Metals Industry | 2025 PLI Report

METALS INDUSTRY MARKET AND PRODUCTION LINE INTELLIGENCE

Overview EPTDA was founded as the European Power Transmission Distributors Association in 1998 on the initiative of a group of power transmission and motion control (PT/MC) industrialists who believed in bringing together PT/MC distributors and manufacturers on one unique platform. It has since become the largest organisation of PT/MC distributors and manufacturers in EMEA and is one of the most powerful and respected B2B executive platforms for the industry worldwide.

EPTDA’s mission is to strengthen its members in the industrial distribution channel to be successful, profitable, and competitive in serving customers to the highest standards. The association takes great pride in its values which focus on being a premier community for qualified members through open dialogue and mutual respect; acting with integrity, honesty, and fairness; and ensuring continuous growth and learning.

EPTDA continually strives to develop relevant tools for its members, helping them stay competitive in a constantly evolving marketplace and business environment. As part of the development of tools and resources for members, this document is designed to add value to their commercial understanding of specific markets and production line processes.

This document, on the Metals industry, follows reports on the Soft Drinks, Confectionery, Automotive, Material Handling, Recycling, Aggregates, Forestry, Bakery, Pulp and Paper and most recently Paper-Based Packaging industry.

Purpose of this document The purpose of this document is to provide distribution management and their sales forces with market and production line intelligence on the Metals industry. This document explores trends, identifies processes used in the production and distribution of metal products, clarifies key challenges, and considers the opportunities for distributors and how these can be capitalised, commercially.

This document has been divided into three parts:

1.

Industry Overview

Pages 4-11

This first section provides an introduction and overview to the Metals industry and gives key background information, market intelligence, and major players within the industry. It has been organised as follows: a. Definition, segments within the industry, and market share b. Market size and coverage c. European sales data and evolution d. Current and future market trends e. Overview of challenges f. Key producers g. Major machine & system builders

2.

Production Line Intelligence

Pages 12-25

This section illustrates the production and distribution of metal products, with a fully detailed production line schematic, so as to provide an understanding of what is involved and where the opportunities lie. Key customer challenges, major product groups, typical maintenance, and improvement projects are identified throughout the line, as well as highlighting potential areas of commercial opportunity for the distributor. This production process, whilst being typical, does not represent how all types of metals are produced and used. This is because actual plant processes may vary according to the type of metal produced for example aluminium or cast iron.

Here, we focus on steel and its production and prepartion before it is finalised for its end product uses - this could be dependent on its respective industry such as construction, automotive and mechanical engineering.

3.

Use of this Document

Pages 26-28

The opportunities within the metals industry, both for MRO and OEM distribution, are significant – a minimum combined ‘scale of opportunity value’ (SOV) of 380M€ has been estimated as available for distribution of Power Transmission products in the metals forming aftermarket. The final section proposes how the document could be used and provides open-ended questions that can be asked of prospective customers in order to reinforce the knowledge gained in parts one and two and to maximise the available opportunities.

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PART ONE

Metals industry overview Definition, segments within the industry and market share The metals industry is a key sector within the European economy as it provides for many industries such as automative, construction, electronics, and energy. The main metals include ferrous metals, non-ferrous metals, and precious metals like gold and silver.

Ferrous metals, such as steel, refer to metals that contains iron,

Type

allowing for more strength and durability. Whereas non-ferrous metals, like aluminium, copper, and zinc, do not contain iron and are therefore more malleable and lighter for applications where weight needs to be considered for example in the aircraft industry..1

Ferrous Metals

Non-Ferrous Metals

Precious Metals

Steel

Aluminium

Silver

Examples

Uses

Cast Iron

Strong and durable.

Found in applications like construction and manufacturing.

Lightweight and malleable.

Found in applications like electronics and energy generation.

Europe is one of the largest producers of ferrous metals globally and exporter of metals overall. In particular, it exports large volumes of aluminium, specialty metals, and, most notably, high-quality steel to markets in the US and Asia. Although China dominates the steel industry, producing over 54% of steel manufactured globally in 2024, Europe is the second largest, with 14% of the global market.2 In line with the ‘Made in Europe, for Europe’ philosophy, Europe’s manufacturing process is centred on importing raw materials rather than finished products. This is particularly true for steel, where Europe depends on importing iron ore and other essential components from countries such as Brazil, Australia, and Chile, where these resources are often abundant and cheaper to source.

Steel is a man-made alloy – a metal formed by combining two or more elements, in this case iron and carbon. To source the iron, which is a naturally occurring element, it must be extracted from iron ore. According to BHP, it takes about 1.6 tonnes of iron ore to produce 1 tonne of steel.3 Because steel production depends on raw materials like iron ore and other key elements, importing these materials at a lower cost is particularly important.

This report primarily focuses on steel and its fabrication, since it is a fundamental component of the European metals industry and Europe remains one of the largest producers globally. BHP reports that the world uses 20 times more iron in the form of steel than all other metals combined.4 It is also the most lucrative metal with approximately €152 billion of Gross Value Added (second largest crude steel producer in the world after China).5

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Copper

Gold

Conductive, corrosion resistant.

Found in applications like jewellery and medical technology.

Crude steel, synonymous with raw steel, refers to the first solid state of steel after smelting. It is the foundation for all grades of steel before further refining or processing.

Steel and Metals Fabrication Industry The European steel industry has a turnover of around €191 billion per year.6 This includes not only raw steel production but also the subsequent fabrication processes that transform steel into intermediary products like sheets, beams, and components for various industries (e.g., automotive, construction, and machinery).

Aluminium Processing The European aluminium industry also generates significant revenue (worth approximately €50–60 billion annually) encompassing both the production of aluminium and its transformation into value-added products such as automotive parts, building materials, and packaging industry.

Market size, coverage and sales evolution Global market of crude steel production in million tonnes, 20247

Global production 1,847.8

1. 54% China - 1,005.1

2. 15% 3. 14% 4. 8% Rest of Asia - 273.5 Europe - 252.2 India - 149.4

2% 1% 6.

7.

