Affirmative Action Essays

AffirmativeAction

Affirmativeactionisadeliberateefforttoprovidefullandequalopportunitiesinemployment, education,andotherareasforwomen,minorities,andindividualsbelongingtoothertraditionally disadvantagedgroups.Asanissueoftoday'ssociety,affirmativeactionrequirescorporations, universitiesandotherorganizationstoestablishprogramsdesignedtoensurethatallapplicantsare treatedfairly.Italsoplacesaburdenofproofontheprovidersofopportunities;tosomedegree,the providersmustbeabletodemonstratethattheirgrantingofopportunitiestowhitemalesisnot discriminatory.

ThepolicymentionedabovewasfirstbroughtbeforetheSupremeCourtin1978inthecase of...showmorecontent...

Affirmativeactionprogramsmaybeapprovedonlyaftercloseexaminationbyacourtandthatsuch programscanbechallengedlaterbywhiteworkerswhowerenotapartoftheoriginalagreement. Moreover,insomeinstances,minoritygroupmembersmustprovethatracialimbalancesinhiringor promotionhavenosubstantialbusinesspurpose

TheSupremeCourtmadeakeydecisionin1995inthecaseofAdarandv.Pena.Thecourtsharply abridgedtheiraffirmative–actionauthority.ThecasecameaboutwhenAdarandConstructorsfiled suitoverafederalcontractthatwasawardedtoaHispanic–ownedcompanyeventhoughAdarand hadsubmittedalowerbidIna5to4rulingtheCourtsaidthatthegovernmenthadtoprovethata preferenceprogramforminoritieswasaresponsetospecificpastactsofdiscrimination,notjust discriminationinahistoricsense.Thisdecisionbasicallyreversedearlierprecedentsthatallowed thefederalgovernmenttogiveapreferencetominorityapplicantsTheCourtsaidthatWashington cannotsetasidecontractsforminorityapplicantsunless,throughcostlyanddefinitivestudies.Itcan demonstratepastdiscriminationparticulartoasituation,andeventhenitmustdeviseaprogram Anarrowlytailoredtothesituation.(Adarandv.Pena,94–310(1995)).

TheSupremeCourt's

AffirmativeAction

Affirmativeactionisablankettermthatrefersto"thesetofpublicpoliciesandinitiativesdesigned tohelpeliminatepastandpresentdiscriminationbasedonrace,color,sexornationalorigin," (Sykes)BeforetheCivilRightsActsof1965andthe1954ScottvTopekadecision,therewere "unwrittenlawsandprotectionforwhitemen"againstcompetitionfromwomenandethnic minoritiesinprestigiousprofessions,creatingblatantinequality(Alsbrook).Affirmativeaction policiesdesignedinparttocounteractsuch"unwrittenlaws"werefirstemployedin1965toprovide equalopportunityamongfederalcontractors;nowhowever,theyareusedwidelyinmany industries,bothpublicandprivate(Kahn).Intheshowmorecontent

Forexample,accordingtoaDepartmentofLaborstudy,anestimatedfivemillionnon–white workersandsixmillionwomenareinhigheroccupationalclassificationstodaythantheywould havebeenwithouttheaffirmativeactionpoliciesofthe1960'sand1970's(Americans3)

Turningtotherealmofeducation,someopponentsofaffirmativeactionclaimthatitspolicies actuallybackfire,andthatitharmstheverygroupsitisintendedtohelp.Forexample,Shelby Steele,aresearcherwhospecializesinracialstudiesatStanfordUniversity'sHooverInstitute, claimsthatblacks"standtolosemorefrom[affirmativeaction]thantheygain,"(Steele113)Steele arguesthataffirmativeactioninhighereducationprecludesthesuccessofracialminoritiesto "achieveproportionaterepresentationontheirown"because,aspresentlyimplemented,itconfuses representationwithdevelopment(115)Healsoclaimsthataffirmativeactionleadstoblackself–doubtbecauseitoftencallsforlesspreparedblackstudentstocompetedirectlywithwell–prepped whites(116).

