Jewish Cemeteries Europe Education Report

JEWISHCEMETERIES

ASANEDUCATIONALRESOURCE INHIGHSCHOOLEDUCATION:

EXPLORINGCURRENTPRACTICES,CHALLENGESAND FUTUREOPPORTUNITIESINTEACHINGABOUTJEWISH HERITAGEANDTHEHOLOCAUSTINSEVENEUROPEANCOUNTRIES

AREPORTBYPROFJOANNABEATAMICHLICOFTHEFOUNDATIONFORJEWISHHERITAGE

THEFOUNDATIONFORJEWISHHERITAGEworksinternationallytoensurethat importantJewisharchitecturalsites,monumentsandplacesofculturalsignificancein dangerarepreservedandre-imaginedforasustainablefuture.

THEEUROPEANJEWISHCEMETERIESINITIATIVE(ESJF)providespractical solutionsonhowtophysicallyprotecttheJewishcemeteriesofEurope.Theinitiative’s preservationworkaimstoconstructwallswithlockinggatesaroundvulnerablecemeteriesandlookafterthecemeteries’generalupkeep.Bydoingthis,theESJFProject hopestopreserveJewishmemory,especiallyinso-called‘priorityareas’suchasthe formerSoviet-blocandSouth-EasternEurope.

CENTROPAisanon-profit,Jewishhistoricalinstitutededicatedtopreserving20thcentury JewishfamilystoriesandphotosfromCentralandEasternEuropeandtheBalkans,and disseminatingthesestoriesandphotosthroughfilms,booksandexhibitions.Centropa’s mainofficeisinVienna,butitalsohasofficesinBudapest,HamburgandWashingtonDC.

JEWISHCEMETERIES ASANEDUCATIONALRESOURCE INHIGHSCHOOLEDUCATION:

EXPLORINGCURRENTPRACTICES,CHALLENGESAND FUTUREOPPORTUNITIESINTEACHINGABOUTJEWISH HERITAGEANDTHEHOLOCAUSTINSEVENEUROPEANCOUNTRIES

AREPORTBYPROFJOANNABEATAMICHLICOFTHEFOUNDATIONFORJEWISHHERITAGE

FOREWORD

ThisreportbyProfJoannaMichlicispartofanunprecedentedinitiativebytheEuropeanUnion topreserveandpromoteawarenessof1,700JewishcemeteriesfromsevencountriesinEastern Europe,whichisbeingimplementedbythreeconsortiumpartners–theFoundationforJewish Heritage,theEuropeanJewishCemeteriesInitiative,andCentropa.

TheseJewishsitesprimarilyrepresent‘orphaned’heritage.Thecommunitiesthatthecemeteries onceservedweremostly extinguishedduringtheHolocaust.Inmanyplaces,theJewishcemetery remainsasthelastphysicalevidenceofoncethrivingJewishlife.Thevastmajorityaretodayina parlousstate,havingsufferedyearsofneglectandininstancescompletedestruction.

Indeed,theveryexistenceoftheseJewishcommunitieshasbecomelargelymarginalisedand forgotten,whichiswhythisEUprojectisofsuchcriticalimportance.Notonlydoesitaddressthe preservationofcemeteriesbutitispreservationwithaspecialpurpose,toensurethattheJewish lifeintownsandcitiesacrossEasternEuropeisrecalled,understood,commemoratedandcelebrated.

Joanna’sbriefwastoaddressthespecificeducationalpotentialofJewishcemeteries–how Jewishcemeteriescanserveas‘outdoorclassrooms’;aprofoundtoolforteacherstouseineducatingtheirpupilsonthelocalJewishnarrative.Herapproachinvolvedlisteningcarefullytothe voicesfromtheregion,andthosewithaparticularinterestandexpertiseinthesubject.Theresult isadocumentthatrepresentsasignificantstatementonthecurrentpossibilities,whilealso addressingthechallengesandthesensitivitiesatthistime.

TheJewishexperienceinevitablytouchesuponwhatisnowconsideredfundamentalEuropean values–ofhumanrights,democracy,andtheruleoflaw.FindingwaystoengagewiththeJewish legacyinEuropehasaspecialimportancefortoday.

March2023

DameHelenHydeDBE MichaelMail Chair,FoundationforJewishHeritage ChiefExecutive,FoundationforJewishHeritage

PART 1 OVERVIEW

“Cemeteriesofferagreatopportunity.Thereissomuchtobelearnedfromthem.”

Prof.BarbaraKirshenblatt-Gimblett

“TheCemeteryinOkopowaisnomeregraveyard,butaliving,liminalspace,abridgeacross time,opentoanyandallwhowishtospeakwiththedead.” RokhlKafrissen 2

1.1 INTRODUCTION

IamahistorianofEastEuropeanJewryandtheHolocaustspecialisinginthememorialisationof theHolocaustinpost-communistEurope,thehistoryoftherescueofEastEuropeanJews,andof JewishchildhoodduringandaftertheSecondWorldWar.Asahighschoolanduniversitystudent, Ihadtheprivilegeofwitnessingandparticipatingina“historyrevolution”thattookplaceinEast CentralandEasternEuropethankstotheopeningupofnationalandregionalarchives,andthe developmentofnewsalientapproachestowardsJewishheritageandtheHolocaustintheaftermathofthepoliticaltransformationof1989andtheearly1990s.Beingengagedindifferent researchprojectsandscholarlydiscussionswithcolleaguesfrompost-communistEurope,Ihave beenacutelyawareoftheimportanceofincorporatingthelatesthistoricalresearchandpreviously neglectedprimarysourcesintohistorycurriculaathighschoolanduniversitylevels.Ibelievethat, asamemberofascholarlycommunity,Ihavearesponsibilitytoassistinreducingglaringgaps betweenthelatestimpartialscholarshipandhistoricalhighschoolcurriculaonJewishheritage andtheHolocaustinthepost-communistregion.In2019,myproposaltoestablishaninternationalworkshoponthehistoryandmemoryoftherescueofJewsinPolandfromacomparative perspectivewonanawardfromtheGlobalEducationOutreachProgramme(GEOP)ofthePolin Museum,Warsaw.DuetotheglobalCovidpandemic,theworkshopdidnottakeplaceuntil2021. Theparticipantswerescholars,educatorsandcuratorsfromthenon-formaleducationsector representingdifferentnon-governmentalorganisationsinPoland,Bulgaria,Romania,Germany,Israel andtheUSA.Duringtheworkshop,itbecameclearthatthenon-formaleducationalsectorempowers theformaleducationalsectorinteachingaboutdemocracy,non-partisannationalhistories,Jewish historyandtheHolocaust,andthevaluesofpluralismandopennesstowardsothers.

1.2 THEAIMSOFTHEREPORT

ThisreportispartofthecontributionoftheFoundationforJewishHeritagetotheEU-funded pilotprojectsetupwiththeaimofpreservingJewishcemeteriesinEuropeasajointeffortof threeleadingJewishheritageNGOs,withtheFoundationcollaboratingwithESJF(EuropeanJewish CemeteriesInitiative)andCentropa.

Jewishcemeteries,ofwhichtherearemorethan9,000acrossEurope–ofteninplaceswhere Jewsnolongerreside–offerauniquelycompellingeducationalsphereforstudentsofallagesto encounterJewishheritageonalocal,regionalandnationallevel.TheFoundationforJewish Heritage,ESJFandCentropahavebeenengagedintherecordingandpreservationofJewish heritageforanumberofyears.TheseNGOshavebeenprovidingvitalresourcestoeducators engagedinbothformalandinformaleducationinpost-communistEurope.

1 Prof.BarbaraKirshenblatt-Gimblettinanemailcommunicationwiththeauthorofthisreport,21July2022.

2 RokhlKafrissen,“BuriedHistory.Rokhl’sGoldenCity:TracingtwostoriesofwartimeheroisminWarsaw”, Tablet,7July2022,https://www.tabletmag.com/sections/community/articles/buried-history-warsaw, (accessed12September2022).

1

ThisreportexaminesthestateofhighschooleducationinaddressingJewishheritageand theHolocaustinsevencountriesofthepost-communistregion:Georgia,Hungary,Lithuania, Moldova,Poland,SlovakiaandUkraine.Itsfocusisonthecurrentstateofhighschoolcurricula andtheachievements,challenges,limitationsandneedsofhighschoolteachersengagedin teachingaboutJewishheritageandtheHolocaust.Thereportexaminestheextenttowhich teachers havealreadyincorporatedJewishcemeteriesinlessons,andhowtheycanmakebetter useofJewishcemeteriesintheirteaching.Therefore,theviewsofhighschoolteachersplay acentralroleinthisreport.Thereportalsooffersrecommendationsonthedevelopmentof systematicandricheducationalcurriculaincorporatingJewishcemeteries.

Therearetwokeyaimsofthisreport.Thefirstistoprovideageneraloverviewofthecurrent levelofengagementwiththeextensivepre-1939Jewishculturalheritage,andthetopicofthe Holocaust,inhighschooleducationinsevenpost-communistcountries.ThesecondistohighlightspecificeducationalprojectsthatincorporatesitesofJewishcemeterieswithinhighschool curricula.ThelatterwillhelpempowerlocalactorstopreserveJewishcemeteriesbyengaging youngpeopleatbothintellectualandempathiclevelsinalastingway.This,inturn,willstrengthen civil,pluralistanddemocraticsocietiesthroughouttheregion.

Thereportsummarisesthescopeofpreservation,andeducationalprojectsineducational settings.ItalsorevealshowthevariousprogrammesconductedbytheESJF,CentropaandtheFoundationforJewishHeritagehaveimpactedformalhighschooleducation.Tomeetthekeygoalsofthis report,Idesignedaquestionnaire(seetheappendix)forintervieweesfromthesevencountries.

Thecentralpositionofthisreport isthatthespaceofJewishcemeteriesoffersarichand effectiveeducationalresourceforteachingaboutJewishhistory,society,cultureandJudaism. JewishcemeteriesrepresentsacredspacesinJewishtraditionandcanenablestudentstomake meaningfulconnectionsbetweenJewishreligiousandsocialandculturallife.Itcanalsooffer powerfulempathiclessonsaboutthefunctionalandspiritualsignificanceoftheJewishcemetery, andaboutindividualmembersoftheJewishcommunitywhowereburiedthere,aboutlocalJewish history,andaboutconnectionswithnon-Jewishmembersofthelocalcommunity.

WithregardstothehistoryoftheHolocaustandlessonstobetaughtfromthiswatershed eventintwentiethcenturyEurope,thespaceoftheJewishcemeterycanconstituteapowerful educationalresourceinteachingaboutJewishlifeandsurvivalstrategiesinNazi-occupied Europe,andabouthumanandmateriallossescausedbythephysicaldestructionofEuropean JewryduringtheHolocaust.InincorporatingtheJewishcemeteryintoteachingaboutthesocial historyoftheHolocaust,studentscanlearnaboutrarelyaddressedhistoricaltopicssuchasthe Jewishcemeteryasasiteofescapefrompersecution;asaplaceofsmugglinggoods;andasa placeofconcealment,hidingJewishfugitivesincludingchildren.TheJewishcemeteryalso servesasapowerfuleducationaltoolinteachingabouttheperpetrationofgenocide,empathic memorialisationofJewishvictims,aswellasinraisingawarenessofthedevastatingimpactof antisemitismandviolenceonJewishcommunities,andrelationshipsbetweenJewsandnon-Jews inthepastandpresent.Therefore,contactwiththeJewishcemeterycancontributetocritical thinking,ethicalcitizenshipandopennesstowards‘theother’amongyoungpeople.

Iinvestigatethescope,achievementsandlimitationsof thecurrenthistorycurriculaconcerningthelevelsofincorporationofJewishcemeteriesintohighschooleducationbycollating responsesfromthefollowinggroupsofstakeholders:

1 highschoolteachers

2 informaleducatorsrepresentingmajorNGOs

3 grassrootactivistsengagedinthepreservationofJewishcemeteries

4 scholarsandexpertsfrompost-communistEurope,aswellasfromtheWest

5 membersofTeachers’Associationsandnationaltrainingbodiesand,toalesser degree,governmentrepresentatives.

Representativesofthepilotprojectinthesevencountrieshavecollectedresponsesfromallfive groups,andthesearecitedinthereportanonymously:onlywithinitialsandinsomecaseswith alocationoftheschool.Inaddition,Ihaveconductedinterviewswithindividualsrepresentingthe firstfourgroupsofstakeholders.Theyhavegivenmepermissiontocitethembytheirfullnames. However,insomecasesIonlycitewithinitialsgiventhepoliticalsituationin theircountry.

Forthereport,Ialsoanalysesecondaryliteratureandvariouslocalandregionalinitiatives thathaveincorporatedJewishcemeteriesintoschooleducationalprogrammes.Ibrieflydiscuss thebeneficialvalueofpeer-to-peerlearningmodelsinvolvinghighschoolandundergraduate andgraduateuniversitystudents.Ineachcountry,Isituatetheissueofeducationalopportunities andchallengeswithinabroaderpoliticalandculturalcontext.Therefore,Iprovidebriefinformation onthehistoryoftheJewishcommunity,theHolocaustandpost-wardevelopments,andpostcommunisteducationonJewishhistory,culturalheritageandtheHolocaust.

1.3

THEPOLITICALANDCULTURALCONTEXTFORTHEEMERGENCEOF

JEWISHHERITAGEINPUBLICMEMORY,HISTORYANDEDUCATION

OntheeveoftheSecondWorldWar,over9millionJewslivedinEurope.Jewishcommunitiesof pre-1939Europewerecharacterisedbysocialandlinguisticdiversityandreligiousheterogeneity, andanimmenselyrichculturalandmaterialheritagegoingbackhundredsofyears.European Jewsexhibiteddifferentdegreesofacculturationandassimilationintonon-Jewishsocieties,and havecontributedenormouslytoeveryaspectofthepolitical,economicandculturallifeofmodern Europeansocieties.DuringtheSecondWorldWar,6millionEuropeanJewsweremurdered.

Today,theHolocaustisrecognisedasa“Europeanproject” 3 inwhichtheGermanswere indisputablytheinitiators,architectsandexecutioners,buttheyfoundlocalhelpers,facilitators andpartnersacrossWesternandEasternEurope.IntheimmediateaftermathoftheHolocaust, JewishsurvivorswereeitherdisplacedfromtheirhomesorforcedtoseekrefugebeyondEurope’s borders.TheannihilationofmanyEuropeanJewishcommunities,thedislocationoftheEastEuropeanJewishrefugees,andtheenormousplunderanddevastationofpre-1939materialandcultural heritageofEuropeanJewswreakedirrevocablechangeinpost-1945continentalEuropeandits social,cultural,andgeographiclandscapes.AsaconsequenceoftheHolocaustandapost-1945 upsurgeofantisemitisminvariouscountries,Jews,JewishculturalheritageandJewishhistoryare todaylargelyunknowntolargesegmentsofEuropeansocieties,especiallythoseofthepost-war generations.IncommunistEasternEurope,JewishheritageandtheHolocausthavebeenvirtually erasedfrompublicmemory,historyandeducationforideologicalreasons.4

However,inthe1990s,interestinJewishculturalheritage,pre-1939Jewishsocietyandhistory, andtheHolocausthasrevivedacrossEuropeandbeyond.Inthepost-1989erathatsawthecollapseofcommunismandtheascendanceofliberaldemocraciesinEasternEurope,anewtrendof rediscoveringJewishculturalandmaterialheritagehasemerged,andhasbeenenthusiastically endorsedbyliberalnon-Jewishmilieusintheregion.5

3 MaryFulbrook,“TheHolocaustasaEuropeanProject”,KeynotelectureduringtheconferenceHolocaust andtheColdWar,theFritzBauerInstitute,Germany,26May2021.

4 OntheissueofthetreatmentofJewsandtheHolocaustduringthecommunistera,John-PaulHimka,and JoannaBeataMichlic(eds) BringingtheDarkPasttoLight:TheReceptionoftheHolocaustinPostcommunist Europe (Lincoln,NE:UniversityofNebraskaPress,2013).HereafterHimkaandMichlic, BringingtheDark PasttoLightinPostcommunistEurope,inKlas-GöranKarlssonandUlfZander,eds. EchoesoftheHolocaust: HistoricalCulturesinContemporaryEurope,(Lund,NordicAcademicPress,2003).

5 Forasummaryofallthedevelopments,seeBrianGraham,PeterHowardeds., TheRoutledgeResearch CompaniontoHeritageandIdentity (London,Routledge,2016),https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315613031

Chişinău,Moldova

Tarnów,Poland

Underthenewpoliticalclimateofthe1990sand2000s,grassrootactivists,educatorsand historianshavebeguntodelineateandevaluatetheremainingJewishheritageandhaveembarked onitspreservation,restorationandmemorialisation.Thisprocesscontinuestodayandhasalready borneimpressivefruitinthepreservationandrestorationofJewishcemeteriesandsynagogues throughouttheregion.However,manycemeteriesarestillinneedofurgentrepairand thosethat hadbeenentirelydestroyedareonlypartiallydiscoveredandcommemorated.

Theearly1990salsosawtheemergenceofimportantnon-governmentalorganisationsand movementsrepresentingcivilsocietyinpost-communistEurope,suchasthePolishLublin-based BramaGrodzka–TeatrNNandSejny-basedPograniczeortheRussianMemorial.6 Thelatterwas oneofthreelaureatesofthe2022NobelPeacePrize,despitethefactthatitwascloseddownin RussiainAprilthatsameyear.7 Theseorganisationshaveaddressedtheneedfordialoguewith localethnic,culturalandreligiousminoritiesandneighbouringstates,andhaveemphasisedthe importanceofeducationaboutthemulticulturalpastandhumanrightscrimescommittedinthe past.Fromtheirinception,thesenon-governmentalinstitutionshaveregardededucationabout thepre-1939JewishculturalheritageandtheHolocaustascrucialtobuildingdemocratic,forwardlookingandpluralisticsocietiesintheregion.Thus,intheirmissiontheyhavebeencommittedto strengtheningcivilsocietyandcombatingantisemitism,racismandxenophobia.

Forexample,inPoland,theForumforDialogue,theoldestnon-profitorganisationdedicated totheJewish-Polishencounter,hasbroughtHolocaustsurvivorsandeducatorstonearly10,000 studentsin400schoolsacrossPolandsinceitwascreatedin1998.Likesomeothernon-governmentalorganisationsinthepost-communistregion,theForumforDialoguehasfocusedonrunning educationalprogrammesinsmalltownsandvillagesthatoncehadvibrantJewishcommunities.

Theselocationscontainpreciousmaterialandculturalremainsoftherichpre-1939Jewishheritage, thoughtheirinhabitantsareoftenunaware.AcoreprogrammeoftheForumforDialogueisknown astheSchoolofDialoguewherebystudentsatpartnerschoolsconductindependentresearchon theirlocalJewishcommunity’shistory.Theresearchculminatesinastudent-ledwalkingtourfor localresidents.Thisisanexampleofgoodeducationalpractice,empoweringhighschoolstudents toteachmembersoftheirlocalcommunitiesabouttheJewishpast.Thehighschoolstudent–thelearner–becomestheteacher.

Formorethantwentyyears,non-governmentalorganisationshaveplayedacriticalrolein providingin-servicetrainingforcohortsofhighschoolteacherswhohavebeenvitalinintroducingthehistoryoftheHolocaustandpreandpost-1945Jewishheritagetotheirstudents. Throughoutthe1990sandthefirstdecadeofthethirdmillennium,thankstothethenthriving liberalphaseofdemocracyinpost-communistEurope,NGOswereabletorunavarietyof extra-curricularworkshopsforschoolstudentsinandoutsideoftheclassroom:inmuseums, synagoguesandJewishcemeteries.

ChristineBeresniova, anexpertoneducationabouttheHolocaustinLithuania,differentiates threemajorfactorsinfluencingpositiveengagementwiththeHolocaust(andJewishheritage) amonghighschoolteachersinpost-1990Lithuania:1.supportivemanagementandpeernetworksinschools2.apersonalcommitmenttoteachingvalueslinkedtotolerancebecauseof political,religiousorfamilialpredispositionsorcommitmenttoLGBTQrights(consideredclosely relatedtootherminorities’rights)and3.pragmaticcareeristreasonslinkedtoopportunitiesfor training,careerdevelopmentorconnectionstoWesternelites.8 Thesefactorsaretrueforother post-communistcountriesunderanalysisduringthesameperiod.

6 OnmemoryactivismintheareaofPolish-JewishrelationsandthememorialisationoftheHolocaustby BramaGrodzka–TeatrNNandPogranicze,seeJanineHolc, ThePoliticsofTraumaandMemoryActivism. Polish-JewishRelationsToday (Cham,Switzerland,PalgraveMacmillan,2018).

7 See, “Russian,Ukrainian,BelarusianRightsDefendersAwardedNobelPeacePrize”.TheMoscowTimes 7October2022.https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2022/10/07/russian-ukrainian-belarusian-rightsdefenders-awarded-nobel-peace-prize-a79022

8 ChristineBeresniova, HolocaustEducationinLithuania:Community,ConflictandtheMakingofCivilSociety (NewYork,London,LexingtonBooks,2017),Chapter4.

However,withtheriseofilliberalgovernmentsintheregioninthepost-2010era,most teacherswhoremainengagedinimpartialteachingaboutJewishheritageandtheHolocaustare chieflymotivatedbyapersonalcommitmenttoteachingvalueslinkedtodemocracyandstandingupagainstracism,xenophobiaandantisemitism.Thus,theirworkcanbeviewedas,what ChristineBeresniovacalls,“socialresistance”thatrequirestheteacherstodeconstructpopular nationalistnarrativesaboutthepast,especiallyaboutattitudesandpracticestowardsJewish communitiesduringtheSecondWorldWar.9 Withtheintensificationofsuchnarrativesinmainstreampoliticallifeandthepublicsphereinthepost-2010era,theworkofhighschoolteachers committedtothevaluesofdemocracyisincreasinglychallenging.Someteachersareforcedto defytheofficialcurriculumand,insomecases,theyhavetodisregardtheirownheadteachers’ viewsinordertoteachaboutJewishheritageandtheHolocaust.

ThisreportconfirmsthathighschoolteachersinallsevencountriesconsistentlyvieweducationonJewishheritageandtheHolocaustasundertakenbyindividualeffortratherthanbynational mandateissuedthroughtheMinistryofEducation.Mostoftheinterviewedhighschoolteachers criticisethelackofteachertrainingonJewishheritageandtheHolocaust.Theneedforsystematic teachertrainingonJewishheritageandtheHolocaustatbothBAandMAlevelsatcollegesand universitiesisamajorissuethatthisreporthighlights.

DuringtheliberaldemocraticphaseofmemorialisationoftheHolocaustbetweenthelate 1980sandtheearly2000s,thedestructionofEuropeanJewswasbecomingrecognisedbythe WestasapivotaleventintwentiethcenturyEurope.Liberaldemocraticpoliticalandculturalelites ofpost-communistEuropeacceptedtheWesterninterpretationoftheHolocaustforavarietyof pragmatic,socialandmoralreasons.However,despitethepresenceoftheHolocaustinmultiple areasofsocial,culturalandpoliticallifeinEurope,publicawarenessoftheeventisneitherwidespreadnorsecure.ImportantresearchinrecentyearsbyinstitutionssuchasUNESCO,theGeorg EckertInstituteandUniversityCollegeLondonhasrepeatedlyrevealedacomplexglobalmapof Holocausteducationandtheprevalenceofmythsandmisconceptionsinhistoricalknowledge andunderstanding.10 Oneoftheoutcomesofthisresearchistherealisationthattheprevalent modelsofeducationarenotnecessarilyeffectivenorappealingtoyoungpeople,andthatthereis aneedfornewmodelsthatwouldengagethestudentsonbothintellectualandempathiclevels, anddemonstraterelevancetotheirownlives.Thisfindingsupportstheideathatmoreemphasis shouldbeplacedontheinvestigationoflocalhistorywithhighschoolstudentsasactivelearners engagedinresearchinlocalarchives,museums,Jewishcemeteriesandsynagogues,andininterviewinglocalinhabitantsincludinganyremainingHolocaustsurvivors.

In2014,theAnti-DefamationLeague(ADL)carriedoutapollofworldwideantisemitism includingpopularattitudes.11 Amongthefindings,35percentofpeopleinthecountriespolled hadneverheardoftheHolocaust.Ofthe26percentofpeoplewhoholdantisemiticviews, 70percenthadneveractuallymetaJewishperson.InaDecember2018EUsurvey,80percent

9

10 Seeforexamplethereportsof2014, TheInternationalstatusofeducationabouttheHolocaust:aglobal mappingoftextbooksandcurricula,https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000228776and WhatdostudentsknowandunderstandabouttheHolocaust?EvidencefromEnglishsecondaryschools, https://holocausteducation.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/What-do-students-know-and-understandabout-the-Holocaust2.pdf

11 https://global100.adl.org/public/ADL-Global-100-Executive-Summary.pdf

ChristineBeresniova,“ResistanceandResiliencewithinLithuaniaHolocausteducation,” Holocaust Remembered.ResistanceandResilience,ASpecialSupplement,ColumbiaEducationCommission, 26April2019,vol.6,4.

ofEuropeanJewsfeltthatantisemitismintheircountryhadincreasedoverthepastfiveyears, and40percentlivedindailyfearofbeingphysicallyattacked.12

Globalpoliticalandculturaldevelopmentsoftheearly2010scanbeviewedasoneofthekey factorscontributingtotheincreaseofantisemitismandgradualweakeningofknowledgeabout pre-1939EuropeanJewishheritageandtheHolocaust.This,inturn,isconducivetotheweakeningofhighschooleducation onthesubjects.Theearly2010switnessedtheriseofradicalleftwingantisemiticideologiesinmainstreampoliticalandculturalmilieusintheWestequating IsraelwithNazism,andalsotheriseofright-wing,illiberalandauthoritarianregimesinpostcommunistEurope.Thebestillustrationofthelatterprocessistwocountries,Hungaryand Poland.ThecurrentPolishgovernmentPiS(LawandJustice),thatbegantogovernin2015,draws onthecollectivistethnic,national,politicalandculturaltraditionsinordertorewritethefuture basedonanauthoritarianmodelofdemocracy.Inthatvision,thePiSgovernmenthasfollowedin thefootstepsofthesimilarlyauthoritariangovernmentofVictorOrbáninHungarywhich,after takingpowerin2010,hasembarkedonanilliberal“occupation”and“colonization”ofthestate, replacingtheyear1989–theyearofpeacefultransformationfromcommunism,13 withtheyear 2010as“theyearzero”inthehistoryofpost-communistHungary.14 Inbothcases,thebright futureofthenationreliesonthe“fullandfinal”implementationoftheethnic,collectivistmodel ofnationalismthatdoesnotpermitfreedomofthought,theproliferationofheterodoxideasnor pluralisticeducation15 but,instead,isdrivenbyexclusionaryand“purifying”policiesdirectedat boththenationalpastandtoday’ssociety.Undersuchconditions,highschooleducationcould easilyloseitsautonomyandbecomehighlycentralisedasisindeedthecaseinHungary.

CurrentHungarianandPolishgovernmentsandrespectiveright-wingilliberalpoliticaland culturalelitesinotherpost-communistcountriesrejecttheWesternmodelofreckoningwiththe difficultpastandthememorialisationoftheHolocaustasafundamentaleventintheEuropean historyofthetwentiethcentury 16,andinsteadproducetheirownmeta-narrativesonthedestructionofJewishcommunities.Asaconsequence,thememorialisationoftheHolocaustbasedon theWesternmodelisnowbeinggraduallysubstitutedbyanewhome-basedmemorialisation,

12 https://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/fra-2018-experiences-and-perceptions-of-antisemitism-survey_en.pdf.Seealsoasimilarsurveyof18June2019:https://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/ files/fra_uploads/fra-2018-experiences-and-perceptions-of-antisemitism-technical-report_en.pdf AnotherimportantdocumentreleasedbytheEUwasthesurveyofperceptionsofantisemitismamong youngpeopleinEUstatesof28June 2019,https://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2018/experiencesand-perceptions-antisemitism-second-survey-discrimination-and-hate

13 On“colonization”or“occupation”ofthestate,see,forexample,JanWernerMüller, WhatIsPopulism? (Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress,2016),44.

14 OntheeffortsofFIDESZ’sauthoritariangovernmenttoreplacetheliberaldemocracyof1989withthe illiberalvisionof2010,seeHollyCase“Nowwho’slivingtruth?” Eurozine,(13June2017), https://www.eurozine.com/now-whos-living-in-truth/(accessed15September2019).

15 Greenfeld, Nationalism,p.87;andJoannaBeataMichlic,“ThereturnoftheimageoftheJewasPoland’s threateningother:Polishnationalidentityandantisemitisminthethirddecadeaftertheendofcommunismin1989,”chapter30in ResearchHandbookonNationalism,eds.byLiahGreenfeldandZeyingWu, (Oxford,ElgarEdwardofOxford,2020)406-427.HereafterMichlic,“ThereturnoftheimageoftheJew asPoland’sthreateningother”.

16 OntheHolocaustasafundamentaleventinEuropeanpoliticalcultures,see,forexample,Diner(2003), pp.36–44;andKlas-GöranKarlsson,“TheHolocaustasaproblemofhistoricalculture:theoreticalandanalyticalchallenges.”InKlas-GöranKarlssonandUlfZander(eds), EchoesoftheHolocaust:HistoricalCultures inContemporaryEurope.(Lund:NordicAcademicPress,2003),p.18.Ontheimportanceofmemoryas aleadingculturalterminhistory,seeAlonConfino,“RememberingtheSecondWorldWar,1945-1965: NarrativesofVictimhoodandGenocide,” CulturalAnalysis 5(2005):1-23,withtheresponsebyRobertG. Moeller,http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~caforum/volume4/vol4_article3.html(accessed20November,2007).

thatIcall(anti)-memorialisationoftheHolocaust 17,thatshiftsitsfocusto(ethnic)national sufferingandheroismandtothenon-JewishrescuersofJewswhosehistoryisweaponisedfor politicalgoals.Inthemoreradicalright-wingversion,itisfrequentlypepperedwithnew-old covertandovertantisemiticnarratives.Thishasadamagingimpactoneducationfordemocracy sincehighschoolteacherswhoadvocatealiberal,inclusivemodelfinditincreasingly difficult toteachtheHolocaust,JewishhistoryandJewishheritage.IncontrasttoHungary,thePolish governmenthasnotyetsucceededinintroducingfullycentralisedcontroloverschoolsproposed bythecurrentMinisterofEducationandSciencePrzemysławCzarnek.18 However,highschool headmastersandteachersinPolandareincreasinglyworriedaboutthepotentialfutureimplementationofsuchlawsthatwouldmakeitdifficult,ifnotimpossible,tobringinoutsidespeakerssuchaslocalHolocaustsurvivorsandrepresentativesoflocalNGOs.Theyarealsoconcerned aboutfuturepossibilitiesofconductingon-sitelessonsinJewishcemeteries,synagoguesand museums,andaboutopportunitiestoparticipateinextra-curricularprogrammesrunbynongovernmentalNGOssuchastheSchoolofDialogue.NGOstodayhaveincreasinglylimitedaccess toschools,andschooladministrationsaresometimesreluctanttogivepermissionfortheir activitiesduetofearofrepercussions.19

Thepotentialforconflictwithcolleagues,bothfellowteachersandheadmasters,whooppose aliberalinclusivecurricula,makessometeachershesitanttoteachabouttheHolocaustandJewishheritage.Forexample,teachersandschoolheadmastersinLithuaniaavoidthetopic:Asone teacherexplained,“teachersandschooldirectorsdonottalkaboutthesubject‘unlesstheyhave to.’Thefrequentlyspokencomment‘unlesstheyhaveto’highlightshowunpopularthetopic hasbecomeinLithuaniansociety.ItalsodemonstratesthattheeducationalsysteminLithuania isaverticalhierarchyratherthanahorizontalstructure.” 20

Overall,thisisanalarmingdevelopmentinthepost-communistregion,revealingthatilliberal nationalistshaveembarkedonstrategiesofreworkingtheirnationalhistoriesofWorldWarIIand theHolocaustinordertoemphasisetheirown(ethnic)victimhoodand“collectiveinnocence”with regardtothetreatmentoftheirrespectiveJewishpopulationsandotherminoritiessuchasRoma.21 ThisdevelopmentconstitutesarealdangertothememorialisationoftheHolocaustandthe recognitionandpreservationofEuropeanJewishculturalheritageinthefuture.

17 AccordingtothehistorianTimothySnyder,thecurrentPiSvisionofWorldWarIIisin“animplicitalliance withRussianmemorypolitics.”SeeTimothySnyder,“Polandvs.history,” TheNewYorkReviewofBooks, 3May2016,https://www.nybooks.com/daily/2016/05/03/poland-vs-history-museum-gdansk/ (accessed15September2019).

18 Seereport,“Polishpresidentvetoesgovernment’slawtocentralisecontroloverschools”, https://notesfrompoland.com/2022/03/02/polish-president-vetoes-governments-law-to-centralisecontrol-over-schools/

19 IwouldliketothankPaulaSawicka,thechairmanoftheacademicboardoftheAssociationagainst AntisemitismandXenophobia,OpenRepublicforsharingwithmeherthoughtsonthesubject, emailcorrespondenceof5November2022.OnOpenRepublic,seehttps://www.otwarta.org/en/

20 ChristineBeresniova,“‘UnlessTheyHaveto’:Power,PoliticsandInstitutionalHierarchyinLithuanian HolocaustEducation,”inZehavitGrossandE.DoyleStevick,eds. AstheWitnessesFallSilent:21stCentury HolocaustEducationinCurriculum,PolicyandPractice (NewYork,London,Springer,2015)391-407.

21 OntheproblemofwhitewashingtheHolocaustinpost-communistEuropeinthepost-2015period, JelenaSubotić, YellowStar,RedStar:HolocaustRemembranceAfterCommunism (IthacaNY,Cornell UniversityPress,2019);RobertRozett,“DistortingtheHolocaustandWhitewashingHistory:Toward aTypology,” IsraelJournalofForeignAffairs,13(1),2019,23–36;andMichlic,“Thereturnoftheimage oftheJewasPoland’sthreateningother.”

THEJEWISHCEMETERYASANIMPORTANTEDUCATIONAL ANDHISTORICALRESOURCE

Insuchachallengingpoliticalandculturalclimate,theroleofJewishcemeteriesineducationcan beviewedasindispensableincounteractingantisemitismandthecurrentweaponisationofJewish historyandtheHolocaust.Jewishcemeteriesoffereducatorsanopportunitytointroducestudents topre-warJewishlifeandculture,aswellastotherupturecreatedbytheHolocaustinanengaging andexperientialmanner.Thestudyofthesesitescouldbringhomethefactthatthedestruction ofEuropeanJewryisnotasubjectthatisalienandremotetothesestudentsbut,onthecontrary, ispartoftheirlocalcommunity’shistoryandgeography.Insteadofencounteringfactsintextbooks,studentscanwalkthroughhallowedJewishspacesandcomeface-to-facewithevidence ofthediversityofJewishlife,examplesofJewishpractices,storiesofindividualJewishlivesand theafter-effectsofgenocide.BylearninginJewishcemeteries,studentscannotonlygainintellectualknowledge,butalsodevelopempathytowardsthoseburied;thefamousandtheunknown, adultsandchildren.

Thus,theintegrationofJewishcemeteriesintohighschooleducationcanmakestudyingpre1939JewishheritageandtheHolocaustameaningfulintellectualandspiritualexperience,relevant toyoungstudents’lives.Incultureswherethereisrespectforthedead(annualAllSouls’Day commemoratedon1NovemberbyCatholics),incorporatingJewishcemeteriesshouldbeseen aspartofalong-terminnovativeeducationalprogramme,shapedwiththeparticipationofnongovernmentalorganisations,grassrootsactivists,headmasters,teachersandstudents.

AccordingtoAntonyPolonsky,EmeritusProfessorofHolocaustStudiesatBrandeisUniversity andchiefhistorianoftheMuseumoftheHistoryofPolishJewsinWarsaw, “Jewishcemeteries constituteanimmensehistoricalresourceinformalandinformaleducationabouttheJewishpast andpresentinthepost-communistregion.OneofthefirstactswhichaccompaniedtheestablishmentofaJewishcommunitywasthecreationofacemetery.” 22 Jewishculturerequiredthe separationofthedeadfromplacesofhumanhabitationbut,atthesametime,Jewishculture greatlyhonouredandrespectedthedeadwhowereburiedwithceremonyinaccordancewiththe regulationsofJewishlaw.Familieswhocouldafforditprovidedimpressivetombstones(matzevot). Religiousfigures,whetherrabbisortsaddikim,wereoftenburiedinaseparateenclosurecalled anohel.ThisisapartofJewishheritagethroughwhichhighschoolstudentscanencounterindividualJews,andgainunderstandingandrespectforJewishtraditions.