5. 6% South America - 37.6 Africa - 19.9 North America - 105.3 A table of European countries in descending order of crude steel production, 20248 (thousand tonnes)

2024

% of European Market

Germany

37.2

21

Turkey

36.9

21

Italy

20

11

Spain

11.8

7

France

10.8

6

Ukraine

7.6

4

Austria

7.1

4

Belgium

7.1

4

Poland

7.1

4

Netherlands

6.4

4

Kazakhstan

4.2

2

Sweden

4

2

United Kingdom

4

2

Slovakia

3.9

2

Finland

3.7

2

Czech Republic

2.5

1

Belarus

2.3

1

Russia, although having produced 70.7 thousand tonnes in 2024, is not included in this table.

<1% 8. Oceania - 4.8

Steel mills in Europe cater to a range of industries, with a focus on high-quality, high-strength stainless steel and highstrength low alloys (HSLA) for specialised applications and flat products (e.g. coils, sheets, plats) and long products (e.g. bars, rods, rails) used in large-scale production and high-demand markets. The key industries are construction, automotive and mechanical engineering.

Did you know?

The tallest structure in the world (Burj Khalifa in Dubai) is made with steel. It contains over 31,000 tonnes of steel rebar.

In Europe, the most profitable segment of the metals industry is typically the downstream sector – particularly metals fabrication and value-added processing.

•

utomotive and aerospace manufacturing: high demand for A precision parts and innovation in materials (e.g. EVs that require lightweight materials for fuel efficiency etc)

•

teel and aluminium processing: value-added products: S processing metals into products like sheets, beams, and tubes for construction and infrastructure

•

dvanced manufacturing techniques: such as cold rolling, hot A stamping, and alloying to create products that meet specific demands, often at higher prices

Over the past few years, there has been an increasing move towards European countries importing steel, especially hotrolled coil (HRC) mainly used in the automotive and construction industry, from within Europe and reshuffling the trade flow away from Asian suppliers.

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Although India remains a stable exporter, there has also been a 38.10% increase of HRC exports from Ukraine in 2024, with the total volume reaching 997,985 tonnes.10 This is due to the RussianUkrainian war that has directly affected where Europe imports HRC from. Due to sanctions, the share of Russian imports has been removed and diversified to include other countries, which have been offering competitive prices to the European market.

The Steelmaking Process Steel is principally made via two routes – through a FurnaceBasic Oxygen Furnace (BF-BOF), usually used to create new or 'virgin' steel, or an Electric Arc Furnace (EAF), often used to recycle steel scrap.

BF-BOF Phase 1 - Ironmaking:

HRC imports to the EU 2020-2024 (tonnes)11 2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

India

696,692

1,556,107

734,277

1,177,064

1,371,881

Turkey

1,816,218

1,404,331

1,197,917

653,311

1,211,213

Ukraine

46,104

644,337

509,934

722,653

997,985

Taiwan

316,176

814,971

974,369

1,246,358

897,031

Japan

85,380

597,428

1,062,565

1,089,936

837,169

Vietnam

30,229

399,561

406,045

1,154,436

701,461 664,888

Before iron ore can be used, oxygen must be removed from it. This is known as the “reduction” process. Iron ore can be provided in power form (sinter) or pellet form. It is then combined with coke, a form of coal that is devoid of gaseous impurities, and limestone, to remove unwanted impurities, and forms molten iron.

This is then transported to the converter, an oxygen furnace, for steelmaking. The byproducts created in this process are carbon dioxide and slag, a liquid waste product formed when limestone is added to the iron ore.

Egypt

252,311

784,356

509,896

749,850

S. Korea

444,553

536,120

792,779

943,319

575,386

BF-BOF Phase 2 - Steelmaking

Indonesia

5,222

93,836

101,673

261,724

208,234

Russia

1,710,934

2,244,026

427,379

-

-

In the converter, oxygen is blown into the molten iron, reducing its carbon content. Scrap is also added to control the temperature.

Steel is then transferred into ladle ready for casting.15

*2024 covers from January to Novemeber

Countries in the European Union have also been increasing their own crude steel production, producing 11.1 million tonnes in June 2024 - a 5.1% increase on the same period in 2023.12

For example In the UK particularly, there has been big strides at the beginning of 2025 to revive the steel industry after the steel crisis in 2014/2015, which saw the shutdown of many steel plants and liquidation of several major steel manufacturing companies.

In February 2025, the UK government launched the “Plan for Steel Consultation” that tackles steel industry challenges such as high electricity costs and unfair trading practices, while also welcoming strategies to strengthen scrap steel recycling to ensure that the domestic production is sustainable and self-sufficient to meet future steel demands. The UK Government has made a £2.5 billion investment through the National Wealth Fund to transform steelmaking regions such as Scunthorpe, Rotherham, Redcar, Wales and key areas across Yorkshire and Scotland.13 Recent development projects, like the expansion of the Heathrow airport, also highlight the opportunities to improve the uptake of UK-made steel instead of importing from abroad. The construction of a new terminal requires approximately 18,5000 tonnes of steel, in addition to 1,100 tonnes for the air traffic control tower and 400,000 tonnes of steel for a third runway.14

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Just under 60% of total EU steel is produced via the BF-BOF production route.16

EAF Process EAFs primarily use scrap steel as charge material. Graphite electrodes are lowered, and high voltage currents are passed through the electrodes creating an electric arc with temperatures reaching 3500oC17, melting the scrap metal. Oxygen is then blown into the furnace to refine the steel composition and additives such as lime are added to bind with impurities, forming a slag layer.

Once liquid steel is created, it is then further refined into finished products. As finished products, the total amount of hot rolled steel is 117,740 million tonnes. With 71,316 million tonnes (61%) being flat products like quarto plates and 46,424 million tonnes (39%) being long products like wire rods.18 35% of all the steel has end uses in the construction industry.

The EAF method of steel production uses electricity and incorporates a higher proportion of recycled content, significantly reducing reliance on fossil fuels compared to the traditional BF-BOF process. This can result in up to a 77% reduction in carbon emissions.19 Just over 40% of EU steel is produced via the EAF production route.20

Different Steel Grades Steel is commonly categorized based on its carbon content, which significantly influences its properties and production methods.