However,affirmativeactionproponentRonaldDworkinutilizesevidenceamassedfromWilliam BowenandDerekBok'sresearchonaffirmativeactioninhighereducationtounderminebothof Steele'scentralarguments.BowenandBok'sstudyconcludedthatblacksdoinfactapplaud affirmativeactionbecauseithashadpositiveeffectsontheireducationalexperienceand

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Affirmativeactionisapolicyoraprogramthatseekstoredresspastdiscriminationofminorities throughactivemeasuresinordertoensureequalopportunity,asineducationandemployment.In otherwords,itispolicythatwasestablishedtohopefullyeliminateracialpreferenceandequalize theUnitedStates.Thefightagainstdiscriminationhasbeenalonglastingonethatstartedwiththe caseofPlessyvsFerguson,whichendedinthedesegregationofallschools(Ficker)Affirmative actionwasputintoplacein1965whenPresidentLyndonB.JohnsonsignedtheExecutiveOrder thatmandatedgovernmentcontractorsto"takeaffirmativeaction"inallaspectsofhiringand employingminorities(Brunner)Uponitsarrival,thepolicyshowmorecontent

Thefactthat,inmostcases,aminoritystudentwillgetacceptedoverawhitestudentwiththesame oralmostthesamequalificationsiscausingcontroversyalloverthenation.Thisispreciselythe definitionofaffirmativeaction.InanexcerpttitledAffirmativeActionandtheCollegeAdmissions Processfromthebook,8StepstoHelpBlackFamiliesPayForCollege,byThomasandWill LaVeist,itisstatedthat,"affirmativeactionismeanttoleveltheplayingfieldandensurethat schoolsandbusinessesarenotintentionallydiscriminatingagainstminoritygroups."Thisleveling oftheplayingfieldleadstotheverybroadgeneralizationandmisperceptionthatthepolicyis allowingless–qualifiedminoritiestotaketheplaceofthemore–qualifiedwhites.Twomorecases thatarousedmuchdebateontheissuewerethe2003casesofGratzvs.BollingerandGruttervs. Bollinger,inwhichtwomore–than–qualifiedstudentsappliedtotheUniversityofMichiganand weredeniedduetoacceptancepolicies.Thetwowomen,JenniferGratzandBarbaraGrutter,took theircasestotheSupremeCourtwiththepleathattheUniversityofMichiganis"treatingpeople differentlybasedonskincolor,andthatisunconstitutional"(Mears)Theuniversityopenlystated thattheyhaveapointsystemintheiracceptanceprocessinwhichstudentsreceiveextrapointif theyareofminoritystatus.MarySueColeman,thepresidentoftheUniversityofMichiganstated," [W]e

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AccordingtoNewman,affirmativeactionisa"programdesignedtoseekoutmembersofminority groupsforpositionsfromwhichtheyhadpreviouslybeenexcluded,therebyseekingtoovercome someinstitutionalracism"(Newman,536).Affirmativeactionmadeitsdebutwithapieceof legislaturepassedbyPresidentLyndonJohnsonin1964andcontinuestothisday.However,the conceptofaffirmativeactionisacontroversialissuethatcontinuestobehotlydebated Affirmativeactionpoliciesarepassionatelydebatedbyeveryonefromeducatorsandpoliticiansto ordinarycitizens,allwhoholddifferingopinionsonboththenecessityandvalidityofthepolicies. Thereisnodoubtaffirmativeactionisanemotionaltopicanddealswiththeshowmorecontent

AmongthecitizensofAmericaaffirmativeactionisasensitivesubjectwithsomeseeingitasa necessitytohelpthosewhohavebeenrepressedandothersseeingitasreverseracism.Many Americansmayalsobeconflictedaboutaffirmativeaction,becauseitissuchacomplexissue. Peopleferventlydebateaffirmativeaction,becauseitisacomplexissuerevolvingaroundone'sown race,experiences,anddesires

