported. In 2010, undocumented
so vulnerable. Millions of undocumented
immigrants and DACA recipients across
immigrants work backbreaking,
the country worked “to pressure the
dangerous service and labour jobs in the
Senate to support the Development, Relief
hopes of earning an income while
and Education for Alien Minors Act
simultaneously avoiding potential legal
(DREAM Act), which would have provided
problems. Fear of government punishment
undocumented youths the legal right to
has historically forced undocumented
stay in the United States”.12 These young
immigrants into the margins of society
DREAMers, as they are called,
and prohibited them from contributing to
unabashedly assert themselves into the
economic and civil life. DREAMers today
public sphere of politics in the pursuit of
are speaking up and demanding to be
Numerous
Walter Nicholls, DREAMers: How the Undocumented Youth Movement Transformed the Immigrant Rights Debate, (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2016), 8. 9
10Jeanne
Batalova, Brittany Blizzard, and Jessica Bolter, “Frequently Requested Statistics on Immigrants and Immigration in the United States,” migrationpolicy.org, February 12, 2020, https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/ frequently-requested-statistics-immigrants-and-immigration-united-states. 11
Nicholls, DREAMers, 2.
12
Ibid., 1.
13
Ibid., 3.
134
treated as American citizens in the hopes
violation of civil rights to privacy and
of extending the rights and freedoms
dignity is legally justified in the UK. State-
granted to them as children.
sanctioned trauma is being inflicted upon
Comparatively, a majority of the
LGBTQ persons in the United Kingdom. If
UK’s population currently favours a
LGBTQ individuals fear for their safety and
significant reduction in immigration,
wish to relocate to the UK, they must jump
specifically regarding immigrants from
through a series of offensive,
Nigeria, Pakistan, and Romania.14 Recent
discriminatory, and prejudicial legal hoops
legal verdicts on political asylum cases in
to “prove” their sexuality and fear of
the United Kingdom are setting a
persecution in their home country.
dangerous precedent for hopeful LGBTQ
Immigration policies and practices put
refugees. Asylum-seekers facing
queer people in precarious—potentially
persecution based on their sexual identity
life-threatening—situations wherein they
are required to “prove” their queerness in
need to have evidence of them
court; participation of and engagement in
“performing” their queerness in a country
homosexual behaviours is now a
where it is unsafe to do so. Immigration is
necessary prerequisite for justifying one’s
undeniably and intrinsically linked to an
sexual orientation.15 An “alleged” LGBTQ
individual’s identity; the “foreignness” of
asylum-seeker currently bears the
one’s identity can be policed and state-
burden of proving they have a reasonable
controlled should questions of their
fear of persecution in their homeland to
belonging be raised. From the United
be granted refugee status in the UK. Many
States to the United Kingdom, it is evident
queer asylum seekers feel as though they
that immigrants are a globally vulnerable
must conform to stereotypes of
population who face numerous
homosexual behaviour and have
sociopolitical barriers to integration and
substantive evidence that they practice
welcome into society given their identity
such a “lifestyle,” with some going so far
and background.
as to film themselves engaging in sexual activities with a same- sex partner.16 This Scott Blinder and Lindsay Richards, “UK Public Opinion toward Immigration: Overall Attitudes and Level of Concern”, Oxford Migration Observatory, January 2019. 14
Rachel A Lewis, “‘Gay? Prove It’: The Politics of Queer Anti-Deportation Activism,” Sexualities 17, no. 8 (October 31, 2014): 958–75, https://doi.org/10.1177/1363460714552253.” 962 15
16
135
Lewis, ‘Gay? Prove it,” 962-963
Politics of Identity and Intersectionality
because they ought to be protected from
Identity as a construct becomes
punishments against undocumented
politicized when governments use it as a
immigration. Citizenship of infants,
basis for differential treatment. When
children, and teenagers of undocumented
certain populations within a nation are
immigrants was all of a sudden debated
afforded rights that others are excluded
by politicians and their humanity was
from, identity becomes inextricably linked
called into question because of their
to politics. Migrants are heavily politicized
parents’ decisions. In an effort to shelter
persons:Every aspect of a migrant's life
undocumented children from the
can be called into question, from their
complexities of immigration law and pain
movements and intentions, to their
of deportation, DACA recipients became a
innocence and humanity. This section of
political group. Contestations over the
the paper seeks to establish how women,
existence of DACA reflects American
youths, and queer peoples become
confusion and indecisiveness over the
vulnerable to exclusion from state
conflation of children and undocumented
resources through politicizing identities.