Low-Grade (Low-Carbon) Steel

High-Grade (High-Carbon) Steel

Low-carbon steel, also known as mild steel, has a comparatively low ratio of carbon to iron than other steel types. Typically, its carbon content is within the range of 0.05% - 0.32% by weight.

Low-grade steel is known for its low strength, making it more malleable, ductile, and weldable than other types of steel.21 One of the major benefits of low-grade steel is its cost effectiveness due to it requiring less carbon and other alloying elements.22

High-carbon steel contains a carbon content ranging between 0.60% – 1.5%.25 It’s the most corrosion resistant of the steels because of its high amount of carbon. This increased carbon significantly enhances the steel's hardness, tensile strength, and wear resistance. In turn, that makes it suitable for applications that demand high strength and wear resistance. However, the higher carbon content also makes these steels more brittle and less ductile, which makes it more susceptible to cracking under certain conditions.26 High-carbon steel is also more challenging to weld than lower-carbon-content steels, due to the risk of cracking and brittleness in the heat-affected zone.27

Mild steel follows the same production steps as EAFs and BF-BOF, but with simpler alloying and refining processes to maintain low carbon levels. As it has lower carbon content, it also requires less intensive heat treatment.23

Medium-Grade (Medium-Carbon) Steel Medium-carbon steel has a carbon content typically ranging between 0.3% - 0.6%. This category of steel offers a balance between the ductility and formability of low-carbon steel and the strength and hardness of high-carbon steel. They often require heat treatment, such as quenching and tempering, to achieve desired mechanical properties.24

Producing high-grade steel necessitates precise control over the carbon content and often involves additional alloying elements like manganese or chromium to enhance specific properties, making it more expensive than mild steel.28 The steel undergoes rigorous heat treatments, such as quenching and tempering, which is a rapid cooling and reheating process. When the steel is heated above a certain point, it is then quenched (placed in water) at varying speed. This process allows for the grain (molecular) structures to be changed to achieve the desired mechanical characteristics.29

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Steel Applications stockists and traders. They stock and sell products, while service centres and stockists provide additional services to steel-using sectors such as cutting, slitting, drilling, bending, etc.

The steel market has different levels. Steel products can be sold to operators in steel distribution or sold to steel-using sectors.

Operators in steel distribution include steel service centres,

Steel consumption per steel-using sector30

2022

All products, all qualities in '000 monthly metric tonnes

% share of total finished steel demand per sector

2023

-0.9% 4,448.6

Construction +8.5% 2,400.04

Automotive

19.1%

Mechanical Engineering

+1.9% 1,849.46

14.7%

Metalware

-3.2% 1,807.26

14.4%

-1.4% 1,164.47

Tubes

9.3%

Domestic Appliances

-0.5% 293.86

2.3%

Other Transport

+0.9% 349.37

2.8%

+0.2% 229.93

Other Sectors

0

1.8%

1.000

2.000

As seen from the graph above, the construction, automotive and mechanical engineering industries consume the most steel.

The demand for steel in the construction industry continues to rise as the demands for infrastructure developments increase.

Now, this industry consumes nearly half of all the steel products produced globally. This is because in construction, steel is used in everything from buildings to bridges and other infrastructure. Steel sheets, hot rolled steel, Rolled Steel Joint (RSJ) beams, and many more mild steel products are commonly used to form structural components due to their durability and ability to withstand heavy loads and harsh environmental conditions.

8

35.5%

3.000

4.000

5.000

The corrosion resistance of stainless steel also makes it an ideal material for structures exposed to moisture or harsh chemicals, extending the lifespan of buildings.31 In light of recent events in Ukraine, an industry that has triggered a demand for steel is the artillery and defence industry. At the end of 2024, German defence firm, Rheinmetall, announced it will be opening a factory in the UK to produce barrels for artillery guns, as part of a new defence pact. Sheffield Forgemasters, a supplier in northern England, will provide the plant with steel.32 These barrels will be used for 120mm guns, 155mm howitzers, as well as for the British Challenger 3 tank.

Current and future market trends Green steel One of the most exciting innovations in the European metals industry is the development of green steel. Traditional steel production is highly carbon-intensive, but green steel aims to eliminate or reduce carbon emissions during production. The use of hydrogen fuel, rather than coke fuel and coal, is a key focus.

Recycling and circular economy Europe is also focusing heavily on increasing the recycling of metals like steel, aluminium, and copper. Recycling metals like steel, aluminium, and copper (e.g. scrap metals) is more costefficient rather than mining raw materials. The European Union has been focusing on a circular economy, which further boosts profitability in metals recycling operations. I.e. Metals can be indefinitely recycled as at their end-of-life (EoL) stage, products made of metals can be re-processed via mechanical treatment and re-introduced to the production process to make new metals.

Steel is seen as the most widely recycled packaging material in Europe. In 2024, it was recorded that steel packaging had hit a new record for recycling rates; 81% of steel packaging, placed in the market in 2022, has been recycled.33 The follow steps outline the basic process of steel recycling: 1. Steel Collection: The first step to steel recycling is the collection process. Any sized pieces can be recycled - from scrap steel, including shredded metal and stainless steel cans to larger commercial or industrial scraps.

2. Sorting: Separate pieces that are recyclable from other scraps that, upon closer inspection, cannot be recycled.

Some metals may be too corroded to be recycled, although some corrosion is usually accepted. A general rule is that recycled products need to be made up of 50% metal to be recycled.

3. Processing: After sorting, the next step is to process the metal. In this step, the metal is squeezed and compacted using heavy-duty machines.

4.

Shredding: After the metal is crushed, the shredding process can begin. The steel materials are broken into small pieces or sheets to allow for further processing.

The smaller pieces allow for the metal to be melted more easily. After these four steps, the BF-BOF or EAF Process takes place again - melting, purifying and solidifying the scraps back into steel, which is then transported to where it’s ready to be turned into new products again.