Itcannotbedeniedthattherearemanybenefitstoaffirmativeactioninthatithelpstoensureboth fairnessanddiversityinorganizations,suchasschools.InmanyplacesacrossAmerican discriminationisstillaliveandwell.Becauseofthis,affirmativeactionisnecessarytoactionensure thatpeopleofminoritygroupswillnotbedeniedadmissiontoschoolsoremploymentbasedontheir raceAfterall,therearesomeorganizationswhowouldnotbewillingtochangetheirpoliciesunless forcedbythegovernmenttodoso.Also,manyminoritygroupsarestillunderrepresentedinschools andoccupations,whichisunfortunatebecauseitgivespeopleaskewedviewofwhatthepopulation ofAmericatrulylookslikeandletsthemthinkofdifferentracesassimplythehomogenousothers, insteadofseeingthemaspeople.Beingaroundpeoplewhoaredifferentis"necessarytodispel stereotypesaboutminorities"andastheDepartmentofEducationpointsout,"Interactingwith studentswhohavedifferentperspectivesandlifeexperiencescan

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AffirmativeActionEssay

AffirmativeAction

TheWebsterdictionarydefinesaffirmativeactionasan"activeefforttoimprovetheemploymentor educationalopportunitiesofmembersofminoritygroups..."Thispaperwilldiscussthehistoryof affirmativeactionanditseffectsoneducationandtheworkforceinoursocietyIwillarguewhy affirmativeactionisnecessaryforminoritiestogainequalopportunitieseducationallyand economicallyandhowaffirmativeactionismorallyrequiredasreparationforpastdiscrimination.I willalsodiscusswhymanypeoplebelievethataffirmativeactionisastepinthewrongdirection andpointoutseveralargumentsastowhyweshouldgetridofaffirmativeactionandtrytovalidate theirclaims.Affirmativeshowmorecontent

ThehistoryoftheUnitedStatesisinfestedwithpastdiscrimination,oppression,andhostilitytoward certainminoritygroups,especiallyAfricanAmericans,andtheGovernmentneededtoformulatea plotthatwouldreconcilethepastAlthoughaffirmativeactionhasitsflaws,ithasbeenthebest strategytomakereparationsforthehundredsofyearsthatcoloredpeopleweredeemedinferiorto whitepeople.Mybeliefisthathadwenotdiscriminatedsoinhumanelytowardsthesegroupsof peopletheywouldnotbeconsidered"inferior"bymanyinmoderntimes.Inmuchofthehistoryof theUnitedStates,blackswerenotgiventheopportunitytocompeteforthingssuchasjob availability,wages,andhousing,andsotherewasnotfaircompetitionbetweentheracesThismade itpossibleforarapidadvancementofthewhitepopulation,whileminoritygroupswereforcedtodo thebesttheycouldwiththelimitedamountofresourcesthatwereavailabletothem.Afairstarting pointintheraceofcompetitionforopportunitieswasclearlylacking,andthisdiscrepancyin competitioniswhataffirmativeactionistryingtoamendinthemodernworld.LyndonB.Johnson wasthefirstpresidenttoimplementsomesortofaffirmativeactionprogramin1965,wherehe declaredthatgovernmentcontractedjobsmusttakeintoconsiderationethnicbackgroundswhen hiring,anditalsogave

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AffirmativeactionisanattemptbytheUnitedStatestoamendalonghistoryofracialandsexual discrimination.Butthesedaysitseemstoincite,notease,thenationsinternaldivisions.Opponents ofaffirmativeactionsaythatthebattleforequalrightsisover,andthatrequiringquotasthatfavor onegroupoveranotherisun–American.Thepeoplethatdefenditsaythattheplayingfieldisnot level,andthatprovidingadvantagesforminoritiesandwomenisfairconsideringthediscrimination thosegroupstoleratedforyears.Thispaperwilldiscussthehistoryofaffirmativeaction,howitis implementedinsocietytoday,andevaluatetheargumentsthatitpresents.