immigration. American politicians had to
Intersectionality is important within civil
find a way to govern both minors and
society because of local contexts;
undocumented immigrants in the 2000s
individuals with multiple identities face the
because of social
potential for varied forms of oppression
existence; innocent children of
depending on their geographic position in
undocumented immigrants thus became a
the world.17 To understand civil society’s
newly defined political identity.
unrest about their
intersectional approach to development,
As previously covered, colonias
we must first understand the political
along the US-Mexico border are a result
nature of identities.
of neoliberal political projects whereby
DREAMers in the United States are
collectives in society are destroyed to
politicized because of their parents’ status
bolster the self-sufficiency of the
as unauthorized immigrants and their
individual.18 With neoliberalism, the
identities as minors. DACA offered
individual becomes politicized as they are
protections to undocumented youths
branded as both a potential for economic
Kazue Takamura, “Global Civil Society,” INTD 397: Topics in International Development, (McGill University, Montreal, QC, January 9th, 2019). 17
18
Dolhinow, A Jumble of Needs, 12.
136
137
growth and a drain on government
population politicize such identities.
resources. Women in colonias are in turn
Rachel Lewis argues this politicization has
responsible for providing services that the
disproportionate, real-world
state does not offer under neoliberalism. 19
consequences against queer women of
The ways in which these leaders’ gender
colour--given many of these individuals
intersects with nation-wide systems of
hail from the Caribbean or Sub-Saharan
exclusion shapes their activism and how
Africa.23 Lesbians seeking asylum in the
they receive support. A colonia is a space
UK are trapped in a Catch-22 situation
of gendered vulnerability for several
regarding their homosexual activity. On
reasons: lack of infrastructure, spatial
one hand, if lesbians are discrete and
segregation, few employment
have no evidence that they “practice”
opportunities, and devalued social
homosexuality in their countries of origin,
r e p r o d u c t i v e l a b o u r. 20 M e x i c a n
a court can deny their asylum request
immigrants are abandoned by the state as
because
the neoliberal political project succeeds. 21
based on their sexual or gender identity.
Colonia leaders do not just face side-
On the other hand, if lesbians do “practice”
effects of neoliberalism and
stereotypically homosexual activities in
discrimination as individuals, they bear
their homelands
these consequences as poor, female
they risk potentially life-threatening
immigrants.
danger in their communities. Courts tend
they face no real persecution
to prove they are gay,
Currently, the UK political asylum
to discount persecution and homophobia
process “produces women and sexual
against lesbians due to assumptions of
minorities as deportable subjects.”22 UK
them being capable of hiding their
legal institutions construct conditions of
sexuality and staying discrete.24 By
queerness as a means of differentiating
making queerness and identity that can
who is a “legitimate” homosexual and who
quantifiably exist or not exist, failure to
is not. Asylum policies that render sexual
conform to stereotypes results in the
minorities as a disposable, debatable
invalidation of LGBTQ lived experiences
19
Ibid., 16.
20
Takamura, “Neoliberalism and Female Empowerment”.
21
Dolhinow, A Jumble of Needs, 3.
22
Lewis, ‘Gay? Prove it,” 958.
23
Ibid.,” 969.
24
Ibid., 964.
and rejection of refugee applications.
through an intersectional analysis.26
Identities, be it racial, religious, age,
Perceptions of having “earned” social
gender, or sexuality, can demarcate some
services become politicized when people
as “belonging” and others as “deviant”
begin questioning who ought to be entitled
from the accepted norm; understanding
to state benefits. If one’s identity can be
how certain identities become
quantified, then their status as a citizen or
marginalized or deemed unwelcome lays
foreigner can be established, and their
the foundation for explaining how certain
worthiness to receive
populations of society are more
benefits is determined.
vulnerable to exclusion and suspicion than others.