TheJewishcemeteryperformedseveralotherimportantfunctions.Itwascustomarytovisit thegravesofone’sparentsandotherrelativesontheJewishNewYear.Inaddition,peoplecame tothecemeterytoseektheinterventionofthedead,whetherrelativesorholyindividuals,inthe caseofillnessorplague,ortoblessabrideandgroombeforeawedding.Specificprayers,such asthosefoundin Ma’anehLashon (TheResponseoftheTongue,Prague,1615,withmorethan 20editionsbefore1800)wererecited,whilewomenwhovisitedthecemetery ontheanniversary ofarelative’sdeathorontheHighHolidays,recitedappropriate tkhines (prayersinYiddish). Thesevisitsoftenhadaritualcharacter,suchasprocessionsontheNinthofAvcommemorating thedestructionofthefirstandsecondTemples,andthoseontheeveofRoshHashanahand YomKippur.Insomeplaces,onYomKippureve,womenenclosedthecemetery(orsomeof thegraves)withastringwhilerecitingprayers.Piecesofthiswerelaterusedforcandlewicks. Communalceremonieswithprayerstoendplagueweresometimesaccompaniedbythemarriage ofpoororphans,called shvartsekhupes or shvartsekhasenes (‘blackweddings’).Highschool studentsareusuallycurioustolearnaboutsuchtraditions.

RadomyšlWielki,Poland

Ryglice,Poland

AsacculturationandassimilationmadeitsinroadsinJewishcommunities,thosewho favouredthereformofJewishlifebegantomakeuseoftombstonesusingvernacularlanguage ratherthanHebrew,andweresometimesburiedinspecialsectionsofthecemetery.Jewish industrialistsandbankers,likethePoznańskifamilyinŁódź,builtimposingmausoleumsfor theirfamiliestowardstheendofthenineteenthandbeginningofthetwentiethcentury.

BeforetheSecondWorldWar,therewereapproximately1,200JewishcemeteriesinPoland andaround800havebeenidentified.LargenumbersofJewishcemeteriescanalsobefoundin othercountriesinCentralandEasternEurope,includingLithuania,theCzechRepublic,Slovakia, Hungary,Romania,MoldovaandUkraine.Onlyafewhavebeenrestoredandhowtheremainder canbeproperlypreservedremainsaseriousproblem.Mostofthepreservationprojectswere initiatedinthe1990sandcarriedoutbyNGOsandenthusiasticactivistswiththeassistance ofreligiousandlocalgovernmentalauthorities,andschoolstudents.Theseeffortshavebeen supportedbytheEU,internationalJewishheritageNGOssuchasESJF,theFoundationforJewish HeritageandCentropa,andindividualJewishdescendantsofEastEuropeanJewslivinginthe West.ButtherearestillmanyJewishcemeteriesinvariousstatesofdisrepair.Allcemeteriesface theravagesoftimeandweather,andmostweredesecratedinthepast.However,Jewishcemeteriescontinuetobevandalisedinthepresent.Thistooispartofwhateducatorscanteachin thesespacessincevandalisationofcemeteriesillustratesthatantisemitismstillexists,eventhough Jewishcommunallifehasbeenreducedtonearextinction.Viewing,discussingandhelpingto remedyantisemiticgraffiti,garbageandgeneraldisregardisapowerfulexperientialtoolteachingyoungpeopleempathyandrespectforthedeadaswellasforlivingmembersofreligiousand ethnicminorities.

ManyeducatorsrecognisethevalueandimportanceofthespaceoftheJewishcemeteryas aricheducationalresourceandareenthusiasticallysupportiveofdevelopingnewmodelsincorporatingJewishcemeteriesintotheeducationalsystem.TheyagreethatJewishcemeteriesare meaningfulsitesforengagingwithvariousaspectsofthepre-1939Jewishpast,theHolocaust, aswellascontemporaryissuesofmemory,commemorationandantisemitism.

AccordingtoDrRobertWilliams,ExecutiveDirectorofUSCShoahArchivesandChiefAdvisor toIHRA,incorporatingthespaceoftheJewishcemeteryintoeducationhasthepotential “toframe newthinkingonhowtobuildawarenessaround,teach,andpreserveJewishlifeandculture. Importantly,thisisnotlimitedtocountrieswithintheEuropeanUnion,butalsorelatestoother Europeancountrieswithlessdevelopedinfrastructureforthepreservationofimportantcultural sites.Thisactivitythereforehasthepotentialtoenhancecooperationbetweencountriesacross continentalEuropearoundsetsofissuesthatrelatetothepreservationofJewishlife,thereby openingthedoortoamorenormativeapproachtothisimperativechallenge.” 23 WilliamsalsorecognisesthatutilisingtheJewishcemeteryineducationcouldenhancelearningoutcomesastheyrelatetoculturalpluralismandinter-ethnicrespect,anddemonstrate thatthelegacyofJewishlifeinEasternEuropeisintertwinedwiththehistoryandcultureofnonJewishEuropeans.

Prof.StevenT.Katz,SlaterProfessorofJewishHolocaustStudiesatBostonUniversityand ChairmanoftheAcademicCommitteeoftheClaimsConference,viewsusingJewishcemeteriesin educationasapoignanttoolfordrawing “attentiontotheimmediacyofthesubjectbyshowing howJewishcommunitiesexistedthroughoutEurope,inbothlargeandsmallcitiesandvillages.”

24 Inhisview, “thestudyofgravestoneswillshowandhumanisevariousaspectsofJewishlife,

23 RobertJ.Williams’sStatementonProtectingtheJewishCemeteriesofEurope,of6September2022.

24 StevenT.Katz,StatementonIncorporatingJewishCemeteriesinEducation,of3July2022,giventothe authorofthisreport.

Tarnów,Poland

Chişinău,Moldova

i.e.presentinghusbands,wives,parents,children,teachers,rabbis,workersetc.Thatis,itwill familiarisestudentswiththepresenceoflocalJewsandalsode-mystifythesubject.Jewsand theiridentitieswillbecomemorethanmythandhearsay.” 25

Prof.PolonskystatesthatJewishcemeteriesare “aremarkabletoolforconveyinginformation aboutthenatureoftheJewishcommunitiesinthetownswheretheyaretobefound.Thus,the largecemeteryinWarsawonOkopowaStreetcanbeused,inconjunctionwithotherJewishsites inthecity,topresentahistoryofwhatwasthelargestJewishcommunityinEurope.Thesmaller cemeteryinBródnoinPragaillustratestheproblemsthecommunityfacedinestablishingitself inthePolishcapital.OneofthefeatureswhichcharacterisedbothJewishandCatholicreligious cultureinPoland-Lithuaniawasthevenerationofthedead.Educationaltripswouldbevaluable bothforJewsoutsidetheareaandforpeoplelivinginthesecountries.Itisimportantthateducatorscanreadtheinscriptionsonthetombstones,whichareoftenstrikinglyeloquentandillustrate JewishandCatholicreligiousvalues.”

25 Ibid.

26 Prof.AntonyPolonsky’sStatementonIncorporatingJewishCemeteriesintoHighSchoolEducation, 12July2022.

Szombathely,Hungary

BasedonherexperienceoftakingcollegestudentseverysummertotheJewishcemetery onOkopowaStreet,Prof.EliyanaR.Adler,AssociateProfessorofHistoryandJewishStudiesat PennsylvaniaStateUniversity,statesthatthecemeteryoffersstudentsasiteforpowerfulreflection onthepastWarsawJewishcommunityaswellasphysicalevidenceofitsruin.Adler’seducationaltours forAmericancollegestudentsareanexcellentexampleofgoodpracticethatcanbe easilyadapted:

“Ibeginoutsidethegatesbytalkingwiththestudentsaboutdifferentculturalunderstandingsof deathandcemeteries,allowingthemtoexpressanyanxietytheyfeelaboutenteringaburialsite, andlettingthemknowthatvisitingthedeadisconsideredasignofrespectinJewishculture.

Asweenterthecemetery,IinformthemabouttheJewishcustomofplacingrocksongravestonesandwebegintovisitsomeofthefascinatingpeopleburiedthere.Eachtripisdifferent. Often,webeginbyviewingabeautifulsarcophagusanddiscussingthesymbolismofthemarble reliefsdepictingbothancientandmodernJewishscenes.Aswewindthroughtherowstovisitfamous historians,writers,actors,rabbis,andotherleaders,studentsoftenaskabouttheiconography onthetombstones,thelanguagesrepresented,andthemeaningofcertainphrasesorimages.

Afterourtour,Igivethestudentstimetowander.Theyareeachtaskedwithreturningwitha photograph,comment,orquestion.Wethenshareourfindings.Somestudentsarestruckbythe artistryofthecarvings.Otherswanttodiscusstheiconography.Manyareupsetbythegeneral senseofdisarrayandabandonment.Otherswanttoknowmoreaboutspecificindividuals.

Onlyafterwehaveencounteredthewelterofpre-warJewishlifedowemoveintodiscussing Holocaustsiteswithinthecemetery.Wevisitthegravesofresistancefighters,andJewswhowere buriedwhilepassingasnon-Jews,onlytobereinterredlaterintheJewishcemetery.Recent scholarlyandcommemorativeeffortsaroundbothhidingspotsandmassgravesoffernew opportunitiesfordiscussionandencounter.Onourwayoutofthecemetery,wewashourhands, followingtheJewishcustom.

AftertendaysofintensevisitstoHolocaust-relatedsitesandmeetingswithexperts,intheir evaluationsmanyofthestudentscommentonthecemeterytourasanexperientialandeducationalhighlight.QuiteafewPennStatestudentshaveneverhadtheopportunitytointeractwith Jews,Jewishsites,orJewishculture.Visitingthecemeteryisahands-on,multi-sensualexplorationoftherichnessofJewishlifeinPoland.Eachstudenttakesawaydifferentlessonsand memories,butallseemtograspasenseoftheJewishcivilizationthatoncethrivedthere.” 27

Dr.KatarzynaSuszkiewicz,educatorandco-founderofaPolishNGOtitledAntySchematyFoundation2,echoesAdler’spositionontheimportanceofJewishcemeteriesinteachingJewish historyandtheHolocausttoyoungpeople.Since2008,SuszkiewiczhasbeenengagedinJewish cemeterypreservation,andrunningeducationalprojectsintwoprovinces,Małopolskieand Podkarpackie,insouthernPoland.TheFoundation’sactivitiesareanexampleofthebestpreservationandeducationpracticesintheregion.LikeAdler,Suszkiewicziseagertocreateeducational projectsincorporatingJewishcemeteriesandrecognisesthatthisisalsoavehicleforstrengtheningdemocraticvalues:

“TheroleofJewishcemeteriesineducationabouttheHolocaustcannotbeoverestimated.Firstof all,cemeteriesarepartoftheeverydaylandscapeoftheyouthparticipatingintheproject.Often, duringavolunteercamp,itturnsoutthatthisisthefirsttimethattheseyoungpeoplehavethe opportunitytoactuallyenteraJewishcemeteryandreflectontheformerJewishcommunityintheir town.Workingoncleaningandrecordingthematzevot,theyhavetheopportunitytodiscover localJewishpeople,sometimesfamous,sometimesjustordinaryinhabitants.Workinginacemetery broadensthemindsoftheseyoungpeopleandgivesthemacompletelydifferent,moremulticulturalperspective.” 28

SuszkiewiczandTomaszMalec,theFoundationPresident,haveconductedJewishcemetery inventoryprojectsinTarnów,RygliceandRadomyślWielkiwiththeassistanceofhighschool studentsandstudentsoftheInstituteofJewishStudiesattheJagiellonianUniversityinKraków. Suszkiewiczbelievesthatteamworkbetweenhighschoolanduniversitystudentshasbeenan importantaspectoftheFoundation’sapproachbasedonpeer-to-peerlearningandteaching. Duringthefirststageoftheseprojects,schoolstudentscleanthematzevotinthecemeteries, andthen,withtheassistanceofuniversitystudentsandacademicexperts,deciphertheinscriptions.Inthesecondstage,highschoolanduniversitystudentsworktogetheronpreparing inventoriesofthematzevots.

InthecaseoftheTarnówproject,theFoundationcreatedaninventoryofhalfoftheJewish cemetery.Italsopublishedabookontheresearchandcreatedthreecataloguesofmatzevotthat canbeusedbyresearchersanddescendantsofformerJewishresidents.Allactivitieswerecarried outinconsultationwiththeProvincialOfficefortheProtectionofMonumentsandtheOrthodox JewishCommunityinKraków(theownerofthecemetery).29

InthecaseoftheprojectinRyglice,entitled‘SavefromOblivion’,theFoundationsucceeded incleaningthewholecemetery;creatinganinventoryofabout300tombstones;preparingalistof peopleburiedinthecemetery;andproducingapublicationwithinscriptionsfromthetombstones.

StudentsfromtheHighSchoolofEconomicsandHorticultureinTarnówtookpartinthe cleaningandcreationoftheinventory,whiletheworkshopswereattendedbyparticipantsfrom thePrimarySchoolinRyglice.StudentsandgraduatesoftheInstituteofJewishStudiesatthe JagiellonianUniversitycompiledthecollectedmaterialandDrhab.LeszekHońdofromthe Universitysupervisedthepreparationofthepublication.ProjectpartnersincludedtheCityHall inRyglice,anditwasfundedbytheNationalHeritageBoardofPolandaspartoftheTogetherfor Heritageprogramme.

InthecaseoftheRadomyślWielkiprojectcalled‘InsearchoftracesoftheJewishpast’,the Foundationrana5-dayvolunteercamp.StudentsfromTarnówcleaneduppartofthelocalJewish cemeteryandpreparedaninventoryof50matzevot.Theyalsocreatedadatabaseandmapofthe cemetery,andphotographicdocumentationofthetombstones.TheFoundationalsocarriedouttwo educationalworkshopsonmatzevotsymbolismandgenealogyatthePrimarySchoolofJohnPaulII.

AccordingtoSuszkiewicz: “TheprojectwillincreaseknowledgeabouttheJewishcommunity inRadomyślWielkiandconstitutesabaseforfurtherscientificandgenealogicalresearch.The disseminationofthisinformationrelatingtolocalheritageamongtheinhabitantsofRadomyśl Wielki–especiallylocalschoolstudents–isofimmeasurableimportance.” 30

SuszkiewiczacknowledgedtheimportanceofestablishingagoodpartnershipwiththeheadmastersoftheschoolsinRadomyślWielkiandtheenthusiasmanddedicationofoneofthe teachersinparticular,MariaPrzybyszewska.Theinterestandpassionofindividualteachersare keyfactorsbehindeducationalactivitiesinthespaceofJewishcemeteriesinallsevencountries underthisanalysis.

ArichsampleofexamplesofeducationalactivitiesbyteachersandtheirstudentsinJewish cemeteriesacrossthesevenpilotcountriescanbefoundintheCatalogueofBestPracticefor JewishCemeteryPreservationpublishedbyESJFin2021.31

29

Fortheoutcomessee:Photos:http://tarnowskiemacewy.antyschematy2.com/galeria/

2016video:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HLWhTrw1itg

2017video:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XjKMVS0IIwk

Ibid.,Seealsohttps://antyschematy2.com/category/miejsca/radomysl-wielki/ 31 PierreNora,“BetweenMemoryandHistory:LesLieuxdeMémoire,” Representations 26(1989),8.

30

1.5 COMMONTHEMES

Thecemeteries(andsynagogues)intheirvariousstatesofruination,restorationorreutilisation inthesevencountrieshavebecomewhatPierreNoratermed lieuxdemémoire,placeswhere memorycrystallisesandexpressesitself.32 Lieuxdemémoire aresymbolicaswellasfunctional.33 Theylinkcommunitiestoseminalmomentsinthelocal,regional,nationalandinternationalpast, andprovideoccasionsforcelebratingandcommemoratingthem.Theyservetostimulatereflection onapastinmanyinstancespubliclyforgotten,neglected,misusedandmisappropriatedfor generations.Theyalsoservetostimulatereflectiononcurrentactsofvandalismandantisemitism violatingthesecemeteries.Therefore,Jewishcemeteriescouldserveasanessentialresourcein globalcitizenshipeducation,multiculturaleducation,peaceeducationandeducationagainst antisemitismandracism.

Thisreportconfirmsthatthereisagrowingconsensusamonganenthusiasticgroupofeducators thatJewishcemeteriescanandshouldbeusedinteachingaboutthepre-1939richJewishsocial andculturalhistory,andJewishspiritualandmaterialheritage.Throughouttheregion,theJewish cemeteries(andtherestoredorneglectedsynagogues)areoftentheonlyremainingphysicalproof thatJewswereonceanintegralpartofthesocial,cultural,politicalandeconomicfabricofsociety.

32 Ibid.,Seealsohttps://antyschematy2.com/category/miejsca/radomysl-wielki/ 33 Nora,“BetweenMemoryandHistory,”19.

Cemeteriesareacrucialsourceoflocalhistory. “WhatisimportantineducationaboutJewish heritageisitsintegritywiththeotherelementsofteaching,andintegritywithlocalculture. TeachingaboutJewishhistoryandheritageasthehistoryandheritageofco-citizens,co-inhabitants, andnot‘theother’–incorporatingJewishhistoryintogeneralhistoryclasses,teachingJewish literaturewithinnational/generalliterature.

EducationaboutJewishheritageshouldbetaughtbasedonlocalexampleswhichwillbe morerelevantandinspiringfortheyouth.Italsocreatesanemotionalrelationshipbetweenthe studentsandtheirlocalhistory;itislessabstractandmoreapproachable.Italsoenablesteachingnotofanonymousfactsbutmoreofindividualstories;personalaccountsoflocalinhabitants ofJewishorigin.” 34

Atpresent,teacherslackpedagogicalandmethodologicalresourcesintheirnativelanguages to developprogrammesontheJewishpast.TheincorporationofJewishcemeteriesintolocalhistory needstobebackedupbyregulartrainingandeducationalexchangesintheformofregionaland internationalworkshops,andtheprovisionofpedagogicalandmethodologicalresources.

MosteducatorsagreethatJewishcemeteriescanplayanimportantrolespecificallyinHolocaust education,especiallyincountriessuchasUkraine,MoldovaandLithuaniawherethe‘Holocaust byBullets’tookplace–wheremasskillingswereconductedofteninornearJewishcemeteries. Onlyafewteachersandscholarsexpressedreservations:

“ThiswouldreducethesecemeteriesandtheirmeaningtotheHolocaustwhichismisguided. WecannotandshouldnotreduceJudaisminMoldovaandelsewheretotheHolocaust.” 35

“Inmyopinion,theJewishcemeteryshouldn’tbetheonlyplacethathighschoolstudentslearn aboutthehistoryoftheJewishcommunity.Itcouldpotentiallylimitstudents’perceptionsofthe JewishcommunitytotheHolocaustandthedestructionofthecommunity.” 36

OtherscholarsandteachersrecogniseagreatpotentialinincorporatingJewishcemeteriesinto teachingabouttheHolocaust,especiallyinrelationtothesocialhistoryoftheHolocaust,namely topicssuchasJewishagencyinrescue,strategiesofsurvival,anddifferentformsofhelpand self-help.SometeachersinPolandandUkrainealreadyteachaboutJewishcemeteriesasbeing sitesofperpetration,aswellasbeingsitesofrescueandthehidingofJewishfugitives.

However,inGeorgia,teachershardlyhaveanyeducationalresourcesinthenativelanguage toteachaboutEastEuropeanJewishrefugeeswhofledtoGeorgiaduringtheHolocaust.Such resourceswouldenrichthecurriculumoftheHistoryoftheSecondWorldWarandGeorgianHistory courses,asthestudentscouldrelatetoandresearchthe Jewishescaperoutesandlocalassistance toJewishrefugees,andtheirtemporarylifeinGeorgia.

InHungary,becausemostHungarianJewsweremurderedoutsidetheircountry,JewishcemeterieswouldnotbeconsideredappropriateplacesforteachingabouttheHolocaust.

MostteachersofHistory,Literature,CivicStudies/EthicsandGeographystresstheurgent needforteachertraining.Theyrecognisethattextbooksandpedagogicalmethodsarebound togetheranddefinetheoutcomeoflearning.Participationintrainingiscurrentlybasedonthe individualinitiativeofthoseinterested,andnotonastructuraleffortofstateinstitutionsoffering suchtrainingforall.Thisresultsinthedevelopmentofarelativelysmallgroupofhighlymotivated, well-trainedandenthusiasticteacherswho,unfortunately,donotrepresentthewiderpopulation ofteachers.

34 Prof.EdytaGawron,InstituteofJewishStudies,JagiellonianUniversity,Interviewwiththeauthorofthe reporton9November2022.

35 IamgratefultotheSwisshistoriananddiplomat,SimonGeissbühlerforsharinghisthoughtsonthe subject,emailcorrespondenceof17November2022.

36 Interviewof5Novemberof2022withDrMartaDuch-Dyngosz,aMemoryStudiesscholarbasedatthe Humboldt-UniversitätinBerlin.

Rî cova,Moldova

Warsaw,Poland

SomehistoriansteachingatuniversitylevelhaveexpressedthewishtoincludeJewishcemeteriesaspartofLocalHistoryandJewishHistorycoursesfortheirstudentswhoareallprospectivehistoryteachers.InternationalJewishNGOsandlocalNGOshaveplayedagroundbreaking roleinempoweringteacherswithknowledgeandavarietyofpedagogicalandmethodological skillsandresourcestodeliverlessonsaboutJewishhistory,heritageandtheHolocaustbothin andoutsidetheclassroom.

ThefollowingreflectionbyProf.EdytaGawronaboutthesalientroleofNGOsinhighschool educationinPolandalsoappliestoHungary,Lithuania,Moldova,SlovakiaandUkraine.Poland seemstohavethehighestnumberofexperiencedNGOsandgrassrootsprojectsengagedin educationonJewishheritageandtheHolocaust,withsomeNGOsprovidingtrainingforteachers inUkraine.

“Sincethelate1990s,themostsignificantteachertraininghasbeendonebytheNGOs-organizationsandinstitutionsthathavecontinuallyimprovedandwidenedtheireducationaloffer. Foreigninstitutionshavesharedtheirknowledgeonhowtoteach,andalsoonwhatkind ofmaterialscanbeusedtoeducateaboutJewishhistory,JewishheritageandHolocaust.” 37

37 InterviewwithProf.EdytaGawronofJewishStudiesDepartmentatJagiellonianUniversity, on9November2022.

GalicjaJewishMuseum,Kraków,Poland

WithregardsspecificallytoHolocausteducation,somelocalNGOsandgrassrootsactivistsin PolandhavesucceededinforgingclosepartnershipswithinternationalHolocausteducational organisationsandhaveadoptedcreativeglobalcommemorativeprojectswiththeparticipation oflocalprimaryandhighschools.Forexample,IngaMarczyńskafromtheForumforDialogue hasintroducedtheCrocusProject/Krokusprojekt commemoratingoneandahalfmillionJewish childrenandallchildvictimsoftheHolocaustinPrimarySchoolno.12andtheMunicipalSchool ComplexNo.3.inJasłoinsouthernPoland.ThiseducationalactivityispossiblethankstoapartnershipwiththeGaliciaJewishMuseuminKrakówandtheHolocaustEducationTrustIreland.

“Aspartofthisproject,wetalkwithkidsaboutthefateofJewishneighborsduringtheShoah. ItakepupilsforJewishheritagewalks,andalsoconducteducationalclassesattheJewish cemeteryinJasło.Thisyear,wewanttodirectourremembranceactivitiestotheJewishcommunityin Ukrainesothat,inacountryengulfedbywarandaggressionbyRussia,theJewishcommunity knowsthatwearewiththem;werememberthemandcare.Iwouldliketothankthestudentsand myfriend,teacher,MsIlonaDranka,foranotheryearofjointeffortstorestorethememoryof JewishneighboursandvictimsoftheHolocaust.” 38

Marczyńska’sprojectcanhavealong-lastingimpactonthestudentsatbothintellectualand empathiclevels,althoughnostudieshaveasyetbeenconductedtoestablishthis.Butwhatis evidentisthatothercountries,especiallyLithuania,MoldovaandUkraine,couldalsobenefit fromsuchinternationaleducationalinitiatives.

Inallsevencountries,Jewishcemeterieshavethepotentialtoservevariouseducationalaims. TheycanbeaplacetoteachaboutandwitnessJewishheritage.Theycanalsobeusedasa location wherestudentscangetactivelyinvolvedinpreservinghistoricheritage;bycleaningthecemetery, creatingdocumentation,andconductingresearchonthepeopleburiedthere.However,asone oftheleadingeducatorsfromHungaryargues,notalleducationalprogrammesareeffectiveand pedagogicallysound. “AHungariangovernmentsponsoredprogrammeaboutcleaningcemeteries isnotbuiltonstrongmethodologies,butratheronsimplisticideasthatifstudentsareforcedto goandcleantheJewishcemetery,theywouldbecomelessantisemitic.” 39

Ontheotherhand,specialisededucationalprogrammesledbyexperiencedNGOsaregenerally pedagogicallyeffectiveandofgreatbenefittobothteachersandstudents.

Regardingeducationaloutcomes,thisreportconfirmsthefindingsofthecomprehensive IHRAstudy“ResearchinTeachingandLearningabouttheHolocaust”,40 whichhighlightedthe lackofasetofprecisely formulatededucationalgoalsand,subsequently,noevaluationasto whetherthegoalshadbeenachieved.

TheuseofaJewishcemeteryineducationoftenbeginsatthetimeofitsrenovation.Cemeteries thatarerenovatedandproperlymaintainedattractattention.Thus,thereisadirectcorrelation betweenthelevelofpreservationofaJewishcemeteryandthedevelopmentofeducationalprogrammes.Manycemeteriesindisrepaircannotbeusedineducationbecauseoftheirpoorphysical conditionandrelatedsafetyissues.Atthesametime,totallydestroyedcemeteriescanserveto stimulatereflectiononthevoidleftbehindbythemurderedJewishcommunities.Thespaceof anon-existentJewishcemeterycanbeincorporatedintoeducationasacommemorativeplace–aneducationalpracticethathasbeenreportedbyteachersfromPoland,SlovakiaandUkraine.

38 IngaMMarczyńska,Statementfromfacebook:https://www.facebook.com/hashtag/crocusproject IwouldalsoliketothankIngaM.Marczyńskaforgrantingmeaninterviewon5August2022andsharing withmeherexperiencesinnon-formaleducation.

39 InterviewwithZ.Zon29November2022.

40 MoniqueEckmann,DoyleStevickandJolantaAmbrosewicz-Jacobseds., ResearchinTeachingandLearning abouttheHolocaust.ADialogueBeyondBorders (Berlin,Metropol,InternationalHolocaustRemembrance Alliance,2017)http://holocaustremembrance.com/sites/default/files/research_in_teaching_and_learning_ about_the_holocaust_web.pdf.

1.6

SPECIFICISSUESANDCHALLENGES

1.Accesstocemeteries

IntervieweesinallsevencountrieshaveagreedthatutilisingJewishcemeteriesineducationisnot alwayspossibleanddependsonavarietyoffactors.TeachersinHungaryhavereportedthat JewishcemeteriesinthecareofJewishcommunitiesareregularlyclosedbecausethecaretakers areafraidofantisemiticactsbysupportersoftheradicalJobbikpoliticalparty.41 Therefore,access isanissue.Similarsituationsoffearofvandalismandantisemiticactshavebeenreportedin Lithuania,MoldovaandUkraine,andtoalesserdegreeinSlovakiaandPoland.

InPolandandSlovakia,somemunicipalitiesorNGOsassistwiththefinancialcostofschool tripstoaJewishcemetery(orsynagogueormuseumofJewishinterest).InLithuania,thecostof traveltoaJewishcemeterycanbehigh.MunicipalitiesprovideaspecialFreePassforeducational activitiesoutsideofschools, buttheFreePasscanbeusedonlyonceayear.Thereforeteachers sometimeshavetoasktheirstudents’parentstocontributefinanciallytosuchtrips.InGeorgia, dependingonthelocation,itcanbedifficulttoreacharemoteJewishcemetery.

InSlovakianandPolishtownswheretherenovatedJewishcemeteryisinthevicinityofaschool, theschoolsometimes“adopts”it.Whatthatmeansisthatstudentsindifferentyeargroupshave regularopportunitiestolearnspecifictopicsatthecemetery.Thisisoneofthebesteducational practicesencouragingactivepeer-to-peerlearning.

2.CurriculumandtextbookcontentandincorporationofJewishcemeteriesinhighschooleducation

Inallsevencountries,Historytextbooksandothereducationalresourcesissuedbygovernment institutionscontainratherlimitedinformationonpre-1939Jewishhistoryandheritage,andthe Holocaust.42 Forexample,inthecaseoftheHolocaustinPolishtextbooks,thesubjecttakesup only0.8to2.8percentofthecontentof20thcenturyHistorytextbooks.43

However,History

teachersdonotonlyfacethelackoftextbooksandothereducationalresourcesinnativelanguages,theyalsohavetostruggletomaketimeforlessonsonJewishheritageandtheHolocaust giventheextensiveHistorycurriculum.Whatthismeansinpracticeisthatteachersarerequired tocoveramultitudeoftopicsstartingwithAncientGreek Historyandendingonaspectsofglobal andnationalhistoriesofthetwentiethcentury.Pre-1939JewishheritageandtheHolocaustare justoneofmanytopicstocover,withaglaringlyinsufficientnumberofhoursallocatedwithin thecurriculum.ManyteachersfromUkrainereportthatmostlessonsonJewish-relatedtopics aretaughtasoptionalsubjectsandextra-curricularactivities.Withoutthesetwooptions,they wouldnotbeabletoaddressthetopicsatallintheirteaching.Asimilarsituationwithdelivering ademandingcurriculumappliestoothersubjectssuchasLiteratureandNativeLanguages,Civic Studies/EthicsandGeography.Undersuchcircumstances,itischallengingtodesignlessonsat

41 Ontheradicalright-wingmovementinHungary,seePéterBalogh,“SpatialIdentityPoliticsandtheright inHungary,”in TheManyFacesoftheFarRightinthePost-communistSpace.AComparativeStudyof Far-rightmovementsandIdentityintheRegion,(Stockholm,CBEESStateoftheRegionReport,2021), 100-105.

42 Forexample,ontheproblemsinRomaniantextbooks,see,AnaBărbulescu,“DiscoveringtheHolocaustin ourpast:competingmemoriesinpost-communistRomaniantextbooks,” HolocaustStudies:AJournalof CultureandHistory,vol.21,no.3,2015,139-156.

43 ThisestimateismadebyRobertSzuchta,asecondaryHistoryteacherandindependentscholar,inRobert Szuchta,“Zagłada ydówjakotematnauczaniawsystemieformalnejedukacjihistorycznej”,inKatarzyna Liszkaed., Wiedza(nie)umiejscowiona.JakuczyćoZagładziewPolscewXXIwieku?,(Kraków, WydawnictwoUniversitas,Kraków2020),17-54.Hereafter,Szuchta,“Zagłada ydówjakotematnauczania wsystemieformalnejedukacjihistorycznej”.

Jewishcemeterieswithspecificeducationalgoalsinmind.Instead,suchvisitsarerare,limitedto oneayearorless.

Interestingly,exceptforGeorgiawhereeducationalmaterialsarecomparativelyrare,inthe sixothercountries,educatorsandscholarshaveraisedreservationsaboutthelackofHolocaust contentinthecurriculumandthegovernment’sapprovedtextbooks,especiallyinrelationtothe nationalhistoryoftheSecondWorldWar.

ScholarsandpedagogueshaverecognisedthatthespreadofHolocausteducationaroundthe world“entailsare-examinationofcurriculum,ofthesocialandpoliticalprocessesthatinformit, andthepolicies,teachertraining,andgeneralinstructionthatsupportandgiveexpressiontoit.”

44 TheHolocaust’scomplexitiesinthenationalcontextinpost-communistEuropearedeeplyconnectedtothedifficult,painfulhistoriesoftherespectivenations.Therefore,theyrequiretobe implementedwithinthecurriculuminanuancedway,whileaddressingnationalandlocalcollaboration.TheHolocaust’scomplexitiesalsoincludethetopicoftherescueofJewishfugitives.The moralvisionofHolocaustsurvivorsandtheimpartialexpertiseofleadingcriticalscholarsshould playacentralroleinthepreparationofthecurriculum,andthetextbooksandotherresources usedintheclassroom. 45 LessonsaboutthedifficultpastinthespaceofaJewishcemetery, oramassgrave,especiallyincountrieswitharecordofpoliticalcollaborationwiththeNazistate suchasRomania(Moldova),UkraineandLithuania,shouldprovideanimportanteducational opportunitytobreakdownschematicandskewedversionsoftheHolocaustpast.Theyshould dispelfalsenarrativesofvictimhoodandheroisminnationalhistories.Similarlessonscouldalso beconductedincemeteriesinPolandwhereindividualandgroupkillingsof Jewishfugitiveshave beenrevealedtohavetakenplaceinJewishcemeteries.

Inaddition,lessonsinacemeteryvandalisedduringandaftertheHolocaustcouldoffera greatopportunitytoaddressthedifficulttopicsofthesuppressionanderasementoftheJewish pastintheaftermathoftheHolocaust.AddressingthesetopicsataJewishcemeteryfromalocal historyperspectivewouldsharpenthetangibilityoftheJewishpast.Itmightstimulateand increasetheempathicsideofthelearningprocess.Furtherresearchisneededonthis.

However,acrossthesevencountries,educationalresourcestoaddressthesepointsarenot incorporatedintotextbooksnorcurricula.Yetthesedifficulthistoricaltopicsarecentraltothe fundamentalexpectationthatteachingabouttheHolocaustcantransformattitudesandimpact thefuturebehaviourofyoungpeople.Thischallenginghistoryisrecognisedaspivotaltodemocraticcitizenshipeducationandeducationtocombatantisemitism.46 Mostoftheinterviewed educatorsarecommittedtoaddressingthesetopics.Moreover,teachersfinditmorallyandintellectuallydisturbingthattheseaspectsareabsentfromthecurriculum.

Toaddressthisdifficulthistory,teachersusenuancedextra-curricularresourcesprovidedby foreignJewishandlocalNGOs,aswellasthelatestscholarlyliterature.However,someteachers areconcernedthattheyarenotcompetentenoughtoteachaboutthesechallengingsubjects

44 MmantsetsaMarope,Director,UNESCOInternationalBureauofEducation,“Preface,”inZehavitGrossand E.DoyleStevick,eds., AstheWitnessesFallSilent:21stCenturyHolocaustEducationinCurriculum,Policy andPractice,(NewYork,London,Springer,UNESCOandInternationalBureauofEducation,2015),VIII. Hereafter,GrossandStevick, AstheWitnessesFallSilent:21stCenturyHolocaustEducationinCurriculum, PolicyandPractice

45 E.DoyleStevickandZehavitGross,“HolocaustEducationinthe21stCentury:Curriculum,PolicyandPractice,” in:GrossandStevick,eds., AstheWitnessesFallSilent:21stCenturyHolocaustEducationinCurriculum, PolicyandPractice 7-8;seealsoinPolishacollectionofessaysonteachingabouttheHolocaust andaddressingdifficulthistoryinPoland,KatarzynaLiszka(ed.), Wiedza(nie)umiejscowiona,(Cracow, Universitas,2021).

46 Onthissubject,seeThomasMisco,“HolocaustHistory,MemoryandCitizenshipEducation:theCaseofLatvia,” inGrossandStevick,eds., AstheWitnessesFallSilent:21stCenturyHolocaustEducationinCurriculum,Policy andPractice,337-357.

withoutpriortraining.Someteachersreflectthattheyonlyknowthetopicsatasuperficiallevel, orhavenofamiliaritywiththemdespitegoingthroughformalteachertraining.

Characteristically,mostinterviewedteachershaveacquiredcompetencethroughtheirown efforts;throughbeingpassionatelyinterestedinthesubjectandbeingproactiveinapplyingfor specialtraininginHolocaustandJewishheritageeducation.Inallsevencountries,educators stressthattheyhavebenefitedgreatlyfromteachertrainingorganisedbyCentropa,YadVashemin Jerusalem,MemorialdelaShoahinParis,theAnneFrankHouseinAmsterdam,andtheWannsee MuseuminBerlin,aswellaslocalNGOsintheirrespectivecountries.Acohortofteacherswho haveattendedtrainingabroadonafrequentbasisfeelthemostempowered–theyarefamiliar withthelatestresourcesandteachingmethods.ItseemsthatteachersfromPoland,Slovakia andUkrainehavemoreopportunitiestoattendoverseastrainingthanteachersfromMoldova andGeorgia,butthisneedstobeinvestigatedfurther.

Ofcourse,moreextensivetraininginJewishheritageandtheHolocaustrequiresadditional financialsupportfromstateeducationalinstitutionsandlocalmunicipalities.Atpresent,inmany casestheteachershavetopayforsuchtrainingfromtheirownpockets,orthroughathirdparty suchasaNGOorthroughagrantfromaninternationaltrainingorganisation.Schoolsdonot financiallysupportin-serviceteachertraining.Teacherscanusuallyapplyforshortcoursetrainingonceayear,althoughinsomereportedcasesthisislessfrequent-between2to5years. However,someteacherschoosetoenrolinonlineshortcoursesthroughouttheacademicyear.