HistoryofAffirmativeshowmorecontent

Alsoinmostsouthernstates,blackscouldnotvote.

Theselawsalsodeniedblacksequaleducation.Blackchildrencouldattendthesameschoolsas whitechildren.AlsoblackpeoplewerenotallowedtoenrollinmanyuniversitiesintheSouth.The separatefacilitieswerefarfromequal."Atblackschoolsandcolleges,thefacultywaspoorlypaid, thefacilitiesinferiorThecurriculumatblackcollegeswasoftenlimitedtoagriculturaland technicalprogramsdesignedtotrainsouthernblacksforlow–payingjobs.Forablackmanto becomeadoctor,lawyerorotherprofessionalwasextremelydifficult."(Hamner28–29)

TheseandotherinjusticesledtotheCivilRightsmovement.AbusboycottinMontgomery, Alabamain1955startedthemovement.RosaParks,a42–year–oldblackwoman,refusedtogiveup herbusseattoawhitemaleafteralongdayofworkShewasarrestedandfoundguiltyTheblack citizensofMontgomeryralliedtogetherundertheleadershipofMartinLutherKing,Jr.toboycott thecitiessegregatedtransportationsystem.Ayearlaterthelawsegregatingbusseswasdeclared unconstitutionalLedbyMartinLutherKing,Jr,thecivilrightsmovementbegantotakeshapeand gainmomentum.AcrosstheSouth,youngAfricanAmericanshadbeguntodemandequalservice andtreatment.

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Affirmativeactionisthenation'smostambitiousattempttoredressitslonghistoryofracialand sexualdiscrimination,howeverinmoderntimesandapproximatelyfortyyearsafterthe establishmentofthispolicy,societyisplaguedwiththeissuesofwhetheraffirmativeactionis necessary,whetheritisabenefitordetrimenttosociety,andwhyitincitesrathertheneasesthe nation'sinternaldilemmasaftersomanyyearsofhavingbeenineffectInthefollowingparagraphs theissuessurroundingthisdebate,suchaswhatisthedefinitionofaffirmativeaction,howandwhy affirmativeactionwasestablishedtobeginwith,whoisaffectedbythispolicy,whetheraffirmative actionisstillnecessaryintoday'ssocietyorifsuchshowmorecontent Thusitisnotenoughjusttoopenthegatesoropportunity.Allourcitizensmusthavetheabilityto walkthroughthosegates....Weseeknot...justequalityasarightandatheorybutequalityasafact andequalityasaresult."

AndsoseveralmonthslaterPresidentJohnsonissuedExecutiveOrder11246,whichstatedthat "ItisthepolicyoftheGovernmentoftheUnitedStatestoprovideequalopportunityinfederal employmentforallqualifiedpersons,toprohibitdiscriminationinemploymentbecauseofrace, creed,colorornationalorigin,andtopromotethefullrealizationofequalemploymentopportunity throughapositive,continuingprogramineachdepartmentandagency."Twoyearslaterthe orderwasamendedtoprohibitdiscriminationonthebasisofsex.WhiletheaimofPresident Johnson'sorderwassimilartothatofPresidentKennedy's,PresidentJohnson'seliminatedthe CommitteeonEqualEmploymentOpportunity,transferreditsresponsibilitiestotheSecretaryof Labor,andauthorizedtheSecretaryto"adoptsuchrulesandregulationsandissuesuchorders ashedeemsnecessaryandappropriatetoachievethepurposesthereof"(QUOTE)Actingon thebasisofthismandate,theDepartmentofLaborinDecember1971,duringtheadministrationof PresidentRichardM.Nixon,issuedRevisedOrderNo.4,requiringallcontractorstodevelop "anacceptable

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Affirmativeactionwascreatedtoassistminoritygroupsagainstdiscrimination,butaffirmative actiondoesmoreharmthanwhatitcandotohelp.Affirmativeactionwascreatedwiththeintention oflevelingtheplayingfieldsothateveryonecanhaveanequalopportunitytobehiredoraccepted intoaschool,butitdoestheoppositeofwhatitismeanttodo.Affirmativeactionisreverse discriminationagainstwhitemales,lesserqualifiedpeopleareadmittedintojobsandcolleges,and notallpeoplehaveanequalopportunitytoadvance.