government
In the United States, undocumented immigrants and non-citizen members of the country are commonly referred to as
Politics of Deservingness
“aliens”. Such a descriptor serves two
Politics of deservingness is an
p u r p o s e s : fi r s t l y , t o o s t r a c i z e
especially important concept when
undocumented migrants from feeling a
discussing immigrants, refugees, and
claim to American national identity, and
asylum seekers. 25 States construct
secondly, to dehumanize them. Whereas
qualities of national identity and credibility
‘persons’ are entitled to inalienable human
as a means of measuring who in a country
rights of belonging and support within
can qualify for citizenship perks. At the
national communities, ‘aliens’ are threats
root of this preferential treatment is the
to a nation-state who ought to be stripped
concept of worth—which segues this
from protections granted to citizens.27
paper into politics of deservingness. In
Terms like “alien” and “illegal” create a
Social Security and the Politics of
notion of cultural deservingness in the US
Deservingness, Susanne Beechey argues
whereby “true Americans” ought to fully
that the image of the “worthy” welfare
participate in economic and political life
recipient is constructed through gender,
and embrace national symbols and
race, class, and age, best understood
values.28 With the introduction of the
Kazue Takamura, “Undocumented Youth Activism,” INTD 397: Topics in International Development, (McGill University, Montreal, QC, April 1st, 2019). 25
Susanne N. Beechey, Social Security and the Politics of Deservingness (Palgrave Macmillan US, 2016), https:// doi.org/10.1057/978-1-349-91891-1., 2. 26
27
Nicholls, DREAMers, 8.
28
Takamura, “Undocumented Youth Activism”.
138
DREAM Act came contention surrounding
infrastructure, “colonia activists take on
Americanness and who “counts” as a
the functions formerly performed by the
citizen. DREAMers mobilize in the pursuit
state and supply these necessities for
of legal protections and opportunities
their communities.”32
afforded to citizens on the basis that they
Gender and sexuality are recently
are just as deserving of American rights
playing a role in the social construct of
and freedoms because of their allegiance
migrant illegality in the UK.33 Contention
to the country. DREAMers must
surrounding LGBTQ legitimacy and
consistently emphasize they are not
migrant intentions has created an unsafe,
“foreign” threats because they are as
hostile immigration practice that serves
A m e r i c a n a s a n y o n e e l s e . 29
to ostracize queer asylum seekers.
Undocumented minors bear the burden of
Practices of credibility assessment by UK
proving their Americanness and justifying
legal actors “serve to produce racialized
their loyalty to the country and their
forms of sexual citizenship and belonging
communities because their existence is
that constitute queer migrants as unfit for
called into question so often.30
citizenship and thus subject to
Feminist scholarship in Dolhinow’s
deportation.”34 Navigating the problematic
A Jumble of Needs asserts that the
bureaucracy of asylum verification forces
interests and freedoms of low-income,
queer people into emotionally traumatic
Mexican-American, immigrant women
and dehumanizing situations wherein the
count less than other demographics in
state strips them of their human rights to
America.31 By reassigning the burden of
privacy and respect in the name of
social reproduction to women in colonias,
assessing their legitimacy. Stereotypes of
the American government establishes
homosexuality allow suspicion to be levied
who qualifies as a deserving recipient of
against queer persons. The UK assigns
government assistance. Dolhinow argues
more worth to homosexuals who publicly
when the state does not require colonia
perform and practice their queerness and
developers to supply necessary
in turn grant them asylum. Discrete
29
Nicholls, DREAMers, 5.
30Ibid., 31
32Ibid.,
139
2.
Dolhinow, A Jumble of Needs, 11. 16.
33
Lewis, ‘Gay? Prove it,” 958.
34
Ibid.,” 969.
homosexuals do not subscribe to “gay
institutional partnerships with civil
activities” and are thus not at risk of
society, however, can strengthen the
persecution in a court’s eyes, this makes
effectiveness of development
them undeserving of refuge. Who is
interventions concerning
worthy of state resources and who is not
and vulnerable groups because of the
ultimately is decided by those yielding
expansion of services this collaboration
power in a given society. These examples
entails.36 In countries where minorities
of female, youth, and LGBTQ immigrants
are excluded from state goods, non-
exemplify how minority populations are so
governmental organizations (NGOs) and
easily excluded from a state on the basis
other civil society actors can fill that gap
of their immutable identities. One can only
with their own support and resources.
be entitled to the benefits that come with
Organizations that transfer instrumental
state protection if they are deserving and
resources such as legal knowledge,
notions of deservingness are constructed
communication skills, and political
entirely on who you identify as.