3.Theimpactofpoliticalclimateoneducation

Ethno-nationalistgovernmentpoliciesandpracticesincountriessuchPolandandHungarythat tendtoviewJewsasneitherco-citizensnorco-inhabitantsbutas“others”,constituteaninterrelatedissueunderminingteachingaboutJewishheritageandtheHolocaust.Oneoftheleading educatorsinHungarysummarisesthepost-2010changesinthefollowingway:

“Therehasbeenverylittletaughtaboutthatperiod[pre-1939andtheHolocaust].Upuntil2010, teachingwasconductedinamoreandmorerestrictedway,butschoolsenjoyedautonomyin teachingaboutthisperiod.Sinceitwasnotcoveredinteachertrainingcolleges,therewasgreater flexibility.Theeducationsystembecamemorecentralizedafter2010.The2012nationalcurriculumwaspreparedandagrouprepresentingtheJewishcommunityalongwitheducationexperts heldregularmeetingswiththeEducationResearchandDevelopmentInstituteoftheHungarian AcademyofSciences–thenresponsibleforthecurriculum.(Theinstitutehasbeencloseddown sincethen).Asaresult,somecontentgotintothecurriculumonthepre-1939period.Ofcourse, aspre-1939JewishheritageandtheHolocaustdonotconstitutepartofpre-serviceteacher training,teachersareunprepared,soverylittlehaschanged.The2020changeinthenational curriculum(history)didnottouchthesesubjectsandthewholeapproachisanywayverynationalistic.Also,thecurriculumissopackedthatitisimpossibletocovereverything,soJewishrelatedtopicsareeasyvictims.” 47

4.Attitudesofschooladministrationandschoolheads

Incountrieswithahighlycentralisededucationalsystem,suchasHungary,LithuaniaandMoldova, teacherspointoutthatschooldirectorsarealsoasignificantfactorindeveloping,ornotdeveloping,JewishheritageandHolocausteducation.Whatisbeingreportedisthefactthat,inaspecific politicalclimate,someheadteachersarenotfavourablydisposedtoteachingthesesubjects.Ideologicalreasonsorfearofpoliticalpressuremaybethecause,andthisrequiresfurtherresearch.

47 InterviewwithZ.Z.of29November2022.

Someheadteachersalsoobjecttoparticipationinexternaltrainingcoursesbecausetheyview themaspurelyanopportunityfortheteacherto“havefunandrest”.Onesuchcasewasreported byateacherfromMoldova.

Nodoubt,theattitudeofschooldirectorshasadirectimpactonmission,curriculaandteacher trainingopportunitiesthatschoolsadopt.

1.7 CONCLUSIONS:“EVERYTHINGDEPENDSONANINDIVIDUALTEACHER”

Thekeyconclusionofthisreportisthat,regardlessoftheeducationalstructuresandbroader politicalandculturalforces,educationaboutJewishheritageandtheHolocaustchieflydepends onacohortofenthusiasticindividualteachersineachofthesevencountries.Atpresent,these teacherscouldbecalledactivistsengagedin“socialchange”promotingdemocracy,pluralism andtolerancetowardsethnicandculturalminorities.Theyareengagedineducationthat strengthenscivilsociety.BychoosingJewish heritageandtheHolocaustassubjectsfromthe “over-filledwithsubjects”curricula,theyareaddressingtopicsthatarenotnecessarilypopular amongschooladministrationsandtheircolleagues.Theseteachersareawarethattheyconstituteasmallminoritywithintheirprofession.

Lookingattheavailabilityofin-serviceteachertrainingonJewishheritageandtheHolocaust inallsevencountries,thisreportreachestheconclusionthatinternationalJewishNGOssuchas CentropaandESJF,alongwithlocalNGOs,aretheonlybodiespromotingtheimplementation ofteachingaboutJewishheritageandtheHolocaustwithintheframeworkoflearningabout democracy,opposingantisemitism,racismandxenophobiaandstrengtheningcivilsociety.Itis thankstotheirtrainingworkshopsandseminarsthatteachershaveemergedcapableofpresentingJewishheritageandtheHolocaustintheclassroom.Teacherswantmoreregular programmes runbytheseNGOs.

MostteachersagreethatexistingcurricularframeworksprovideverylittlespaceforJewish heritageandtheHolocaust,andthereforethey“struggle”tointroducethetopics.Theyunanimouslyagreethatthereshouldbemorehoursallocated.Mostteachersalsosupporttheideaof teachingJewishheritageandtheHolocaustacrossdifferentsubjectareassuchasHistory,Literature,Geography,Civics/Philosophy,Arts,Sociologyand Ethics.However,atpresent,thetopics areusuallytaughtinHistory,LiteratureandCivicStudies,andlessfrequentlyinArts,Geography andSociology.

MostteachersarealsoenthusiasticabouttheincorporationofJewishcemeteriesintotheir teachingaboutJewishheritageandtheHolocaust.TheyrecognisethatthespaceoftheJewish cemeteryconstitutesarichandeffectiveeducationalresourceforteachingaboutJewishhistory, Jewishsociety,JewishcultureandJudaism,aswellasabouttheHolocaust,memorialisationof Holocaustvictims,andantisemitism.SometeachershaveconductedlessonsinthelocalJewish cemeterythatenablestudentstomakemeaningfulconnectionsbetweenJewishreligiousand culturallife,andbetweendifferentburialtraditions(ChristianandJewish).

TeachersalsoagreethateducatingatJewishcemeteriescanofferstudentspowerfulempathic lessonsaboutindividualmembersoftheJewishcommunity,localJewishhistory,andconnections withnon-Jewishmembersofthelocalcommunity.Theygenerallyengagetheirstudentsin cleaningthetombstones,readingHebrewinscriptions,andlearningaboutindividualsburiedin thecemetery.However,overall,onlyasmallminorityofteachersusetheJewishcemeteryinthis wayasexpressedbyA.B.(LiteratureteacherfromLithuania):

“Therearesomeindividualsatafewschoolswhoconstantlydothatandfindvariouswaysto connectJewishheritage,cultureandthelocalJewishcemetery.Inmostcases,theanswerisnone.”

MostteachersagreethataJewishcemeteryisapowerfuleducationalresource,butsofaronlya fewhaveincorporatedthelocalJewishcemeteryintoHolocaustlessons,chieflyaboutperpetration,namelythemasskillingsofJewsinorclosetotheJewishcemetery.Teachersdonotpossess appropriatepedagogicalandmethodologicalresourcestoteachaboutthesocialhistoryofthe Holocaust;topicssuchastheJewishcemeteryasasiteofescapefrompersecution;aplaceof smugglinggoods;andaplaceofconcealmentandhidingofJewishfugitivesincludingchildren. OnlysometeachersincorporatetheJewishcemeteryasatoolinteachingaboutempathicmemorialisationofJewishvictims,aswellasinraisingawarenessaboutthedevastatingimpactofantisemitismandviolenceonJewishcommunities,andrelationshipsbetweenJewsandnon-Jews inthepastandpresent.Someteachers,ontheirowninitiative,dointroducetheirstudentsto nationalandinternationalcommemorativeHolocaustevents.

Overall,inallsevencountries,theincorporationofJewishcemeteriesinteachingaboutthe pre-1939JewishheritageseemsslightlymoreadvancedthantheutilisationofJewishcemeteries inteachingabouttheHolocaust.Oneofthekeyfactorsbehindthissituationisthatteaching aboutthesocialaspectsoftheHolocaustrepresentsadifficultandpainfulpast,especiallyin Hungary,Lithuania, Poland,SlovakiaandUkraine.Henceinthe2010s,therehasbeengrowing resistanceinthesecountriesonthepartofright-winggovernmentstowardsaddressingthe Holocaustinthehistorycurriculum,andindeedinpublicdebatesandconsciousness.ThegovernmentsofPolandandHungaryactivelyopposeeducationonthedifficultpastinrelationtothe treatmentofJewishcommunities,anddefinesucheducationasthe“pedagogyofshame”.48 Asaconsequence,itisalmostcompletelyabsentfromcurrenttextbooks.InthecaseofHungary, teachingabouttheHolocaustinJewishcemeteriesmightanywaynotbehistoricallyappropriate giventhenatureofthephysicaldestructionoftheHungarianJewswithmostmurderedoutside thecountry.Inthecaseofpost-SovietGeorgia,teachershavealmostnoresourcesinthenative languagetoteachaboutHolocausthistoryconcerningEastEuropeanJewishrefugeesburiedin thelocalcemeteries.

TeachersfromallsevencountrieshaveexpressedtheneedformorefinancialandmethodologicalresourcesinnativelanguagestosupporttheirteachingonJewishheritageandtheHolocaust.Theyalsoneedmoresupportintermsofpre-serviceandin-servicetraining.Teachersdo notreceivefinancialsupportfromtheMinistriesofEducation,teacherAssociationsnorschool administrations.Theyhavetobeproactiveintermsoffindinginformationabouttrainingopportunitiesandapplyingforgrants.Theyvaluegreatlyin-servicetrainingprovidedbyYadVashem inJerusalem,Israelembassiesintheirowncountries,internationalJewishandlocalNGOs.

1.8 RECOMMENDATIONS

1 HighschooleducationaboutJewishheritageandtheHolocaustshouldbeproperlyintegrated withothersubjectsoftheschoolcurriculum,suchasHistory,LanguagesandLiterature,Civic Studies,GeographyandtheArts.TeachingaboutJewishhistory,Jewishheritageandthe Holocaustshouldbeconductedasthehistoryandheritageofco-inhabitantsaccordingtothe frameworkofglobaldemocraticcitizenshipeducationandeducationagainstantisemitism. ThepersistentassumptionintextbooksandcurriculathatJewishhistoryandJewishheritage andtheHolocaustconcernshistoriesof“theother”andarenotconnectedtonationalhistories,isprejudicialandstandsagainstthenormsofglobaldemocraticcitizenshipeducation.

48 Onpedagogyofshamesee,forexample,JakubMajmurek, Pedagogikawstydu,którejnigdyniebyło [Pedagogyofshamethatneverexisted].Oko.press,6August2016(https://oko.press/pedagogikawstydu-ktorej-nigdy-bylo/);andJoannaBeataMichlic,“Poland.History“Wars”andtheBattleforTruth andNationalMemory”inNinnaMörner,ed., CBEES2020StateoftheRegionReportConstructions andInstrumentalizationsofthePast.AComparativeStudyonMemoryManagementintheRegion, (Stockholm,CBEES/Elanders,January2021),115-138.

2

EducationonJewishheritageshouldbetaughtbasedwithintheframeworkoflocalhistory, whichismoreimportantandinspiringforstudents.ApproachingJewishheritageinthespace ofalocalJewishcemeteryshouldcreateanempathicemotionalrelationshipbetweenthestudentsandtheirlocalhistory.Alocalhistoryapproachmeanstheteachingisnotaboutabstract andanonymousfacts,butmoreaboutindividualmovingstoriesandpersonalaccounts.

3 TheincorporationoftheJewishcemeteryintoeducationaboutJewishheritageshouldbe rootedinaneducationalconceptdefiningtheJewishcemeteryasofferingactivelearningthat includesinvolvementinpreservation.TheJewishcemeteryshouldnotonlybeaspacetowitnessandteachJewishheritage,butwherestudentsgetinvolvedincleaningthecemetery, makingdocumentationaboutit,andconductingresearchontombstonesandthepeople buriedinthecemetery.

4 TheincorporationofJewishcemeteriesintohighschoolcurriculaonabroaderlevelrequires continuoustraining,andregularexchangesamongteachersandeducatorsfromtheinformal educationalsector.Teachersandeducatorsfromthesevencountriesshouldberegularly meetinginregional,nationalandinternationalseminars,workshopsandconferencesunder theauspicesofinternationalJewishNGOsandtheEuropeanAssociationofHistoryEducators (EUROCLIO),amongothers.Thekeyaimofthesemeetingsshouldbetotraintheparticipants inthelatestpedagogicalandmethodologicalapproaches.Teachersshouldbeprovidedwith resourcesinnativelanguagesonteachingaboutJewishmaterialheritage,Jewishhistoryandthe Holocaustwhichalsocontaindetailedguidancematerialsadaptedtothespecificageofstudents. Suchtrainingeventsshouldalsoaddresshowtohandlethe“difficulthistory”i.e.attitudesand practices towardstheJewishminorityonthepartofthemajorityethnicnationwhichisone ofthemostneglected,andmostnecessary,aspectsofthehistoryofJewishheritageandthe Holocaustacrosstheregion.Thiswillalsodirectlyrelatetoissuesofhumanrights,democraticvalues,citizenshipandpluralism.

5 SpecificpedagogicalresourcesshouldbedevelopedtoassistteachersinimplementingJewish heritageandHolocausteducationinJewishcemeteries.Studentsshouldhavetheopportunity toinvestigatethehistory,symbolismandsocialandculturalsignificanceoftheJewishcemeterythroughdifferentlearningmethodssucharchivalresearch,oralhistoryinterviewswith localinhabitantsandmembersofexistingJewishcommunities.Peer-to-peereducational activitiesisanotherimportanttoolwithhighschoolstudentslearningwithprimaryschool students,aswellaswithundergraduateandgraduateuniversitystudents.Studentslearnby creatingmobileexhibitions,shortfilmdocumentaries,historybookletsandartisticrepresentations.49 Teachersshouldbeequippedinpedagogicalandmethodologicalmaterialsupportingsuchinnovativelearning,aswellasprovidedwiththefinancialresourcestoachieve specificlearningoutcomes.

6 Atpresent,participationinin-serviceteachertrainingonJewishheritageandtheHolocaustis basedontheindividualinitiativeof thoseinterested,andnotaspartofastructuraleffortby stateinstitutionsofferingsuchtrainingforall.Therefore,itisrecommendedtoexpandthe

49 MemoryWalksisoneofthemostsuccessfulinnovativeeducationalmethodsintroducedtostudy contestedhistoriesinthetwentiethcenturythroughmonuments.Themethodteachescriticalreflection onremembranceandwasdevelopedbyLauraBorhout,BarryvanDrielandAaronPetererfromthe AnneFrankHouse.ThismethodcouldbeadoptedtobeimplementedonJewishcemeteries.OnMemory Walks,seeBorbálaKlacsmann,“MemoryWalk:HistoryThroughMonuments,”inAndreaPetöand HelgaThorson,eds., TheFutureofHolocaustMemorialization:ConfrontingRacism,Antisemitism, andHomophobiathroughMemoryWork,(Budapest,TomLantosInstitute,2015),100-103.

poolofhighlymotivatedandwell-trainedteachersbythestateofferingaroutineofin-service trainingprogrammesontheJewishnarrativeintheircountriesacrossallrelevantsubjectsin thecurricularangingfromHistory,Literature,CivicStudies/Civics,totheArts,Geography, andPhilosophy.

7 Inallsevencountries,traineeteachersshouldhavetheopportunitytostudyJewishheritage andtheHolocaustduringtheiruniversityyearsintheirdisciplinese.g.History,Literature,the ArtsorCivics.Awidelyavailablepre-servicetrainingwouldleadtotheexpansionofthepool ofinterestedandcommittedteachers.

8 Sincethelate1990s,in-servicetrainingonJewishheritageandtheHolocausthasbeenlargely carriedoutbyforeignJewishNGOsandlocalNGOscommittedtoimprovingandwidening theireducationaloffer.Highschoolteachersshouldbemorallyandfinanciallysupportedby theirschooladministrationsin applyingforin-servicetrainingofferedbytheseNGOs.Such trainingshouldbeofferedonaregularbasis,atleastonceayear.

9 JewishorganisationsandgovernmentalinstitutionsresponsibleformaintainingJewish cemeteriesshouldcooperatewithschoolsandteachersinterestedinconductinglessonsin Jewishcemeteries.Agoodworkingrelationshipbetweenthoseworkingonthepreservation ofJewishcemeteriesandindividualschoolsispivotaltosuccessful Jewishheritageeducation andindeedfuturepreservation.

PART 2

INDIVIDUAL COUNTRYREPORTS

GEORGIA 2.1

2.1 GEORGIA

GeorgiahasauniqueJewishhistoryreflectedintherelationsbetweenitsnon-JewishandJewish communitiesinthepre-modernperiod.TheGeorgianJewishcommunityisknownasoneofthe oldestandmostdistinguishedJewishcommunitiesintheworldwithahistorygoingback2,600years. Accordingtosomesources,thefirstGeorgianJews,knownasGurijmorKartveliEbraelebi,arrived inthesouthernpartofGeorgiaafterfleeingtheBabylonianconquestofJerusalemin586BCE.

50 Accordingtoothers,thefirstJewsarrivedinWesternGeorgiafromtheByzantineEmpireinthe 6thcenturyCE.GeorgianJewssettledintheancientcityandformercapital,Mtskheta,oneofthe threeGeorgianculturalsiteslistedonUNESCO’sWorldHeritagelist.GeorgianJewsalsosettledin theancientcityofKutaisithat,likeMtskheta,wasaformercapital.Kutaisiservedasthecapital oftheUnitedKingdomofGeorgiafrom1008CEto1122CEandasthecapitaloftheImeretian Kingdomfromthe15thcenturyuntil1810CE.Mtskhetaismostwidelyknownasthecapitalof theearlyGeorgianKingdomofIberiaandtheplacewhereGeorgiaadoptedChristianityin326CE. GeorgianJewsdevelopedauniquecultureandtraditions,includingtheirownlanguageknownas Judaeo-Georgian.Duringthemedievalperiod,GeorgiawasconqueredbytheArabsanddivided intothreedifferentkingdomsandfivefeudalterritoriesbytheendof the15thcenturyCE.

AshkenaziJewsbegantoemigratetoGeorgiainthe19thcenturyintheaftermathofTsarist Russia’sannexationoftheEasternterritoriesofGeorgiain1801andTsaristRussia’sparticipation inthethreepartitionsofthePolish-LithuanianCommonwealth(1772,1792,1795).Thelatter wasthenhometothelargestJewishcommunityintheworldand,byconqueringthePolishLithuanianCommonwealth,TsaristRussiaacquireditsJews.UntilRussia’sannexationofGeorgia, antisemitictraditionswereabsentinthenativeGeorgianpopulation.However,inthecourseof thenineteenthandtwentiethcenturies,GeorgianJewswereexposedtolatentantisemitismand wavesofviolentantisemiticriotsthathaditsrootsinRussian/Sovietideological,culturaland economicanti-Jewishtraditions.

ThefirstAshkenaziJewsmostlysettledinTbilisiaround1810.Inthesecondpartofthenineteenthcentury,linksbetweenGeorgianJewsandEastEuropeanAshkenaziJewsdevelopedthanks totransnationaltravelandpolitical,culturalandeconomicinfluence.ZionismwasamajorpoliticalprojectthatbroughttheGeorgianJewishandAshkenazicommunitiestogether.In2019,the JewishHistoricalInstituteinWarsawlaunchedaneducationalprojecttoexaminerealand“mythical connectionsbetweenGeorgianandPolishJews.” 51 AccordingtoaGeorgianlegend,arabbifrom theGeorgiantownofOnistudiedinWarsawinthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcenturyandwas inspiredbythebeautyandarchitecturalstyleoftheGreatSynagogueatTłomackieStreet, designedbyanItalianarchitectLeandroMarconiandbuiltbetween1875and1878.TheGreat SynagogueatTłomackieStreetwasknownasthemostspectaculararchitecturalprojectofa wealthyandacculturatedWarsawJewishcommunity.Uponcompletionofhisstudies,theGeorgian rabbiwentbacktohiscountryandcreatedaneclecticsynagogueinthestyleofWarsaw’sGreat Synagogue.ThesynagoguewasbuiltinOnicityinthespectacularGeorgianmountains.Today, itisknownasthethirdlargestGeorgiansynagogueaftertheTbilisiandKutaisisynagogues.

On26May1918,Georgiaproclaimedindependence,buttheSovietsquashedGeorgianfreedom in1921.LikeinotherpartsoftheSovietUnion,JewsinGeorgiasufferedfrompoliticalrepression andlimitedculturalfreedomsinthe1920sand1930s.

DuringtheSecondWorldWar,manyGeorgianJewsfoughtintheSovietArmyandGeorgia becameatemporaryhomeformanyEastCentralEuropeanJewishrefugees,especiallyfrom

50 OntheoriginsofGeorgianJews,seeforexample,ConstantineB.Lerner, TheWellspringofGeorgian Historiography:TheEarlyMedievalHistoricalChronicle,TheConversionofK’art’liandTheLifeofSt.Nino, (England:BennettandBloom,London,2004),p.60.

51 Seeashortreport,“Theproject,SynagogueinOni(Georgia)–tracesofPolishandGeorgianheritagein Israel”,ZIH,December2019,https://www.jhi.pl/en/articles/the-project-synagogue-in-oni-georgiatraces-of-polish-and-georgian-heritage-in-israel,546

Poland,whofledNazipersecutiontotheSovietUnionorfoundthemselvesunderSovietoccupation(September1939–June1941)andwereevacuatedtoGeorgiabytheSovietauthorities.Some oftheEastEuropeanJewishrefugeesandevacueeswhoweresickorelderlywereburiedinvariousJewishcemeteriesinGeorgia,sotheirtombstellthehistoryoftheiroriginsandtrajectories duringWWII.Theycanserveasaricheducationalresourcetoteachaboutsocialandcultural aspectsofthetransnationalhistoryofJewishrefugeesinthedepthsoftheSovietUnionduring theHolocaust.52

AftertheendoftheSecondWorldWar,GeorgianJewslikeotherJewsintheSovietUnion experiencedpersecution,suppressionofculturaltraditions,andmassarrestsduringStalin’s rule.MassemigrationofGeorgianJewsbeganinthe1970swhen30,000JewsleftforIsraeland Westerncountries.AsaresultofthecollapseoftheSovietUnion,Georgiaregaineditsindependencein1991.However,sinceregainingitsindependence,thecountryhasbeenmarredbyinternalethnicconflictsandongoingmilitaryandpoliticalconflictswithneighbouringRussia.Inthe GeorgianCivilWarof1991-1993,GeorgialosttheterritoriesofOssetiaandAbkhaziathatproclaimedthemselvesasindependentRepublicsbackedbyRussia.SeveralJewishheritagesites, includingsynagoguesandcemeteries,weredestroyedandvandalisedduringthe1990s.Given thepoliticalinstability,massemigrationofGeorgianJewstoIsrael,Russia,BelgiumandtheUnited Statescontinuedinthe1990s.

On31January2001,theGeorgianOrthodoxChurchandtheJewishcommunityofGeorgia signedanagreementaimedatmutualrespectandpartnershipfordemocracy,peaceandstability. Duringtheearly2000s,localGeorgianJewishcommunitiesalsobegantoembarkonthepreservationofoldJewishcemeteriesinTbilisi andaJewishcemeteryinNavtlugi.However,onlyasmall minorityoflocalnon-JewishGeorgianshavebeeninvolvedinthepreservationofJewishsynagoguesandcemeteries,andthevandalisationofJewishcemeteriescontinued,especiallyduring theoutbreakofmilitaryandpoliticalconflictwithRussiainthelate2000s.Unliketheothercountriesinthisanalysis,GeorgiaisnotamembernoranobserveroftheInternationalHolocaust RemembranceAlliance.

Today, thecountrytakesprideintheapproximately23Jewishheritagesitesbasedinthecapital TbilisiandcitiessuchasKutaisi,MtskhetaandOni.However,theJewishcommunityisnowvery small.In2018,theestimatedJewishpopulationinGeorgiawas1,600individualsinatotalpopulationofapproximately3,700,000.53 Consequently,synagoguesandJewishcemeterieshave sufferedgreatlyfromsevereneglect.Today,youngJewishheritageactivistsandenthusiastssuch asArianneSwiecaandstudentsrepresentingtheHillelGeorgiagrouparethekeyactorsengaged inthepreservation,cleaningandmaintenanceoftheJewishcemeteriesscatteredindifferent partsofthecountry.54 Theirworkispossiblethankstofinancialandmoralsupportfromthe IsraelembassyinTbilisi.

Highschoolanduniversityteachers,andmembersofJewishorganisationssuchasHilleland thetinylocalJewishcommunities,emphasisethathighschooleducationonJewishheritageand theHolocaustinGeorgiaisinitsinceptionandthereforeundeveloped.InternationalJewish tourismtoGeorgiaisalsoundevelopedinallitsaspectsincludinginfrastructureandpromotion.

52 OntheJewishsurvivalintheSovietUnionduringtheHolocaust,seeMarkEdele,SheilaFitzpatrick,Atina Grossmann,eds. ShelterfromtheHolocaust:RethinkingJewishSurvivalintheSovietUnion,(Detroit, WayneStateUniversityPress,2017)andEliyanaR.Adler, SurvivalontheMarginsPolishJewishRefugees intheWartimeSovietUnion (CambridgeMA,HarvardUniversityPress,2020)

53 OnthehistoryofGeorgianJewsfromthepremodernperiodtotheendofthecommunistera,seethearticle byGershonBen-Oren,“TheHistoryoftheJewsofGeorgiauntiltheCommunistRegime”,availableonlineat https://dbs.anumuseum.org.il/skn/en/c6/e162313/Place/Georgia

54 Fortheactivitiesofsuchindividuals,seethereportonGeorgiabyTeonaDalakishviliinthe Catalogueof GoodPractice,76,77.

Y.O.(HistorianteachingtheHolocaustatundergraduateuniversitylevel)observesthatunder-

graduatestudentstakingherHolocaustcoursepossesslittletonoknowledgeaboutJewishheritage andtheHolocaust.Asaresult,atthebeginningofthecourse,sheintroducesbasicfactsfrommodern JewishhistorypriortoteachingdifferentaspectsoftheHolocaustinabroadsocio-culturalcontext.AsanindividualwhofeelspassionateaboutJewishheritageandhistory,shebelievesthat:

“GeorgianhighschoolshavenotenoughhoursintheircurriculumtoteachaboutJewishheritage andtheHolocaust.Therefore,Iamhappythatatleastatmyuniversitywecanfillthisgap. IdonotthinkthathighschoolsreceiveANY[stressedbytheauthorofthestatement]financial supportfromtheMinistryofEducationorlocalgovernments.Onlyspecialuniversityprogrammes allowteacherstohaveproperteachertraining...Ico-operatewithlocalNGOs,theIsraelEmbassy, JewishvisitorsfromabroadandthelocalJewishcommunity.”

Y.O.recognisestheimportanceofincorporatingthematerialJewishheritageintoteachingabout Jewishheritageathighschoolanduniversitylevelsandlistsvariouslearningpossibilitiesutilising Jewishcemeteries.ThisincludesthespecialfeatureinthewartimehistoryofEastEuropean/ PolishJewishrefugeesandevacueesarrivinginGeorgia.

“Itisalwaysimportanttoutilizeasmuchphysicalheritageaspossible.[AttheJewishcemeteries] thestudentscananalyzethematzevot,readtheinscriptionsandstudytheirmeanings.Theycan analyzethesocialstructureoftheJewishcommunity,itsoriginsandsignificantfigures.The spaceoftheJewishcemeterycanhelpinHolocausteducation,howeverinGeorgiathehistorical contextisdifferentfromtheoneinCentral-EasternEurope.Whileincertainplaces,liketheNorth CaucasusandCrimea,theanalysisofthecemeterycangiveusinformationonthepopulation lossesduringtheHolocaust,inGeorgiawewillfindanothersubject-informationaboutrefugees andevacueeswhomGeorgiahostedduringWorldWarII.Theanalysisofthestyleofgravestone inscriptions,aswellasofthenames,willassiststudentstounderstandsomelifetrajectoriesof theJewishrefugeeswhoareburiedinthosecemeteries.However,schoolsneedfinancialsupport todeveloptheteachingoftheHolocaustandJewishhistoryandheritage.Atleast20hoursper academicyearisnecessaryathighschoolleveltoteachaboutthesesubjects.”

Theneedforfinancialsupport,pre-serviceandin-serviceteachertraining,educationalresources andmorehoursinhighschoolcurriculaisechoedinalltheresponsesfromhighschoolteachers andeducatorsinvolvedininformaleducationalprogrammesonJewishheritageandtheHolocaust. AlthoughtheGeorgianMinistryofEducationisresponsiblefortheimplementationofhighschool curriculaaboutJewishheritageandtheHolocaust,thereisawidevariationamonghighschools asregardstowhentheystartJewishheritageeducationalprogrammes,thescopeofteaching, andavailabletextbooksandotherlearningresources.

AccordingtoM.M.(highschoolteacher),studentscanstarttolearnaboutJewishheritage whentheyare12yearsold,butinherschoolnohoursareformallydedicatedtothesubjectin thecurriculum.However,thankstoherownpassionforthetopic,sheintroducesitonherown accord.ShewouldliketohaveonehouraweekdedicatedtoteachingaboutJewishhistoryand heritage.ThesubjectsaretaughtinHistoryandGeographylessons.Onlybetween4to5hours peracademicyeararededicatedtothestudyoftheHolocaust“whichisnotenough”.Theschool doesnotutiliseJewishcemeteriesforanycommemorativepractices.

Likewise,E.K.(CivicEducationteacher)recognisesthevalueofalocalJewishcemeteryasa potentialeducationalresourcetoteachaboutJewishheritageandthehistoryofGeorgianJews.

E.K.iscriticalofcurrenthighschoolcurriculawithregardstothescopeandallocatedhoursof teachingaboutJewishheritageandtheHolocaust,andviewsitas“superficial.”E.K.teachesthe topicsofJewishheritageandtheHolocaustintheclassroomonly,usingtraditionalmethodsof lecturefollowedbydiscussionandinteractivemaps.E.K.chooses27January–TheInternational HolocaustDay–tocarryoutoneoftheallocated2-3hoursoflessonsperacademicyeargiven overtoteachaboutJewishheritageandtheHolocaust.

Similarly,N.S.(Historyteacher)explainsthatteachingaboutJewishhistoryinhighschool startsfromtheageof9-10yearsoldandisoflimitedscopeasitistaughtinthecontextofthe studyofvariousethnicminoritiesinGeorgia:

“Eachacademicyearthecurriculumdevotesonly2hoursofteachingonJewishheritageand history,withthepossibilityofanadditional2hours.TheHolocaustistaughtaspartofother subjects,suchasthegeneralhistoryoftheSecondWorldWar.Theallocationofteachinghours intheexistingcurriculumisnotenoughtostudyJewishheritageandculture.TeachingJewish historyandcultureishighlyeffectivewhenitistaughtatJewishcemeteriesandduringtoursof localsynagogues,museumsofJewishinterestandsoon.”

AccordingtoT.T.(highschoolHistoryteacher),theteachingofJewishhistoryathighschool startsfromthe9thgradeandbetween10to15hoursareallocatedperacademicyeartoteaching Jewishhistory,religion,andculture.JewishheritageistaughtinHistory,theArts,Geographyand Literature.GivenGeorgia’sspecifichistoryinWWII,onlybetween2to5hoursperacademicyear arededicatedtothestudyoftheHolocaust,whichisnotsufficienttoteachthesubjectproperly.

E.K.(Historyteacher)statesthattheteachingofJewishheritagestartsfromtheageof10in the5thgradeasapartofthesubjectof“OurGeorgia”.ThetopicofGeorgian-Jewishrelationsis studiedfor2hoursperacademicyearinthecontextofJewishheritageinGeorgia,andduring lessonsaboutthehistoryofWWII.Jewishhistoryandheritagearetaughtthroughouthighschool inthesubjectsofHistory,Geography,Philosophy,theArtsandSociology,andtheschoolorganisesvisitsofJewishinteresttolocalandnationalmuseums.Whilevaryingteachingmethodsare deployed–bothinandouttheclassroom,theactualteachinghoursarenotenough.E.KrecognisesthattheJewishcemeterycanbeusedineducatingaboutJewishheritageandtheHolocaust andwouldliketoparticipatewithstudentsincommemorativeHolocausteventsatalocalJewish cemetery.Atpresentnosuchcommemorativeeventshavetakenplace.

SimilartoE.K.(Historyteacher),M.M.(schoolteacher,non-specifiedsubject)statesthat teachingaboutJewishheritagebeginsinthelessonsabout“OurGeorgia”.Likemanyotherteachers, M.M.stressesthatteachingaboutJewishheritageandhistorychieflydependsontheindividual teacher’sbackgroundandknowledge,andheishighlycriticalaboutavailableteachingresources.

“TherearenocertainhoursintheschoolcurriculumdevotedtoteachingaboutJewishheritage andhistory.Thisalldependsontheteacher,howshe/hedividestheschoolcurriculumhours. TheHolocaustistaughtaspartofthehistoryoftheSecondWorldWar.Ipersonallyprovidemore informationthanisavailableinschooltextbooksandtheschoollibrary:Iplanlessonswiththe studentsusingcertainbooksandfilmstowatchinclassfrommyprivatelibrary.Ithinkthatitis possibletoaddmorehoursintotheschoolcurriculumtostudyJewishheritageandhistory.But theschoolprogrammeisalreadyfulloftopics,andthereforeeverythingdependsontheindividualteacher.StudentstouchuponJewishhistoryingeneralHistorylessons.Theclassroomisour mainspace.ButIalsotakestudentstoOldTbilisiwherethereisasynagogue.IalsousetheJewishGeorgianMuseumasaneducationalspace.Intheclassroom,weusedifferentteachingmethodologiessuchaslectures,discussionsandinteractivemaps.Butwedonothavesufficientteaching materials.Thereareverylimitedopportunitiestoparticipateinin-serviceteachertrainingprogrammes,butitalsodependsonanindividualteacher;his/herownresources.Schoolshaveno resourcesforteachertraining,andwedonotgetanysupport.”

Allteacher-respondentsstressthattheydonothaveopportunitiesforin-serviceteachertraining abroadandthereisnoallocatedfundingfromtheMinistryofEducationnorothergovernmental institutionsforsuchtraining.TheyallvalueteachertrainingorganisedbyNGOsandmuseums thatspecialiseinJewishheritageandculture,suchastheGeorgianNationalMuseumandthe Jewish-GeorgianMuseuminTbilisi.55 Theyallemphasisethelearningbenefitsofparticipatingin

55 Ontheproject“JewishCulturalHeritageinthecollectionsoftheGeorgianNationalMuseum”see: https://museum.ge/index.php?lang_id=ENG&sec_id=160

in-serviceteachertrainingorganisedbyCentropa.TheyregardCentropaandlocalNGOsasthe onlyorganisationsthatoffertrainingthatteachesaboutJewishheritageandtheHolocaustinthe contextofdevelopingamongstudentsempathy,tolerance,democraticvaluesandtheimportanceofcombatingantisemitism,prejudiceandracism.Theteachersthemselvesidentifywith thosevalues.Allinterviewedteachersappreciatethefinancialsupportandeducational activities offeredbytheIsraelembassyandJewishNGOs.

Overall,GeorgianeedstostrengthenthelocalNGOsandbuildstronglinksbetweenforeign andlocalNGOsintermsofprovidingteacherswithin-servicetrainingandeducationalresources aboutJewishheritageandtheHolocaust.Thetopicsurgentlyneedtobeincorporatedintothe pre-serviceteachertrainingwhichcanserveaspartofanoveralleducationfordemocracy.

Tbilisi,Georgia

HUNGARY 2.2

2.2

HUNGARY

ThefirstJewishcommunitiesarrivedinHungaryinthethirdcenturyC.E.Bythemedievalera, therewere38HungarianJewishcommunitiessettledindifferentpartsofthecountrywiththe mostimportantandbiggestsettlementsinBudaandSopron.56 TheJewishcommunitiesthrived underOttomanRulebetween1526-1686,buttheirsocialandeconomicpositionworsened undertheruleoftheHabsburgEmpire.However,similarto“themarriageofconvenience”of PolishJewswithPolishnoblemeninthePolish-LithuanianCommonwealthofthesixteenthand seventeenthcenturies,theHungarianJewsforgedstrongeconomicbondswithHungariannobles suchasCountsEsterhazyandPalffy,whoprotectedthemandbenefitedfromtheireconomic expertise.Attheendoftheeighteenthcentury,thecommunitybegantothriveagainandby 1840Jewsnumberedmorethan300,000intheAustro-Hungarianempire.In1867,becauseof theAustro-HungarianCompromise,Hungarybecameaquasi-independentstateandthenew HungarianParliamentenactedJewishemancipationallowingJewstoengageinallprofessions andtosettleinalllocalitiesofthecountry.Duringthelastthreedecadesofthelongnineteenth century,theHungarianJewishcommunityincreaseditsnumberto500,000individuals.During theEmancipationperiod(1867-1914),HungarianJewsstronglyidentifiedwiththeHungarian causeinthesphereofpolitics,cultureandeconomy.Theirpoliticalpositionwasstrengthenedin 1895withtheofficialrecognitionofJudaismasanequallyacceptedreligion.By1910Jewsconstituted5percentofthepopulation(numberingover900,000).ExceptforHasidiccommunities innortheastHungaryintheSzatmar,Bereg(includingMunkacs),andMarmarosdistricts,the majoritywerewellintegratedintoHungariansociety.However,despitethestrongpatriotismof Hungarian JewsshowninWWI,theHungarianJewssufferedgreatlyintheantisemiticriotsof 1918,whentheAustro-Hungarianmonarchydisintegrated.Ashort-livedBolshevikregimetook overHungarybetween1918and1919andlocalJewswereaccusedofJudeo-bolshevism–apowerfulantisemiticmyththatalsoeruptedatthattimeinLithuania,PolandandUkraine.57 TheyoungHungariannation-state,shockedbyitspartitionbyneighbouringcountriesratifiedin 1920intheTreaty ofTrianon,turnedto(ethnicandexclusivist)Christiannationalismandbegan toquestiontheidealsofJewishassimilationintotheHungariannation-state.Theambitiontowin backtheterritorieslostintheTreatyofTrianondroveHungaryintoanalliancewithNaziGermany inthe1930s.From1938,theHungarianparliamentpassedseveralanti-Jewishlaws(1938,1939 and1941).InMarch1944,GermansmarchedintothecountryandforcedM.Horthy,theconservativeheadofstate,toestablishapro-GermanHungariangovernment.Thesituationofthe 750,000HungarianJewschangedovernight.By16Aprilthatsameyear,HungarianJewswere forcedintoghettosandtheirpropertieswereseizedbynon-JewishHungarians.On15May,the firsttrainsbegantotransportHungarianJewstotheAuschwitzexterminationcentre.ThedeportationswerehaltedonlyinearlyJuly1944.But,inOctober1944theHungarianfascists,knownas theArrowCrossparty,tookoverthegovernmentand“home-made”persecutionagainsttheremainingJewsintensified.Itisestimatedthatover564,507HungarianJewsperishedintheHolocaust.