Affirmativeactionshouldbeabolishedbecausethenegativesfromtheprogramfaroutweighthe positives.TheprogramisdoingalotofharmtoAmericansocietyinsteadofhelping.

Ifshowmorecontent

IneightUniversityofCaliforniacampuseswhereaffirmativeactionisnolongerimplementedthe enrollmentofblackstudentsonlydeclinedby17%andtheenrollmentofHispanicsdeclinedonlyby 6.9%.Evenwithouttheuseofit,minoritiesarestillgettingintocolleges.Thereisnoneedfor discriminatoryprogramslikeaffirmativeactionbecausethereisnotabigdifferencebetween minoritygroupsandwhitesanymore.Ifsomepersonhasthepotentialanddesiretosucceedtheycan succeed.Everyonecandoanythingtheywanttodoiftheyhavewhatistakestoentertheuniversity orjob

Somepeoplearguethataffirmativeactionisaprogramofopportunity,andnotaprogramof discriminationAlthoughaffirmativeactionmightbeaprogramofopportunityitonlygives opportunitytoaselectfew.Ifitwouldgiveeveryonethesameopportunityaffirmativeactionwould beagoodprogram,butitdoesnot.Minoritiesaregiventheupperhandwithaffirmativeaction.

Supportersofaffirmativeactionalsoargueaffirmativeactionhelpstodiversifyjobsandschools. Althoughtheprogramdoesbringsomeminoritiesintojobsandschools,thereisapricetopayforit Whitesarenotallowedintothoseplacesbecausetheyneedto"diversify"theschoolsand workplaces.Inorderfordiversificationtohappeneveryoneshouldbeabletobeacceptedinsteadof takingintheminoritiesand

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"Ihaveadreamthatonedaythisnationwillriseupandliveoutthetruemeaningofitscreed. Weholdthesetruthstobeself–evident:thatallmenarecreatedequal."–Dr.MartinLuther KingJr.(6).Dr.Kingstatedthisinhisfamous"IhaveaDream"speechinWashington,D.C. in1963.IsaffirmativeactionstillneededinAmerica?Affirmativeactionisstillneededbecause AmericadoesnothaveenoughequalityanddiversityAlmostallofourAmericanhistorydealtwith inequalitybetweenthewhitemenandtheblackmen.Astimewenton,nothinghaschangedandis stillseenintoday'ssociety.Therearetwodefinitionsofaffirmativeaction:1)race–neutral,gender–neutralassuranceagainstactualdiscriminationshowmorecontent

Manyarguethatreversediscriminationtakeseffect.Reversediscriminationisdescribedas discriminationtowardswhites.Manyofthesereversediscriminationcaseshavebeenbroughtto court,theresultisjustmoreconfusion.Thisisbecausethereisalotofgrayinthelawconcerning thistopic.Sometimescourtsallowsomeonetochoosetheminorityiftheyarelessqualified,while inothercasestheydon'tallowitForexampleinaSupremeCourtdecision,itwasallowedfora Michiganschooldistricttolayoffnon–minorityteachersinordertohireminorityteacherswithless experience(1).However,notmanycasessuchastheseoccur.Theminoritieshavegonethrough suchcaseseverydayfordecades.Forthewhitesormajoritytosaythatoneortwocasesarea substantialamountandthatjusticebeserved,wherehavetheybeenwhentheminoritieshadthe sametroublesyearsagoandstilltothisday?Thereisboundtobesomesetbacksbutoverall, affirmativeactionwillleadtoabettersocietywhereeveryonecanbetreatedandlookedatfairly. Affirmativeactionisstillnecessarybecauseoflackofequality.Whitemalestypicallyearn significantlymorethanwomenandminoritiesAccordingtotheNationalCommitteeonPayEquity, women,overall,make71centsascomparedtoaman'sdollar(4).Whileminoritymenmakemore thannon–minorityandminoritywomen,