High-strength steel European steel manufacturers are developing advanced highstrength steels (AHSS) that are essential for the automotive industry, allowing for lighter vehicles without sacrificing safety or durability. Companies like ThyssenKrupp (Germany) and ArcelorMittal are producing ultra-high-strength steel (UHSS) used in car body structures, which reduces vehicle weight and improves fuel efficiency.

Refractory metals These metals, such as tungsten and molybdenum, maintain their strength and stability at extremely high temperatures (2000oC)34, making them valuable for industries like aerospace, energy, and electronics. Refractory metals are most used as alloying elements in steels. Europe is a key producer of refractory alloys used in turbine blades, rocket engines, and high-temperature reactors.

Innovations are focused on improving the high-temperature resistance and manufacturability of these metals.

High-temperature superconducting alloys These alloys, used in power generation and electronics, are being developed to operate efficiently at very high temperatures.

European companies, including those in France, Germany and the UK, are exploring these materials for advanced energy solutions, such as power transmission and storage systems.

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Challenges Regulations

Sustainability

Europe has some of the strictest environmental policies worldwide.

The metals industry must comply with regulations around carbon emissions, waste management, and energy efficiency. The EU's Green Deal and efforts to reach net-zero emissions by 2050 significantly affect the metals industry.

Although there was a growing emphasis on sustainable practices, such as reducing carbon emissions, using cleaner production methods, and increasing the recycling rate of metals, recent developments in EU policy and steel industry feedback highlight growing concerns that sustainability regulations are losing momentum.

Energy costs Energy-intensive metals production has been impacted by fluctuating energy prices, especially in the context of the energy transition away from fossil fuels.

Global competition The European metals industry faces competition from lower-cost producers, particularly in China and India who have expanded their capacity in recent years.

Trade barriers The European Union has implemented various tariffs to protect its domestic metals industry from cheap imports, especially from China. For example, anti-dumping duties on steel and aluminium have been put in place to prevent underpriced metals from flooding the European market.

A notable shift occurred in April 2025, when the European Parliament overwhelmingly voted to delay key ESG reporting requirements under the CSRD framework by two years, easing thresholds and significantly reducing reporting obligations for many firms.35 In the steel industry, that is responsible for over 7% of global emissions,36 transitioning to low-carbon production remains a massive undertaking, both technologically and financially.

While companies like Salzgitter are making bold investments in hydrogen-based direct reduction methods, others like Thyssenkrupp Steel caution that without a clear, affordable pathway for green hydrogen production, the green transition may stall.37 Compounding the issue are soaring energy costs, falling demand, and fears of deindustrialisation.38 The European Steel Association (EUROFER) has issued urgent warnings, stating that continued inaction could result in widespread plant closures, job losses, and the collapse of decarbonisation projects - unless robust industrial safeguards and immediate support measures are implemented to preserve competitiveness and accelerate the green shift.39

Key producers in the metals industry Global key producers in crude steel production (2023)40 Ranking

Company

Crude steel production (million tonnes)

Head-quartered in

1

China Baowu Group

130.77

China

2

ArcelorMitta

68.52

Luxembourg

3

Ansteel Group

55.89

China

4

Nippon Steel Corporation

43.66

Japan

5

HBIS Group

41.34

China

Head-quartered in

Global key producers in metal forging (2024)31 Ranking

Company

Annual revenue (USD, billion)

10

1

Japan Casting & Forging Corporation

135.3

Japan

2

ThyssenKrupp Forged Technologies

38.0

Germany

3

Precision Castparts Corp.

6.8

United States

4

China First Heavy Industries (CFHI)

2.2

China

5

ATI Forged Products

1.9

Japan

Major machine & system builders42 AMADA GmbH | Germany | www.amada.de43 AMADA is a company that specialises in metal technology and offers a wide range of innovative products and solutions. With over 50 years of experience, they provide cutting-edge machines and equipment for sheet metal processing, such as laser cutting and bending. They are committed to growing together with their customers and staying at the forefront of technological advancements.

Craemer | Germany | www.craemer.com44 Craemer is renowned for its high-precision metal forming, particularly within the automotive, commercial vehicle, and large domestic appliance sectors. With over a century of expertise, Craemer excels in producing complex metal components such as seat pans, seatbelt elements, door parts, and crossbar beams. These components are crafted from materials including sheet steel, highstrength sheet steel, stainless steel, and aluminium, using advanced manufacturing techniques.

Group Rhodes | United Kingdom www.grouprhodes.co.uk45

KMF Group | United Kingdom www.kmf.co.uk47 KMF is a sheet metal fabrication company, renowned for its advanced metal forming capabilities. With over 50 years of experience, KMF offers a comprehensive range of services, including manual and automated metal folding, to meet the diverse needs of industries such as aerospace, automotive, renewable energy, and telecommunications.

Lincoln Electric | United States www.lincolnelectric.com48 Lincoln Electric is a company that offers a wide range of products and solutions for welding and fabrication needs. They provide automated metalforming equipment solutions that are ideal for fabricators who are looking to optimise system performance for high part yield and quality.

MVD | Turkey | www.mvd.com.tr49

Group Rhodes is a leader in advanced metal forming technologies.

With over 200 years of expertise, the company designs and manufactures a wide range of mechanical and hydraulic presses, as well as bespoke forming solutions for sectors like aerospace, automotive, rail, and white goods.

MVD is a leading company in Turkey's sheet metal processing technologies industry. They offer a wide range of industrial machinery such as fibre lasers, press brakes, guillotine shears, plasma-oxy cutters, punch presses, and expanded metal presses. With a focus on quality and customer satisfaction, MVD serves various industries including agriculture, aircraft and railroad, automotive, building and housing, electrical cabinets, elevators, home appliances, and more.

Jörns AG | Switzerland | www.jorns.swiss46

Prima Power | Italy | www.primapower.com50

Specialising in the design and manufacture of high-precision bending machines for sheet metal processing, Jörns has become a leading international brand, delivering innovative and flexible solutions tailored to the needs of the roofing, cladding, and profile manufacturing industries.

Prima Power is a global leader in machines and systems for sheet metal manufacturing. We offer a wide range of cutting, welding, bending, and punching solutions, as well as automation and software technologies. Our goal is to provide the best solution for your business needs.