58

Today,inpost-communistHungary,approximately80,000JewsliveinBudapestand20,000 moreliveinafewoftheotherlargercities.Jewishculturallifehasrecoveredtosomeextent, withBudapestasthemaincentre.InadditiontothegrandNeologSynagogueandtheOrthodox KazinczySynagogue,20smallersynagogueshavebeenrenovatedandfunctioninavarietyof

56 OnthehistoryandcultureofHungarianJews,seeRaphaelPatai, TheJewsofHungary.History,Culture, Psychology (Detroit,Michigan,WayneStateUniversityPress,1996)andonline: https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/hungary-virtual-jewish-history-tour

57 OnthemythofJudeo-Bolshevism,seethesalientstudybyPaulHanebrink, ASpecterHauntingEurope. TheMythofJudeo-Bolshevism (Cambridge,MA,HarvardUniversityPress,2018).

58 RandolphL.Braham, ThePoliticsofGenocide:TheHolocaustinHungary.Vol.2.(NewYork,Columbia UniversityPress,2016).

waysinBudapest.SupplementedbyHungarianmunicipalfunds,formerHungarianJewsortheir descendantslivingabroadhavebeenfinancingtherestorationofsomeofthemagnificentsynagoguesinSzeged,Pecs,Budapestandothersmallertowns.Someofthesebuildingsareopento thepublicasmuseums,andserveforprayerontheJewishhighholidays.Today,thereare1,300 Jewishcemeteriesindifferentpartsofthecountryandmostofthemarestillneglectedandin urgentneedofpreservation.

After1989,Hungary’sdemocraticallyelectedleadersopenlyacknowledgedtheHolocaust andunveiledthefirstmonumentdedicatedtothevictimsoftheHolocaustinthecourtyardofthe GreatSynagogueinBudapeston8July1990.In2001,theHungarianParliamentcommemorated theHungarianHolocaustRemembranceDayforthefirsttimeon16April,theinfamousdayin 1944whentheghettoisationofHungarianJewsbegan.59 InOctober2002,Hungarybecamea memberoftheTaskForceforInternationalCooperationonHolocaustEducation,Remembrance andResearch,andtookaturnastheheadofthetaskforcefromMarch2006toMarch2007.

Between1990and2010,thepre-1939historyandcultureofHungarianJewsandtheHolocaustgraduallyreceivedaplaceinthehighschoolcurriculumanduniversities.Forthefirsttime inthepost-communistera,historianshadtowritenewtextbooksthatwouldnotonlyaddress theHolocaustinEuropeanhistory,butalsotheHolocaustinanationalcontextincludingthe thornysubjectofthemeasureofHungarianresponsibilityforthedeathofmorethanhalf amillionHungarianJews.

TheinaugurationoftheMemorialDayoftheHungarianVictimsoftheHolocaustin2001was accompaniedbyacriticaleventinthesphereofeducation-theinclusionofthehistoryofthe HolocaustinAlevelexaminationsasan(optional)independenttopic.Next,in2004,thenational state-fundedHolocaustMemorialCenter(HDKE)openedinBudapest.Fromitsinception,it offeredexhibitionguiding,workshopsandothereducationalprogrammesforhighschoolteachersandstudentgroups.HDKEalsoofferedspecialtravellingexhibitionsforhighschools.Moreover,localgovernmentsandmunicipalitiesofferedreimbursementtoschoolsfrompoorrural areasfororganisingstudenttripstotheHDKE.

Forthisreport,Iinterviewedteachersfromthreetypesofhighschools,gymnasia-technical andvocational,aswellasinformaleducatorsandacademicians.Membersofthelattergroup havebeeninvolvedineducationalprojectsandhighschoolteachertraining.Theyallconfirm that,duringthefirstdecadeofthethirdmillennium,teachershadmanynewopportunitiesto bringavarietyofeducationalprogrammesconnectedtoJewishstudies,Jewishheritageand Holocauststudiestotheirschools.During thatdecade,HungarianNGOshadbeenestablishedto strengthenJewishculturallifeandJewishidentity,introduceHolocaustremembranceandeducationonJewishheritage,andcombatantisemitismandintolerance.Amongthemostwell-known areCentropaHungary,USCShoahFoundationHungary,ZachorFoundationforSocialRemembrance, HaverFoundation,KurtLewinFoundation,CarlLutzFoundation,RaoulWallenbergAssociation, andtheTomLantosInstitute.TheseNGOsbegantoprovidehighschoolswithpedagogicaland methodologicalmaterialsaswellasprofessionaldevelopmentprogrammesforteachers.They haveoperatedindependentlyorinapartnershipwithinternationalNGOssuchastheAnneFrank HouseAmsterdam,USCShoahFoundation,USHolocaustMemorialMuseum,YadVashemandthe MémoiredelaShoah.Thankstotheseinternationalconnections,thelocalNGOswereempowered withknowledgeandskillstointroducespecialclasses,exhibitsandworkshopsforhighschools.

Fromtheearly2000s,someattemptsweremadetointroduceHolocausteducationintoboth pre-andin-serviceteachertraining.Forexample,theEötvösLorándUniversity,thelargestuniversityinHungary,foundedaspecialresearchgroup,“Holocaustandhumanrightseducation” topromoteHolocausteducationandresearchforpre-serviceteachers,andtheinternationally

59 OnthememorialisationoftheHolocaustinthepostcommunistperiodbetween1989and2010, seePaulHanebrink,“TheMemoryoftheHolocaustinpostcommunistHungary:ThePoliticsofHolocaust Memory,”inHimkaandMichlic, BringingtheDarkPasttoLight.261-291.

Szombathely,Hungary

renownedCentralEuropeanUniversity(CEU)begantoofferHolocauststudiesandJewishhistory forin-servicehighschoolteachersfromHungaryandPoland,andforfacultyfromotheruniversitiesinthecountry.TheCEUisconsideredapioneerinteachingtheHolocaustinaglobal contextbyutilisingtheShoahFoundation’sVisualHistoryArchive.TheCEUCenterforTeaching andLearningintroduceddigitalinitiativesasanewwayofteachingtraumatichistories,and teachingabouttheHolocaustfromagenderedperspective,incollaborationwithSmithCollege inMassachusetts,USA.In2014,ontheoccasionoftheseventiethanniversaryoftheHolocaustin Hungary,CEUandtheTomLantosInstituteorganisedaninternationalconferenceon“TheFuture oftheHolocaustMemorialization:ConfrontingRacism,Antisemitism,andHomophobiathrough MemoryWork”,duringwhichparticipantsexploredvariousteachingmethodologiesinhigher educationandassessedexistingpracticesofHolocausteducation.60

Inaddition,majorHungarianJewishorganisationssuchasMAZSÖK(theHungarianJewish HeritagePublicFoundation) 61 startedtobecomeinvolvedineducationaboutJewishheritageand theHolocaustbylaunchingspecialstudentcompetitions,andprovidingfundingforeducational projects.TheMAZSIHISZ(FederationofHungarianJewishCommunities)itselfbegantoregularly organiseculturalandeducationaleventswithvariouspartnerorganisations.

Newlocalmuseums,withsectionsdedicatedtoJewishheritageandthehistoryofalocal Jewishpopulation,havealsoprovidedteacherswithfullydigitalisedexhibitionsthatcouldbe exploredwithstudentsinclassroomlessons.Forexample,inBalatonfüred,asmallmuseum calledtheHouseofJewishExcellenceproducedanonlineexhibitiononthelifeandartistic achievementsof150Jewishartistsandscientistsfromtheregion.62

Mostoftheteachersinterviewedindicatethattheybenefitedgreatlyfromteachertraining withlocalandforeignJewishNGOs,andtheywouldlikesuchformsofteachertrainingtotake placemoreregularly,atleastonceayear.Likeinothercountriesinthisanalysis,teachersneed tobeproactivetofindoutinformationontrainingopportunitiesonJewishheritageandtheHolocaustandtoapplyforfundingthroughtheNGOs.Theschoolsdonotprovidefinancialsupport forteachertraining.

SometeachershadtheopportunitytoattendteachertrainingabroadofferedbyYadVashem’s InternationalSchoolforHolocaustStudies.Asinothercountries,YadVashem’steachertraining hasbeenhighlyvaluedbyHungarianparticipantsbecauseofitsinnovativemethodsofactive experimentallearninganditsemphasisonindividualhistories.Teachersreportthattheywere inspiredbytheapproachand,upon returninghome,theyembarkedoncreativeeducationallessons andactivitiesbothinandoutoftheclassroom,includingvisitstoJewishcemeteriesandothersites ofJewishinterest,aswellasorganisingmeetingswithHolocaustsurvivors.Inherblogof12June 2011,theHungarian-borneducatorSzilviaPeto-Dittelgivesapowerfuldetailedaccountofhow YadVashemhadinspiredPéterHeindl,ahistoryteacherandyoutheducatorfromMagyarmecske,a remoteandpoverty-strickenHungarianvillageneartheCroatianborder.Thankstotheteacher’s year-longeducationalprojectwithhisstudents,theyandindeedthewiderinhabitantsofthe villagediscoveredthehistoryoftheirmurderedJewishneighboursandafewstilllivingsurvivors.

“Inordertoraisehisstudents’interestandcuriosity,Heindlhungontheschoolnoticeboardan oldphotoofayoung,school-agegirlwiththefollowinglinesunderneath:“LiliNey:agirlfrom

60 Forthefruitsofthisconference,seeAndreaPetöandHelgaThorson,eds., TheFutureofHolocaust Memorialization:ConfrontingRacism,Antisemitism,andHomophobiathroughMemoryWork,(Budapest, TomLantosInstitute,2015).

61 MAZSÖK,(theHungarianJewishHeritagePublicFoundation)isfundedbythestate.TheFoundationdeals withthepreservationofJewishculturalheritageincludingcemeteries,synagoguesandothercommunal buildings,aswellaswiththe pensionsandcaretakingofHungarianHolocaustsurvivors.

https://mazsok.hu/eng/index.html

62 SeetheofficialwebsiteoftheMuseum:https://www.zsidokivalosagok.hu/en/fooldal-en/

Magyarmecskedisappearedfromourvillage.Afewweekslatershewaskilled.Whowasshe? Whydidshedie?ShewasnottheonlypersonfromMagyarmecsketosufferthisfate.Let’sfind outtogetherthehistoryofLiliNeyandtheothers!”Theposterhadanenormouseffectonthe students;dozenswantedtotakepartintheinvestigationsessionsHeindlscheduledoneafternoonaweekfortheentireschoolyear.“ThecrimestoryopeningsolvedoneofthebiggestchallengesofHolocausteducation,”explainsHeindl,“howtoinvolveyounglearnersindealingwith agloomytopicthatonlyadultsfeelisimportantenoughtoremember?”

Duringtheseriesof“detectiveworkshops,”Heindlandthestudentsgraduallyfoundoutthetruth abouttheeventsofWWII.Heindl,the“chiefdetective,”carefullychoseandplannedtheprogramme fromweektoweek,makingsurethateachphaserevealedmoredetails,andthestudentsdidnot loseinterestovertheyear-longprocess.

Withthehelpofalocalhistorian(IstvánVörös,alsoaYadVashemgraduate)theylearned aboutthevariousreligiouscommunitiesinthevillageatthetimeofthewar,anddiscoveredthat therewereonce17JewishandtwoRomafamilieslivingthere.“AuntCinka”(BenceKálmánné), anelderlyladyfromthevillagewhostillrememberedtheeventsfrom64yearsearlier,tookthe grouponaguidedtourofthevillage,pointingoutformerJewishhousesanddescribingeach familythatlivedthere,aswellastheirdeportationsandtheplunderoftheirpossessions.Students wereshockedtofindoutthatamassmurderhadtakenplaceintheirsmallvillage.BasedonAunt Cinka’saccount,aJewishsurvivorfromthevillage,LászlóSzántó(Steiner),wastracedto Budapest.SzántóvisitedthestudentsinMagyarmecske,bringingwithhimsomeoldphotos, includingoneofhimselfwiththetwochildrenfromtheNeyfamilyoutsidetheirhouse.Further lessonsforthisgroupofinvestigatorsincludedavisittotheclosestlivingJewishcommunityin thecityofPécsandameetingwiththeirchiefrabbi,AndrásSchönberger;aconversationabout questionsofresponsibilitywiththeCatholicpriestofAlsószentmártonwhoactivelyministersto RomagroupsinMagyarmecske;avisittotheJewishcemeteryinKacsótawheremostoftheJews fromMagyarmecskeareburied;andatwo-dayexcursiontotheHolocaustMemorialCentreand JewishquarterandmuseuminBudapest.

TheschoolyearendedwiththediscoveryofthehousebelongingtoaRighteousAmongthe NationsErzsébetTóth(néeJuhász).Insidethehouse,thecurrentownersweresurprisedtobe shownanoriginalhidingplace.“Thetopicwasaperfectonetoclosethedetectivestory,”Heindl says.“Itdrewmystudents’attentiontopositiveexamplesofhumanbehaviourintimeswhen inhumanityprevailed.Theendoftheschoolyear,however,didnotmeantheterminationofthe project,whichhadalreadysurpassedtheexpectationsofitscreator.On8August2008,the wholevillageactivelyjoinedinthegroup’sinitiative,andamemorialplaquetocommemoratethe 11JewishvictimsfromMagyarmecskewasdedicatedonthewallofthelocalschool(oncehome totheJewishLedrerfamily).Anexhibitionwasalsoorganisedfromthefindingsofthestudent group.Thenationalmediatookgreatinterestintheproject,and coverageoftheworkwas broadcastandreportedinseveraldifferentforms.” 63

PéterHeindlbelongstoasmallgroupofhighschoolteacherswho,thankstoteachertraining offeredbyNGOs,tooktheirstudentstolocalcemeteriesforlessonsonthepre-1939Jewishreligiousandculturallife,thefunctionalandspiritualsignificanceofJewishcemeteries,andtolearn aboutindividualsburiedthere.Oneoftheinterviewedhighschoolteachers,B.K.statesthatshe regularlyvisitsJewishcemeteriesinthecapitalandparticipateswithherstudentsincaringfora localcemetery.However,duetotheCovidpandemic,sheisstillawaitingtheopportunitytoclean upalocalcemeteryincooperationwiththeDiósjenőCouncil.

MostoftheinterviewedteachersrecognisedthegreatbenefitofincorporatingJewishcemeteries intolessonplansonlocalpre-warJewishhistoryandculture.AccordingtoDrBorbalaKlacsmann,

63 AneducationalblogpostedbySzilviaPeto-DittelonYadVashemwebsiteof12June2011, https://www.yadvashem.org/author/szilvia-peto-dittel.html

anexperiencedinformaleducatorinHungaryandpost-doctoralresearcherattheCentreforWar Studies,UniversityCollegeDublin:“thecemeteriesareoftentheonlyterritorieswhereonecan learnaboutthehistoryofthelocalJewishcommunity(manyofthesynagoguesdidnotsurvive thewar).VisitingcemeteriesisagoodwaytoteachaboutJewishhistory,cultureandreligionand, inabroadercontext,thehistoryofminoritiesinHungary,co-existence,Jewish–non-Jewish relations,thesocial,economic,religioushistoryofthetownandsoforth.” 64

However,withinthegroupofteachersconductinglearninginJewishcemeteries,manyregret thefactthattheirworkisnotpartofawidereducationalprogramme,butlimitedtoindividual efforts. “IamtheonlyteacherwhousestheJewishcemeteryforteaching” (A.A.Historyhigh schoolteacher).Insomesmalltowns,teachersdonotalwayshaveaccesstothelocalJewish cemeteryastheyareoftenclosedduetofearofvandalismbyindividualsbelongingtoextreme right-wingorganisationssuchastheJobbikparty.

“Inseveraltowns,theJewishcemeteriesarelockedupbecauseoffearofantisemiticvandalism, thereforevisitingthemisnoteasy:itrequirespriorco-ordination.However,justrecentlyIvisited Sered(Slovakia)wheretheJewishcemeteryistakencareofbyalocalprivateschool.Ithinksimilar activityisconductedincertainplaces inHungarytoo,butitisdefinitelynotcommon.” 65

ManyteachersindicatethattheywouldliketoforgecloserlinkswiththelocalJewishcommunities thataretheguardiansoftheJewishcemeteries.Theywouldliketoinvolvetheirstudentsinregular cleaningofJewishcemeteries,andconducton-sitelearning.SomeareawareoftheSlovakand Polishinitiativesof“adopting”aJewishcemeterybyalocalhighschoolandwouldliketofollow thatmodelintheirowncommunities.Atthesametime,teachersandinformaleducatorsindicate thatJewishcemeteriesinHungarycannotbeusedforeducationabouttheHolocaustgiventhe specificnatureoftheHungarianHolocaust–mostoftheHungarianJewsweremurderedoutside Hungary.Therefore,nocommemorativeeventsarebeingorganisedinthespaceofthe Jewishcemetery.

Teachersrecognisesomechallengingissuespertainingtoworkingwithinthenationalcurriculum,includingthestructure,methods,andtextbooksonJewishhistoryandtheHolocaust. ThesubjectofJewishheritageassuchdoesnotconstituteapartofthenationalcurriculum, thoughsomeofitselementsaretaughtintheHistoryoftheAncientWorldandLiteraturewhere thisrelatestotheBible.

Approximately2-3hoursinthenationalcurriculumarededicatedtothestudyofJewish historyandcultureintheacademicyear,and3hourstotheHolocaust.Butsometeachers allocateupto10hourstocoverbothtopics.Mostteachersinterviewedindicatethatbetween 10to15hoursperacademicyearwouldbeideal.However,theyallstressthattheyrequire morepre-andin-servicetraining,aswellasmorefunding,andmoreeducationalmaterials intheHungarianlanguage.

TheHolocaustbeginstobetaughtinthe8thgradeelementaryschooland11thand12th gradesecondaryschoolaspartoftheHistorycurriculum.ThegeneralhistoryoftheHolocaust anditsnationalcontextarecoveredseparately.SomeeducatorslikeDrBorbalaKlacsmannsee thisapproachasproblematic.Ontheonehand,inthegeneralcontextoftheHolocaust,students learnaboutthemodernhistoryofHungarianJewsstartingfromthe18thcenturyandincluding topicssuchasJewishimmigration,thesocial-politicalstatusofHungarianJewsandassimilation.

64 InterviewconductedwithDrBorbalaKlacsmannbytheauthorofthisreporton18November2022.

65 InterviewconductedwithDrBorbalaKlacsmannbytheauthorofthisreporton18November2022.

Ontheotherhand,inthenationalcontext,certainnarrativeswouldbepresentedinasimplistic mannerandinpassivelanguage:

“Insomecases,thereisnoactorinthesentences-‘theJewsweredeported’,‘theJewslosttheir possessions’–bywhom?Towhom?Also,someofthephotocaptionsareincorrectandHungarian collaborationwithNaziGermanyisrarelymentioned.” 66

ForP.R.(aneducationpolicymaker,historian,anduniversityProfessor),thesubjectsofJewish historyandcultureandtheHolocausthavebeenartificiallytreatedinthenationalcurriculum, withoutabasicintroductionataprimaryschoollevel.Moreover,inencounteringJewishhistory andculture,highschoolstudentsdonotlearnthatJewshavebeenanintegralpartofHungarian society.Also,instudyingthesubjectsinatraditionalmannerinsteadofviaactivelearning,the studentsdonotlearntobeindependentcriticalthinkers:

“ThethingsthatarepartoftheHungarian(ethnic)nationalcanonarealreadypresentinkindergarten,however,thethingsthatarepartofadifferentcanononlyappearatthemiddleschool level,whichisproblematicasthere’sadecisionbehinditthatsaysthatJudaismandJewishtraditionsdon’tbelongtotheHungariannationalcanon.It’saproblemwhichhasalwaysbeen.The factthatJewsareleftoutofprimaryschoolisduetothesomewhatdistortedcurriculum-subject fetishismthatprevailsinthecountry.Itcreatesasituationwherethereiscompetitionforafinite amountofteachingspaceamongdifferenttopics.Teachersteachaccordingtotheold-fashioned pattern:thattheyaretheoneswhopassonknowledgeandhelpthestudentstounderstandand digesttheknowledge…..Ifweweretostartfromthepremisethatknowledgeistherawmaterial oflearningandnotitsgoal,thenwewouldletgoofthecanonofknowledge,andquestions wouldariseastowhatrawmaterialthelearnerandtheteacheruseautonomouslytodevelop certainskillsandcompetences…..Knowledgealonecannotchangeattitudes.Ifwewanttodo that,weneedtocreatealearningenvironmentwherestudentscandotheirownresearch,where theteacherdoesn'tguide,onlyassist.Thereshouldberoomfordialogueandreflection.”

ButthesituationinHungarianeducationatalllevelshasworsenedsince2010afterthenewly appointedFIDESZgovernmentdissolvedtheMinistryofEducationandsubordinatededucation intotheaffairsofaMinistryofHumanResources.Accordingtothewell-knownHungarianscholar AndreaPetö:“from2010,thestateincreasinglyreachedintoallspheresofpubliclife:legal, economic,culturalandeducational,requiringunquestioningloyaltyfromitscitizens.”

67

TheFIDESZgovernmenttookcontrolofinstitutionsofhighereducationbynationalisingand centralisingtheHungarianAcademyofSciences,sendingCEUintopoliticalexilefromBudapest toVienna;andabolishingtheautonomyofuniversities.FromearlyApril2022,afurthercentralisationoftheeducationalsystemtookplace:theOfficeforEducationhadbeentransferredtothe MinistryofInterior.On14Octoberthisyear,manyteachersandparentsindifferentpartsof HungarywentonstrikeprotestingagainstthepoliticisationoftheHungarianeducationsystem.

68

Thepost-2010changeswithintheeducationsystemhavehadaprofoundlynegativeimpact onhighschooleducationonJewishheritageandtheHolocaustasthelatterhasbeende-judaized intheofficialstatenarratives.Oneteachercalledthema“disasteronalllevels”.Astrikingexample ofthepoliticisationofeducationisthedifficultyteachersfacewhenapplyingforteachertraining

66 InterviewconductedwithDrBorbalaKlacsmannbytheauthorofthisreporton18November2022.

67 AndreaPetö,“TheIlliberalMemoryPoliticsinHungary,”Forum:“PatrioticHistoryandthe (Re)nationalizationofMemory”, JournalofGenocideResearch,vol.24,no.2,September2021,2. https://doi.org/10.1080/14623528.2021.1968150

68 ForthereportabouttheprotestsinEnglishsee,https://telex.hu/english/2022/10/14/teachers-andparents-united-to-demand-changes-in-education

abroadbecausetheFIDESZgovernmentopposesthemodelofHolocausteducationprovidedby YadVashemandotherforeignJewishNGOs.Asaconsequence,highschoolheadsdonotallow orareforcednottoallowindividualteacherstoapplyforsuchteachertraining.

“IhaveteacherssayingthattheywanttoapplyforaYadVashemcourseandtheirheadteachers don’twanttosigntheapplicationbecausetheydon’twanttospeakabouttheHolocaust,especially notin[YadVashem’s]way,” PetoDittelsaid.Someheadteachers,shesaid,willevenintimidate teachersiftheyareinterestedingoingtoYadVashem,accusingthemofbeingclosetJews.”

69 InHungarytoday,theeducationalsystemistotallyunderthecontroloftheFIDESZgovernment,andeducationaboutJewishheritageandtheHolocaustisunderthreatduetotheweaponisationofHungarianhistorytoservethepoliticalandideologicalgoalsofthestate.Therefore, teacheraccesstopre-andin-servicetrainingbyforeignNGOsinavarietyofforms,including onlineshortcourses,isvitaltomaintaintheprofileofJewishheritageandtheHolocaustwithin theeducationalsystem.

Giventhecurrentclimateinthecountry,financialandmoralsupportforthoseeducators championingtheJewishnarrativeiscritical,especiallyrecognisingthewiderpotentialhereof promotingtheEuropeanvaluesofpluralismanddemocracy,andhelpingtocombatantisemitism.

69 CitationfromaninterviewwithSzilvia/SilviaPeto-Dittel,publishedbyNathanJeffayinhisarticle, “HolocaustMemoryUnderSiegeInWorldsOfPolitics,Art,” NYJewishWeek onApril20,2017; https://www.jta.org/2017/04/20/ny/holocaust-memory-under-siege-in-worlds-of-politics-art

LITHUANIA 2.3

2.3 LITHUANIA

OntheeveoftheWWII,JewshadlivedinLithuaniaformorethan600yearsandhadcreated auniquespiritualandmaterialculture.LikeotherEastEuropeanJewishcommunities,the LithuanianJews,knownasLitvaks,weregenerallyanurbanpopulation.Theylivedinthecapital, Vilnius,knownasthe“JerusalemofLithuania”andincitiessuchasKovnoandGrodno,aswellas insmalltownsandvillages.Between90-94percentofthe200,000LithuanianJewishpopulation weremurderedduringtheHolocaust,80percentofwhomwerekilledinthefirstsixmonths oftheNazioccupationof1941withthehelpoflocalLithuaniancollaborators,includingfascist militaryunits.70 IntheaftermathoftheSecondWorldWar,underSovietoppression,Lithuanian Jewishculturalheritagewasneglected,andthehistoryandmemoryoftheHolocaustwassuppressed.Asinotherpost-communistcountries,Lithuaniawasforthefirsttimeconfrontedwith challengingandpainfultaskofintroducingeducationaboutJewishheritageandtheHolocaust whenthecountryregaineditsindependencein1991.SeekingmembershipinNATOandtheEU, Lithuaniafollowedapatternofreformsimplementedinotherpost-communistcountries.Out ofpolitical,economic,social,culturalandethicalnecessities,theLithuaniangovernmentjoined theInternationalHolocaustRemembranceAllianceandsignedtheStockholmDeclaration (IHRA)in2000.ItenactedpoliticalmandatesforHolocaustcommemorationsandeducation andacceptedarequirementtopayreparationstoitsJewishcommunityfortheHolocaust.

ThegovernmentalsointroducedacademicexchangeswiththeWestandembarkedon buildingnewrelationsbetweennon-JewishLithuaniansandthesmallJewishminorityinthe country,aswellastheLitvakdiasporaabroadandtheStateofIsrael.Italsopermittedcritical researchintothe difficultHolocaustpast,examiningthescopeofcollaborationandperpetrationbynon-JewishLithuaniansontheonehandand,ontheother,therescueofJews.However, integratingthepainfulhistoryofrelationsbetweenJewishandnon-JewishLithuaniansinto publicmemoryandschools’historycurriculahasprovenchallengingandmarredbyscandal. Forexample,in1998theInternationalCommissionfortheEvaluationoftheCrimesoftheNazi andSovietRegimesin Lithuaniawasestablishedbut,bythemiddleofthe2000s,itwasdiscreditedafterLithuanianstateprosecutorsaccusedseveralHolocaustsurvivorsofwarcrimes againstnon-JewishLithuanians.71

Despitetheongoingchallenges,LithuanianHolocausteducationgraduallydevelopedthanks totheactivitiesofteachersworkingoutsideof,ratherthanwithin,theformaleducationalsystem. AccordingtoChristineBeresniova,ittookoveradecadeofpolicyreformandnewteacher traininginitiativesforLithuanianeducatorstoacquirethepedagogicalskillsandnon-partisan historicalknowledgetoaddresstheSovietandNazioccupationswithoutcomparingthesufferingoftheJewstothesufferingofethnicLithuanians.ThankstotrainingofferedbyforeignNGOs, teacherswereempoweredtoconfrontandrejecttheequationbetweentheSovietterrorand theNazicrimes–anequationutilisedasanexcuseforLithuaniansvolunteeringinthemass killingsoftheirJewishneighbours.

72 ThestrategyofrationalisingandminimisingcrimescommittedagainstLithuanianJewsbyethnicLithuaniansisapartofanexclusivistandantisemitic nationalistdiscoursewhichcrystallisedintheimmediatepost-1945period.Thisdiscourse producedtheJudeo-bolshevismstereotypeandthedoublegenocidetheorythatequatesthe HolocausttothecrimescommittedbytheSovietUnion.Thetheorywasopenly disseminated

70 OnthehistoryandmemoryoftheHolocaustinLithuania,seeSauliusSuziedelisandSarunasLiekis, “Conflictingmemories:TheReceptionoftheHolocaustinLithuania,”inHimkaandMichlic, Bringing theDarkPasttoLight,319-351.

71 Idem.,339-341.

72 ChristineBeresniova,“ResistanceandResiliencewithinLithuaniaHolocausteducation”, Holocaust Remembered.ResistanceandResilience,ASpecialSupplement,ColumbiaEducationCommission, 26April2019,vol.6,4.

byright-wingnationalistcirclesinpost-communistLithuaniatojustifyandrationalisethecrimes committedbyethnicLithuaniansagainstLithuanianJewsintheSecondWorldWar.Highschool teachershadtoacquirevariousskillsandnon-partisanknowledgetoconfrontthesetroubling discoursesaswellasotheringrainednegativeculturalstereotypingofJews(andtheRoma)as the“other”whoareconsiderednotapartofthefabricofLithuaniansociety.Intheimportant studyof2019,entitled“ChildrenWhoSpeakinTheirParents’Cliches”:ExploringtheBroader SocialRelationshipBetweenCulturalPracticesandTeacherIdentityinLithuanianHolocaust Education”,Beresniovaanalyseshowcommunity“stories”aboutJewishheritageandtheHolocaustintersectwithformaleducation.Drawingoninterviewswithteachersandeducators conductedovertwoyears,2011-2013–adecadeaftertheofficialintroductionofHolocaust educationintoLithuania,Beresniovareportsthatteacherssometimesstillfacedconfrontations withparentswhoexpressedvaryinganti-Jewishandanti-Romaprejudices.Theyalsoknew verylittleaboutthetopicsoftheHolocaustandJewishheritageanddidnotnecessarilywish theirchildrentolearnaboutthem.Givensuchchallengingcircumstances,teacherssometimes arenotsurehowtoproceedinbuildinganew“normal”educationalspherethatincludesparental involvementwhenitcomestoeducationabouttheHolocaustandJewishheritage.

“Itcouldbeinterestingtoknow[parental]opinions.Maybeafterchildrencomebackfromschool andstarttalkingabouttoleranceumbrellasoranythinglikethis,orwhenwetalkaboutthe Holocaust,[parents]say‘Oh,shutup.Whatareyoudoing?”Andourworkisvanishing.” 73

Teacherssometimeshavetorelyonfinancialsupportprovidedbytheirstudents’parentsto organiseoutsideclassroomactivitiessuchaseducationaltripstoalocalJewishcemeteryor amuseumtolearnaboutJewishheritageandtheHolocaust.(However,teacherscanalsoseek financialsupportofferedlocalJewishcommunitiesforspecificeducationalactivities.)

OnecannotignoreafactthatinLithuania(andalsoinPoland),thepotentialforconflictwith colleaguesormembersofalocalcommunity,especiallyinsmalltownsandvillages,sometimes makesteachershesitanttoteachabouttheHolocaustandJewishheritage.Insomecases,asone teacherexplained,teachersandschooldirectorsdonoteventalkaboutthesubject“unlessthey haveto.”ThisdemonstratestheextenttowhicheducationaboutJewishheritageandtheHolocaust isstillbeingpoliticised.74

HighschoolteachersinterviewedforthisreportareexperiencedteachersofHistory,Lithuanian Literature,CivicsandEthics.Mostofthemworkincomprehensivesecondary schools,encompassinggrades9to12,butsomealsoworkinprimaryandmiddleschools,andoneofthemworks inthenetworkoftheinternationalJewishChassidicChabadschools.Formany,beingateacher involvedineducationabouttheHolocaustandJewishheritageisataskthattheyfeelpassionate aboutandreflectsaconvergenceofpersonalinterestandprofessionallife.Theyallagreethat educationaboutJewishheritageinHistorylessonsbeginsingrade5andcontinueswithamore developedfocusontheHolocaustinthecontextoftheSecondWorldWaringrades10,11and12. Thefocusingrades5-8isonJewishreligion,traditionsandculture.However,theschoolcurriculum allocatesonly1to3hoursperyeartoteachaboutthesetopics,thoughsometeachersindicate

73 AteachercitedinChristineBeresniova’s“ChildrenWhoSpeakinTheirParents’Cliches”:Exploringthe BroaderSocialRelationshipBetweenCulturalPracticesandTeacherIdentityinLithuanianHolocaust Education”, EuropeanEducation,no.51,2019,119.

74 OnthepoliticisationofeducationoftheHolocaustandJewishheritageinLithuania,seeChristineBeresniova,“UnlessTheyHaveTo”:Power,PoliticsandInstitutionalHierarchyinLithuanianHolocaustEducation”, inZehavitGrossandE.DoyleStevick,eds., AstheWitnessesFallSilent:21stCenturyHolocaustEducation inCurriculum,PolicyandPractice (NewYork,London,SpringerInternationalPublishers,2015).391-406, Hereafter,GrossandStevick, AstheWitnessesFallSilent:21stCenturyHolocaustEducationinCurriculum, PolicyandPractice

thattheydevote4hoursayeartodiscussJewishheritageingrades5-8.Inthehighschool curriculum,4hoursperyearareallocatedtoteachabouttheHolocaustingrades9-12.

“Ingrades5and6,studentsgetacquaintedwiththeJewsasanationalminority.Wespeakabout theirreligion–Judaism–andJewishtraditions.Ingrades9to12,thetopicsofJewishhistoryand religionappearasasubjectinclassesonHistoryandLiterature.Mostly,wespeakaboutJewsin thecontextoftheSecondWorldWar.ThefocusisontheHolocaust.WespeakabouttheHolocaustinabroaderEuropeancontext,aswellasthelocalLithuaniancontext.....Ingrades5to8, threelessonsarededicatedtoJewishtraditionsandreligion.Ingrades9to12,fourlessonsare dedicatedtothetopicofWorldWarIIandtheHolocaust.Ingrades9to12,wemostlylearnabout theHolocaust.Thechoiceoftopicsandthedepthoflearningdependsontheindividualteacher. Theteacher selectswhichaspectstopresenttohis/herstudents.TheHolocaustisalreadymentionedingrade6Historyclasses.Onelessonisdedicatedtothat.Mostly,studentslearnabout theHolocaustingrades10to12(fourlessonsarededicatedtothesubject).Studentslearnabout thebeginningoftheHolocaustandconcentrationcamps.Sometimeisdedicatedtostudyingthe HolocaustinLithuania.” (I.P.Jewishhistoryeducator,theLostShtetlMuseum)

“Onlyafewhoursare dedicatedtolearningaboutJewishculturewithintheLithuaniancurriculum: studentsmightbeintroducedtoJewishcultureasearlyasinprimaryschool(especiallyduring religiouseducationclasseswhenlearningBiblicalstories).Later,inmiddleschool(grade7) studentslearnaboutancienthistoryandreligions,includingJudaism.TheydoreturntoJewish historyingrades8and10,althoughthetopicsmostlyconcerntheHolocaust.Largely,thedepth andvarietyofJewishtopicsdependontheindividualteacher.

Inhighschool(grades9-12),thestudentsstudymostlytopicsconnectedwiththeHolocaust andWorldWarII.DifferentaspectsofJewishheritagemightbetaughtbymoreknowledgeable andenthusiasticteachers,butthereisnoofficialrequirementtoteachitexplicitlyandextensively. Needlesstosay,thevastmajorityofteacherssticktotheeducationalprogramme,thetextbook materialsandfocusontheexaminationtopics.