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AffirmativeAction

SinceitsimplementationintheUnitedStatesin1965,affirmativeactionhasbeenaheatedtopicof debate.DesignedtoaddresstheissueofinequalityinAmericansociety,affirmativeactionisa numberofprogramsandpoliciesdesignedtogivewomenandracialminoritiesmoreopportunities ineducationandthejobmarket.Asaresult,affirmativeactionhasreceivedopposition,mainlyfrom bluecollarwhitemaleswhofeelthatitcompromisestheirbestinterests.Inthispaper,wewill attempttoevaluatetheimpactofaffirmativeactiononallAmericansanditseffectivenessin addressingtheissueofinequality.

History:

Affirmativeactionwasfirstmentionedinexecutiveorder10925onMarch6,1961showmore content...

AshistorianRogerWilkinssaid,"blackshavea375yearhistoryonthiscontinent:245involving slavery,100involvinglegalizeddiscrimination,andonly30involvinganythingelse."Inresponseto takingopportunityawayfromwhites,liberalspointedoutthatwhiteswerestillfarsuperiorinterms ofsalaryandhigh–leveljobpositions(Brunner)

ThefirstlandmarkrulingofaffirmativeactionoccurredonJune28,1978intheSupremeCourtcase RegentsoftheUniversityofCaliforniavBakkeThecaseinvolvedtheUCDavismedicalschool thathadtwoadmissionspools.Onewasforstandardapplicationsandtheotherwasspecificallyfor minoritiesandeconomicallydisadvantagedstudents.AlanBakkewasawhiteapplicantthatwas rejectedtwicedespitehavingsignificantlybettertestscoresthanseveralminoritieswhowere acceptedintotheprogram.HeclaimedthatjudginghimbyhisracewasaviolationoftheEqual ProtectionClauseofthe14thamendmentThecourtruledthatracewasalegitimatefactorfor admissionsbutinflexiblequotaswerenot.Thecourtsplitfive–fourandalthoughitmadeavery importantrulingitstillhadnotaddressedmanyoftheissuesthathadsurfacedasaresultofthecase (Brunner)

ThenextimportantcasewasonJuly2,1980intheSupremeCourtcaseFullilovevKlutznickThe courtruledthatsomemodestquotaswereperfectlyconstitutional.February25,1987marked

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AffirmativeActionEssay

Thepurposeofaffirmativeactionistoensureequalopportunityforminorities.Butithasstrayed fromitsoriginalintentandhasbecomelargelyaprogramtoachievenotequalopportunitybutequal results.ItisasystemofquotasforceduponAmericanbusinessesandworkingclassbythefederal government.Alawwhichforcespeopletolookatracebeforelookingattheindividualcannot promoteequalopportunityAffirmativeactioncontinuesthejudgementofminoritiesbyrace;it causesreversediscrimination,andcontradictsitspurpose.

Affirmativeactionisnotcreatingacolorblindsociety.Infactitcontinuesthejudgementof minoritiesaccordingtoraceAffirmativeactionforcesemployersandshowmorecontent

Whenaminorityisturneddownbecauseofthecoloroftheirskin,itisunconstitutional.Butwhena whitepersonisturneddownbecausetheyarewhite,itiscalledequalopportunity.Thereisno excuseforanyonetobejudgedbysomethingastrivialasrace.Thereshouldnotbeadouble standard.