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Production of Metal

Process

PART TWO

Steel production line market intelligence There are two main methods for solidifying molten metal, continuous casting and ingot casting (that will be covered on page 14 and 15). They primarily differ in process, efficiency, and applications. While ingot casting is still used, continuous casting is the modern and dominant method in large-scale metal production. The steel product emerges as a continuous strand that is cut into slabs, billets, or blooms. This method offers high yields with minimal waste and produces more uniform and defect-free products.

Continuous casting 1. Molten steel from the furnace is poured into a tundish that acts as a reservoir between the ladle and continuous casting machine. As the hot metal flows into a water-cooled copper mould, it starts to harden at the edges while the centre stays liquified. This helps the metal keep its shape as it fully cools.

2. The partly solid metal moves down through support rollers and keeps hardening as it cools. The rollers continuously withdraw the semi-solid metal from the mould at a rate or casting speed that matches the flow of incoming metal - helping the process move steadily and allowing the metal to solidify evenly.

3. Water and air mist sprays cool the surface of the strand between rollers to maintain its surface temperature until the molten core is solid. While one set of rollers bend the metal cast, another set will straighten it. This helps to change the direction of flow of the steel slab from vertical to horizontal. After the strand passes through the last pair of rollers, it enters the run-out table as a fully solid strand of steel and is cut with saws or torches.

1

4 2

12

3

Process

Shaping - rolling 4. Forging refers to the forming and shaping of metals using compressive forces primarily hammering, pressing, or rolling. This process can be further split into cold, warm, and hot forging – which are the same processes but classified by the temperature of the metal being worked with that alters the finish and strength of the steel. For hot forging, preliminary steel products are heated above recrystallisation temperature (over 950oC) to make them more malleable and easier to shape.

5. The heated passed between pairs of rollers revolving at the same speed but in opposite directions and spaced so that the distance between them is slightly less than the thickness of the metal. Cold rolling, done at room temperature or slightly below, often follows hot rolling and is done to gain better mechanical properties, better machinability, special size, a brighter surface or a thinner gauge.

Did you know?

Today, more than 95% of the world’s steel is made by continuous casting.

Did you know?

In large plants, the caster can run non-stop for weeks or even months, with molten steel flowing in one end and perfectly formed slabs, blooms, or billets coming out the other.

5

13

Production of Metal

Process

Ingot casting is the older and more traditional method. The process is simple and requires less initial investment, making it useful for small-scale operations or for producing specialty alloys that are difficult to cast continuously. However, ingot casting produces lower yields due to trimming losses and often results in less uniform quality with defects like segregation or shrinkage cavities.

Ingot casting 2. The ingot remains in the mould until solidification is complete. After, the ingot moulds are removed and the ingots are placed in soaking pits to equalise the internal and external temperature.

1. Molten steel from the furnace is transferred in to a ladle.

For the uphill teeming method, the molten steel flows down from the ladle over a funnel, or trumpet, and gets distributed into a system which fills individual ingots cast iron moulds from top to bottom. Due to the controlled pouring rate and low rising speed of the steel in the mould, this method reduces cracks and surface defects when casting critical steel grades.

There is also a downhill teeming method, where the molten steel flows through a slide-gate system in the bottom of the ladle into a cast iron mould. The mould can take different shapes e.g. round, square, polygon etc.

2 3 1

14

Process

Shaping - hammering/pressing 3. The preliminary steel products are heated above recrystallisation temperature (over 950oC) to make them more malleable and easier to shape.

Did you know?

4

4. Also known as drop hammer forging, hammer forging consists of inserting heated metal into a die and hammering it into a desired shape. This method uses fast and heavy blows to shape the workpiece, which can also be worked at room temperature.

Workers sometimes have to “top up” the moulds as the metal cooled because it could shrink and leave a crater at the top.

5. Press forging shapes steel by applying gradual pressure on a shaped die holding the metal instead of using repeated impacts like in drop hammer forging.

This process can be categorised in to closed-die press forging, where the metal is completely enclosed in a die and pressure is applied on the die, and opendie forging which allows for a gap between the two dies. Closed-die forging is an overall more efficient method with lower chance of error. With press forging, the metal is shaped in a uniform way from the surface to the centre. This means the impressions created are cleaned and the end product is generally stronger.

Did you know?

Unlike continuous casting, ingots sit in moulds for a long time, slowly cooling from the outside inward — meaning that the very centre could stay molten long after the outside looked solid.

5

15

Production of Metal

Process

Casting

After casting, finishing processes are performed on the solidified steel product that been removed from the mould, in order to make it suitable for use or further processing. When a casting is first taken out, it usually has rough surfaces, remnants of mould material and flash (excess metal) from metal dies or gates.

16

Process

Finishing

1. Heat treatment Forged metals can then further undergo heat treatments to improve their strength, toughness and other mechanical qualities. This, simply put, involves heating the steel, holding it at that temperature and cooling until it reaches its desired state. This process alters the microstructure of the metal, leading to desired changes in its properties. For example, to increase its hardness or wear resistance, the steel needs to be heated to around 900oC. It is held at that temperature to allow for the steel to fully transform into austenite (a solid solution of carbon in a non-magnetic form of stable that is stable at high temperatures). The steel is then rapidly cools in water or oil to form martensite - a hard and brittle solid solution of carbon in iron that is the main constituent of hardened steel.

2. Machining/ trimming Depending on the final application, forged parts may need to be machined or trimmed to achieve the precise dimensions. This is particularly common in closed-die forging, where excess material, known as flash, overfills from the die. After forging, the part—often still warm— is placed in a trimming press equipped w it a die that matches the final desired shape. The press applies a high force to shear off the flash, typically along the parting line, producing a cleaner and more dimensionally accurate component. When working with thinner steel, the most common trimming method is laser cutting, which uses a highly focused beam of light to melt and vaporise the steel, resulting in precise and clean cuts. Plasma (heated plasma gas that melts and vaporises the steel) and waterjet (high-pressure stream of water to erode the steel) cutting are also used.