Judaismistaughtingrade7inHistorylessons(underthetopicsofancientcivilizationsand religions).InlessonsofReligiousEducation(anelectivesubjectinLithuania)studentsarereintroducedtoJudaismingrade11.

TheHolocaustistaughtmostlyingrade10(someinformationaboutitisalsotaughtingrade8), andthestudentsreturntothetopicagainingrade12.Approximatelyseveralhoursaredevotedto thestudyoftheHolocaust,inthecontextoflearningaboutWorldWarII.However,teachers tendtoleanmoretowardsteachingabouttheSovietoccupationanddedicatemuchmoretimeto talkingabouttheCommunistregimeinLithuania.ThereisnoHolocausteducationprogrammein Lithuania.Overall,wecouldsayabout5hoursperyeararededicatedtolearningabouttheHolocaust.” (S.S.teacherofJewishHistoryandTraditions)

“Accordingtotheeducationprogramme,westartteachingaboutitingrade5:weacquaintchildren withtheJewishnation,itshistoryandreligion.MorefocusisplacedontheHolocaust.Depending ontheteacher,studentsmaybetaughtaboutthebasicsinprimaryschooltoo.Childrenbecome acquaintedwiththeirLithuanianneighbours,theJews.Insomecases,teacherstakestudentsto thesynagogueandtellthemaboutJewishtraditionsandcelebrations.However,theprimary schoolcurriculumdoesnotincludethetopicofJews,JewishcultureandJudaism.Jewishhistory andtraditionsaretaughtwithindifferentagegroups.Witholderstudents,thefocusisplacedon theHolocaustinLithuaniaandinEurope.Ingrades5-8,studentsareacquaintedwithJewishhistorythroughdifferenttimeperiods:AncientTimesandthentheMiddleAges.Someinformation isprovidedonJudaismandJewishtraditions.Ingrades9-12,studentsfocusmoreon19thand 20thcenturyJewishhistory.StudentslearnabouttheLitvaksandtheiraccomplishments,however

thebiggestfocusisontheHolocaust.Ingrades5-8,about3hoursareallocated,ingrades9-12 from4to6hoursintotal.Additionaltimemaybeallocatedforspecialprojects.TheHolocaustis giventhemostattentionwhenstudentsstartlearningaboutthebeginningsoftheSecondWorld War.SometimesteachersorganisetripsorimplementprojectsaboutWorldWarII.Accordingto theschoolcurriculum,6hoursmustbeallocatedtoteachtheHolocaust.” (M.T.Historyteacher)

MostteachersstressthattherearenotenoughhoursallocatedtoteachingJewishheritageand theHolocaustinthehighschoolcurriculumandideallywouldlikeanincreaseofhourstobetween 10to15hoursperyear.ForI.P.(JewishHistoryteacher),theoptimalnumberofhoursinthehigh schoolcurriculumtoteachaboutJewishheritageis1hourpermonth),whereasM.P.(teacherof Ethics)insistson “dedicatingatleast37hoursperyear(1houraweek)indifferentsubjectsto teachJewishheritageacrossthecurriculum.” Teachersalsoemphasisetheneedtodevelop “special projectsandactivitiesduringprojectimplementationweeks” inthehighschoolcurriculum.(M.T. Historyteacher).SomeinsistthatJewishheritageandtheHolocaustshouldbetaughtwithina broaderrangeofsubjectsincludingSociology,Philosophy,ArtsandGeography,andthatthere shouldbemoreemphasisonteachingpre-1939Jewishheritageandhistory:

“Inmyopinion,therearetoofewlessonsassignedforstudentstolearnaboutJudaismandJewish traditions,culture,andleadingJewishpersonalities.MostlywefocusontheHolocaust,butstudents lackbasicknowledgeofwhotheJewswere.WeshoulddedicatemorelessonstostudyJewishhistory beforetheHolocaust,lookingintodifferenttimeperiods.” (I.P.JewishHistoryTeacher,LostShtetl

Museum)

Manyalsostressthatthereshouldbemoreemphasisinthehigh schoolcurriculumonthe achievementsandcontributionofLithuanianJewstoLithuaniansociety:

“JewishheritageandcultureareaninseparablepartofLithuania,soitisimportanttoemphasise thatalargeJewishpopulationlivedinLithuania.Itisimportanttorecogniseandemphasiseto studentsthecontributionofthisnationtoourcountry.Anotherimportantthingisthatmanyevents areorganisedinthepublicspace,bothatthelocalandnationallevel,withthe aimofintroducing thepublictoJewishculture.Schoolsshouldparticipateintheseevents.”

(M.R.Historyteacher)

TheteachingofJewishheritageandtheHolocaustisdeliveredinthetraditionalformofalecture byateacheralongwiththeuseofsomeinnovativemethodsincludingonlineseminars,interviews,imagesandinteractivemaps.Thelessonsareusuallyconductedinclass,butsomelessons takeplaceoutsidetheclassroom,suchasinalocalsynagogueormuseum.Manyteachersstress thattheytakeeveryopportunitytotaketheirstudentsonvisitstomuseumsofJewishinterest suchastheVilnaGaonStateMuseuminVilniusortheNinthFortMuseuminKaunus.Teachers highlyvaluethesemuseumsasnon-governmentalinstitutionsthatofferricheducationalprogrammesonthehistoryofLithuanianJews.TheLithuaniangovernmentandlocalmunicipalities generallysponsortheeducationalprogrammesonofferwithinthemuseums.

OnlysometeachersvisitJewishcemeterieswiththeirstudents.Suchvisitstakeplacewith greaterfrequencywhenthecemeteryisinthevicinityoftheschool.Thepurposeoftheoutside classroominaspaceofalocalcemeteryisusually“toteachaboutindividualsburiedthere.”Nevertheless,mostteachersareeagertoincorporateJewishcemeteriesintoeducationalpracticefor highschoolstudentsandrecognisethevaluefortheirstudents.Accordingtovariousestimates, inpre-warLithuaniatherewerebetween200-240Jewishcemeteries.“Today,mostofthemare forgottenandneglected.Newbuildingswerebuiltontopof,ornextto,someoldcemeterysites, andgravestoneshaveoftenbeenusedasconstructionmaterial.Timeruthlesslyravagesold graves.Thesesitesoftenbecomethetargetofattackbyvandals.Becauseoflackoffundsand initiative,oldJewishcemeteriesarequicklydisappearingandthememoriesoftheLitvaksburied therewilldisappearaswell.”

Vilnius,Lithuania

Individualteachershavebeeninvolvedontheirowninitiativeinrestorationandeducational projectsatJewishcemeteriesindifferentpartsofthecountry.Mostoftheeducationalprojects havedevelopedgraduallythroughouttheseconddecadeofthethirdmillennium.Thankstothe educationalactivitiesofinternationalJewishNGOssuchasCentropa,teachersaregivenan opportunitytofamiliarisethemselveswiththehistoryandcultureofLithuanianJewsanddevelop apersonalinterestinthepreservationofthephysicalJewishheritage.Teachersalsoactivelyseek financialsupportfortheirprojectswithinlocalJewishcemeteriesfromlocalmunicipalities,the LithuanianCultureCouncil,Jewishcommunities,andNGOssuchasMaceva.Thelatteristhemain non-profitorganisationinthecountrywhichaimstopreserveJewishcemeteries,“forfuture generationsinLithuaniaandthediaspora”,anditscredois:“aJewishcemeteryinLithuaniaisnot simplyaburialplace.ItispartofLithuanianhistoryandculture.” 75

ManyteacherssupporttheincorporationofJewishcemeteriesasaneducationalresourcein theirownteachingpractice.Theyindicatethattheadministrationintheirschoolsshouldsupport suchactivities,whichincludesrunningcompetitionsforstudents,andofferingcross-cultural projectsontheburialsitesandburialcustomsindifferentcultures(ie.,Jewish,Christianandothers). TheyalsorecognisethateducationalactivitiesatJewishcemeteriesarealsodependentonpermits fromlocalmunicipalities:

“WecanuseJewishcemeteriesforeducationalpurposes,asatopicforthepreparationofprojects, understandingtheirhistoryandworkingonpreservationforfuturegenerations.Inthespring/ autumn,ifthecitymunicipalitygivespermissionforthecleaningandmaintenanceofthecemetery bylocalschools,classesonJewishcultureandtraditionscanbeheldwithintheJewishcemetery. StudentscanlearnabouttheburialtraditionsofdifferentreligionsatJewishcemeteries.” (M.R.

Historyteacher)

ManyteachersalsoindicatethattheywouldliketobeinvolvedinmorecleanupsofJewishcemeteries,specialeventsandeducationalactivities:

“…toorganiseprojectstocleanupcemeteries.Students(duringprojectweeks)mayanalysethe epitaphsanddosomehistoricalresearchwiththehelpofasupervisor.” (M.T.Historyteacher)

SometeachersparticipatewithstudentsinHolocaustmemorialeventssuchastheLithuanian JewishGenocideMemorialDayon23SeptemberandintheInternationalHolocaustMemorialDay on27January.Fortheseoccasions,teachersandstudentsorganisespecialculturalperformances, marchesandwalksaroundtownsandcitiesalongthe“JewishHeritageTrails”showingthepast vibrantpresenceofthepre-1939 Jewishcommunities,aswellasthesitesoftheirdestruction. ButthisisdoneonasmallscaleandwithlimiteduseofJewishcemeteriesassitesofdestruction. MostteachersdonothavetheopportunitytoparticipatewiththeirstudentsinspecificmemorialisationsofJewishcommunitiesatthelocalJewishcemetery.

“Myschooldoesnotparticipateinthesetypesofevents.AlthoughIhadorganisedtoparticipate intheprocessiontocommemoratetheGenocideDayoftheLithuanianJews,Ihadtocancelitfor unclearreasonsduetotheorderoftheadministration.” (M.R.Historyteacher)

SomeexpressedthedesiretoincorporatetheJewishcemeteryintheirteachingabouttheHolocaust, butrecognisethatmuchmoreefforthastobeappliedtoprovideteacherswiththenecessarytools toeducateeffectivelyonthesubject:

75 AccordingtoMaceva’swebsite,theorganisationcollects,cataloguesandpublicisesinformationabout allthepre-WWIIJewishcemeteriesinLithuaniaanddocumentsthroughphotographsallremainingtombstonesinallJewishcemeteriesthroughoutLithuania.Italsotranslatesalllegibleinscriptionsfromthe gravestonesandpoststhisinformationonitswebsite.Wheneverpossibleitaimstorestoreorreconstruct,oratleastcleancemeteries,withtheassistanceofandincooperationwithlocalmunicipalities. Seehttp://www.litvak-cemetery.info/about-us

“IfLithuaniahadaformalHolocausteducationprogramme,apartofitcouldpotentiallybeavisit tothelocalJewishcemetery.Methodswouldneedtobedevelopedastohowtoteachthehistory oftheHolocaustusingtheJewishcemetery,butitcouldbeeffective.” (S.S.JewishHistoryteacher)

TosuccessfullyorganisestudenttripstoJewishcemeteries,museumsofJewishinterestand/or othereducationalactivitiesonJewishheritageandtheHolocaustoutsidetheclassroom,teachers havetobeproactiveandfindthefinancialresourcesthemselvestosupportsuchactivities. TeachersstressthatfundingtorunoutsideclassroomlessonsinJewishcemeteries,museums andHolocaustmemorialisationsitesaregenerallylimited.

“AlotofattentioninsocietyispaidtoJewishculture.Itwasunheardofforschoolstoreceive directfundingforlearningaboutJewishculture.Ithinkitdependsonthecompetenceofthe teacherandhis/herdesiretocontributetothepreservationofJewishheritage.Ofcourse,there couldbemoreseminars,oraccessibleliteratureforteachersonthehistoryofJewishculture, lessonplans,assignmentsforstudents.” (M.R.Historyteacher)

Teachersgenerallytakeadvantageoftheso-calledgovernmentalissued“CulturePass” (“Kultūrospasas”)thatallowsthemtoselectaspecificeducationalprogrammefromawiderlist oftopics.Theyalsoaskforfinancialcontributionsfromstudents’parentstocarryoutplanned tripstodifferentsitesofJewishheritage:

“The‘CulturePass’allowsustovisitmuseumsandtakepartineducationalactivitiesforfree,but theamountthatisallocatedissmallsincethe‘CulturePass’canonlybeusedonce.” (I.P.Jewish Historyteacher)

AlthoughteacherscanaccessonlineresourcespreparedbylocalandinternationalNGOssuchas CentropaandESJF,mostdonothavetheirowneducationalresourcessuchasacollectionofdocumentaryfilms,booksandotherpublishedmaterialsintheirschoollibraries.Manyindicatethat, tothebestoftheirknowledge,thereisnoofficialgovernmentalfundingallocatedspecificallyfor thedeliveryofJewishheritageandtheHolocaustcurriculum.Theyarenotawareofanyspecific educationalresourceseitherpublishedoronlinepreparedbytheMinistryofEducationorother governmentalinstitutionsthattheycoulduse.Teachersalsoemphasisethattheygenerallydo notreceivesufficientfundingfromlocalstateauthorities.

MostteachersagreethattheireducationalactivitiesonJewishheritageandtheHolocaustcan beenrichedthroughcooperationwithdifferentoutsidestakeholderssuchasCentropaandESJF, theIsraelembassy,localJewishcommunitiesandNGOssuchastheVilnaGaonMuseumofJewish Culture,andtheHolocaustMuseum(theGreenHouse)inVilnius.

TeachersstressthattheyneedmoreeducationaltrainingaboutJewishheritageandtheHolocaust.Theyagreethattheybenefitmostfromeducationaltrainingofferedbythestakeholders mentionedabove.TheInternationalCommissionfortheEvaluationoftheCrimesoftheNaziand SovietOccupationRegimesinLithuaniaistheonlygovernmentalinstitutionthatprovidesteacherswithfurthertraining.

However,theprocessofapplyingforthehighlyvaluededucationaltrainingabroadcanbe challengingand,intheprocess,teachersdonotreceivemuchsupportfromtheschooladministration.Incaseswheretheschoolsdosupportin-servicetrainingonJewishheritageandthe Holocaust,itisusuallyofferedonceayearandtheteacherneedstomakearequestandreceive permissiontoparticipateinit.Thismeansthatteachershavetobeproactiveinfindingoutthe informationonthetrainingopportunities,aswellasfindingthenecessaryfundingto applytoattend.

Overall,mostteachersemphasisethattostrengtheneducationonJewishheritageandthe Holocaust,theyneedmorehoursintheschoolcurriculumandbetteraccesstoteachertraining bothpre-andin-service,inthecountryandabroad.

ForthefutureofeducationonJewishheritageandtheHolocaustinLithuania,itisimportant thattheeducationalsystemmaintainsitsautonomyandthattheEuropeanvaluesofdemocracy andpluralismaretaughtasapartofformaleducation,andarethusintegratedintogeneral nationalculture.Thiswillhelptostrengthencivilsocietyandassistinthefightagainstantisemitismandracism.

MOLDOVA 2.4

2.4 MOLDOVA

Theterritoryoftoday’sRepublicofMoldovaconsistsoftwomainparts:thehistoricalprovinceof BessarabiabetweentheDniesterandPrutRivers,andTransnistriaontheleftbankoftheDniester River.In1812,theTsaristRussianempireannexedBessarabiafromtheSublimePorte,whichat thattimehadsovereigntyovertheprincipalityofMoldova.In1859,therestofMoldovaunited withWalachia,anothernationspeakingthesamelanguage,toformthefirstmodernRomanian state.AfterthecollapseoftheRussianEmpireattheendoftheWWI,BessarabiajoinedRomania. However,duringtheinterwarperiod,thenewlyestablishedSovietUnionrefusedtorecognise BessarabiaasapartofRomaniaandclaimedownershipovertheregion.

OntheeveoftheSecondWorldWar,JewshadlivedinBessarabiaforhundredsofyears. Infact,theyhadadistinguishedhistorygoingbacktothe15thcenturywhenSephardicmerchants usingBessarabiaasatraderoutebetweentheBlackSeaandthePolish-LithuanianCommonwealthsettledinnorthernandcentralBessarabia.By1812,thecommunitynumberedabout 2,000Jews.76

UndertheTsaristRussianrule,overtheEasterholidayof19-21April1903(9-10April accordingtotheJuliancalendar),anti-Jewishriotseruptedinthecapitalcitythatthenwascalled Kishinev(todayChi inău).Theriotsstartedduetoabloodlibelaccusationdisseminatedina nationalnewspaper.Asaresultofthisfalseantisemiticpropaganda,49Jewswerekilled,500 wounded,and1,500Jewishhomesandbusinesseswereseverelydamaged.77 Asecondpogrom eruptedinthecapitalandotherpartsofMoldovaduringtheOctober1905Revolution.News abouttheKishinevpogromsof1903and1905shockedtheJewishandnon-Jewishcommunities inWesternEuropeandtheUnitedStates.Intheaftermathofthepogroms,thousandsofMoldovan JewswerepermittedtoemigratetotheUnitedStates.Nevertheless,in1920theJewishpopulationofMoldovanumberedapproximately267,000andconstitutedavibrantcommunitywith morethan70synagoguesandprayerhousesinKishinev(Chişinău).

InJune1940,theSovietUnionenteredBessarabiaandoccupieditalongwiththenorthern partofBukovina.ItwasinthewakeofthisSovietoccupationthattheMoldavianSovietSocialist Republic,adirectpredecessoroftoday’spost-communistRepublicofMoldova,wasestablished.78 InJune1941,Romania,ruledbyanextremeright-wingmilitaryleaderGeneral/MarshalIon Antonescu,joinedNaziGermanyinattackingtheSovietUnion.TheaimofMarshalAntonescu wastoridthecountryofallnationalminorities,startingwiththeJews.Between1941and1944, theRomanianauthoritiesimposedbroadantisemiticlegislationwhichledtothetotalexclusion oftheJewishminorityfromRomaniansociety.ThetotalJewishpopulationunderRomanianrule thennumbered575,000individuals.TheJewsfromtheOldKingdomofRomaniaweresubjected totwomajoroutbreaksofviolence:thepogromsinBucharest(January1941)andIaşi(June1941).

ThepogrominBucharestledtothekillingof125Jews,whiletheoneinIaşiresultedinasmany as14,850Jewishvictims.Inthelatesummerof1941,TransnistriawastransferredtoRomanian authorityandMarshalAntonescuorderedthedeportationoftheJewsfromBessarabiaandBukovina tothesenewlyacquiredterritorieswhichweresupposedtobeatemporarydestinationforthe transferredJews.However,priortothedeportations,between45,000and60,000Jewsfrom

76 FortheonlinehistoryoftheJewsofMoldova,seehttps://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/moldova-virtualjewish-history-tour

77 OntheKishinevandotherpogromsinMoldovaandotherpartsoftheRussianEmpire,seeJohnDoyleKlier andShlomoLambroza, Pogroms:Anti-JewishViolenceinModernRussianHistory (CambridgeUniversity Press,1992).

78 OnthehistoryoftheHolocaustandmemorialisationoftheHolocaustinpost-1945Moldova,seeVladimir Solonari,“PublicDiscoursesontheHolocaustinMoldova,”inHimkaandMichlic,eds. BringingtheDark PasttoLight:theReceptionoftheHolocaustinPostcommunistEurope,377–402.HereafterSolonari, “PublicDiscoursesontheHolocaustinMoldova.”

BessarabiaandNorthernBukovinawereshotbytheRomanianarmyandtheGermanEinsatzgruppeDtroops.FromthosedeportedtoTransnistria,between105,000and120,000Romanian Jewsdiedofstarvation,coldanddisease.Inaddition,between115,000and180,000Jewswere killed,mainlyinOdessaandtheGoltaandBerezovkadistricts.Ofthe25,000Romaminoritysent toTransnistria,11,000perishedbeforerepatriation.

Inthesummerof1942,theRomanianandGermanfascistauthoritiesreachedanagreement regardingthedeportationoftheJewsfromtheOldKingdomtoBeł ecexterminationcampin NazioccupiedPoland.ThefirsttransportwasscheduledforOctober,butitnevertookplace,as MarshalAntonescudecidednottoimplementtheplan.Thereasonsforthisdecisionremain unclear.InAprilandMay1944,around132,000JewsfromNorthernTransylvaniaweredeported toAuschwitzexterminationcampbytheHungarianauthorities. Mostofthosedeportednever returned.Overall,between380,000and400,000Jews,includingtheJewsofTransnistria,were murderedinRomanian-controlledareasunderthedictatorshipofAntonescu.

AfterWWII,Bessarabia(theRepublicofMoldovaoftoday)wasnotreturnedtoRomanian authoritybutbecameapartoftheSovietUnionuntil1990-91.Accordingtothecensusof2004, 31.9percentofits555,000inhabitantsconstituteethnicMoldovanswiththelargestminorities beingRussiansandUkrainians.TheMoldovanJewsrepresentasmallminority,numbering approximately20,000individualsandmainlylivinginChi inău,Beltsy,Tiraspol(capitalof Transnistria),Bender,Orgei,Rybnitsa,andSorokytowns.AlmosthalfoftheJewishcommunity iselderlyandmanyofthemareHolocaustsurvivors.

In2010,accordingtothereportbySamuelGruber,oneofthekeyauthoritiesonJewishheritage: “therewereonlyafewsurvivingpre-SecondWorldWarsynagoguebuildings,andthemost impressive,theBaroque-stylesynagogueatRashkov,isinruins…VandalismofJewishcemeterieshascontinuedtobeaprobleminMoldova,althoughitappearsthattherearefewerincidences nowthaninthe1990s.TheworstrecordedvandalismwasinTiraspol,capitaloftheTransnistria breakawayregion.InApril2001,thesynagoguewasattackedwithapipebomb,andthenagain withaMolotovcocktailin2004.Also,in2004,thecemeterywasthetargetofvandalswhopainted 70gravestoneswithantisemiticgraffiti.Localauthoritieswerenothelpfulintheaftermath. Mostcemeterieswerefoundedinthe19thcentury,thoughthereareafewolderones,including theimportantsitesofDubosari,Lipcani,Markuleşti,Nisporeni,Orhei,Otachi,Rashkov,Rezina, Teleneşty,andZguritsa.ThecemeteriesofChişinăuandBălţiareverylarge–approximately100 hectareseach–andeachprobablyhasmorethan20,000graves.ThesearethelargestJewish sitesinMoldova.

SomeJewishcemeteries,suchasinUngheni,areadjacentto,orpartof,municipalcemeteries. Somecemeteries,suchasinMarkuleşti,areinverybadcondition.Manyoldercemeteriesstill preservescores–andevenhundreds–ofbeautifullycarvedgravestones.Allhaveepitaphsand manyincludedistinctivedecorativereliefs,includingfavouritemotifsofpairedrampantlions, theblessinghandsofthekohanim,menorahsandrosettes.” 79

TheJewishcemeteriesinMoldovaareamongtheapproximately1,500Jewishcemeteriesin fivecountriesthatalsoincludeLithuania,Greece,SlovakiaandUkrainethatarebeingsurveyedby ESJFunderaprojectfundedbyan€800,000EUGrant.80

DespitetheimmenselevelsofdevastationoftheJewishcemeteriesinMoldova,theprocess oftheirrestorationwaslaunchedintheearly2000sandcontinuestothepresent.Cemeteries in Moldovaarepublicproperty,andthereforeitistheresponsibilityofgovernmentalinstitutionsto

79 SamuelD.Gruber, JewishHeritageSitesandMonumentsinMoldova,Paperno.96,2010 CollegeofArtsandSciences,SyracuseUniversity,6-7.

https://surface.syr.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1019&context=rel

80 Moldova:First-stageofrestorationofJewishcemeteryinChisinaulaysbarevastspace;reveals–butalso causes–damage,2April2019,https://jewish-heritage-europe.eu/2019/04/02/moldova-restorationof-vast-jewish-cemetery/

protect,secureandmaintainthetombstonesandgraves.Localmunicipalities,withcooperation fromtheMoldovanMinistryofEducation,CultureandResearch,overseethepreservationprojectsoftheJewishcemeteriesinthecountry.Forexample,thelargeJewishcemeteryonMiodova StreetinChişinăuenteredthefirststageofrestorationinDecember2018underthecareofthe localmunicipality.TheMoldovanJewishcommunityhasenthusiasticallysupportedtherestorationofthisimportantsiteofnationalculturalheritageinspiteofsomelegitimatecriticismover themannerthetreeswereremovedfromthecemeteryandthedamagecausedtotombstones.81 However,asnotedbyDrAnaBărbulescu,aseniorresearcherandheadoftheresearchdepartmentattheElieWieselNationalInstitutefortheStudyoftheHolocaustbasedinBucharest, Romania,andanAssociateProfessorintheDepartmentofJewishStudiesattheUniversityof Bucharest,notallthecemeteriesinthecountryareproperlymaintainedandprotected.82

DuringtheHolocaust,manyJewishcemeteriesinMoldovawere“killingsfields”whereinthe RomanianJewswereshotinmassgraves.Forthatreason,theJewishcemeteriesinMoldova representthekeysitesofcommemorationoftheHolocaustnotonlyforMoldova,butalsofor Romania.ManyhighschoolteachersfromMoldovainterviewedforthisreportareawareofthe specialstatusoftheJewishcemeteriesinMoldovainthememorialisationoftheHolocaust.They expressedinterestinconductinglessonsinlocalJewishcemeteriesandsupporttheideathat localschoolsshouldtakepartinregularcleaningandpreservationworkasafirststeptolearning indepthabouttheHolocaust;thevictimsandtheplaceswheretheyweremurdered.However, astheteachersadmit,thistypeofeducationalprogrammeisstillrareinMoldovanhighschools:

“MostJewishcemeteriesinvolveconnectionstotheHolocaust,beingplaceswherevictimsof pogromsandantisemiticactionsaftertheoutbreakofWorldWarIIwereburied.Unfortunately, inmanycases,thosetombsormassgraves,whichareamemorywound,wereintentionallyleft inruins,nottostirpeople’sconscienceandthusenabletheforgettingoftheHolocaust.Ibelieve thatschoolsshouldengageinHolocaustresearchfromamemorialperspective;theyshouldfirst engage withatruerepresentationofthenumberofvictimsandtheplaceswherethemurdered Jewswereburied(manyofthemwereburiedwithinthelocality,butnotnecessarilyintheJewish cemetery)andaboutthesacredfunctionsofcemeteriesandotherburialplacesbearinghistorical memory.Thefirststepwouldbe,andshouldinfactbe,thepropercareofcemeteriesasheritage sites,forbetterpreservationandforfutureresearch.Unfortunately,theactualcurrentpractice lookscompletelydifferent.” (A.S.highschoolteacherofHistory)

ThehistoryoftheHolocaustinMoldovastandsoutintermsofboththenumberofpeoplekilled andtheintentionoftheRomanianregimetomurderonmassitsowncitizens.83 Today,the killingsperpetratedbytheRomanianArmyagainsttheJewsofBessarabiaandthemassdeportationstoTransnistriaarestillmostlyunknownamongthebroaderRomanianpublic.According tothelastnationalsurveyheldin 2021bytheElieWieselInstitutefortheStudyoftheHolocaust inRomania,only25percentoftherespondentsknewaboutthemassmassacresofJews,and only38percenthadheardaboutthedeportationsofRomanianJewstoTransnistriawhenasked todescribetheHolocaustinRomania.84

81 Idem.,

82 ThefirstinterviewwithAnaBărbulescuon25October2022wasbytheauthorofthisreport.Iwouldlike tothankAnaBărbulescuforherimportantreflectionsonthestateofeducationabouttheHolocaustin MoldovaandRomania.Sheisaco-authorofanimportantbookonthehistoryandmemorialisationof theHolocaust,AdinaBabe -Fruchter,AnaBărbulescueds., TheHolocaustinSouth-EasternEurope: Historiography,ArchivesResourcesandRemembrance,(WilmingtonDE,VernonPress,2021).

83 Solonari,“PublicDiscoursesontheHolocaustinMoldova,”381.

84 SeethereportonthePerceptionsofinter-ethnicrelationsandtheHolocaustintoday’sRomania,NovemberDecember2021:

https://www.inshr-ew.ro/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Sondaj-INSHR_2021_engleza.pdf

On22July2016,theParliamentoftheRepublicofMoldovaissuedastatementendorsingthe ReportoftheInternationalCommissionfortheStudyoftheHolocaustinRomania.85 IntheaftermathofendorsingtheReport,thegovernmentofMoldovaapprovedthe2017-2019ActionPlan toimplementtheDeclarationoftheParliamentonAcceptanceoftheElieWieselCommission’s ReportontheHolocaust.Atthattime,theMoldovangovernmentalsoapprovedtheintroduction ofteachingaboutthehistoryoftheJewsandtheHolocaustinthehighschoolcurriculum.Italso approvedteachertrainingforhighschoolteachersonJewishheritageandtheHolocaust,in cooperationwithforeignNGOsandscholarsofJewishhistoryandtheHolocaustinRomanianand Moldovanuniversities.

Asaresultoftheseimportantstateinitiatives,between2018and2021,theElieWieselNational InstitutefortheStudyoftheHolocaustinRomania,incooperationwiththe OralHistoryInstitute ofMoldova 86 andFriedrichEbertStiftungMoldovaOffice87 inMoldova,organisedaseriesof workshopsdedicatedtoHolocausteducation.Morethan300historyteachersfromMoldova attendedtheworkshopsthatcoveredtopicsnotonlyrelatingtoHolocausthistoryandHolocaust historicalresourcestobeusedintheclassroom,butalsoaboutciviceducation,combatingantisemitismandinnovativepedagogicalmethods.Theworkshopswereorganisedin29counties: Chi inău,Soroca,Drochia,Hînce ti,Leova,Cimi lia,Flore ti,Orhei,Telene ti, oldăne ti,Rezina, Ungheni,Făle ti,Nisporeni,Călăra i,Cău eni,Ocni a,Briceni,Cahul,Criuleni,Ialoveni,Sîngerei, Dondu eni,Cantemir,Edine i,Râ cani,Dubăsari,BasarabeancaandBăl i. Atpresent,pupilsinMoldovabegintolearnabouttheHolocaustattheageof16ingrade9, andhistoryteachershaveonlyoneortwohourstointroducethetopicduringtheentireacademic year.LessonsabouttheHolocaustcontinueintheHistorycurriculumingrades10to12ofhigh schoolwithanemphasisinthe12thgradeoncontemporaryTwentiethCenturyHistory.Ingrade 12,teacherscanchoosetoteachabouttheHolocaustwhentheydealwithsomekeytopicsinthe HistorycurriculumsuchasEthnicMinoritiesintheRepublicofMoldova,orGenocideandExtermination.TeachersalsomentionthattheycanteachtheHolocaustasanextra-curricularsubject intheframeworkofthe35-hourOptionalCourse(onehouraweek),onofferbetween9thand 12thgrade.However,manyrecognisethattherearefundamentalproblemswiththeOptional Course.S.K.(TeacherfromagymnasiuminChi inău)arguesthat: “Theproblemisintheword ‘optional’,asaresultitisoftennotbeingselectedtobetaughttostudents.”

S.M.(ResearcherandProfessoratthePedagogicalStateUniversityinChi inău)elaboratesthat therearemajorproblemswiththesubjectoftheHolocaustinthehighschoolcurriculum.Firstly, the35-hourOptionalCoursehastobeselectedandapprovedbybothstudentsandtheschool administration;secondly,studentsdonotlearnaboutthepre-1939Jewishhistory,cultureand heritagebeforestudyingtheHolocaust;thirdly,giventhemulti-ethnicpastoftheregion,thereis alackofguidanceandvisionastohowtostudytheJewishminorityinabroaderhistoricalcontext; fourthly,therearenotmanyteacherswithadequatetrainingonJewishhistoryandtheHolocaust whocouldteachthesubjects;andfifthly,thehoursavailablearetotallyinsufficientintheHistory curriculum:

“Itisoptional.Ithastobeselectedandacceptedbybothstudentsandtheschooladministration. Then,usually1houraweekperschoolyearisdevotedtolearningaboutHolocausthistory.Inthe introductorypartofthecourse,thereissomethingmentionedaboutJewishcultureandheritage. Often,youwillnotfindanyreferencetotheJewishcommunityduringAntiquityandtheMiddle Ages.Inmoderntimes,thereisusuallyonephotooftheethnicstructureofBessarabiaand

85 TuviaFriling,RaduIoanidandMihailE.Ionescu,eds., InternationalCommissionontheHolocaustin Romania.FinalReport,2004(ConductedunderthechairmanshipofElieWieselandknownastheElie WieselReport,http://www.inshr-ew.ro/ro/files/Raport%20Final/Final_Report.pdf

86 https://oralhistory.md/

87 https://moldova.fes.de/ro/

Rî cova,Moldova

Romaniafromthe19thcenturyondisplay,andthatisall….Probablywehavetoreviseourschool curriculum;wealsohavetopaymoreattentiontothewaysthehoursaredistributedtostudy differentethnicgroupsinsocietyintheHistorycurriculum:Jewish,Russian,Ukrainian,Polish, Bulgarian,Gagauzminorities–wehavetolearnmoreaboutdifferentethnicgroupsthroughout history….Itiscurrentlynotenough.Theoptionalcourseislikeyouhaveit-butyoudonottouch it.Itiscomplicatedtogetthestudentstochoosethecourse.Andwedonothaveenoughteachers withthepropertrainingtoprepareforthecourse.WithregardstoHolocausteducation,officially thereisalegalframeworktolearnaboutit.ThesubjectfeaturesinthecurriculumasanOptional Course.Inthe12thgrade,thereisasub-topicabouttheHolocaustwithintheSecondWorldWar ingeneralHistoryclass.Thiswouldbetaughtforabout1hourduringanentiresemesterinthe 12thgrade.”

Otherteachersinterviewedarealsohighlycriticalofthepresentnationalcurriculumandlack ofinclusionofpre-HolocaustJewishhistoryandheritagewithinit:“thestudyingofHolocaust eventsisconductedwithintheframeworkoflearningaboutcrimesagainsthumanityanddiscriminatorylawsappliedtoethnicminoritiesincludingJews,Roma,etc.inthefirstpartofthe TwentiethCentury.OtheraspectsofJewishhistory-heritage,culture,dailylife,traditions,etc. are“outofsight.”(S.K.fromGymnasiuminChi inău).

Mostteachersstatethattheylackpropertextbooksandothereducationalresourcestoteach aboutJewishhistory,JewishculturalheritageandtheHolocaust,andthatthecurrenttextbooks treatthetopicina“laconicmanner.”Theyalsorequiremoreinnovativeteachingandpedagogicalresources“inRomanianandRussian,asmanyintheirprofessiondonotspeakotherforeign languages.”(S.M.)

Somementiontheinfluenceofthepastpre-communistandcommunistlegaciesonthecurrentnationalcurriculum,andinparticularonthetreatmentoftheHolocaustandJewishhistory ineducation:

“Jewswereandareanimportantpartofournationalhistoryandmorehoursshouldbeallocated to“differentaspectsofJewishheritage”.Bessarabia(currently,theRepublicofMoldova)wasthe countrywherethe‘Holocaustbybullets’tookplace.ThetopicwasforbiddenduringSoviettimes andavoided(upuntilrecently)inMoldovaafterthecollapseoftheUSSR.Aftertheproclamation ofindependence,historyteachingwasstilldominatedbytheinterpretationofthepastthatwas similartotheinter-warinterpretationsinRomania-antisemitic,infact.Moreover,students weretaughtthehistoryofoneethnicgroupsolely–theRomanians.Otherethnicgroupsthat alsoformedthenationwerebeingignored.Amulti-culturalapproachinhistoryteachingcould changethesituationforthebetter.”

(A.T.Historyteacher)

Characteristically,teachersstressagreatneedforpre-serviceteachertrainingandregular, ongoingin-servicetraininginHolocauststudiesandJewishhistory,cultureandheritage.They highlyvalueteachertrainingconductedbylocal,regionalandnationalNGOssuchastheInstitute ofJewishHistoryandCultureandtheElieWieselInstituteinBucharest,aswellasbyWestern EuropeanNGOs.TheybenefitgreatlyfromshorteducationalcoursesorganisedabroadbyYad VasheminJerusalemorotherforeigninstitutes.However,someteachersindicatethattheirhead teachers/schooladministrationsdonotalwayssupportthemintheireffortstoundergoteacher traininginthefieldsofJewishhistory,theHolocaustandEuropeanmemoryofWWII.Thoughthe teachersdonotvoicethereasonsfortheirheadmastersrefusingpermissionorpaymentforthe training,onecanassumeacombinationoffinancial,socialandculturalfactorsbehindthistroubling situation.Thereisaneedforthedevelopmentofgreaterappreciationoftheimportanceofthe fieldsoftheHolocaustandJewishheritageforciviceducationamonghighschoolheadteachers andadministrations:

“ParticipatinginatrainingcourseonCultureofMemoryandEuropeanUnderstanding(Moldova InstituteLeipzig,August2021),heldinChi inăuandOdessa,andreceivingthecertificate,my highschoolprincipalrefusedtoacknowledgemyparticipationandtopaymeformystudyweek onthegroundsthatIwent“toOdessatorest,nottostudy”,and“thecertificatewiththesignature ofMr. ****istakenfromtheInternet”.Allthis,althoughtheseminarwasintenselypromotedby thegovernmentEducationDepartmentandthedocumentswereinorder.So,themoralisthat youmustbetherightpersontobeselectedfortraining,orpromotion.” (S.A.Historyteacher)

GiventhespecificnatureoftheHolocaustinMoldova,teachersareeagertodeveloplearningin Jewishcemeteriesassitesofperpetration.However,theydonotlimitthelearningexperienceto thespaceoftheJewishcemeterytostudythemachineryoftheHolocaust.Teacherswouldalso liketousetheJewishcemeterytostudylocalJewishculturalheritage,andtheyseethistopicas centralnotonlytoteachinghistorybutalsoforteachingLanguagesandLiterature,theArtsand CivicEducation.ThoughonlyaveryfewhadtheexperiencetoteachinaJewishcemeteryand someadmitthat,atthisstage,theydonothavetherightpedagogicalandmethodologicaltrainingtodoso,theyrecognisethatteachingaboutlocalJewishheritageandpastlocalJewishcommunitiesinacemeterysettingcanbeofgreatbenefitininstillingdemocraticvaluesoftolerance andsensitivitytoculturaldiversityamongstudents.