Thethirdmajorreasonwhyaffirmativeactionshouldnotexististhatitcompletelycontradictsits purpose.Itspurposeistocreateacolorblindsociety.Butinreality,itforcespeopletolookatrace bymandatingquotas.Thethinkingbehindaffirmativeactionistoeliminateracism,wemustfirst takeraceintoaccount.Yetthiscausesajudgmentalatmosphereinwhichmanypeoplefeelcheated becausethefocushasbeentakenofftheindividualandplacedeveryoneintogroupsbasedonrace andgender

Itisillegalforthegovernmenttorequirequotasaswell.Thereforeaffirmativeactionis unconstitutionalandshouldbeillegal.

AffirmativeactionisalsotakingthefocusofftheindividualThatiswhyFloridagovernor,Jeb Bush,hasbannedraceandgenderpreferencewithhis"OneFlorida"planwhichwillendaffirmative action.Theplanalsoguaranteesthateverystudentwithinthetop20%isguaranteedadmissioninto college.

Seldomhasademocraticgovernment'spolicysocompletelycontradictedthecorevaluesofits citizenry

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AffirmativeAction

AnalyzingAffirmativeActioninAmericadoesn'tjustmeanlookingathowtomakeequality,italso meansunderstandinghowinequalityhasbeenmade.Raceandgenderarenotinherently disadvantageous;onecannotget"moreorlessrace"or"moreorlessgender"Howdowedefinethis inequalityofraceandgender?Thesesociallyconstructedequalitiesarelinkedverystronglytoreal, tangibleinequalitiessuchaseducation,jobs,income,class,andsocialmobility.Anotherconcern, therefore,iswhatinequalitiesareacceptable?Thesematerialinequalitiesofincome,education, housing,etc.arenecessarytoamulti–classcapitalistsociety,buttheunacceptablecultural inequalitiesofrace,gender,showmorecontent

Asaresult,mostlegislationpromotingequalityandAffirmativeActioncomesaftertheCivilRights movement.ThefirstinstancethetermwasusedinanyformwastheKennedyExecutiveOrder 10925,whichprohibitedtheuseofdiscriminationagainstpeoplebasedontheirrace,creed,color,or nationaloriginbygovernmentcontractors(Holzer485).ThisExecutiveOrdercreatedthe CommitteeonEqualEmploymentOpportunity,whichwasdesignedtomakesurethattheorderwas beingfollowedbyfederalcontractors(Bishop230).Kennedy'sExecutiveOrderwasmodifiedand reinforcedbyJohnsonExecutiveOrder11246and11375,thelatterofwhicheliminatedgender discriminationbyfederalcontractors(Hudson270)

PerhapsthetwomostimportantpiecesoflegislationpasseddealingwithequalityweretheCivil RightsActof1964,specificallyTitleVII(clinton2naragov),andTitleIX,passedin1972TitleVII prohibiteddiscriminationbyrace,creed,color,ornationaloriginbyallfederallyfundedprograms butalsolargeprivatecorporations(clinton2.nara.gov),whileTitleIXmadegenderdiscrimination illegal.PresidentNixonandthenLaborSecretaryGeorgeShultzdraftedthe"PhiladelphiaPlan," whichsettimetablesfortheimplementationofAffirmativeAction(clinton2.nara.gov).Theselaws weresubsequentlychallengedintheSupremeCourt