3. Surface finishing Surface finishing after steel forging involves a series of processes designed to improve the appearance, surface quality, and performance of the forged part. Once the forged piece is trimmed, it may undergo cleaning (like shot blasting or sandblasting) to remove scale, oxide layers, and residual flash. This is followed by grinding, machining, or polishing to achieve the required surface smoothness and dimensional tolerances. The specific surface finishing steps depend on the part's end use, required precision, and performance conditions.

17

Production of Metal

Key products and opportunities

Explaining the opportunities and projects Key critical projects within the industry have been highlighted along the schematic to make it easy to identify which areas of the process have the most opportunity.

Continuous casting Step 1 Key product groups

Opportunities/Challenges

• Thrust bearing, cylindrical roller bearing, spherical roller bearing, tapered roller bearing • High-temperature rolling bearings for gravity die rollers • Sliding bearings and guide bushings • High-performance lubricants for casting rollers • Temperature sensors (via partner) • Drive elements (e.g. chains, couplings) • Sealings system for cylinders, old style rubber-fabric products, new sealing system with modern seals, both mainly with FKM (Viton) rubber material

• Chain for closing and opening oven doors • Spare parts supply for roller guides • Bearings and rollers with high temperature grease • Condition monitoring (sensor integration with bearing technology) • Retrofit projects for system conversions • Old system with roof shaped seals ("chevron") and wipers to be converted to new system with OMEGAT (PTFE + FKM), wipers and guiding bands • Mechanical mould oscillators subject to vibration • Control of the solidification rate - avoidance of air inclusions and cracks • Cooling and mechanical loading of the mould • Outbreak of hot steel (downtime at least 1 week) • Harsh conditions (high temperature, dust, dirt)

Step 2 Key product groups

Opportunities/Challenges

• Cylindrical roller bearing, spherical roller bearing split designs • Needle roller bearing • Water cooled housings • Seals • Synchronous belts for roller drives

• Caster segment maintenance - belts are maintenance free and resistant to damage by debris • SOV: 40-50k euros replacement of one machine (lifetime:2-4 years) • Replaced chain sent off to metal recycling plant • Heavy loads, high temperatures, low speed • Water, scale and steam contamination • Roller drives often use heavy duty chains - these need lubrication and can be adversely affected by contamination in the atmosphere

1

4 2

18

3

Key products and opportunities

Shaping - rolling Step 3

Step 4

Key product groups

Opportunities/Challenges

Key product groups

Opportunities/Challenges

• Cylindrical roller bearing, spherical roller bearing split designs • Water cooled housings • Synchronous belts and v-belts

• Caster segment maintenance - often used to drive pumps and compressors

• High temperature deep groove ball bearings and spherical roller bearings • Housing bearing units for strand guidance • Shaft couplings, clamping elements • Lubricant systems (e.g. SKF, Schaeffler)

• Supply of high-temperature bearings or guides • Service for roller changes • Retrofit solutions to improve guidance

• Heavy loads, high temperatures, low speed • Water, scale and steam contamination • Rust is a big problem and cause outbreak of material with a lot of damage as outcome

5

• Surface cracks due to poor guidance or uneven cooling • High wear of the rollers

Step 5 Key product groups

Opportunities/Challenges

• Thrust bearing, cylindrical roller bearing, spherical roller bearing • Sealed tapered roller bearing • Housed units • Chains • Rollers • Special sealing systems (Waterguards + Radialshaftseals) for bearings, e.g. working rolls • Special sealing systems for cylinders with very low friction, no stick-slip, high service life, prevents contaminants from outside

• Rolling stands maintenance • Table roll maintenance • Auxiliary equipement (edger, coilers,…)

• Bearings: Enviromatic + Radiamatic • Cylinders: wiper, guiding bands, Omegat seals • High loads, impact shocks, water ingress, loose fitting practices (industry norm) • Lubricant losses - specialised lubrication systems • Before and after the rolling machine there is the process of welding the rolls and cutting them after the process. Because the material during the process needs to be moving, there is a loop tower with a constantly moving pitch to bulk the material so during welding and cutting the material is not moving.

These towers are equipped with chains and bearings • Harsh conditions for sealings, bearings and cylinders (cylinders with short stroke and high frequency, low friction of sealing system)

19

Production of Metal

Key products and opportunities

Key critical projects within the industry have been highlighted along the schematic to make it easy to identify which areas of the process have the most opportunity. Dis imus, sum lab iumquatin pro modit lab inciden ditatecum ut a doluptasit debis as evellatquid molescia voluptatur aliqui officitius vit rem qui vel evel int fugia voloris si occumendam fuga. Tota nulpa quo blaccatem cuptinvenis

Ingot casting Step 1

Step 2

Key product groups

Opportunities/Challenges

Key product groups

Opportunities/Challenges

• Spherical roller bearing and specifically designed housings with ladder bearings • Rolling and plain bearings for mould manipulators • Seals and screw connections for hydraulics • Hydraulic filters, lubricants, mould release agents (via chemical partners) • Drive components (e.g. toothed belt drives on moulding systems)

• Services for casting moulds and casting technology • Special casting for high-alloy steels (e.g. tool steels) • Supply of additives for shaping

• Spherical roller bearing and specifically designed housings with ladder bearings • Special forms of ingots • Cooling technology components • Insulating materials for moulds • On a smaller scale creating multiple (moulds sit in between chain).