“ThelocalJewishcemeterycanbecome‘visible’andarealstartingpointtostudyJewishheritage, toundertakeresearchandtodesigncurricularandextra-curricularprojectsofsocialsignificance.

Also,thecemeterycanbeseenasanopen-airmuseumthatcanprovideahugeamountofinformationanddata.”

(S.M.highschoolteacher)

TeachersareawarethattheyneedspecialtrainingonhowtoteachaboutJewishheritageandthe HolocaustinaJewishcemeteryandthattheyrequirespeciallearningtripstocemeteriespriorto takingstudentsthere:

“Hereweneedaviablepartnershipwithspecialistcentres-historians,culturologists,andlinguists specialisinginJewishcivilization,becauseofthelackofproperhistoriographyandotherresources, andalsobecauseofthegeneralgapsinknowledgeabouttheJewishpopulationandtheirculture. StudyattheJewishcemeterycannolongerbeachievedthroughlegends….Biographiesofthe deceased,theirgenealogy,theirrelationships,andtheirimpactonthelocalcommunityneedto beaddressed.Schoolsingeneralarenotpreparedenoughtodealwithsuchanapproach.”

(A.T.Historyteacher)

Overall,manyhighschoolteachersseeeducationontheHolocaustandJewishheritageasa fundamentalpartofcivicanddemocraticeducation.TheystressthatneithertheMinistryof Educationnorlocalmunicipalitiesofferthemfinancialsupporttodevelopthistypeofeducation. Infact,manyrecognisethattheMinistryofEducationandothergovernmentalinstitutionsthemselveslackexpertiseinthefieldsofJewishhistoryandculture,andtheHolocaust.

TeachersarealsoeagertocooperatewithJewishorganisationsinthecountryandabroadand withIsraeliandotherforeignembassiestodevelopformalandextra-curriculareducationalprojectstobeconductedintheclassroomoronsiteataJewishcemetery.TheyviewJewishheritage asapartofthemulticulturalheritageofMoldovaandwishtoteachitholisticallywithanemphasis ondemocraticvaluesofpluralismandinclusivenessandcombatingxenophobia,inter-ethnic prejudiceandantisemitism.

ForthefutureofeducationaboutJewishheritageandtheHolocaustinMoldova,itisimportant thatgreaterfinancialresourcesareputinplacetobuildaneducationalsystemembeddedinthe valuesofdemocracyandpluralism.LikeLithuaniaandHungary,theroleofforeignJewishand non-JewishNGOsiscriticalinstrengtheningeducationfordemocracyandagainstantisemitism andracisminMoldova.GiventhespecialplaceofMoldovaintheHolocaustofRomanianJews, a deepercollaborationbetweenRomanianandMoldovaninitiativesshouldbeencouraged.There isanurgentneedforteachersinbothRomaniaandMoldovatohaveaccesstosolideducational resourcesincludingonthedifficultpastpertainingtothemassmurderofRomanianJewsbynonJewishpopulationsduringtheHolocaust.

POLAND 2.5

2.5 POLAND

TheearliestpermanentJewishsettlementsinthepre-modernPolishKingdomgobacktothe twelfthcentury.ThePolishJewishcommunitygrewfastduringthefifteenthandsixteenth centuriesand,bythesixteenthcentury,50,000JewslivedinJagiellonianPolandwhichwasexperiencingeconomicgrowthandprosperity.ThePolish-LithuanianCommonwealthcreatedbythe Jagielloniandynastywasthesecondlargeststateinpre-modernEurope.TheJagiellonianrule cametobeconsideredaGoldenAgeinPolishhistory,andaGoldenAgeinPolishJewishhistory. ItwasduringthiserathatPolishJewsweregranteduniquecommunalautonomyinreligiousand legalmattersandtheNationalCouncilofJewsoftheFourLandswasestablished.

WhenPolandregaineditsindependencein1918afteralmosttwohundredyearsofnonexistenceonthepoliticalmapofEuropeduetothreepartitionsintheeighteenthcentury,Polish Jewrynumbered3 millionpeopleandconstitutedthesecondlargestethnicminorityinthestate, withauniquetri-lingualcultureofYiddish,HebrewandPolish.Between1918and1939,there were1,415Jewishcommunitieswithpopulationsofatleast100peoplelivingindifferentparts ofthecountry,andnearlyallhadatleastonecemetery,rangingfromlargecitieslikeWarsaw andŁódźtosmallgraveyardsinvillages.88

InSeptember1939thePolishstatewasinvadedbytwopowers:theThirdReichandtheSoviet Union.Germanytookcontrolover48.4percentoftheterritory(188,000squarekilometers)with 62.9percentofthetotalpopulation,includingjustundernineteenmillionethnicPoles,justover twomillionPolishJews,justoverhalfamillionGermansandhalfamillionUkrainians.TheSoviet UniontookcontrolovertheEasternPolishterritoriesamountingto200,000squarekilometers withathirteenmillionpopulation,includingapproximatelyfivemillionethnicPoles,fivemillion Ukrainians,twomillionBelorussiansandonemillionJews.89 TheGermanoccupationlasted almostfiveyears,whereastheSovietoccupationendedinJune1941whentheSovietUnionwas invadedbyNaziGermanyinOperationBarbarossa.Bytheendof1939,theGermanshadpromulgatedlawsforcingPolishJewstowearayellowstarandconscriptingallJewishmalesbetween theagesof14and60forcompulsorylabour.In1940,theGermanoccupiersimplementedthe ghetto-isationofPolishJewry,establishingfourhundredghettoswithinPolishterritory.During thisprocess,theGermansrelocatedmanyJewishcommunitiesfromsmallvillagesandtowns tolargertownsandcities.Bytheendof1940,theNazishadsealedoffmanyghettosfromthe restoftheNazioccupiedpopulation,includingtheWarsawGhettowiththelargestJewishpopulationinEurope.90 Slavelabour,hunger,re-occurringepidemicsoftyphus,anddeathcaused bystarvationanddiseaseswerethemainfeaturesofdailyexistencebehindtheghettowalls during1941.

In1942,theNazislaunchedtheReinhardActionoperation,designedtoexterminatethe entireJewishpopulation.Theghettoswereliquidatedunderthedisguiseof“resettlementinthe East”anditsinhabitantsweretransferredtothemajorexterminationcentresinBeł ec,Sobibór, Treblinka,andAuschwitzII-Birkenau.Attheendof1942,itbecameclearthatmostofthePolish Jewshadperishedandthatonlysmallnumbersstilllivedintheremainingghettosandonthe Aryanside.TheGermanscontinuedtocleartheseghettosthroughout1943and1944;the LitzmannstadtGhettoontheterritoryincorporatedtotheReichwasthelasttobedestroyedin

88 SamuelGruberandPhyllisMyers, SurveyofHistoricJewishMonumentsinPoland,Rev.2ndedition, AReporttotheUnitedStatesCommissionforthePreservationofAmerica’sHeritageAbroad(Jewish HeritageCouncil,WorldMonumentsFund,1995),31.HereafterGruberandMyers, Survey

89 SeeLudwikLandau, Kronikawojnyiokupacji,(Warsaw:PaństwoweWydawnictwoNaukowe,1962-1963).

90 OnthehistoryoftheWarsawGhettoseeSamuelKassow, Whowillwriteourhistory?:EmanuelRingelblum, theWarsawGhetto,andtheOynegShabesArchive (Bloomington,IndianaUniversityPress,2007)and BarbaraEngelkingandJacekLeociak, Gettowarszawskie:Przewodnikponieistniejącymmieście (Warsaw,WydawnictwoIFiSPAN,2001).

August1944.91 Inall,approximately2.9millionPolishJewsperishedrepresenting90percent oftheentirepre-1939community.TheGermanswerealsodeterminedtodestroyPolishJewish materialheritage:theyrelishedinvadingsynagoguesandJewishcemeteries.Theysmashed tombstonesorusedthemforconstruction.

IntheimmediateaftermathoftheHolocaust,whenPolishJewishsurvivorsreturnedtotheir homes,theyfoundgravestonesshatteredandgravesdesecrated.However,themosttraumatic experienceforthesurvivorswastofindinmanycemeteriestheexposedcorpsesandmass gravesofthosewhomtheGermanshadexecuted.Instantly,thesurvivorsengagedinexhuming andgatheringremains,reburyingthedead,creatingnewmemorialstones,anderectingmonumentstothosewhohadbeenmassacredinJewishcemeteries.92

Giventheincreasinglyanti-Jewishatmosphereofthelate1940s,manysurvivorsdecidedto leavecommunistPoland.By1951,thePolishJewishcommunitywasreducedto57,000individuals.In1968,duetoanewwaveofanti-Jewishpurgesorchestratedbythecommunistregime, another30,000PolishJewswereforcedtoemigratefromthecountry.

Inthe1950sand1960s,Jewishcemeterieswerelefttonature’sravagesandtohumandepredation.In2012,ŁukaszBaksik,ayoungPolishphotographer,publishedacollectionofpowerful blackandwhitephotographs,MatzevotforEverydayUse,revealingthelastingeffectonthePolish landscapeofactsofplunderofJewishcemeteriesduringthecommunistera.93 Baksiktookthephotographsbetween2008and2012inhishometownPszczynaandothersurroundingtownsandvillages, andhisworkaimedtore-humanisePolishJewswhosematzevothadbeenstolenandmisappropriated.In2016,Baksik’sphotographsofmatzevotwereexhibitedattheFloridaHolocaustMuseum intheUSA.TheMuseum’sDirector ofResearch,UrszulaSzczepinska,wroteaguideforeducators ofmiddleandhighschoolsintheUSAtoaccompanytheexhibition.Intheguidesheraisedquestionsofanethicalnaturetobeaddressedintheclassroom:“Whatisacommunity?Areweresponsibleforoneanother?Whatisthescopeofthatresponsibility?Howdoweperceiveourneighbours? Whatdoweknowaboutourlocalhistory?Whatismemory?” 94 Szczepinska’sguidecouldserveas amodeltodiscussmisusesandantisemiticactsleadingtothedevastationandprofanationof cemeteriesinalloursevencountries.Suchguidesinnativelanguagescouldbeappliedinlessons aboutantisemitismheldintheveryspaceofvandalisedanddesecratedJewishcemeteries.

In2020,inthebook, Zagładacmentarzy ydowskich (AnnihilationofJewishCemeteries), DrKrzysztofBielawski,ayoungnon-JewishPolishhistorian,painstakinglydocumentedthe wartimeandpost-1945destructionof theJewishcemeteriesinPoland.Thebookexaminesthe destructionofJewishcemeteries,bothwithinthecontemporaryPolishbordersandthoseareas ofthecountrythatwerepartofGermanyuntil1945.SimilartoBaksik’salbumofphotographs, Bielawski’smonographrevealsthatnotonlytheGermans,butalsothelocalPolishpopulation (duringandafterthewar)andthepost-1945communistPolishstatewereinvolvedinthe immensedevastationoftheJewishcemeteries. Forexample,BielawskidiscusseshowlocalPoles depletedmanyoftheremainingcemeteriesoftheirstonesfortheconstructionofwalkways, roads,andcellarfoundationsorforwhetstonestosharpenknives.95 Cemeterywallsweretorn

91 OnthehistoryoftheLitzmannstadtGhetto,seeGordonJ.Horwitz, Ghettostadt:ŁódźandtheMakingof aNaziCity,(CambridgeMA,TheBelknapPressofHarvardUniversityPress,2008);AndreaLöw, Judenim GettoLitzmannstadt:Lebensbedingungen,Selbstwahrnehmung,Verhalten (Göttingen,Wallstein,2006).

92 GabrielN.FinderandJudithR.Cohen,“MementoMori:PhotographsfromtheGrave,” Polin:Studiesin PolishJewry Vol.20,2008,55-73.

93 ŁukaszBaksik, MatzevotforEverydayUse,(Wołowiec,WydawnictwoCzarne,2012).

94 UrszulaSzczepinska,“Guideformiddleandhighschooleducators”(Florida,FloridaHolocaustMuseum, 2016),17.https://www.thefhm.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/Matzevor-Study-Guide-FINAL4.pdf

95 KrzysztofBielawski, Zagładacmentarzy ydowskich (AnnihilationofJewishCemeteries),(Warsaw, WydawnictwoWięź,2020);Bielawski’sbookisonlyavailableinPolish,buttheauthorhasgiveninterviews inEnglish,seehttps://www.timesofisrael.com/annihilation-of-polands-jewish-cemeteries-documentedin-provocative-book/andhttps://hamodia.com/prime/last-remnants-poland-jewish-cemeteries/

downandtheirbricksusedforconstruction,andgraveswereplunderedinsearchof“Jewish gold.”Somecemeteriesbecamegrazingareasforcattle,othersweretransformedintoplaygroundsforchildren,housingdevelopments,hospitalsandschools.Bielawskialsoshowsthat, duringthecommunistperiod,shortcutstoschools,marketsandfactoriespassedthroughJewish graveyardsinmanytownsandvillages.96

Thesituationfinallybegantochangeinthe1990sintheaftermathofthefallofcommunism whentheprocessofdemocratisationandpluralisationofnationalmemoryaboutthepastdeveloped.Thankstothisprocess,Polishsocietywasforthefirsttimeconfrontedwithitsmulti-ethnic andmulti-religiouspast,includingtherichpre-warJewishhistoryandcultureanditsvisibleand non-visiblematerialremnants.97 Asaresult,thelegitimacyoftheformerimportantpresence ofPolishJewshasbeenslowlyre-establishedandthemarginalisedandneglectedPolishJewish culturalrecordhasbeengraduallyacknowledged.98

Intheearly1990s,theWorldMonumentsFundsurveyed1,008Jewishcemeteriesinpresent dayPolandandreportedthat400ofthemhavegravestones,140ofthemwithmorethan100 gravestones.LargecemeteriessuchasthoseinWarsaw,Kraków,ŁódźandWrocławhavetens ofthousands.“Offices,schools,stadiums,busstations,andwarehouseshavebeenbuilton130 Jewishcemeteries.” 99 Today,giventheminisculesizeofthePolishJewishcommunitynumbering approximately20,000people,nomorethanfifteencemeteriesareinuse.

ThenumberofNGOsspecialisinginthepreservationoftheJewishcemeteriesincontemporaryPolandhasbeengrowingsincethebeginningofthetwentyfirstcentury.Manylocalpreservationprojectsarecarriedoutbyenthusiasticnon-JewishPoles–thenewguardiansofJewish memoryandJewishmaterialheritage.100 TheyoftencooperatewiththemostimportantJewish institutionforthepreservationofJewishcemeteriesinPoland,titledtheFoundationforthe PreservationofJewishHeritageinPoland,(FOD ).TheFoundationwasestablishedin2002by theUnionofJewishCommunitiesinPolandandtheWorldJewishRestitutionOrganization(WJRO). TheFoundation’schiefmissionistoprotectandcommemoratethesurvivingsitesandmonumentsofJewishculturalheritageinPoland.101 TheFoundationistheonlyinstitutioninPoland officiallydedicatedtothetaskofrecovering,preserving,andcommemoratingphysicalsitesof Jewishsignificancesuchassynagoguesandthe1,200cemeteries.AccordingtotheFoundation’s website,manyofthesitesofJewishsignificance“stillexistinanadvancedstateofdeterioration andneglectand,eventhoughallofthemarelistedasprotectedlandmarks,Polishauthorities haveshownlittleindependentinitiativeandcommitmenttowardprotectingtheseprecious survivorsofpre-warJewishculture.” 102 TheFoundationspecialisesincleaning,fencingandrenovatingJewishcemeteriesunderthesupervisionoftheChiefRabbiofPoland,MichaelSchudrich. Todate,theFoundationhascompletedworkinover100JewishcemeteriesinPoland,including thoseinMszczonow,Dubienka,Kolno,Ilza,WysokieMazowieckie,Siedleczka-Kańczuga,Zuromin, Myślenice,Szczebrzeszyn,RadoszyceandGłogowMałopolski.

96 SeealsopersonalreflectionsinAgataTuszyńska, LostLandscapes:InSearchofIsaacBashevisSinger andtheJewsofPoland,trans.MadelineG.Levine(NewYork,WilliamMorrowandCo.,Inc.,1998),60-91.

97 OntheremnantsofmaterialJewishcultureasthemainvehiclethroughwhichPolishsocietyhasbeen confrontedwiththememoryoftheJewsandtheirannihilation,seeYechielWeizman, UnsettledHeritage: LivingNexttoPoland’sMaterialJewishTracesaftertheHolocaust (Ithaca,CornellUniversityPress,2022).

98 RegardingthemarginalisedJewishculturalheritageinPoland,seeBrianGraham,G.J.Ashworth,and J.E.Tunbridge, AGeographyofHeritage:Power,CultureandEconomy (London,Arnold,2000),69.

99 GruberandMyers, Survey,31.

100 SeeforexampletheactivitiesofK'amilaKlauzinska,aguardianofaJewishcemeteryinZduńskaWolain centralPoland,IngaMMarczyńska,aguardianofaJewishcemeteryinJasłoinsouthernPoland,and UrszulaandMarekReduccy,theguardiansofalocalJewishcemeteryinMszanaDolna;seeashortfilm abouttheactivitiesofUrszulaandMarekReduccyhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VxadMOdz45c

101 SeetheFoundation’sofficialwebsite,https://fodz.pl/?d=3&l=en

102 Idem.,Statementontheopeningfirstpage,https://fodz.pl/?d=3&l=en

AlongwiththepreservationofJewishcemeteries,theFoundationisalsoengagedineducationalprojectsforprimaryandhighschoolstudents.OneofthemajorachievementsoftheFoundationistheestablishmentoftheeducationalprogrammme“ToBringMemoryBack”.Aspartof thisprogramme,pupilsin300juniorandsecondaryschoolscollectinformationandhistorical recordsconnectedwiththeJewishpresenceintheirtownsandvillages.Theyalsocarryoutinterviewswitholderinhabitants,takephotographs,anddocumentpreservedhistoricalmonuments representingtheJewishpast.AsecondeducationalprojectcarriedoutbytheFoundationis called“Haverim”–Friends.Itaimsatcreatingacultureofencounters,toleranceandacceptance–buildingbridges–betweennon-JewishPolishyouthandJewishyouthfromabroadbystimulating openandfrankdiscussionsaboutcross-culturalnegativestereotypes,antisemitismandother formsofprejudice.Haverim–FriendsandToBringMemoryBackprojectscouldutiliseJewish cemeteries,withparticularobjectivessuchasteachingrespectforJewishcultureandtraditions andthepastlocalJewishinhabitants,andlearningaboutburialtraditionsandritesinJewishand Christiancultures.

In2015,theFoundationestablishedauniqueinitiativetoreachouttodescendants,Jewish organisationsabroad,andfamilyfoundationsto"adopt"aJewishcemeteryinPolandandthereforerescuethemfromfuturephysicaldestruction.103 In2016,theFriendsofJewishHeritagein Poland,anAmericannon-profitcharitywasestablishedtoassisttheworkoftheFoundation.In 2021,theFoundationco-organisedandco-sponsoredwithotherpartnersinPolandandabroad thesecondinternationalinternetconferencetopromotetheprotectionandrestorationof JewishcemeteriesinPoland.104 EducationaboutJewishcemeteriesremainsacorepartofthe Foundation’smission.

Inpost-communistPoland,thesubjectoftheHolocaustandtoalesserdegreeJewishhistory andculturehasenteredthehighschoolhistorycurriculumonlyatthebeginningofthe21stcentury. In1999,theMinistryofEducationapprovedthecurriculumforteachingabouttheHolocaustand historyoftheJewsinsecondaryschools105 and,threeyearslater,recommendedthefirsttextbook forteachingabouttheexterminationoftheJewsentitled“Holocaust–UnderstandingWhy”.106 In2012,thetextbookneededtobere-publishedwithanewmethodologicalguidebecauseof thetwomajorreformsoftheHistorycurriculumof2002and2008.107

Before1989,teachingabouttheHolocaustinPolishschoolswasmarginalisedandinstrumentalisedbythecommunistauthoritieswhodistortedandweaponiseditalmostexclusivelyas

103 See“TheProject:AdopttheJewishcemeteryinPoland”ontheofficialwebsiteoftheFoundation, https://fodz.pl/?d=5&id=101&l=en

104 SeetheprogrammeoftheSecond2021InternationalConference,RestoringtheJewishCemeteriesin Poland,TheTaskAhead:https://jewishheritagepoland.org/conference.html OneofthenewpartnersoftheFoundationistheorganisation, KoalicjiOpiekunówCmentarzy ydowskich wPolsce (theCoalitionofProtectorsofJewishCemeteriesinPoland)underthechairmanshipofMichał Laszczkowski.TheCoalitionwascreatedin2020bytheCulturalHeritageFoundation.However,someof itsmembersarescepticalaboutitseffectiveness.OntheactivitiesofMichałLaszczkowskiwithregards tothepreservationoftheOkopowaCemeteryinWarsawsee,https://combatantisemitism.org/personal_ stories/michael-laszczkowski-the-non-jewish-man-who-restores-polands-forgotten-jewish-cemeteries/

105 RobertSzuchtaandPiotrTrojański, Holocaust.Programnauczaniaohistoriiizagładzie ydównalekcjach przedmiotówhumanistycznychwszkołachponadpodstawowych,(Warsaw,WydawnictwoSzkolne,first edition2000,secondedition2001).

106 RobertSzuchta,PiotrTrojański, Holokaust.Zrozumiećdlaczego,(Warsaw,OficynaWydawnicza„Mówią Wieki”,2003,seconded.,2006).

107 RobertSzuchtaandPiotrTrojański, JakuczyćoHolokauście.Poradnikmetodycznydonauczaniao Holokauściewramachprzedmiotówhumanistycznychwzreformowanejszkole,(Warsaw,Centrefor EducationalDevelopment,2012).Theonlineversionoftheguidecanbefoundat:

https://www.ore.edu.pl/wp-content/plugins/download-attachments/includes/download.php?id=4307

Kraków,Poland

apropagandatool.

108 Asaresult,morethantwopost-wargenerationsofPoleswentthroughthe educationalsystemwithoutlearningthat3.5millionPolishcitizens–Jews–weremurderedbyGermans inNazi-occupiedPoland,ofteninfrontoftheeyesofthelocalpeople,orwithlocalparticipation.

Buttheestablishmentofaliberaldemocraticgovernmentinthepost-1989erahasledtothe developmentofamulti-perspectiveapproachtoeducationabouttheHolocaustandJewishhistory.109 Poland’saccessiontotheInternationalTaskForceforHolocaustEducationRemembrance andResearch(InternationalHolocaustRemembranceAlliance)in1999playedadecisiverolein thisprocess.Thesubsequentpost-communistliberaldemocraticgovernmentshadbegunto promoteandfinanciallysupportJewishhistoryandHolocausteducationalprogrammesand activitiesinPolishschoolsanduniversities.ForeignNGOsandemerginglocalNGOs beganto developsophisticatededucationalprogrammestoteachdemocraticvaluesandcombatingantisemitism,suchastheInternetproject,“JewsinPoland:Topreserveforposterity–teachforthe future”designedforbothteachersandstudents.110 ThePolish-basedNGO,TheOpenRepublic, anassociationagainstantisemitismandxenophobia,developedasimilareducationalprogramme promotingvaluesoftoleranceandrespectforminoritiesandopposingantisemitism.

Thus,accordingtoPiotrTrojański,aleadingscholarofHolocausteducationinPoland,bythe middleofthefirstdecadeofthetwentiethfirstcentury, “theinstitutionalinvolvementoftheliberal governmentalongwitheducationalactivitiesundertakenbyforeignandlocalNGOsandindividual highschoolteachersandactivists,madePolandoneoftheleadingcountriesinEuropepromoting Holocausteducation.” 111

Inthepost-communistera,theentirePolisheducationsystemhaschanged,duetotwo reformsoftheschoolsystemof2000and2018,andthreereformsoftheHistorycurriculum (2002,2008,2018).Thedevelopmentsinhighschooleducationhavebeencomplexandfilled withmajorchallengesforteachers,studentsandparents.Today,theeducationalsystemisstill largelycentralisedanddependentontheMinistryofEducation,whichhasanoverwhelming influenceontheshapeofcorecurriculaandtextbooksalike. Thisparticularlyappliestoteaching History,whichiscloselylinkedtothehistoricalpolicyofthestate.Therefore,onecanseedifferencesbetweenthecurriculaandtextbooksandformaleducationalpracticesinhighschoolsbetween thelate1990sandinthepost-2015eratothepresent.

Betweenthelate1990sand2015,regardlessofthetypeofschoolandthelevelsofeducation, theHolocausthadbeencompulsorilytaughtinHistorylessons.Therehasalsobeenspecific teachingcontentrelatingtotheHolocaustandJewishhistoryandcultureinothermainsubjects suchasPolishLanguageandLiterature,SocialStudies,HistoryandSocietyandtheArts.With regardstotheHolocaust-relatedcontent,thecorecurriculumdidnotdirectlyemphasisethe topicofnon-JewishPolishrescuersofJews.Thistopicwasonewithinbroadertopicsconcerning thenationalcontextoftheHolocaustandattitudesofPolishsocietytowardstheHolocaust.

Fundamentalchangestookplacein2015afterPiSbecametherulingpartyinthegovernment. Asoneofitsfirstpoliciesdirectlyimpactingthecontentofhighschooleducationaboutthe HolocaustandJewishheritage,thePiSgovernmentintroducedanewhistoricalpolicy,thesocalled“pedagogyofnationalpride”referringtotheheroic(andmartyrological)historyofPoland.

108 SeePiotrTrojański,“ThelegacyoftheHolocaustinPolandanditseducationaldimension,” inL.W.Zimmerman(ed.), JewishStudiesandtheHolocaustinPoland,(Jefferson,NorthCarolinaMcFarland& Company,Inc,Publishers,2014),93-116.

109 SeeJoannaB.Michlic,“ThePathofBringingtheDarktoLight:MemoryoftheHolocaustinPostcommunist Europe,”inMałgorzataPakierandJoannaWawrzyniak,eds. MemoryandChangeinEurope.Eastern Perspectives,(NewYork,London,BerghahnBooks),2015,115-130.

110 http://www.zydziwpolsce.edu.pl/Theeducationalprogrammewasdevelopedincooperationwith AnneFrankHouseinAmsterdam,theStefanBatoryFoundation,theEmbassyoftheKingdomofNetherlands inWarsawandtheAssociationofthePolish-GermanCentre.

111 Interviewof17November2022withProf.PiotrTrojańskibytheauthorofthisreport.

Thisnewdevelopmentwenthandinhandwiththereformoftheeducationsystemin2017: withinthenewsystem,thethree-yearjuniorhighschoolwasreplacedwiththeeight-yearprimary schoolandthree/four/five-yearsecondaryschool.

Asaconsequence,since2018,inthenewcorecurriculumforteachingHistoryinprimary school,thereisaprovisiondrawingstudents’attentiontotheneedtodiscussthe“heroismof PolessavingJews.” 112 Consequently,theobligationtodiscussthetopicofrescuingJews(withan emphasisonlyonpositiveattitudes)isalsoreflectedinthecorecurriculumforsecondary schools.113 Inthelatter,theAuschwitz-BirkenauStateMuseumappearstobetheonlymemorial sitediscussedinsomedetail,thoughvisitinglocalmemorialsites,includingJewishcemeteries, hadbeenrecommendedtohighschoolstudentspriorto2015.

Overall,inthecurrenthighschoolHistorycurriculum,thereisonlylimitedcontentdealing withJewishheritageandtheHolocaust.Onereasonforthisistheanachronistic,old-fashioned wayofstructuringthecurriculumcontentbyoverfillingitwithfactsanddevelopmentsfromdifferenthistoricalperiodsratherthanselectedkeyeventsthatthestudentcanapproachinacritical mannerasanactivelearner.SimilartoGeorgian,LithuanianandSlovakhighschoolHistory curricula,PolishHistoryeducationprefersteachingaboutpoliticalhistoryratherthansocialand culturalhistorythatalsoencompasseslocalhistory.

AccordingtoAdamMusiał,ahighschooleducationexpertandanexperiencedformerhigh schoolteacher,anotherkeyproblemwithhighschoolhumanisticeducationisthefactthePolish historyeducationstillusesobsoletetoolstodescribenationalidentity:ratherthanfocusingon civicnationalidentity,itusesethnicidentitytodescribenationality. “Thus,consequently,Jewish Poles(andotherethnicitiesinhabitingPoland)areviewednotasPoles,or‘true’Poles,andtheir historiesarenotregardedas‘our’Polishstory.Ofcourse,thecivicparadigmdidnotapplyuntil thelate20thcenturyinPoland,yethistoryis,orshouldbe,taughtfortoday,andthusitshould betaughtcriticallythroughtheprismoftoday’sinclusivesocialcategories.JewishPolishhistory andtheHolocaustarenotgivenmuchspaceastheHistorycurriculumalmostexclusivelyfocuses onethnicPoles,perceivingallotherethnicitieslivinginthePolishlandsandcontributingto Poland’sdevelopmentasguestsatmost…..Jewsappearmostlyinchaptersdealingwiththe MiddleAgesorearlymodernitytodescribePoland’stoleranceinacceptingmany‘others’inpremodernPolishlands.Inotherwords,JewsareinstrumentalinpresentingethnicPoles’positive imageofthemselves…..”114

Musiałalsostressesthat,byandlarge,theHistoryandPolishLiteraturehighschoolcurricula (especiallytheformer)hardlyreflectthefindingsofthenumerouspublicationsbycriticalscholars whichhavebeenpublishedinPolandsincethe2000s,dispellingthe(ethno-)nationalmyths propagatedundercommunismaboutthegreatmanyrighteousPolesrescuingtheirPolishJewish compatriots.ThesefindingshardlyimpactthecontentoftheHistorycurriculumandHistorycoursebooks.Ingeneral,the limitedHolocaustcontentintheHistorycurriculumresultsfromtrendsthat reflectmanyPoles’andteachers’inabilitytofacehistorycriticallyanddiscussthedarkpastintheir nation’shistory,andtheethno-centricdefinitionofnationalidentity.Asaconsequence,some teacherscoverthesubjectoftheHolocaust(andJewishheritage)sketchilyandperfunctorily.115

112 InstructionsoftheMinistryofNationalEducationof26July2018.

113 InstructionsoftheMinistryofNationalEducationof30January2018.

114 Interviewof8November2022withAdamMusiałbytheauthorofthisreport.Musiałisaseniorindependentresearcherinaproject‘SitesofTensions-ShiftsinHolocaustMemory,Antisemitism,andPolitical ContestationinEurope’runbyMAProgrammeinHolocaustStudies,UniversityofHaifa, https://holocauststudies.haifa.ac.il/index.php/program-features/weiss-livnat-center-projects

115 AsimilarevaluationofthehighschoolcurriculaispresentedbyRobertSzuchta,“Zagłada ydówjako tematnauczaniawsystemieformalnejedukacjihistorycznej”,in:KatarzynaLiszkaed., Wiedza (nie)umiejscowiona.JakuczyćoZagładziewPolscewXXIwieku?,(Kraków,WydawnictwoUniversitas, Kraków2020),17-54.

DrMartaDuch-Dyngosz,ascholarofMemoriesStudies,confirmsMusiał’sconclusions.She arguesthatinthelastthreedecades,theschoolcurriculahaveacknowledgedthecenturies-long presenceofethnicandnationalminoritiesinPolishhistory,includingJewishcommunities.

Additionally,thenarrativeaboutWWIIhasgraduallyshedlightontheparticularityoftheHolocaustandJewishexperienceinwartimePoland.However,inthehighschoolHistoryandLiterature curricula,informationaboutJewishheritagehasonlybeenintroducedinasuperficialway.The rudimentaryrepresentationofJewishcommunitieswithintheimageofthemulti-culturalPolish CommonwealthalsosuggeststheemphasisonthedominantPolishethnicculture.Thishas servedaparticularsocialfunction,mainlycreatingapositiveimageofthe“we-group”,namely astolerant,expressinghospitalityandopennesstowards“otherethnicandreligiousgroups”.

RegardingthehistoryoftheHolocaust,theofficialcurriculumhasfocusedmainlyonthedevelopmentsofthetragiceventsinthecontextofinternationaleventssuchastheGermanoccupation ofWesternEuropewithAuschwitz-BirkenauasasymboloftheannihilationofEuropeanJewry.

ItpayslessattentiontotheexperienceofPolishJewryandtheexterminationcampsinBeł ec, SobibórandTreblinka.RegardingtheexperienceofPolishJews,theUprisingoftheWarsaw Ghettoof19April1943hasbecomeacentralreference,astheeventfitseasilyintothedominant heroic-martyrologicalnarrativeinPolishmemorypolitics.Unfortunately,thenumerousrecent findingsofbothPolishandnon-PolishscholarsandresearchersregardingtheHolocaustandthe “darkpast”onPolishsoilhavenotyetbeenincorporatedintoschoolcurricula.Whatislackingis thehistoryofcollaborationandcomplicityoflocalpopulationsinthepersecutionoflocalJewish communities–theseaspectsremainabsentinschoolcurricula.116

BasedonhersociologicalstudiesofpublicmemoriesoftheJewishpastinsouthernPoland, Duch-Dyngoszalsonotesthatgeneralhighschoolcurriculaarecenteredonthenationalhistory andthehistoryofethnicPoles,andthekeynarrativesinthetextbooksignorethelocalpastand remembrance.Therefore,teachingaboutlocalhistorydependsontheindividualteacher, whetherhe/shedecidestoteachaboutlocalJewishheritage,includingJewishcemeteries.117

Theindividualteachersinterviewedforthisreportconfirmtheabove-mentionedproblems andchallengesinhighschoolcurriculaandformaleducationalpractices.ManyofthemareexperiencedHistoryandPolishLiteratureteacherswhohavetaughtthroughoutthelasttwentyor thirtyyearsduringthedifferentstagesofthepost-communistdevelopmentofhighschooleducation.Othersareteachersstartingtheircareersonlynow.Theyteachinavarietyofhighschools includinggymnasia,grammar,technicalandvocationalschools.

TheinterviewswithteacherssuggestthathighschoolHistory(andalsoLiterature)curricula areimplementedinavarietyofwaysatthedifferenttypesofschool.Ingeneral,studentsinhigh schoolsgetintroducedtosomerudimentaryaspectsofJewishhistoryandcultureincluding AncientIsraelandthe BibleinthecontextoflearningaboutAncientCivilizationsattheageof14-15 inYearOneofhighschool.SometeachersemphasisethattheyteachabouttheHolocaustina varietyofforms,includingtripstoJewishcemeteries,duringadditionallessonsbecausetheyonly havebetween1to2hoursintheentirefour-yearbasicHistorycurriculumtoteachaboutthe subject.(T.J.Historyteacher).Someteachersfromtechnicalhighschoolspointoutthatthe HolocaustandJewishheritageareabsentinthegeneralcurriculumandthattheyteachabout thesesubjectsontheirownaccord,outofcivicdutyandtheirownpersonalinterest(I.G-B.Polish Literatureteacher).LiteratureteachersintroduceJewishhistoryandJewishheritagetopicsinPolish LiteraturelessonsabouttheNineteenthCenturyinYear2forwhichtheyhavebetween2to3hours.

116 Interviewof8November2022withDrMartaDuch-Dyngoszbytheauthorofthisreport.

117 Interviewof8November2022withDrMartaDuch-Dyngoszbytheauthorofthisreport.

TheyagainintroduceJewishhistoryandtheHolocaustinlessonsaboutPolishLiteratureduring theSecondWorldWarinYear4forwhichtheyhavebetween5to10hours.