understanding are essential for
marginalized
empowering these vulnerable groups. 37 The Role of Civil Society in Contemporary Migrant Development
Undocumented youths are supported by immigrant rights
Civil society actors and
associations, advocacy organizations,
organizations have a positive capacity to
online communities, and infrastructure.38
instigate change in a variety of fields
DREAMers self-organize to establish
pertaining to development. Due in part to
networks of support and information
their autonomy, progressive values, and
exchange. Civil society actors are
commitment to community, civil society’s
essential to undocumented immigrant
capability to support local and
activism in the US because “In the
international populations is
absence of federal support to implement
s t r e n g t h e n e d . 35 G o v e r n m e n t a n d
DACA, legal service providers, immigrant
Kazue Takamura, “Introduction: Civil Society and Development” INTD 397: Topics in International Development, (McGill University, Montreal. QC, January 7th 2019). 35
36
Takamura, “Introduction”.
37
Nicholls, DREAMers, 13.
38
Ibid., 5
140
advocacy organizations, and other
the state falls short in informing its people
community allies have become crucial
of the rights and limitations of government
resources for...new ‘DACA-mented’
officials or police officers, United We
workers....” 39 United We Dream is the
Dream fights to empower vulnerable
largest immigrant youth-led movement in
populations to be able to access all facets
the United States and they serve to
of society to the fullest of their abilities.
empower undocumented youth in America
Most importantly, high school and
to pursue their dreams, increase access
university student groups can be an
to educational institutions, and inform the
important liaison between these migrant
public on their legal rights regarding
rights activists and undocumented
immigration and deportation.40 Minors
i m m i g r a n t s a c r o s s t h e c o u n t r y .42
who are not well-versed in the language of
Regardless of their political status and
politics and immigration law can find
racial identity, civil society actors put
informational knowledge and
these undocumented youth’s wellbeing
bureaucratic support with civil society
first and offer them the information and
organizations. United We Dream, for
support needed to be as secure and safe
instance, has online resources available
as possible in America.
in both English and Spanish to educate the
Colonia residents are reliant upon
public on phone numbers to call if in
NGOs and community leaders for
crisis, their legal rights in the country,
resource provision and state interaction
what conduct is legal from an Immigration
because these immigrants have no access
and Customs Enforcement officer, and
to political power. Colonias are a
more. 41 These actors not only help
byproduct of neoliberal policies whereby
immigrants and undocumented minors
state practices and projects compounded
learn about their rights and entitlements,
to create such low qualities of life for
but also can advance the development of
Mexican-American immigrants in the
migrant justice in America by engaging
name of self-empowerment. The state
both state actors and the public. Where
chooses to absolve themselves of the
Els de Graauw and Shannon Gleeson, “How Local Stakeholders Are Implementing the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals Program” (Cambridge, MA: Scholars Strategy Network, 2016), 6. 39
40
“About UWD,” United We Dream, accessed April 2019, https://unitedwedream.org/about/.
41“Know
power/ 42
141
Your Power,” United We Dream, accessed April 2019, https://unitedwedream.org/heretostay/know-your-
de Graauw & Gleeson, “How Local Stakeholders,” 14.
responsibility of provisioning welfare to
Civil society organizations in the UK
these communities because they are
serve to amplify undocumented
composed of Mexican immigrants who
immigrants’ voices in their pursuit of
have limited proficiency in English, little to
legal protections and equality. Queer anti-
no formal education, and are
deportation activists recognize
geographically isolated from
intersections among gender, sexuality,
“mainstream” society. Women—often
race, and class to resist state constructs
being leaders in colonias—use what little
of
influence they yield to advocate for
disproportionately affect racialized queer,
government-sanctioned social services
female migrants.
while NGOs provide for the needs of these
Movement for Justice Campaign
poor, rural communities. 43 A local NGO in
advocates for ending state-sanctioned
the colonia of Los Montes called AHI
violence against lesbian asylum seekers
proposed a housing initiative for these
by providing them with resources that
residents whereby they would fund the
validate their asylum claims without
collection and accumulation of products
dehumanizing and traumatizing them.46
for community organizers and locals to
Movement for Justice understands the
improve the physical structure of their
problematic aspects of the UK political
homes.44 AHI budgeted funds to allow for
asylum application process specifically
the development and improvement of
regarding its treatment of queer people.
living conditions within the community in a
They work alongside queer asylum
meaningful partnership. This instance
seekers to make their case strong enough
shows how non-state actors with the
so that they do not need videos or invasive
financial and philanthropic means to
physical evidence proving their LGBTQ
better a poor quality of life can
identity or lifestyle. Movement for Justice
collaborate with marginalized
condemns emotional trauma committed
communities to provide them with the
against sexual minority migrants at the
necessary resources and projects to
hands of the UK government. Where the
improve their living conditions.