• Specialty attachments

• Consulting for process improvement • Supply of measurement and control technology • Development of customised casting moulds

• Debris ingress • Slow solidification (risk of shrinkage cavity formation) • Lower efficiency compared to continuous casting

• Debris ingress • Uniform temperature control • Optimisation of the mould geometries for better heat dissipation

2 3 1

20

Key products and opportunities

Shaping - hammering/pressing Step 3

Step 4

Key product groups

Opportunities/Challenges

Key product groups

Opportunities/Challenges

• High temperature deep groove ball bearings and spherical roller bearings • Housing bearing units for strand guidance • Shaft couplings, clamping elements • Lubricant systems (e.g. SKF, Schaeffler)

• Supply of high-temperature bearings or guides • Service for roller changes • Retrofit solutions to improve guidance

• V-belts • Sealing system (robust design with rubber fabric and more adjustable control movement to prevent damage)

• Review pulley wear and offer high strength aramid cord belts with a double layer jacket • Robust design: V-Packings + Wiper • Modern sealing system: Omegat seals, guiding bands and wiper

• Surface cracks due to poor guidance or uneven cooling • High wear of the rollers

• Belt drives, usually v-belts can be used to raise hammer. This is a hard application with repeated shock loads • Harsh conditions for cylinders • Fire resistant pressure fluid • Special seal materials could be necessary • Plunger could be damaged

Step 5 Key product groups

Opportunities/Challenges

• Stick slip free - modern sealing system

• Modern sealing system: Omegat seals + guiding bands + wiper • Harsh conditions for cylinders • Stick-slip free • Plunger could be damaged

4

5

21

Casting

Production of Metal

22

Process

Process

Finishing

Heat treatment Key product groups

Opportunities/Challenges

• Pump bearings • Seals • Rotary couplings for water feed • Spray nozzle elements (if in the range of accessories) • Connecting elements and hydraulic accessories

• Supply of high-quality spraying and dosing systems • Advice on optimising the cooling profile • Spare parts business for pumps and valves • Uniform cooling necessary to avoid stresses • Corrosion and wear of the spray systems

Machining/ trimming Key product groups

Opportunities/Challenges

• Thrust bearings • Large v-belts or synchronous belts

• Driven from electric motor, punches and shears can be optimised by utilising a maintenance free v-belt or synchronous belt to improve uptime and optimise efficiency • Punches have lost uptime • High temperatures

Surface finishing Key product groups

Opportunities/Challenges

• Cylindrical roller bearing, spherical roller bearing, tapered roller bearing • Large v-belts

• Ensure v-belt pulleys are regularly inspected for wear (dust and debris in atmosphere can cause accelerated wear) • Use double wrapped aramid cord belts, preferably powerband to resist the effects of shock loads and abrasive wear • High loads, impact shocks, water ingress, loose fitting practices (industry norm) • Lubricant losses - specialised lubrication systems • Circular saws used to cut steel beams have lost uptime • Contributing factors are: high temperature, shock loads due t o varying beam profile and entry speed 23

Production of Metal ‘Putting it all together’

The approximate value of PT aftermarket sales in the European metals industry

380M euros

24

Proportion of replacement products

Construction sector end product examples

5% 6% 6%

Steel in the construction industry is mainly used for structural framing. This is primarily separated into steel beams (horizontal structure that resist loads applied laterally to their axis) and steel columns (vertical structure that transfer compressive loads). The heated steel is rolled between large rollers that deform it into the required shape, such as H, I, W, S and C shapes, angles, tubes etc. As steel softens at high temperatures causing structural collapse, these beams and columns are often encased in masonry, typically concrete. Concrete is a poor conductor of heat, therefore acts as a shield that delays the steel from reaching critical temperatures in cases of a fire.

30%

6%

10%

15%

10% 12%

Bearings

Gears

Couplings

Seals

Belts

Hydraulics

Pneumatics

Linear

Chains

Automotive sector end product examples Steel plays a major role in the automotive industry because of its strength, durability, formability, and cost-effectiveness. In vehicle manufacturing, different grades of steel are used for a wide range of applications. For example, body panels such as doors, bonnets, wings, and roofs are made from sheet steel because it can be pressed into complex shapes while still providing impact resistance. Chassis and structural components like frames, cross members, and suspension parts rely on high-strength steels to provide stiffness and crash protection.

Mechanical engineering sector end product examples In mechanical engineering, steel is used in a wide variety of product forms depending on the application. Beams and sections such as I-beams, channels, and angles are employed in heavy machinery frames and structural supports, while plates and sheets are used for boilers, tanks, casings, and large fabricated structures.

Bars and rods serve in the manufacture of shafts, axles, bolts, and other fasteners, and tubes and pipes are essential for both fluid transport and structural applications.

25

PART THREE

Using this document to develop business The following provides the reader of this document, particularly focused on Sales Team members, with some questions to help to generate revenue from this Production Line Intelligence overview and so develop your business within the Metals industry.

For many of these questions you may already know the answers.

Others might be used on a regular basis when you visit customers and prospects in other industry sectors. It is meant as a resource to act as a prompt and reminder allowing your business to fully capitalise on this market intelligence and production line information.

There are three parts that deal with: 1. The preparation – this provides questions to consider before going to the site, in two sections:a. Detail of the company – is it part of a chain, or is it an independent? b. Who are the people to be seen – technical, engineering, maintenance?

2. The meeting itself – what to ask during the meeting to understand the concerns, needs, requirements and potentials.

3. The follow up – questions to ask or to reflect on, at the end of the meeting or afterwards

Preparing – before the visit The producing company – makers of the ‘steel or steel end products’ (End user / Brand manufacturer) •

What type of plant are you visiting ?

– Is it a full production facility – that is, from molten steel to end product – or: – Is it a limited production facility - that is, preparing the molten steel for the end product?

•

•

What do you already know about: – Its size in terms of capacity, output etc.?

– The production system they use and the manufacturers of those systems?

How old is the plant?

•

How many people do they employ?

•

Do they have their own maintenance engineers?

•

Who makes the purchasing decisions – locally or at Group level?

•

Does this company have other facilities in the region you service?

General •

What do you want to achieve from the meeting – your goal?

– Exploratory – trying to understand the pressures/ problems they face – starter question – ‘what are the main issues you face in keeping the plant running?’

– Presentation – trying to suggest how your company’s service can help? – ‘these are the services we provide that might help you with those issues’ – Breadth of service – showing that you are not simply a component provider? – ‘energy saving/efficiency’ – ‘full range of MRO products’ – ‘support of manufacturer/suppliers’

•

What will you fall back on, if your intended goal seems impossible?

– Ensure they know that you are interested/could add value?

– Ensure that they have your name, title, services to hand for the future?

