Country-specific findings in the MENA REGION
EGYPT - Aflatoxins in cereals, juices, and animal products
In Egypt, the literature on mycotoxins presents a critical examination of their prevalence and the associated public health risks, particularly in the context of food safety.
Over the past decade, extensive work has been conducted on mycotoxins and their risk factors in cereal grains (El-Tahan et al., 2000; Gab-Allah et al., 2023)
One investigation highlighted the alarming presence of aflatoxins in sugarcane and its juice, emphasizing the need for further research to assess mycotoxin exposure across various Egyptian cities (Abdallah et al., 2016)
This foundational work sets the stage for understanding the broader implications of mycotoxin contamination in the Egyptian food supply.
Subsequent contributions (El-Dawy et al., 2024; Gherbawy et al., 2021) have provided a comprehensive overview of mycotoxin contamination in grains, which are affected annually to a significant extent.
These statistics underscore the considerable agricultural losses and health risks posed by mycotoxins, particularly in developing nations like Egypt, where food processing challenges exacerbate the problem.
The focus on the carry-over effects of mycotoxins into animal-derived products further links contamination to broader food safety concerns.
Other findings have addressed the contamination of beef and processed meat products, revealing serious health threats from aflatoxins and ochratoxins (Abd-Elghany and Sallam, 2015; Algammal et al., 2021)
This research emphasizes the importance of stringent food safety protocols in Egypt, as improper handling and storage practices significantly contribute to the prevalence of mycotoxins in meat products.
Dairy products have received extensive attention regarding the presence of mycotoxins.
A comprehensive meta-analysis on the prevalence of aflatoxin M1 in dairy products in selected Middle Eastern countries indicated that most dairy products are contaminated with mycotoxins (Arghavan et al., 2025)
Due to their economic and public health importance, several studies have explored new approaches for the control of mycotoxins (Alghuthaymi et al., 2021; Basiouni et al., 2023; Elwan et al., 2021; Hassan et al., 2023; Imbabi et al., 2024).
In Morocco, research conducted by Zinedine et al. (2017) found that 98 % of couscous samples were contaminated with at least one mycotoxin.
Enniatin B (ENNB), enniatin B1 (ENNB1), enniatin A1 (ENNA1), and zearalenone (ZEN) showed the highest incidence rates among the contaminated samples.
Mycotoxins have also been detected in aromatic and medicinal plants (El Jai et al., 2021)
Moreover, their presence has been confirmed in the breast milk of Moroccan mothers, supporting the hypothesis of widespread contamination of food and medicinal plants (Cherkani-Hassani et al., 2020)
A recent study (Mannani et al., 2023) reported that:
13.8 % of samples were contaminated with aflatoxins (AF), with incidence rates of 23.3 %, 23.3 %, 20 %, 13.8 %, and 3.3 % in raisins, figs, nuts, peanuts, and pistachios, respectively.
Ochratoxin A (OTA) was detected in 17.1 % of samples, with incidences of 3.3 %, 3.3 %, 30 %, 30 %, and 53.3 % in walnuts, pistachios, peanuts, raisins, and figs, respectively.
The co-occurrence of OTA and AF was observed in 4.7 % of all samples.
MOROCCO - High incidence in couscous, medicinal plants, and nuts
ALGERIA - Mycotoxin co-occurrence and regional variability
In Algeria, Belasli et al. (2023) highlighted the incidence of mycotoxins in food products, pointing to challenges related to the lack of regulatory frameworks and insufficient research on exposure levels.
Ben Hassouna et al. (2022) reported that aflatoxins (AFs), aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), ochratoxin A (OTA), fumonisin B1 (FB1), and zearalenone (ZEN) are the most frequently detected mycotoxins in MENA countries, primarily due to climate change in the region.
Aloui et al. (2023) found aflatoxins in 26.2 % of nut samples, 38.7 % of dried fruit samples (including dried figs, dates, and bradj pastries), and 47.9 % of cereal-based products, with mean concentrations ranging from 0.03 to 0.49 µg/kg. OTA was present in 16.9 % of cereal-based samples, with an average concentration of 0.15 µg/kg, but it was not detected in nuts or dried fruits. The incidence of deoxynivalenol (DON) in cereal-based products averaged 85.9 %, with mean concentrations ranging from 90 to 123 µg/kg.
More recently, Khouni et al. (2025) reported that mycotoxin contamination increased from 37.6 % in the 2020 harvest to 55.2 % in 2021.
They noted that the most frequently observed mycotoxin co-occurrence involved enniatin A1, enniatin B, and enniatin B1 (ranging from 0.5 to 126 µg/kg), along with DON (1307 µg/kg).
Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), at concentrations between 0.4 and 2.6 µg/kg, was detected in only one sample collected from the continental region.
TUNESIA - Contamination in wheat and aromatic herbs
In Tunisia, the examination of aromatic herbs revealed the presence of several mycotoxins, including AFB2, AFG1, AFG2, T-2, and HT-2 (Potori et al., 2020)
Aloui et al. (2023) reported the detection of 22 mycotoxins in 136 samples of durum wheat collected during the 2020 and 2021 harvests.
Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and/or enniatins were predominant. Specifically, enniatin A1, enniatin B, and enniatin B1 were detected in wheat samples collected directly from the field.
CONCLUSION: towards integrated mycotoxin management in the MENA REGION
In conclusion, the literature highlights a pressing need for integrated and region-specific approaches to address the challenges posed by mycotoxins in the MENA region.
This includes:
Improving detection and monitoring systems
Strengthening regulatory frameworks
Promoting the implementation of comprehensive mitigation strategies across the food and feed chains
Considering the climatic, agricultural, and infrastructural variability among countries, coordinated efforts involving research, policy, and industry are essential to protect public health, safeguard animal production, and ensure long-term food safety.
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