Historyteachersuniformlystressthat1to2hoursdedicatedtotheHolocaustinYear4is totallyinsufficienttointroducethesubjectproperly.TheHistoryCore/BasicCurriculum(“podstawa programowa”)inYear4includesthefollowinglearningtasksforstudentswithregardstothe discussionoftheGermanexterminationpolicy:

1 TopresenttheideologicalfoundationsoftheexterminationoftheJewsandotherethnicand socialgroupsbyNaziGermany;

2 TocharacterisethestagesoftheexterminationoftheJews(discrimination,stigmatisation, isolation,extermination);

3 TorecognisethemainexterminationsitesofthePolishandEuropeanJewsandotherethnic andsocialgroupsontheterritoryofPolandandCentral&EasternEurope(including Auschwitz-Birkenau,Treblinka,Sobibór,BabiYar);

4 TodescribetheattitudesoftheJewishpeopletowardstheHolocaust,takingintoaccountthe WarsawGhettoUprising;

5 TocharacterisetheattitudesofPolishsocietyandtheinternationalcommunitytowardsthe Holocaust,takingintoaccounttheRighteous,onthebasisofIrenaSendler,Antoninaand Jan abińskiandtheUlmafamily.

ManyHistoryteachersalsoindicatethatonlystudentsinclasseswiththeextendedHistory curriculumprogrammecanlearnmoreabouttheHolocaustinthecontextofthestudyofthe SecondWorldWarinYear4.Therefore,someteachersteachingtheBasicHistoryCurriculum devotemoretimetotheHolocaustthanprescribedinthecurriculumattheexpenseofother subjects(T.J.Historyteacher).Theyalsouseadditionallessonssuchasstudytoursorvisitsto historicalorremembrancesites,suchasmuseums,formerghettos,concentrationcampsor exterminationsites. Theydothisontheirowninitiative.

InplanningadditionallearningactivitiesaboutJewishheritageandtheHolocaust,many teachersrelyoneducationalprogrammesofferedbylocalNGOssuchastheGaliciaJewishMuseum, theCentreforDialogueinŁódź,BorussiainOlsztyn,theBenteKahanFoundationinWrocław,the virtualMuseumoftheJewsofBiałystokandtheRegion,andtheTheCukermanGateFoundation inBędzin.TeachersalsocooperatewithlocalmuseumsandculturalinstitutionsthatoffereducationalprogrammestoschoolssuchastheMuseumoftheHistoryofPolishJews(POLIN),the GrodzkaGateinLublin,theUpperSilesianJewsHouseofRemembranceinGliwice,theSchindler Factory,andtheEaglePharmacybranchoftheMuseumoftheCityofKraków.

ManyteachersconcedethatthattheythemselveshavelearntalotaboutJewishheritageand theHolocaustfromlocalnon-formaleducationalandgrassrootsorganisationssuchas Forumfor Dialogue, Zapomniane,Pamięć,któraTrwa and Ludzie,nieliczby,Fundacja4Piętra amongothers. ThesegrassrootsorganisationshavebecomeahubandpointofreferenceforteachersandheadteachersandotherlocalleaderswhoarewillingtoincludeJewishheritageintolocalremembrance andschoolcurricula.

Prof.EdytaGawron,ahistorianofmodernJewishhistoryattheJagiellonianUniversity,confirms theimportanceofclosecollaborationbetweenteachersandthelocalNGOsindesigninglessons andextra-curricularactivitiesonJewishheritageandtheHolocaust:

“InmostofthecasesIknow,thedecisiononhowtoteachaboutJewishheritageandHolocaust ismadebytheindividualteacher(lesssoheadteachers,whohowevermaywantorneedtoapprove theteacher’sdecision).TheteachersareinspiredbyinternationalorlocalNGOs,ortheyare activelyinvolvedintheNGOsthemselves.Inseveralregions,museumsplaytheroleofbeingthe hubforteachertraining.” 118

118 Interviewof9November2022withProf.EdytaGawronbytheauthorofthisreport.

MostteachersdeveloptheirexpertiseinthesubjectsofJewishhistoryandcultureandthe Holocausteitherfromself-educationorin-servicetrainingofferedbyvariousinstitutions, museumsandNGOssuchasStateMuseumAuschwitz-Birkenau,JewishHistoricalInstitute, POLINMuseumoftheHistoryofPolishJews,GaliciaJewishMuseuminKrakówandAuschwitz JewishCenterinOświęcim.

Somehavegreatlybenefitedfromshort-termteachertrainingabroadatYadVashemin Jerusalem,MemorialdelaShoahinParisandtheWanseeMuseuminBerlin,andfromtraining offeredbyforeignJewishNGOssuchasCentropa.Thosewhoattendedteachertrainingstress thattheyhadtoapplyforitontheirowninitiativewithoutfinancialsupportfromtheirschools. Intheprocess,manyhavelearnttosearchforgrantsfromthirdpartiesincludinglocalmunicipalities.However,someteachersstressthat,afterthechangeofgovernmentin2015, “they have startedtomeetwithoppositionfromheadteachers.” Moreover, “somemunicipalitiesarenot asopentocooperationwithschoolsinthedevelopmentofeducationalprogrammesonlocal JewishhistoryandtheHolocaustasbefore.”

(T.J.Historyteacher)

Mostinterviewedteachersemphasisetheneedfortheestablishmentofpre-servicetraining onJewishhistory,culture,heritageandtheHolocaust.Atpresent,teachersdonotgenerally studythesesubjectseither duringBAorMApedagogicalstudies.Theteachersalsowouldliketo participatemorefrequently–onceayearormore–inshort-termtrainingontheJewishnarrative.

ManyteachersorganisetripstoJewishcemeteriesonavoluntarybasisaspartofinformal educationonJewishcultureandreligion.Insometowns,teachersparticipatewiththeirstudents incommemorativeceremoniesonthedeportationandexterminationoflocalJewishcommunities. SuchceremoniesaresometimesheldinJewishcemeterieswhichwerethekillingsiteswhereJews wereexecuted.

Insomecases,primaryschoolsareinvolvedintakingcareofaJewishcemeteryandlearning aboutlocalJewishheritage.Forexample,alocalelementaryschoolinIzbicaintheLublinregion iscooperatingwiththeGermanorganisationBildungswerkStanisławHanztodevelopeducationalactivitiesonthetopicoftheJewishhistoryofIzbica,includingthetragichistoryofthetransit ghetto.Inaddition,theschoolhasbeentakingcareofthelocalJewishnecropolis.

119

However,someteachershaveexperiencedchallengingsituationsbyincorporatingaJewish cemeteryintolocalhistorylessonsbecausethecemeteriesthemselvesconstitutepartofthe difficultpastthatthelocalcommunitiesareunableyettocometotermswith.Forexample,in BiłgorajintheLublinregion,thehighschoolbuildingitselfstandsatopofan“oldJewishcemetery.”In2014,thehighschoolstudentstookpartinaneducationalprogrammeexploringlocal Jewishhistory,andtheeducatorssuggestedadebateaboutthefactthattheschoolwasstanding onthegroundsofaJewishcemetery.However,theideawasabandonedaspotentiallytoo distressingforthelocalcommunity.120

Overall,mosthighschoolteacherswouldliketoincorporatevisitstoJewishcemeterieswithin theframeworkofhighschoolcurricula,astheyviewthemasrelevanttovariousaspectsofteaching aboutJewishheritageandtheHolocaust.TheyrecognisethatlessonsatJewishcemeteriesenable “puttinganemphasisonthefateofindividualsandconcretelocalJewishcommunitiesbeforeand duringthewar.” (W.A.Historyteacher)

Inaddition,teacherswouldliketoincorporatealocalJewishnecropolisinteachingaboutthe differencesbetweenJudaismandChristianity,andaboutthepreservationofdifferentreligious sacredsites.However,theystressthattheywouldliketoundergofurtherspecialisttrainingand obtainmorespecificpedagogicalandmethodologicalskillsandresourcestobebetterinformed andprepared.SomeindicatethattheyhavelimitedtrainingandexperienceofteachinginJewish cemeteries:

119 IamgratefultoDrMartaDuch-Dyngoszforsharingwithmethisinformation.

120 IamgratefultoDrMartaDuch-Dyngoszforsharingwithmethisinformation.

“IonlyknowoftrainingorganisedforteachersandinformaleducatorsbytheGaliciaJewishMuseum inKrakowwhichfocusedonreadingmatzevot,andusingJewishcemeteriesforeducationalpurposes.

IknowthattrainingorganisedbymuseumsandNGOsalsoincludevisitstocemeteriestoteach aboutthediversityofpre-warPolishJewishlife.

Asformyself,Ihavetakenhighschoolstudents,andalsouniversitystudents,onlyafewtimes duetolackofcurriculumspaceandtimetotheNewJewishCemeteryinMiodowaStreetinKraków, whereIpresentedthediversityandrichnessofthepre-warJewishlifeofJewishKrakówthrough thegravesofvariouspeopleburiedthere.

IhavemoreoftentakenstudentstotheKrakowOldJewishCemetery(Remuh/Ramah),which waspartofavisittotheadjoiningsynagogue,followedbyavisittotheTempelorProgressive Synagogue,todeliveratalkonthediversityofJewishidentities.IusedtheRemuhCemeteryto talkaboutthetraditionalJewishidentityandafewfamousrabbis,aswellasintroducecertain symbolsusedonJewishtombstones.” 121

ManyteachersareconcernedaboutthefutureofeducationonJewishheritageandtheHolocaust intheformaleducationalsettingbecauseofthefearofapotentialendtotheeducationalactivities offeredbygrassrootsNGOsandmuseums–theleadersinbestpractice.Forthefutureofthis education,greaterfinancialandmoralresources mustbeputinplacetostrengthenthesupport providedbylocalNGOs,andtheeducationalsystemmustremainautonomousandindependent fromtheweaponisationforideologicalandpoliticalgoalsbythestate.

ItisalsoessentialthatthedifficultpastpertainingtothetreatmentofPolishJewsbynon-Jewish Polishco-citizensisintegratedintotheavailableeducationalresources,andthatteachersinpreandin-servicetrainingareofferedguidanceonhowtoteach aboutitinasensitiveway,andto teachaboutJewishhistoryingeneralaspartofawidereducationfordemocracyandpluralism.

121 Interviewof8November2022withAdamMusiałbytheauthorofthisreport.

SLOVAKIA 2.6

2.6 SLOVAKIA

Lessthanatenthofthepre-warnumberofCzechoslovakJews,betweenfifteenandeighteen thousand,managedtosurvivetheHolocaust.122 Theimmediatepost-1945periodofretributions andtrialswascharacterisedbyageneralanimositytowardstheSlovakJewishsurvivorswho demandedtherestitutionoftheirpropertyandbusinesses.InvariousSlovaktownsandcities includingBratislava–todaythecapitaloftheindependent,post-communistSlovakia–brutal anti-Jewishviolencetookplacebetween1945and1948.Butthevictoryofcommunismin1948 broughtabouttheemergenceofnewmythsaboutthewartimepast,especiallyabouttheRed Army’ssacrificesinfightingfascismforthesakeofapeacefulCzechoslovakia.Subsequently, duringthecommunistera,publicknowledgeandeducationaboutthefateofSlovakJewsinthe Holocaustandthevibrantpre-1939JewishhistoryandcultureofJewsinCzechandSlovaklands wassuppressed.ThematerialJewishheritagewasneglectedandlefttofadeintooblivionasin otherpost-1945communistcountries.

Duringtheentirecommunistperiod,theofficialnarrativeascribedtheresponsibilityforthe HolocaustinSlovakiasolelytoNaziGermany.Nevertheless,inthemid-1980s,underthepolitical impactofMikhailGorbachev’sperestroikaintheSovietUnion,Slovakliberalintellectualsbegan todiscovertheneglectedSlovakJewishheritageaswellasthepainful,devastatingpastinSlovakJewishrelationsduringWWII.In1987,agroupofliberalintellectualsundertheleadershipof DominikTatarkaissuedaproclamationcondemningthe1944deportationsofSlovakJewsto concentrationanddeathcampsbythewartimeSlovakfasciststateledbyJozefTiso.

Inthe1990s,duringtheemergenceofaHolocaustmemorialcultureinSlovakia,twohundred HolocaustsurvivorsamongthecommunityofthreethousandJewsinSlovakiabecame,forthe firsttime,publiclyacknowledgedandinterviewedfororalhistoryprojectssuchas“Fatesof ThoseWhoSurvivedtheHolocaust.” 123 Thankstoparticipatinginthefirstteachertrainingin Holocausteducation,somehighschoolteachersbegantoinviteHolocaustsurvivorstospeak totheirstudentsintheclassroom,aneducationalpracticethatstillcontinuesandispopular withstudents.

AccordingtoProf.NinaPaulovicova,aSlovak-CanadianscholaroftheHolocaustandContemporaryHistoryatAthabascaUniversityinCanada: “Afterthefallofcommunism,aprimary goalwastoprovidemoreeducationontheJewishcommunityinSlovakiaandtheHolocaustto highschoolteachers,inparticularhighschoolteachersofHistoryandCivicEducation.Oneofthe firstinitiativesfocusedonthetrainingofeducatorsintheareaofHolocauststudies.Somehigh schoolteachershadanopportunitytoattendaneducationalprogrammeorganisedbytheYad VashemInstituteinJerusalem.Thiswasanintenseprogrammeoflectures,workshopsandfield tripswhichequippedtheparticipantswithknowledgeandpedagogicalapproachestodisseminate theacquiredknowledgeamongotherhighschoolteachersinSlovakiaviaworkshops.Iwasone oftheparticipantsofthisfirstwaveofeducatorswhosetaskwastoorganiseworkshopsforother highschoolteachers.” 124

NewcommemorativesitesemergedsuchasaNationalHolocaustMemorialinBratislava (1997)andlocalmemorialsitesinHuncovce,Nitra,PopradandTrnavaamongothers.On9September2001,theSlovakParliamentestablishedtheannualcommemorationoftheMemorialDayfor

122 OnthehistoryandmemorialisationoftheHolocaust,NinaPaulovicova,““TheUnmasterablePast”?

TheReceptionoftheHolocaustinPostcommunistSlovakia,”inHimkaandMichlic, BringingtheDarkPast toLight,549-590.

123 Theproject‘FatesofThoseWhosurvivedtheHolocaust’wasapartofanoralhistoryprogrammeat anon-governmentalSlovakianMilanSimeckaFoundation.Onitsactivitiesandresources,see https://www.annalindhfoundation.org/members/milan-simecka-foundation-nadacia-milana-simecku

124 AninterviewwithProf.NinaPaulovicovaon3November2022withtheauthorofthisreport.Iwouldlike tothankProf.Paulovicovaforherreflectionsandcomments.

VictimsoftheHolocaustandofRacialViolence,adaythatmarkstheinfamousdate,9September 1941,whenthefascistSlovakgovernmentissuedadecreeonthelegalstatusofJews,theso-called theJewishCodex.TheCodexledtodeportationsandthemurderofapproximately70,000Slovak Jewsinexterminationcentresandconcentrationcamps.TheestablishmentofthenationalDayof theCommemorationoftheHolocauston9September1941,andtheSlovakgovernment’sefforts toinvestintoJewishheritageandHolocaustcommemoration,ledtotheimprovementofrelations betweenIsraelandSlovakia.SecondandthirdgenerationsofSlovakJewsintheDiasporaandin Israel,andtheIsraeligovernment,expressedakeeninterestinthepreservationofmemoriesof SlovakJewswhoperishedinSlovakiaduringtheHolocaust.DescendantsofSlovakJewslivingabroad andtheIsraelembassyinBratislavabecameinvolvedinJewishheritagepreservationprojects, andhighschooleducationalactivitiesforyoungSlovakyouthonJewishheritageandtheHolocaust.

In2007,theMuseumoftheSlovakNationalUprising(SNP)launchedaprojectcalled‘Wagon’ tomark25thMarchasthesixty-fifthanniversaryofthefirstdeportationofonethousandyoung JewishfemalesfromPopradin1942.ThefirstwagoncarriedasmallexhibitabouttheJewishand RomaHolocaust.Duringthesametime,theSNPMuseumalsoembarkedoneducationalprojects abouttheHolocaustandhumanrightsdirectedathighschoolteachersandstudents.Today,the educatorsattheSNPMuseumareexpertsinteachingtopicssuchasextremism,antisemitism, andracism.Theyproducepedagogicalandmethodologicalmaterialforuseinhighschoolsand actasconsultantsinthepreparationofmaterialsbytheMinistryofEducationandtheState PedagogicalInstitute.125 EveryMaytheyrunaseminarforteachersthatisundertheauspicesof theSlovakMinisterofEducation.

Duringthefirstdecadeofthethirdmillennium,highschoolsbegantoorganiseschooltrips tothenewlyestablishedmemorialsitessuchastheSNPMuseum.Ascommemorativeculture aroundtheHolocaustbecamemoreestablished,highschoolteachersandstudentshadmore opportunitiestolearnabouttheseevents.In2005,SlovakiabecameafullmemberoftheInternationalHolocaustRemembranceAlliance.126

JewishcommunitiesandlocalhistoriansbegantopreservetheremainingmaterialJewish heritageinSlovakia.Therefore,Jewishcemeteriesandsynagoguesbecameaccessibletothe publicandhighschoolsstartedtoorganisefieldtripstothosesites.Today,thereareapproximately693identifiedJewishcemeteriesthathavebeenpreserved.127 Theyarelocatedindifferent regionsofSlovakia,eveninremotelocationsinsmallmountainvillageswheresomeSlovakJewish communitiesresidedbefore1939.However,manyofthecemeterieshavebeendesecratedand vandalisedand,asaresult,itisdifficulttocreateacomprehensivelistoftheirtombstones. AccordingtotheSlovakJewishHeritageCenter,aandnon-for-profitorganisationsetupinthe springof2006,therearestillunder-researchedcemeteriesspreadacrossnorth-easternSlovakia, anareathatwasdominatedbyaHasidiccultureinthenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturies, withmanyuniquefolkloricdecorativeelements.TheSlovakJewishHeritageCenterconstitutes ajointprojectoftheBratislavaJewishCommunityandtheJewishHeritageFoundationcalled Menorah,alsobasedinBratislava.Theprojectaimstofulfilbroadgoalsinareasofresearch, documentationandeducationaboutJewishheritage.TheSlovakJewishHeritageCenteroffers educationalactivitiesincludingJewishheritagetoursforhighschoolteachersandstudents.

125 ForvariousmethodologicalandeducationalmaterialsoftheSNPMuseumavailableonline, seethefollowingwebsites:http://snp.ucebna.org/course-cat/odborna-verejnost/ https://www.nadaciamilanasimecku.sk/publikacie/metodicke-prirucky andhttps://drive.google.com/file/d/14_YnocpMrOLkEKctxlypVHaJbWxyq0hi/view

126 https://2015.holocaustremembrance.com/member-countries/holocaust-education-remembranceand-research-slovakia

127 See,forexample,LeszekHońdo, CmentarzenaSłowacji-odPopradudoPresowa /LeszekHońdo, Prešov,Vydavate stvoPrešovskejuniverzity2013, ŽidiapredazaKarpatmivpriebehustáročí /Prešov, Vydavate stvoPrešovskejuniverzity2013,s.230-237,obr.,map.ISBN:978-80-555-1043-9.

Thehighschoolteacherswhowereinterviewedforthisreport,areexperiencedteachers representingseveraldifferenttypesofhighschoolsincludingstateandprivategymnasiaand secondaryvocationalschools.LikeinPolandandLithuania,thequantityandqualityofeducation aboutJewishheritageandtheHolocaustdependsinSlovakiachieflyonthecommitmentand approachofindividualteachers.Italsodependsontheindividualschoolmanagement,aswell ason localconditionssuchasthepresenceofalocalJewishcemetery,itsphysicalstateand accessibility,andtheavailabilityofmuseumsofJewishinterestsuchastheJewishCommunity MuseuminBratislavalocatedintheformersynagogue.128

AccordingtoDrMonikaVrzgulova,129 akeyexpertonSlovakeducationonJewishheritage andtheHolocaust,andSeniorResearchFellowattheInstituteofEthnology,SlovakAcademyof SciencesintheSlovakRepublic,thequalityand quantityofhighschooleducationaboutJewish heritageandtheHolocaustdependsonthepresencewithinthevicinityofschoolsoflocalNGOs suchasSuburbiuminBardejov 130;NovaSynagogainŽilina 131;MilanSimeckaFoundation132; HolocaustDocumentationCenter133;orPostBellum134

InadditiontotheselocalNGOs,Vrzgulovapointsoutthatinnovativeeducationalprogrammes forhighschoolstudentsarealsoonofferinwhatshecalls,“authenticplacesconnectedwiththe historyandpresenceoftheJewishcommunity” 135 suchastherestoredsynagoguesinPrešov 136 andLučenec 137.TheStateHolocaustMuseuminSered 138,locatedatthesiteoftheformerlabour andconcentrationcampforSlovakJews,aswellastheStateMuseumoftheJewishCulturein Bratislava 139,andtheabovementionedStateMuseumoftheSlovakNationalUprisinginBanská Bystrica 140,alsoofferprintedandonlineeducationalprogrammesforhighschoolteachersand students.

IntownssuchasTopo čany,SpišskáNováVes,orBanskáŠtiavnica,highschoolteachersand studentsengageregularlyinthecleaningofthelocalJewishcemetery.Theyalsoconducthistoricalresearchintothepre-1939Jewishcommunityanditscontributiontolocalsociety.Thefruits ofthestudents’researchcanbefoundondisplayinschoolexhibitions,bookletsandbooks,and inlowbudgetdocumentaryfilmsproducedbytheschools.

Asamemberofthecohortofenthusiastichighschoolteachers,DrM.K.(Highschoolteacher attheSecondaryProfessionalSchoolinTisovec)stressesthatsheteachesaboutlocalJewishheritageinorderforherstudentsto “developwellroundedpersonalities,acquireknowledgeabout theGemer-Malohontregion,deepentheiremotionalrelationshiptotheregion,andalsotothe homeland.Thisfocusenablesstudentstounderstandandevaluateimportanteventsthathave

128 FortheeducationalprogrammesofferedbytheJewishCommunityMuseuminBratislavasee, http://www.synagogue.sk/en/education

129 IwouldliketothankDrMonikaVrzgulovaforherinterviewon29July2022and20November2022,and forofferingmeherreflectionsonSlovakeducation.Sheisanauthorofanimportantmonographonthe memoriesoftheHolocaustinSlovakia,MonikaVrzgulova, Nevyrozprávanésusedskéhistórie.Holokaust naSlovenskuzdvochperspektív.[Untoldneighborshistory.HolocaustinSlovakiafromtwoperspectives]. (Bratislava,VEDA2016)

130 http://suburbiumbardejov.sk/en/

131 https://www.novasynagoga.sk/en

132 https://www.nadaciamilanasimecku.sk/programy/vzdelavanie

133 http://www.holokaust.sk/projects-and-lectures-good-examples

134 https://www.postbellum.sk/vzdelavame/

135 AninterviewwithMonikaVrzgulovaof29July2022.

136 http://www.synagoga-presov.sk/en/

137 https://dev.lukus.sk/synagoga/)

138 https://www.snm.sk/muzea-snm/muzeum-zidovskej-kultury/muzeum-holokaustu-v-seredi/o-muzeu

139 https://www.snm.sk/muzea-snm/muzeum-zidovskej-kultury/muzeum-zidovskej-kultury/o-muzeu

140 http://www.muzeumsnp.sk/vzdelavanie/zakladne-informacie/

BanskáBystrica,Slovakia

takenplaceintheregion,andtolearnaboutitstraditions,customsandcrafts.Itisalsovery importanttogettoknowtheimportantpeoplebornintheregion,theirlives,work,activities, tolearnlessonstohelpshapeactionsforeachofus.Theregionshouldbeakindof‘family’ werespect,protect,carefor,andarefugethatoffersussecurity.”

Dr.M.K.hascreatedasophisticatededucationalprogrammeaboutJewishheritageinher school,whereintheJewishcemeteryinTisovecisincorporatedindifferentways.However,some ofhereducationalprojectshavenotyetbeenfullyimplementedbecauseoftheglobalCovid pandemic,2020-2021.

“DuringvisitstotheJewishcemetery,studentsgettoknowitsnatureandlandscape,get acquaintedwiththesignsandcharacteroftheJewishcemetery,withtheinscriptionsonthe tombstones,andthearrangementofgraves.Theygettoknowthematerialfromwhichthetombstonesaremade(mostlyblackandgraymarble,andsandstone),theyexamineand‘read’the inscriptionsonthetombstones.Theystudyhistoricalmaterialsfromaparticularperiod, especiallyconcerningthelifeanddestiniesofmembersoftheJewishcommunityinTisovec andtheGemer-Malohontregioningeneral.

TheSecondaryProfessionalSchoolisalsoamemberofthelocalbranchofMaticaSlovenskáin Tisovec.Together,in2020,theypreparedanewprojectcalled‘WhatCemeteriesTalkAbout’,the aimofwhichistoacquaintthepublicwiththeJewishcemeteryandthehistoryoftheJewishcommunityinTisovec.TheprojectalsocomparestheJewishandChristianreligionsthroughvisitsto Christian(EvangelicalandCatholic)cemeteriesandtheJewishcemeterytoshowthedifferences andcommonfeatures.Therehadbeenagreatinterestintheplannedvisitstothecemeteries fromthegeneralpublicandlocalorganisations,butthepandemicsituationpreventedusfrom implementingthispartofproject.Wethereforepostponedit….”

Ingeneral,highschoolstudentsinSlovakiastartlearningaboutJewishheritageandtheHolocaustinthefirstyearofhighschoolattheageof15-16.AlthoughasobservedbyM.B.(Researcher oftheStatePedagogicalInstituteinBratislava),someelementsofJewishhistoryandcultureare learntalreadyinprimaryschools:

“JewishculturalheritageisnotpresentedasaseparatesubjectintheSlovakstatecurriculum. ThetopicofJewsandJudaismistaughtwithinthehistorycurriculumofprimaryandsecondary schools(mainlygrammarschools).ThethematicunitPaintingsoftheAncientWorld(primary school-6thgrade,aged12years)introducestheterms:JudaismandChristianity.Inthethematic unitentitled,ImagesoftheSecondWorldWar(9thgrade,15years),theteachersarerequiredto introducetheHolocaustbyusingaspecificconcretestory.” M.B.,Researcher

HighschoolstudentslearnaboutJewishheritageandtheHolocaustmainlyinthesubjectsof HistoryandRegionalHistory,SlovakLanguagesandLiterature,SocialSciencesandCivics(within thestudyofreligion–Judaism),andlessinPhilosophy,GeographyandtheArts.Teachersin gymnasiacoversomeofthefollowingtopicsonJewishhistoryandculture:

■ PersecutionofJewsduringtheMiddleAges

■ TolerancepatentforJewsfromEmperorJosephII

■ BasicinformationaboutJudaism

■ InformationaboutJewishcemeteriesandsynagoguesinthecitywheretheschool islocatedwithinthesubjectofRegionalHistory

■ Languageofanationalminority

■ TheBibleasaPartofAncientHebrewLiterature

■ WritersofJewishorigine.g.GejzaVámoš,LeopoldLahola

■ Shoah

■ OccasionalexcursionstoJewishcommunitymuseum

■ LifestoriesofpeoplefromlocalJewishcommunitiesincludingvideotestimonies, archivaldocumentsetc.

Torealisethiscurriculum,teachersingymnasiaandgrammarschoolshaveonlybetween 10to12hourswithintheentire4yearsofhighschool.Mostteachersviewtheallocationofhours as“definitelynotsufficient.”Mostteacherswouldliketohaveatleastbetween15to25hoursin theannualcurriculumtoteachaboutJewishheritage.Manywouldliketoteachaspecifictopicas aproject-basededucationalactivityintheclassroom3daysinarowcoveringapproximately 20 hourswhichwouldallowforstudentpresentations,activitiesandfeedback.Aproject-based learningmethodisattractivetostudents.Forexample,theproject“Neighbours”organisedbythe MilanSimeckaFoundationpromptedhighschoolstudentstoinvestigatethelivesandfatesof JewishcommunitiesinthewartimeSlovakstate.Itmeaningfullyengagedstudentswithresearch andwritingaboutJewishcommunitiesbeforeandduringWWII.

Manyteacherswouldliketo expandtheirteachingtooutsidetheclassroom,takingtheir studentstoaJewishhistoricalsiteorcemeterytospendatleast10hoursworkingonspecific project-basedactivitiesatthesites.ManyteachersindicatethattheirstudentswouldbeinterestedincleaningalocalJewishcemeteryandhelpingalocalJewishcommunity.Atpresent, theseopportunitiesarenotavailable.

Teachersworkinginhighschoolvocationalschoolshavefewerhourstoimplementeducation aboutJewishheritagethantheofficial10-12hoursallocatedingymnasiaandgrammarschools.

Dr.J.O.,aleadingeducatorattheStateMuseumoftheSlovakNationalUprising(SNP),believes thathighschoolvocationalschoolsshouldhavethesamenumberofhoursallocatedinthecurriculumtoteachaboutJewishheritageandtheHolocaustasgrammarschools.Dr.J.O.isalsoin favourofincreasingthehourlyallowanceingrammarschoolstoteachaboutJewishheritageby atleast2hourspermonthineachsubject.

WhenitcomestohighschooleducationabouttheHolocaust,thenumberofallocatedhours tothisandrelatedtopicsovertheentire4academicyearsvariesbetween3to17hours.141 VocationalschoolshavethelowestnumberofhourstoteachabouttheHolocaust.Mostteachers regardtheallocatedhourstoteachabouttheHolocaustas“totallyinsufficient.”Thedecisionon incorporatingJewishHeritageandtheHolocaustinhighschoolcurriculalieswiththeMinistry ofEducation,localstateauthoritiesandindividualteachers.However,thelatterplaysthecritical roleinthe“everyday”implementationoftheapproach.

TheMinistryofEducationandlocalstateauthoritiesdonotprovideschoolswithsufficient financialsupporttodevelopeducationalactivitiesonJewishheritageandtheHolocaust.However, therearegovernmentaleducationalinstitutions,localandforeignNGOs,universitiesandmuseums andJewishculturalinstitutesthatdoprovideteacherswithspecialtrainingonthesubjects. However,asmanyteachersnoted,thetrainingisofferedrarely,onceayearorless.

Likeintheother6countriesunderanalysis,highschoolsinSlovakiadonotfinanciallysponsor individualteachersattendingtrainingonJewishheritageandtheHolocaust.Butsometeachers reportthattheirheadteachers/schooladministrationsoffermoralsupportandencouragethem toapplyfortrainingofferedbyathirdparty.TrainingofferedbyforeignandlocalNGOsincludingmuseums,YadVashemandtheUSHMMareviewedasbeingofthegreatestbenefittoteachers. Teachershighlyvaluetrainingabroadduringwhichtheymeetupwithkeyexpertsandscholarsin thefield.Sometimestheyinvitescholarsbacktotheirhighschools.

141 OntheproblemsrelatedtoteachingHolocaustinhighschoolsinSlovakia,seeforexampleMichaels, DeborahL.“HolocaustEducationinthe‘BlackHoleofEurope’:Slovakia’sIdentityPoliticsandHistory

TextbooksPre-andPost-1989.” InterculturalEducation,vol.24no.1-2,2013,19-40andMonika Vrzgulová,Vzdelávanieoholokauste.Slovenskoveurópskomkontexte/Vrzgulová,Monika.11, Etnologickérozpravy/Bratislava:EtnografickémúzeumSNM-ÚstavetnológieSAV-Národopisná spoločnos slovenská,2004,11,č.1,s.70-75.ISSN:1335-5074

(HOLOCAUSTEDUCATION:SLOVAKIAWITHINTHEEUROPEANCONTEXT)

http://cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/element/bwmeta1.element.39441ee4-a941-3ceb-9f16-ddd8c802dc67

Jewishheritageisusuallytaughtbothinandoutsidetheclassroom.Thisincludesvisitstoa localsynagogueorcemetery,aHolocaustcommemorativesiteandtolocal,regionalandnational museums.SuchoutofschoolvisitsplayaspecialroleinthehighschoolcurriculuminSlovakia andthereforetheycanincorporatetheJewishcemeteryasanimportanteducationalspace.

“Forsecondaryschools,thereisanaddendumtotheStateEducationalProgrammewhichaims topreventextremismthroughthefollowingactivities:excursionstoconcentrationcampsand Holocaustmemorialsites;visitstotownsandvillagesaffectedbyfascistrepression;implementationofprojectsandcompetitionsfocusedonactivitiesthatexpressstudentattitudestoatopic orhistoricalevententitled-Hewhodoesnotknowhishistory,doesnotlearnfromitandrepeatsit.” M.B.(ResearcherattheStatePedagogicalInstitute).

AccordingtoNinaPaulovicova,thereisagreaterfocusonchildwellbeing,self-esteemandselfawarenessandthephilosophyof“stastnedieta(happychild)”amongeducatorsinSlovakia, whichsupportsadebatecultureandcriticalthinking–essentialforeducation,andeducation aboutJewishcommunitiesandtheHolocaust.142

Someschoolshavethefinancialresourcestoinvitehistoriansandexpertsfromlocaluniversitiesandmuseums,aswellasHolocaustsurvivors.Someteachershold speciallessonswith HolocaustsurvivorsatthelocalJewishcemetery.Highschoolteachersusuallytaketheopportunity tovisittheJewishcemeteryifpossible.TheypointoutthatgainingaccesstoaJewishcemetery sometimesdependsongoodcommunicationswiththeowner(alocalJewishcommunityor arepresentativeoftheCentralUnionoftheJewishCommunitiesintheSlovakRepublic).

TheJewishcemeteryinHlohovecisanexampleofoneregularlyusedinhighschool education. ThedirectorofthelocalVlastivedneMuseumusuallyguidesstudentsthroughthesite,offering insightsintothelivesoftheJewishfamiliesburiedthere.Studentsthusreceiveinformationon thepre-warlifeoftheJewishcommunity(religious,cultural,socialandeconomicaspects)and alsoabouttheirstrugglesandsufferingduringtheHolocaust.Somehighschoolteachersvisit Jewishcemeteries(andothermemorialisationsites)withtheirstudentsaspartofcommemorativeHolocaustevents.

“Yes,everyyearaspartofHolocaustandRacialRemembranceDay,IvisitaJewishcemeterywith mystudents,wheretheylearnaboutJewishhistory,cultureandJudaism,butalsoaboutimportant personalitieswhoareburiedhereandwhoareconnectedwithregionalhistoryandculture… Withsomeclasses,weparticipateintheHolocaustmemorialceremonyonSeptember9organised bythecityofŽilina.” (A.V.highschoolteacher inagymnasiuminŽilina).

Mostteachersareenthusiasticaboutdevelopingspecialmethodologicalandpedagogicaltools andlessonplanstoteachaboutJewishheritageinthespaceofaJewishcemetery.Theywould liketohaveonlineeducationalresourcessuchasvideostopreparethestudentsforsuchavisit, anddetailedrouteplans.

WithregardstoimprovementsinteachingabouttheHolocaust,teacherswouldliketohave morepersonal,localstoriesofthepastJewishcommunitiesasaneducationalresource.M.K. (highschoolteacherinTopo ováandmemberoftheSubjectCommissionforHistorywhichpreparesteachingstandardswithintheMinistryofEducation,Science,ResearchandSports)would liketoimproveeducationonJewishheritageandtheHolocaustatJewishcemeteriesby “establishingmoreintensivecooperationwithlocalJewishcommunities,implementingprojectsaimed atgettingtoknowtheJewishcommunityinthelocalenvironment,organisingschoolpresentation activities,workingwithonlineresources,avideolibraryofsurvivors,organisingpeer-learning andmoreintensiveuseofinterdisciplinaryprogrammesandciviceducation”

142 TheinterviewwithProf.NinaPaulovicovaof3November2022withtheauthorofthereport.

HighschoolteachersinSlovakiagenerallyviewthespaceofaJewishcemeteryasanimportant educationalresourcetostrengthendemocraticvaluesandfightagainstantisemitism,racismand xenophobia: “raisingtoleranceandloveamongallhumankindand….raisingawarenessofthe importanceofothersratherthanonlyyourownculture.” 143

Therecentinternationalseminarentitled‘TeachingJewishHeritageinYourClass-UsingJewish CemeteriesinEducation’,organisedinBratislavainOctober2022bytheFoundationforJewish Heritage,CentropaandEuroClioconfirmsanincreasinginterestamongeducatorsinteaching JewishheritagebyutilisingJewishcemeteriesasoutdoorclassrooms.FortyteachersfromSlovakia andnineotherEuropeancountriestookpartinthissuccessfulevent.ParticipantswentonaJewish heritagetourofthehistoriccitycentre,andaftervisitedthemainJewishcemeterytoprovidea crucialexperientialelement.Oneparticipantspokeabouthowshehadneverknownthatthere hadbeenaJewishcommunityinhertownandwasastonishedwhenshediscoveredthat80per centofthetownwasJewishin1939.

144

TostrengtheneducationinSlovakiaonJewishheritageandtheHolocaust,greaterfinancial andmoralresourcesmustbeputinplace,andthesystemmustremainautonomous.Itisalso essentialthatthedifficultpastpertainingtothetreatmentofSlovakJewsbynon-JewishSlovak co-citizensisintegratedintotheavailableeducationalresources,andthattheteachersinpre-and in-servicetrainingareofferedguidanceonhowtoteachaboutit,aswellasaboutJewishheritage aspartofwidereducationfordemocracyandpluralismandagainstantisemitismandxenophobia.