– Confirm that they would be willing to meet you again, in the future?

•

What is your plan for follow ups to this meeting?

•

What kind of support material do you need to take with you – tailor made to the Pulp and Paper Industry rather/ as well as general information?

The people you might meet • • • • •

26

Who are you going to see?

What is their role or speciality (production/maintenance/ repair/purchasing)?

What do you know about them already? (hint: search LinkedIn) What are your initial thoughts about the main challenges they are likely to face?

Your opening question …………. tailored to their role?

The actual meeting ‘Producers of the steel end products’ Some of the above can be asked during the meeting, but some research beforehand is preferable.

•

Do you have existing projects carried out in relation to maintenance or energy management etc.?

– Are existing partners – suppliers or distributors – assisting?

The plant or facility •

What sort of production site is this e.g., steel production or complete production line?

•

•

How many production lines are there and what types of products are produced?

The most utilised products

– What type of variety in production are there (if applicable)?

– How do you deal with the change in product varieties?

– What method of casting is used e.g., continuous or ingot?

•

What are the processes used across the various stages of production (casting; shaping/forging; finishing)?

•

How are the main machines maintained and repaired (internal team, external team, machine builder service engineers)?

Maintenance, planning and issues

What are the key maintenance/industrial supplies objectives for the facility?

•

What parts are used most on an annual basis?

– What are the issues/challenges faced getting those parts?

•

What are the main concerns in relation to type of components that are needed to maintain and improve the line e.g., bearings, chain, hydraulics, pneumatics, etc.?

•

Where is the process most prone to failure or maintenance problems?

Suppliers •

What do you value most in relation to a supplier/ distributor like us?

– Regular shut-down periods or other?

•

•

What is the estimated annual spend on maintenance and repair?

What kind of support do you look for from your service providers in relation to planned maintenance?

•

What is your biggest current problem with your aftermarket suppliers?

•

What are the main issues in relation to maintenance or 'bottlenecks' in the process that affect speed or reliability?

•

What sort of regular maintenance does the plant undergo?

– H ow do you like your supplier partners to assist?

– What are the main issues or concerns in relation to maintenance?

– What are they caused by?

– Are there on-going projects to deal with this?

– Are you using partners – suppliers or distributors – to assist you in this process?

•

Next steps – C an we come back with a proposal to help you with some of this?

The follow up •

What were the main points you learned from the visit?

•

What are the next steps you need to take, when and how?

•

How and where are you going to store this information – does your company have a CRM system/process?

•

What other types of follow up will you undertake and why?

•

How are you going to use this information for future business, either with this potential customer or others – discussing opportunities within the Company at Sales Meetings?

•

Who in your business do you need to share this information with?

– Do you have success stories to describe?

– Do other members of your team have such success stories?

– How can these be replicated?

•

How will you ensure that these follow ups are completed?

27

Acknowledgements Acknowledgements and a sincere thank you to the following manufacturer members of EPTDA for the generosity of the technical and commercial information and advice that they have supplied and which has given real authority to the document.

Also to our technical experts from distributor members of EPTDA operating in this sector, who have provided the concrete examples included in the text and without whose contribution the document would lack its operational and commercial relevance and power for distributors.

Finally to the individual members of the EPTDA Business Intelligence Task Group, who have freely given their advice, guidance and inputs throughout the process of producing this document.

Authored by:

Disclaimer: The costed examples contained in this document are illustrations taken from real practice. They are, however, not predictions of future value achievable from various projects that can be undertaken in this sector. The authors, contributors and EPTDA do not accept any liability for any commercial decisions that may be taken as a result of these examples.

Sources: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

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European Commission, ‘Best Available Techniques (BAT) Reference Document for the Production of Pulp, Paper and Board’ Ibid.

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FAOSTAT, ‘Forestry Production and Trade’ Fortune Business Insights, ‘Pulp and Paper Market Size, Share & COVID-19 Impact Analysis, by Category and Regional Forecast, 2022-2029’ ScienceDirect, ‘Decarbonizing the Pulp and Paper Industry: A Critical and Systematic Review of Sociotechnical Developments and Policy Options’ Cepi, ‘Key Statistics 2020: European Pulp & Paper Industry’ European Paper Recycling Council, ‘Monitoring Report 2021: European Declaration on Paper Recycling 2021-2030’

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Fortune Business Insights, ‘Pulp and Paper Market Size, Share & COVID-19 Impact Analysis, by Category and Regional Forecast, 2022-2029’ European Paper Recycling Council, ‘Monitoring Report 2021: European Declaration on Paper Recycling 2021-2030’ Cepi, ‘Press Release: The Paper value Chain Reached a 71.4% Recycling Rate in 2021’ 4evergreen Forum, ‘Home’ Deskera, ‘Paper Manufacturing: Critical Issues and Challenges’ Mondi Group, ‘Why We Need Both Virgin and Recycled Fibre’ Fortune Business Insights, ‘Pulp and Paper Market Size, Share & COVID-19 Impact Analysis, by Category and Regional Forecast, 2022-2029’ The World Counts, ‘Environmental Impact of Paper’ Paper on the Rocks, ‘Paper Making: What Makes Paper Production such a Wasteful Process?’

4evergreen Forum, ‘Home’ Futurism, ‘Now we have a way to turn Waste Paper into New Paper without using Water’ World Wild Life, ‘Pulp and Paper’ TGW International, ‘Dispelling Myths: Three Common Misconceptions in the Paper Industry’ ‘Top 10 Pulp and Paper Trends in 2023’, StartUs Insights Greycon, ‘Top 10 Pulp & Paper Manufacturers in 2022’ ScienceDirect, ‘Decarbonizing the Pulp and Paper Industry: A Critical and Systematic Review of Sociotechnical Developments and Policy Options’ Statista, ‘Number of Cepi Paper and Pulp Mills in Europe 1991-2021, by Type’ ABB Group, ‘ABB in Pulp and Paper’ ANDITZ, ‘Pulp and Paper’ Bellmer, ‘Paper Technology’ Valmet, ‘Pulp and Energy Business Line’ Voith Paper, ‘Papermaking’

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