ThefirstmajorcasedealingwithaffirmativeactioncamewithRegentsofthe

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AffirmativeActionhasbeenanissueofcontentionsinceitsinceptionduringtheCivilRights strugglesofmid20thcenturyAmerica.DiscriminationcouldnolongerbetoleratedandtheUnites Statesgovernmenthadanobligationtoencourageequalityatalllevelsofthesocialinfrastructure. ThemaintypeofdiscriminationbeingaddressedbyAffirmativeActionprogramswasracial discriminationTheMerriamWebsterdictionarydefinesracismas:'abeliefthatraceistheprimary determinantofhumantraitsandcapacitiesandthatracialdifferencesproduceaninherentsuperiority ofaparticularrace.'TheCivilRightsActof1964,whichprohibiteddiscriminationofanykind,laid thefoundationfortheintroductionofAffirmativeActionshowmorecontent However,AffirmativeActionwasinitiallycreatedtotacklethediscriminationofblacks.Overthe years,randomtestinghasbeenconductedtoanalyzeAmerica'ssocialstructureandthelevelof racialdivide.TheFairEmploymentCouncilofGreaterWashingtonInc.didsometestingbetween 1992and1994.Thestudiesdiscoveredthatblacksweretreatedworsethanwhites24percentofthe timewheninterviewingforjobsInfact,whenacardealershipconductedinterviews,theblack candidatewasofferedacarwashingpositionwhilethewhitecandidate,withidentical qualifications,wasofferedasalesposition.Whitemalesmaintain97percentofthesenior managementpositionsinFortune1000companies.Theunemploymentrateofwhitesislessthan halfthatofblacks.Thepovertyrateintheblackcommunityhoversaround26percent.Thepoverty rateforwhitesis9percentTheinequalitybetweenwhiteandblackAmericaisalarmingand AffirmativeActionisdesperatelyneededtoestablishsomesenseofequality.Thefightforequal opportunitybeginswiththegovernment,andallgovernmentagencieshavemadeaconcertedeffort toestablishAffirmativeActionprogramsTheUnitedStatesDepartmentofLaboroffersthis statementonitswebsite:

"Forfederalcontractorsandsubcontractors,affirmativeactionmustbetakenbycoveredemployers torecruitandadvancequalifiedminorities,women,personswithdisabilities,andcoveredveterans.

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AffirmativeAction:StayingontheRoadtoEquality"Weholdthesetruthstobeself–evident,that allmenarecreatedequal,thattheyareendowedbytheirCreatorwithcertaininalienableRights, thatamongtheseareLife,Liberty,andthepursuitofHappiness"(DeclarationofIndependence, 1776).Whowouldimaginethatinacountryundertheblanketsuchabrilliant,ethicalandproud statementofequality,therecouldbesomuchdissentionaboutequality?Ournationhasinterpreted thisstatementdifferentlysinceitwaswritten,andstill,morethantwohundredyearslater,weareon theroadtoatrulyequalsociety.Thisisbecauseracismhasitsseedsdeeplysownintothehistoryof AmericaUprootingperceptionsshowmorecontent

TheUnitedStatesbeganasthirteenEnglishsettlercolonies.BritainhadcontroloverAmerican governmentandtrade.ThethirteencolonieswerealsousedtotheadvantageofBritain,andtheydid notlikeit,sotheyfoughtforindependenceandwontheRevolutionaryWar.Theywerenolonger colonies.PeoplefrommanydifferentEuropeancountriesbegantoimmigratetoAmerica.The UnitedStateswerebecomingveryethnicallydiverseThoughcolonialismwasendedintheUnited States,exploitationoflaborwasnot.SlaveswerebroughtfromAfricainlargenumbers,mostoften toworkonplantationsinthesouth.SlaverywasakeyelementofUnitedStatessocietyand economy.PeopleofAfricandescentwereviewedasnotevenfullyhuman.Forexample,intheDred Scottcaseof1857,theSupremecourtruledthatblackAmericanswerenotconstitutionallycitizens oftheUnitedstates,callingthem"subordinateandinferiorbeings"(Kranz6)Onlysixyearslater, aftertheCivilWarended,PresidentLincolndeclaredallslavesfreebytheEmancipation Proclamation,whichwasfollowedbytheThirteenthAmendment,whichpermanentlyabolished slaveryIntheeyesofthegovernment,blackswerefreecitizensoftheUnitedStates,butintheeyes ofmanyAmericanstheywerestillinferior.Theideologythathadbeencultivatedforcenturieswas notaseasytochangeasthelaw.Thiswas

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