United Kingdom judicial system robs
43
Dolhinow, A Jumble of Needs, 25.
44
Ibid., 9
45
Lewis, “Gay? Prove it,” 958.
46
Ibid., 971.
sexual
citizenship 45
that
For example, The
142
queer migrants of their privacy, civil
resources in an effort to support them
society actors fight to protect their very
when the state is unwilling to do so.
humanity. Conclusion State failure to offer resources and support to migrants is addressed and combated by civil society actors who lend their assistance to vulnerable populations. Migration as a development topic is a contested, highly politicized issue heavily influenced by state action or lack thereof. Migrants today still face hindrances in respect to economic prosperity, societal integration, acquiring political capital, and receiving government support. Female, youth, and queer migrants, in particular, are especially vulnerable to resource exclusion based on
their identities and so-called
misalignment with a country’s nationhood. The politicized nature of each of these respective identities places migrants with intersecting identities in precarious situations where their humanity and worth are debated to determine whether or not governments should afford them rights. Civil society actors such as DREAMer activists, colonia NGOs, and Movement for Justice equip these minority communities with a plethora of
143
Bibliography Beechey, Susanne N. 2016. Social Security and the Politics of Deservingness. https:// doi.org/10. 1057/978-1-349-91891-1_3. Blinder, Scott, and Lindsay Richards. 2018. “UK Public Opinion toward Immigration: Overall Attitudes and Level of Concern.” Migration Observatory, University of Oxford. migrationobservatory.ox.ac.uk/resources/briefings/uk-public-opinoin-towardimmigration-overall-attitudes-and-level-of-concern/. Dolhinow, Rebecca. A Jumble of Needs: Women’s Activism and Neoliberalism in the Colonias of the Southwest. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010. 1-43. De Graauw, Els and Shannon Gleeson. 2016. “How Local Stakeholders are Implementing the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals Program.” In Scholars Strategy Network, Cambridge, MA. https://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi? article=1058&context=briefs Lewis, Rachel. 2014.“‘Gay? Prove it’: The Politics of Queer Anti-Deportation Activism.” In. Sexualities, 958-975. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363460714552253 Mgbako, Chi Adanna. 2016. “Introduction.” In To Live Freely in This World, 1-18. New York: New York University Press. Mgbako, Chi Adanna. 2016. “Solidarity is Beautiful.” In To Live Freely in This World, 114-135. New York: New York University Press. Nicholls, Walter. 2016. DREAMers: How the Undocumented Youth Movement Transformed the Immigrant Rights Debate. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Takamura, Kazue. 2019. “Global Civil Society.” Topics in International Development 397, McGill University, Montreal. Lecture. Takamura, Kazue. 2019. “Introduction.” Topics in International Development 397, McGill University, Montreal. Lecture. Takamura, Kazue. 2019. “Neoliberalism and Female Empowerment.” Topics in International Development 397, McGill University, Montreal. Lecture.
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Takamura, Kazue. 2019. “Undocumented Youth Activism.” Topics in International Development 397, McGill University, Montreal. Lecture. United We Dream. n.d. “About” https://unitedwedream.org/about/. United We Dream. N.d. “Know Your Power” https://unitedwedream.org/heretostay/knowyour-power/ Zong, Jie, et al. 2019. “Frequently Requested Statistics on Immigrants and Immigration in the United States.” Migration Policy Institute. www.migrationpolicy.org/article/ frequently- requested-statistics-immigrants-and-immigration-unitedstates#Unauthorized .
Image Credits Photograph: Yuri Gripas/Reuters, 2017. https://pictures.reuters.com/archive/USAIMMIGRATION-DREAMERS-RC1ED38691D0.html
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