143 ThiscitationcomesfromaninterviewwithahighschoolteacherconductedbyDrMonikaVrzgulová. IwouldliketothankDrM.Vrzgulováfortheinterviewandsharingherexpertise.

144 ThiswasreportedbyMichaelMail,ExecutiveDirectoroftheFoundationforJewishHeritage,inemail correspondenceof4November2022.

UKRAINE 2.7

UKRAINE

ThefirstpermanentJewishsettlementsinpre-modernUkrainearedatedtothetenthcenturyCE, thoughJewshadlivedalongtheBlackSeaalreadybythefirstcenturyCE.145 Bytheendofthe 1500s,approximately45,000JewslivedinUkraine,whichatthattimewasanintegralpartofthe Polish-LithuanianCommonwealth.Infact,Jewsplayedanimportantroleinthecolonisationof UkrainebythePolish-LithuanianCommonwealth.BecauseoftheconquestoftheUkrainian lands,thePolish-LithuanianCommonwealthbecameregardedasthegranaryofEurope.The KhmelnytskyUprisingof1648-1657,knownastheCossack-PolishWar,wasthefirstmajor insurrectionagainstPolish-Lithuanianrule.TheCossackrebellionwasaccompaniedbybrutal violencedirectedagainstthecivilianpopulation,especiallyRomanCatholicclergyandJewswhom theCossackssawasthechiefagentsofthePolish-Lithuanianstate.146 Duringtherebellion,apart ofUkrainefellunderRussianruleasaresultofthePereiaslavAgreementof1654betweenthe CossacksandtheRussianTsar.

DespitethemasskillingsoftheJewishpopulationintheKhmelnytskyinsurrection,theJewish communityrecovered.Bythemiddleofthenineteenthcentury,whentheTsaristRussianEmpire ruledovervastpartsoftheUkrainianlands,thecommunitygrewto600,000andwascharacterised byadistinctiveYiddishculture.Butthebrutalpogromsof1881-82and1905-06causedamass migrationofJewstotheWest,mainlytotheUnitedStates.TheRussianRevolutionof1917and theCivilWarof1918-21werealsoaccompaniedbyintenseviolenceagainstJewsinwhich 35,000individualswerekilledandmanymoreweremadehomeless.

OntheeveoftheSecondWorldWar,Ukraine,thenknownastheUkrainianSovietSocialist Republic,wasa“politywithlittlecontroloveritsownaffairs,especiallyaftertheintensificationof centralisationunderStalin”.147 Itstotalpopulationisestimatedat41.2millionwiththemajority madeupofethnicUkrainians.TheJewsmadeupapproximately10percentofthepopulationand wereconcentratedmostlyinwesternUkrainiancities,townsandvillages.Insometowns,they accountedforathirdtoahalfofthepopulationwithmanysynagoguesandcemeteries.Onemillion JewswereevacuatedeastwhentheGermansinvadedtheSovietUnioninJune1941,butabout 1.5millionJewsweremurderedintheHolocaust.148 Mostofthemwereshotandburiedinravines, themostinfamousofwhichisBabynYarwhereovertwodaysinSeptember1941,33,771Jews weremurdered 149,andtherearemassgravesinforests,villagesandJewishcemeteries.Thespecial GermanunitsofEinsatzgruppenCandD,Romaniantroops,andGermanandUkrainianpolice werethechiefperpetratorsofthe“Holocaustbybullets”inUkraine.Thefirstwaveofkillings inwhichethnicUkrainiansparticipatedwasthepogromsofthesummerof1941.150 During

145 OnthehistoryofUkrainianJewsandUkrainian-Jewishrelations,seePaulRobertMagocsiandYohanan Petrovsky-Shtern, JewsandUkrainians:AMillenniumofCo-Existence,(Toronto,UniversityofToronto Press,2018).ThebookwaspublishedaspartofaseriesofbooksonUkrainianJewishhistoryinitiatedby theCanadianbasedNGO,UkrainianJewishEncounter,https://ukrainianjewishencounter.org/en/twothousand-years-ukrainian-jewish-relations-explored-exciting-series-new-books/

146 Jakub,Batista,"ChmielnickiMassacres(1648–1649)".InAlexanderMikaberidze,(ed.). Atrocities, Massacres,andWarCrimes:AnEncyclopedia.vol.1.(California,ABC-CLIO,2014),100–101.

147 JohnPaulHimka,“TheReceptionoftheHolocaustinPostcommunistUkraine”,inHimkaandMichliceds., BringingtheDarkPasttoLight,626,hereafterHimka,“TheReceptionoftheHolocaustinPostcommunist Ukraine”.

148 OnthehistoryandmemoryoftheShoahinUkraineseealsoRayBrandonandWendyLowereds., TheShoahinUkraine:History,Testimony,Memorialization,(Bloomington,Indianapolis, IndianaUniversityPress,2008).

149 OnthehistoryandmemorialisationofBabynYar,seethewebsiteoftheBabynYarHolocaustMemorial Center,initiatedin2016:https://babynyar.org/en/about

150 Himka,“TheReceptionoftheHolocaustinPostcommunistUkraine”,629.

thattime,UkrainianmilitiaandtheBanderasectionoftheOUN(theOrganizationofUkrainian Nationalists)spearheadedmanypogromsincitiessuchasLvivinwhichmanythousandsofJews weremurdered.TheterrororchestratedbythemilitarysectionsoftheOUNagainstJewsand alsotheethnicPolishpopulationinVolhyniacontinuedlasted1942to1944.InwesternUkraine, JewswerealsodeportedtotheconcentrationandexterminationcampsinNazi-occupiedPoland.

LikeinothercountriesofEastcentralEurope,theGermaninvadersandtheirlocalcollaborators notonlymurderedentireJewishcommunitiesofcitiessuchasLvivandtownssuchasRivne,but theyalsodestroyedsynagoguesandJewishcemeteries–thechiefsymbolsofJewishspiritualand communallife.Intheearlypost-warperiod,similartoPoland,JewishsurvivorsfacedapogromlikeatmospherecausedbyantisemiticallegationsofritualmurderofUkrainianchildren,and pogromsbrokeoutinDnipropetrovskinthesummerof1944,andinKyivinSeptember1945.In theSovietera,(1945-1991)theHolocaustwasnotpubliclyacknowledgedandtheworditselfdid notappearinSoviethistoriography.Toavoidinternationalembarrassment,theSovietauthorities wereunwillingtopublicisetheextenttowhichSovietpopulations,includingUkrainiansand Moldovans,hadbeenenticedintocollaborationwiththeGermanoccupiers.Thus,theHolocaust wasconvenientlydissolvedintothecollectivememoryofananti-fascistwar.Thedevastationofthe remainingJewishmaterialheritagecontinuedduringtheSovietera,especiallyinwesternUkraine–theheartlandofJewishlifeinthepre-1941period.Inurbanareas,destroyedJewishcemeteries weretypicallybuiltoverwithhousing,warehouses,factories,marketplacesandevenacinema.

IntheGorbacheveraofperestroika,attitudesbegantochangethankstotheemergenceofa Ukrainiandemocraticpoliticaleliteandliberalintellectuals.Thelattergroup,includingjournalists andhistorians,startedapainfulbutnecessarypublicdiscourseaboutthedifficultwartimepast andthepost-wardevastationofJewishculturalheritage,includingtheneedtorevisehistory education.AfterUkrainedeclareditsindependencefromtheSovietUnionon24August1991, thehistoryoftheHolocaustbecamepublicforthefirsttimesincetheSecondWorldWar.However, asJohn-PaulHimka,aleadinghistorianoftheHolocaustinUkraine,argues,Ukrainiansociety hasnotyetbeeneducatedregardingtheenormityoftheHolocaustandthedestructionof UkrainianJewishheritage.

151

Nevertheless,in1991,adistinctUkrainianJewishidentityemergedwithintheculturallyand religiouslydiverseJewishpopulationofUkrainethatmainlylivedincitiessuchasKyiv(110,000), Dnipropetrovsk(60,000),Kharkiv(45,000)andOdesa(45,000),andwithmuchsmallercommunitiesinwesternUkraine.TheyconstitutedthethirdlargestJewishcommunityinEurope.Between 1991andtheRussianinvasionofUkraineon24February2022,oneofthekeyeffortsofthereestablishedJewishcommunityinUkraine,andforeignJewishorganisations,hasbeenthepreservationofJewishsitesthroughoutthecountry,andtheindependentUkrainianStatehasalso pledgeditshelpinrestoringcertainimportantJewishsites.

Thefirstpreservationworksstartedintheearly1990swhentheUkrainianLandmarksPreservationSocietyandtheSt.PetersburgJewishUniversityofRussia,throughitsCenterforResearch andPresentationoftheEasternEuropeanDiaspora,initiatedasurveyofJewishsitesinUkraine, undertheleadershipofIlyaDworkin,BenjaminLukin,andBorisKhaimovich.LukinandKhaimovich havesincemovedtoIsrael,buttheyhavecontinuedtheirworkwiththeassistanceoftheCenter forJewishArtattheHebrewUniversityofJerusalem.Thankstotheirresearch,rareJewishtombstonesfromtheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturieswerefound.

However,theprocessofrecovery,restorationandpreservationofJewishcemeteriesinUkraine hasbeenmuchslowerthroughoutthe2000sincomparisontoPolandforavarietyofpolitical, economicandculturalreasons.Accordingtothe2005Jewish heritagesitesreportforUkraine publishedbytheUSCommissionforthePreservationofAmerica’sHeritageAbroad(USCPAHA), therearemorethan1,300Jewishburialsites:731cemeteriesand495massgravesacross

151 Himka,“TheReceptionoftheHolocaustinPostcommunistUkraine”,634.

Rohatyn,Ukraine

Ukraine.152 ThemostneglectedcemeteriesarebasedintheruralareasofwesternUkrainewhere onlyafewJewishcommunitiessurvive.

SomeimportantJewishcemeteryrestorationprojectshavebeenassistedbythePolishNGO, theMatzevahFoundation,153 andothershavebeenestablishedthroughcooperationbetween individualnon-JewishUkrainianenthusiasts–“Jewishmemorykeepers”–andWesterndescendants ofUkrainianJewswhomadevisitstoUkraineinthe2000s.Asanexampleofthelatter,MarlaRaucher Osborncreatedin2011theRohatynJewishPreservationProject,asuccessfulconservationand educationNGO.154

“OurUkrainianNGOarosefromanencounterwithretiredteacher,localhistorianandactivist MykhailoVorobetsinspringof2011.DuringourfirstmeetingwithMr.Vorobets,whenwe explainedourinterestintheJewishpastofRohatyn,heledusashortdistancefromthecity librarytoaprivategarden,andinformedusthattherewereJewishheadstonesfromthecity’s cemeteriesburiedunderneaththeflowersandvegetables.Heaskedussimply,whatdidwewant todo.WelearnedfromMr.Vorobetsthatsincethe1990shehadassistedahandfulofJewish survivorsoftheHolocaustinRohatyntomakearrangementstomoveunearthedheadstonefragmentsbacktotheJewishcemeteries,butinrecentyearshehadnolongerheardfromanyofthe survivors,andpresumedtheywerenolongerliving.Whenweresolvedtotakeontheproject,we guessedfromthedetailsMr.Vorobetshadprovidedthataroundadozenheadstonefragments wouldberecovered;infact,intheyearssincethen,manyhundredshavebeenrecoveredand returnedtotheJewishcemeteries.Otherprojectsgrewoutofthisfirstone,aswespentmore timeinRohatynandlearnedmoreaboutitscenturies-longmulti-culturalpast,theharshyearsof GermanandSovietoccupation,andthenewopennessofthecityin independentUkraine”.155

Buttoday,inlate2022duringtheongoingRussianinvasionofUkraine,thereisanewurgencyto preserveJewishcemeteries–themarkersoftheoncethrivingJewishlife.Jewishcemeteriesand massgraves(andsynagogues)havebecomefarmorevulnerableinthecurrentmilitaryconflict andmanyhavebeenabandonedinthelastninemonthsbyfleeinglocalJewishcommunities.In October2022,aworkshoptookplaceinKyivtodiscusstheroledrones canplayinthesurveying andpreservationofcemeteries.Theworkshopwasco-organisedbyESJFanddroneexperts, GermandronesandDroneUA,alongwiththeFacultyofLandManagementattheNationalUniversity ofLifeandEnvironmentalSciencesofUkraine.

“ItisphenomenalthatweareholdingthiseventinUkraineatthecurrenttime,acountrythat oncehostedthelargestnumberofJewishcommunitiesintheworldbeforetheShoah…Drones havedonesomuchdamageinthecountryrecently.Hopefully,theycanalsobeusedinthefuture forpositivebenefittoall.” 156

152 JewishCemeteries,SynagoguesandMassGraveSitesinUkraine,(WashingtonDC.,UnitedStates CommissionforthePreservationofAmerica’sHeritageAbroad,2005),5.

http://heritageabroad.gov/Portals/0/Reports%20and%20Surveys/survey_ukraine_2005.pdf

153 SeethestatementoftheMatzevahFoundationonthecurrentsituationinwar-tornUkraine, https://www.matzevah.org/news1/invasion-of-ukraine

154 https://rohatynjewishheritage.org/en/

155 StatementbyMarlaRaucherOsborn,RohatynJewishHeritageProjects–AnOverview, https://rohatynjewishheritage.org/en/projects/

156 ReportonDronestohelpsurveythousandsofJewishcemeteriesacrossEurope,14November2022: https://www.jewishnews.co.uk/drones-jewish-cemeteries-survey/

Therehasalsobeenastrongsenseofurgencyaboutdevelopingandstrengtheninghighschool educationabouttheHolocaustandJewishheritageinpresent-dayUkraine.

InthefirstyearsofindependentUkraine,highschoolstudentswereonlyoccasionallytaught abouttheHolocaust.TheMinistryofEducationformallyintroducedtheHolocaustintothehigh schoolcurriculumingrade10intheacademicyear1993-1994.In1996,inthesubject“theHistory ofUkraine”,lessonsabouttheGermanoccupationweremandated,andinthesubject“WorldHistory”, arecommendationwasmadetoincludelessonsaboutthe“JewishHolocaustinEurope”.However, textbooksthatincorporatedtheHolocaustintohistorycurriculaonlyappearedin2000.The detailedanalysisofthesefirstnewtextbooksbyJohannDietschrevealedatendencytoevadethe subjectoftheHolocaustinthecourseontheHistoryofUkraineandtotreattheHolocaustasan eventthattookplaceinGermanyandPolandandhadnothingtodowithUkraine.157 Thetendency oftreatingthetopicsuperficially,evadingdifficultaspectsoftheHolocaustinnationalUkrainian history,andperceivingitasaneventthathappenedtoJewsoutsideofUkrainecontinuesinpublic memoriesandschooltextbooks.Someteachersinterviewedforthisreportindicatedthatthey havetochallengethesetendenciesintheclassroom.158

In2019,fiveyearsaftertheRevolutionofDignityof2013-2014,Ukraine,strugglingwith challengingsocialproblemsandmassiveeconomiccorruption,appliedformembershipinthe TaskForceforInternationalCooperationonHolocaustEducation,Remembrance,andResearch.159

TheUkrainianparliamentwasalsopreparinglegislationtoadopttheIHRAdefinitionofantisemitism,butbothprocesseshavenotbeencompletedduetopoliticaldisagreements.160 However, theUkrainianCenterforHolocaustStudiesinKyiv 161 andtheTkumaAll-UkrainianCenterfor HolocaustStudiesinDnipropetrovsk,162 havebeenworkingonimprovingJewishhistoryand Holocausteducationsincethemiddleofthe2000s.Bothcentreshaveofferedfrequentonline andin-personteachertraininginHolocausteducationand,since2006,haveorganisedspecial pedagogical-methodologicalseminarsforUkrainianteachersinYadVashem.Thistraininghas beenhighlypraisedbyteachersinterviewedforthisreport.ThescholarsemployedbytheCentres alsoconducthistoryandmemorystudies,andpedagogicalresearch.Thelatterincludesstudies ofthecontentofteachingresourcesabouttheHolocaustinpost-communistUkraine.Everyyear, theCentresannouncedifferentcompetitionsonthehistoryandmemoryoftheHolocaustfor highschoolstudents.TheCentresalsocooperatewithlocalandinternationalJewishNGOsand MuseumssuchastheAnneFrankMuseumintheNetherlandsandtheShoahMemorialFoundation inFrance.Mostrecently,inNovember2022,theUkrainianCenterforHolocaustStudiesinKyiv, theNationalMuseumoftheHistoryofUkraineintheSecondWorldWarandtheShoahMemorial inParis,co-organisedinKyivaseminarentitled“HistoryofGenocidesinUkraine:Studiesof ExperienceandContemporaryChallenges”.Oneofthethemeswasadiscussiononthechallenges ofincorporatingthedifficultpastof theHolocaustinhistorytextbooksinUkraineandFrance.

157 ThereportbyJ.DietschontextbooksinUkraineiscitedbyHimka,“TheReceptionoftheHolocaustin PostcommunistUkraine,”640-641.

158 OntheweaknessesoftheUkrainiantextbooks,seeSimone,AttiloBelezza,“AnAttempttoTeachMulticulturalism:IntroducingtheHolocaustintoHistoryClassesinpost-SovietUkraine”, Snodi,no.15-16, 2017,81-101.HerafterBelezza,“AnAttempttoTeachMulticulturalism:IntroducingtheHolocaustinto HistoryClassesinpost-SovietUkraine”.

159 OnthesupportofIHRAinthecurrentRussianwarofaggressionagainstUkraine, seehttps://www.holocaustremembrance.com/news-archive/russian-antisemitism-and-war-ukraine

160 https://www.jpost.com/diaspora/antisemitism/ukraine-may-adopt-ihra-definition-of-antisemitism589046

161 http://holocaust.kiev.ua/en/home

162 https://www.tkuma.dp.ua/en/

“Duringthediscussions,thereweresharpdisputesduetodifferentattitudestowardstheinterpretationoftheeventsofWorldWarII.ButthemostimportantresultwasestablishingcooperationandopeningadialoguebetweenUkrainianandFrenchcolleagues”.163

Theteachersinterviewedforthisprojectcomefromdifferentpartsofwar-tornUkraine.Most ofthemarehighlyexperiencedteachersofHistory,Literature,GeographyandCivicEducation workingindifferenttypesofhighschoolsincludinggymnasia,comprehensivestateschoolsand technicalschools.Theyrepresentagroupofteacherswhoareprofessionallyandpersonally investedinbothlearningandteachingaboutUkrainianJewishhistoryandculturalheritage,and theHolocaust.Theyviewteachingofthesesubjectsastheircivicduty–asaresponsibilityfor educatingyoungcitizensaboutarichUkrainianJewishpastthatintheireyesconstitutesanintegral partofthecollectiveUkrainianidentityandcommonmulti-culturalheritage.Theteachersare awarethattheUkrainianMinistryofEducationrecommendsteachingaboutJewishheritageand theHolocaustinhighschools,buttheyalsorecognisethatitisuptoeachindividualeducational institutionhowandtowhatextentitimplementstherecommendation.Therefore,likemanyof theircounterpartsintheothersixcountries,theystatethat “everythingdependsonthe individualteacher’senthusiasm” (M.M.HistoryteacherfromDryzkivka,Donetskregion).

“Thankstothepersonalworkofteachersinclassroomandextracurricularactivities,students learnaboutdifferentaspectsofJewishheritagethroughouthighschool”. (L.P.Historyteacher fromDomanivka,Mykolaivregion)

P.D.,anassistantprofessoratRivneStateHumanitarianUniversitywhichspecialisesinadvanced trainingforprimaryandhighschoolteachersintheRivneregion,confirmsthatindividualhigh schoolteachersarealmostsolelyresponsiblefortheimplementationofeducationaboutJewish heritageandtheHolocaustinclass.Forexample,inmanycases,teachers,withtheapprovalof theheadteacher,areresponsibleforinitiatingschooltripstomuseumsofJewishinterest,synagoguesandJewishcemeteries.Theyarealsoresponsiblefortheacquisitionofdifferenttypesof educationalresourcesonJewishheritageandtheHolocaustsuchasdocumentaryandfeaturefilms, booksandjournalsfortheschoollibrary.Teachersarealsoresponsibleforcreatinganonlinelibrary ofresourcesincludinginteractivemaps,onlineimagesandlecturestobeusedintheclassroom.

Importantly,P.D.statesthatmostschoolsandstateuniversitiesdonotrunanyspecialeducationalprogrammesaboutJewishhistoryandJewishculturalheritage.Instead,mostofthe inspiringeducationalprogrammesareinitiatedbypublicassociationsinthenon-formaleducationsector.Inpre-servicetrainingofteachers,P.D.andhiscolleaguesuseapproachesofmultiperspectivitythatthenon-formaleducationsectorhadtaughtthemabout.Thus,itisnotonly theteachers,but“theteachersoftheteachers”whobenefitfromusinginformaleducational approachesusuallyprovidedbyforeignandlocalNGOs.Throughthis,theyacquireup-to-date informationandthelatestcutting-edgeskillsinpedagogyandmethodology.

Someteachersstressthatnotallschooladministrationsnorcolleaguessharethesame enthusiasmforlearningaboutJewishheritageandtheHolocaust.TheenthusiasticUkrainian teachers,liketheircounterpartsinthesixothercountries,seethemselvesasagentsofsocial changedeterminedtoteachaboutdemocracy,opennesstowardsothers,andaboutreligiousand culturalpluralism.TheybelievethatthesegoalsshouldbeacceptedbyeveryschoolinUkraine andsomeofthemexpressstrongcriticalopinionsonthecurrentstateofeducationingeneral:

“Firstofall,teachersandschooladministrationsshouldbeinterestedinthedevelopmentof theseissues.Inourregion(Donetsk)itwasdoneasatickboxexercisefordozensofyears. Teachers,bytheirownexample,donotshowsincereinterestbecausetheythemselvesarenot sufficientlymotivated,knowledgeable, norhavethedesiretodoit.Thisismysubjectiveopinion”.

(M.M.HistoryteacherfromDonetskregion)

163 SeethestatementabouttheseminarbytheUkrainianCenterforHolocauststudiesinKyiv, http://holocaust.kiev.ua/en/News/details/nayk_seminar_ist2022_en

StudentsusuallystartlearningaboutJewishheritagein5thgradeaspartofthesubject,“IntroductiontotheHistoryofUkraine,”but “the5thgradeschoolcurriculumdoesnotallocateaseparate lessononJewishhistory.” (S.S.HistoryteacherinPopasna,Donetskregion).But,L.G.,theHead oftheCreativeYouthAssociationinZaporizhzhia,commentedthat “ifprimaryschoolteachers aremotivatedtopreserveJewishheritage,thentheirpupilsmightlearnaboutJewishhistory, religionandculturealmostfromthe1stgrade”.However,thisviewhasnotbeenconfirmedin interviewswithotherteachers.

From5thto11thgrade–thelastgradeofhighschool,studentstypicallycanlearnvarious aspectsofJewishhistoryandculturalheritageinthesubjectsofHistory,Literature,CivicEducation,aswellasintheArtsandGeographyalbeittoalesserdegree.However,asreportedbymany teachers: “ThereareveryfewlessonsspecificallyonthehistoryandcultureoftheJews.The teacherhastheopportunityathis/herdiscretiontoaddmaterialstoaparticularlessonplanbut islimitedbytherequirementsofthecurriculum,mainlybythevolumeofeducationalmaterial thatmustbelearnt.Iftheteacherismotivated,Jewishthemescanbeintroducedthroughgroup tasksandeducationalprojects”. (S.S.HistoryteacherinPopasna,Donetskregion).

In6thgrade-11and12yearolds-thereisaseparatelessondevotedtotheAncientHistory oftheJews(theKingdomofIsraelandJudah)intheWorldHistorysubject,andstudentscanalso learnaboutthesituationoftheJewishpeopleatthebeginningoftheChristianeraindiscussion ofthetopic,“EmergenceandspreadofChristianity.”Inthe7th,8th,9thand11thgrades,there arenoseparatelessonsdevotedtothestudyofJewishhistoryandculture.However,inthe8th grade,JewishhistoryandculturecanbediscussedinlessonsinWorldHistory(forexample,the ReconquistainmedievalSpain).Inthe9thgrade,inthesubjectoftheHistoryofUkraine,students canlearnabouttheimperialRussianantisemitismthroughdiscussionoftheBeillistrial,Zionism andanti-Jewishpogroms.Inthe10thgrade,studentsareintroducedtothehistoryoftheHolocaust inthesubjectsofUkrainianHistoryandWorldHistoryintwoone-hourlessonsinbothcourses. WithrespecttothesubjectoftheHistoryofUkraineinthe10thgrade,studentscanalsolearn abouttheroleofJewishorganisationsinrevolutionarymovementsindiscussionofthetopic, “TheUkrainianNationalRevolutionof1917-1921.”

Inaddition,inthe10thgradeinthesubjectCivicEducation,studentscanlearnaboutantisemitismwhilestudyingthetopicofHumanRights,ToleranceandStereotypesinMassMedia (aboutmanipulation,fakenewsandhatespeech),thoughthecoursedoesnotdirectlyengage withtheHolocaust.Inthe11thgrade,studentscanlearnabouttheestablishmentoftheIsraeli stateinthesubjectofWorldHistory(intopicsontheMiddleEast).Withregardstothestudyof theHolocaust,S.S.(HistoryteacherinPopasna,Donetskregion)statesthathedevotesonelesson totheHolocaustduringextracurricularactivitiesfrom5thto11thgrade.

AnexpandedmodelofteachingaboutJewishhistoryandtheHolocaustthroughouthigh schoolimplementedinaMusicLyceuminLvivincludesthesetopicsintwohistorysubjectsWorldHistoryandUkrainianHistory.However,manyhighschoolsdonotfollowthisexpanded model.Moreover,thoseworkingwiththismodelviewitasnotwhollysatisfactoryintermsof teachinghoursandthecoverageofthesubjects,especiallywithregardstolearningtheHolocaust inthenationalcontext.

Anoverwhelmingmajorityoftheinterviewedteachersemphasisehugegapsinhighschool educationaboutUkrainianJewishhistoryandheritage.Theyalsopointouttheglaringlackof importantdiscussions,alongwithteachingresources,onthedifficultpastpertainingtotheways non-JewishUkrainiansrelatedtoandtreatedUkrainianJewsduringtheHolocaust.Theissueof thecompletedetachmentoftheHolocaustfromthelocalUkrainiancontextinhighschooltextbooksandotherstateissuededucationalresourceshasbeenraisedrepeatedlybyscholars and educatorsoftheHolocaustinUkraineformorethantwodecades.164 However,despitemany

164 OnthedifficultyoftheincorporationofthedifficultpastinUkrainianpublicmemoryandtextbooks,see AnnaWylegala,“Managingthedifficultpast:Ukrainiancollectivememoryandpublicdebatesonhistory,” NationalitiesPapers,vol.45,no.5,2017,785.

effortstochangethesituation,educationalmaterialsissuedbygovernmentaleducationalinstitutionsstillavoiddiscussingthispainfulthornytopic,andinsteadtendtorepeattheSoviet narrativeontheShoah.Forteacherswhohavebeenattendingtrainingcoursesonthistopic organisedbyforeignandlocalNGOsandJewishcommunityorganisations,thisomissionis intellectuallyandmorallydisturbing.

“Inmyopinion,notenoughattentionispaidtothestudyofJewishheritageandculture.Our studentsknowlittleabouttheroleofUkrainianJewsinthedevelopmentofscienceandculture. WhilechildrenmayknowabouttheHolocaust,theydonotknowenoughaboutthelifeofthe JewishcommunityinUkraineandEurope.Jewishculture,itsinfluenceonUkraineandUkrainians, thehistoryoftheinteractionbetweenthetwopeoples–theseimportanttopicsremainunknown tostudents.Also,thephenomenonofantisemitismishardly studied.Childrencondemnthe Holocaust,buttheydonotunderstanditsbackground.Andweactuallydonotaddresstherole ofUkrainiansintheanti-JewishactionsduringtheSecondWorldWar”. (S.S.Historyteacherin Popasna,Donetsk).

SometeacherswouldliketoteachJewishhistoryandheritagewithintheframeworkofthestudy ofmulti-ethnicandmulti-religiousUkraine.

OneHistoryteacherO.Z.(HistoryteacherfromCherkasy)statesthattheHolocausthasbeen studiedsuperficiallyinthecontextofboththecurrenthistorysubjects-theSecondWorldWar, andUkrainianhistory.Manyteacherswouldliketohaveanopportunitytoteachstudentsan electiveoroptionalcourseontheHolocaustthroughoutgrades10and11.L.P.(Historyteacher fromDomanivka,Mykolaivregion)hasalreadybeenteachinganelectivecourse,“Historyofthe Holocaust,”ingrades10and11foronehourperweek(35hoursperacademicyear).According to her,thankstothatelectivecourse,studentsacquiresolidknowledgeoftheHolocaustand Jewishhistoryandculture: “Ifitweren’tfortheextracurricularworkthatIconstantlydowiththe students,theywouldknowverylittleaboutJewishcultureandtheHolocaust”. (L.P.History teacherfromDomanivka,Mykolaivregion).

OtherteachersspeakofsuccessbyintegratingJewishheritageandtheHolocaustintoteaching aboutlocalhistory.Forexample,O.D.(GeographyteacherfromHusakiv,Lvivregion)createdan electivecourseonlocalJewishculturethatsheteachesover12hoursinoneacademicyear.But ideallyshewouldliketohave30hourstoteachaboutthesocialandculturalhistoryofthelocal JewishcommunitiesoftheLvivregion.In8thgrade,shedevotestwohourstothestudyofthe JewishcommunityinHusakovinanoutofclassactivitywithherstudentsinterviewinglocalnonJewishandJewishinhabitants,andcollectingfromthelatterrecipesoflocalJewishcuisine.What O.D.discoveredfromthattwo-hourlearningexperienceisthatherstudentswereenthusiastic aboutconductingthistypeofresearch.SheattributestheirenthusiasmtothefactthattheyconsiderstudyinglocalJewishhistoryaspartoftheirownhistory.Therefore,shehasintroducedtwo otherresearch-basedstudiesforherstudents,“JewswholivedinHusakiv,”and“Outstanding JewishpersonalitiesfromHusakiv.”Withregardtothesetwotopics,O.D.recognisesthatincorporatingalocalJewishcemeterycouldoffergreatpotentialforstudentstolearnaboutthestructureoftheJewishcommunityanditsindividualmembers,bothwell-knownandordinary,adults andchildren.However,atpresent,theJewishcemeteryinHusakivisinaruinousstateand requiresurgentrepairs,soitcannotbeusedasanoutdoorclassroomyet. “OurJewishcemetery needstobeputinorder.WeneedtocollectthematzevotthatarescatteredaroundHusakiv. Studentscanlearnabouteachpersonbyreadinginscriptionsandepitaphs.” (O.D.Geography teacherfromHusakiv,Lvivregion).

LikeO.D.,manyteachersfromdifferentpartsofUkrainereportthatthehighschoolstudents areinterestedinstudyinglocalJewishhistoryandheritagethroughpersonalstoriesandtoursof avarietyofformerlocal“Jewishspaces”.Throughsuchlessons,studentsnotonlyacquireknow-

ledgeofJewishhistoryandculture,butalsofeelanemotionalconnectiontothelocalJewishpastandpresent,andthusdevelopempathy.IncorporatingaJewishcemeteryintoeducatingabout localhistorycouldprovideapowerfulintellectualandempathicexperienceforthelearner.In thatprocess,studentscouldlearnaboutthepastcontributionoflocalJewstothefabricoftheir localsocieties–whotheyandtheirfamilieswere,howtheylivedetc.–aswellasabouttheprofoundruptureandvoidcausedbythemassmurderofthelocalJewishcommunityintheHolocaust: “Itwasthey(localJews)whodevelopedandcreatedits(Zaporizhzhia’s)culturalandindustrial potential.ManyJewishhomesandbusinesseshavesurviveduntiltoday,includingthebuildingof formersynagogues.Studentsshouldlearnaboutit”. (L.G.HeadoftheCreativeYouthAssociation inZaporizhzhia)

“Inthepast,wetaughtthesubject‘HistoryofOurRegion’,whereinwestudiedthecontribution oflocalJewstothesocial,culturalandeconomiclifeoftheZhytomyrregioningeneral,andour cityofKorostyshivinparticular.Lastsummer(2021),ourschool’shistoryclubranapre-school campandweorganisedanexcursiontothelocalJewishcemetery.A9th-graderconducted researchfortheYoungStudentAcademyofSciences(MalaAcademiaNaukinUkrainian)aboutthe historyofhishometowninthenineteenthcentury,andhewroteasectionabouttheimpactof JewsontheeconomicandsociallifeofKorostyshiv”. (A.S.HistoryteacherataStateHighSchool, Zytomyrregion).

ManyteachersconsidertheirstudentscreativeandcuriouslearnerswhowishtoexploreJewish historyandculturethroughexcursionstoplacesofJewishinterest.Thestudentsareeagerto participateinresearchprojectsinvolvinginterviewingHolocaustsurvivorsthatcanresultinshort documentarymoviesandtravellingexhibitions.Thelattercanbesubmittedforlocal,regional andnationalcompetitionssuchas‘LessonsofWarandtheHolocaust’.TodeepentheirknowledgeaboutJewishhistoryandtheHolocaustaswellasaboutantisemitismandthevaluesof democracyandtolerance,Ukrainianhighschoolstudentscanparticipateinyouthcampssuch asOliveTreeandtheinternationalyouthexchangeArk.

However,mostteachersremarkthattheirschoolsdonotreceivesufficientfinancialsupport toeducateaboutJewishheritagefromtheMinistryofEducationandlocalstateauthorities.Many alsoindicatethattheirschoolsdonotnecessarilysupportteachertrainingonJewishheritageand theHolocaust,thoughsomesucceedinattendingtrainingonceayearorregularlythroughouta schoolyear,includingonlinecoursesthattheypayforfromtheirownpockets.Liketheircounterpartsintheothersixcountries,individualteachersneedtobeproactiveinapplyingforteacher trainingofferedbyforeignorlocalNGOs.Mostteachersemphasisethattheyhavebenefited greatlyfromteachertrainingandavarietyofonlinecoursesandlecturesprovidedbyCentropa, JewishMuseumGaliciainKraków,thelocalNGO“NovaDoba”,theUkrainianCenterforHolocaust StudiesinKiev,theUkrainianInstitutefortheStudyoftheHolocaust“Tkuma”,andtheCenterfor theUrbanHistoryofCentralandEasternEuropeinLviv.

Despitetheongoingwar,someteachersstressthattheycontinuetoapplytheskillsand knowledgethattheyhadacquiredduringtheirteachertrainingwithforeignJewishNGOs.One teacherwroteamovingtestimonyinwhichsheexpresseshergratitudetoCentropa.Sheappreciatesnotonlythetrainingitself,butCentropa’sprofessionalismandmission,especiallythe organisation’scommitmenttodemocracy,opennessandpluralism.

“MorethantwoyearshavepassedsincemytrainingattheCentropaseminar,andIstillvery vividlyrememberthementors,thepracticalexercises,thestorieswewereintroducedto,andthe exhibitionanddocumentaryfilms.IactivelyusetheliteraturefromCentropa(evenwhenIwas evacuatedfromthewarzone,Itookitwithme).ItwaslearningfromtheHEART!!!” (M.M.Teacher fromDryzkivkaDonetskregion)

L.G.(HeadoftheAssociationofCreativeYouthinZaporizhzhia)alsopraisesthetrainingwith Centropa.Thankstoit,sheconductededucationalprojectswithstudentsfromlocalhighschools withintheframeworkofitsYouthEducationalProject.Oneofthefruitsofthatresearchisadocumentaryfilmabout“TheForgottenJewishCemeteryinVerkhniaKhortytsia,”preparedbyagroup ofstudents.L.G.airsthefilmtohighschoolstudentswhoparticipateinanothereducational youthproject,“theLessonsfromtheHolocaust”.Thisisanexcellentexampleofanindirectpeerto-peerlearningactivityonJewishcemeteriesusinganon-formaleducationalapproach.

ManyteacherspraisetheteachertrainingprovidedbytheUkrainianCenterforHolocaust StudiesandtheTkumaCenter.Teachersalsofrequentlyestablishcloseprofessionallinkswith localstatemuseums.Thankstomuseumvisits,studentsgarnerknowledgeaboutartefactsand imagesofthepre-1939JewishculturalheritageandlearnaboutlocalJewishcommunitiesand theirsynagoguesandcemeteries. “IamfromtheDonetskregion.Ialwayscommunicatewith scientificstaffofthehistoricalmuseuminKostyantynivka,Kramatorsk.Thankstotheirguidance, Ivisitedmonumentswithstudents.Thistookplacebefore24.02.2022”. (M.M.Teacherfrom Dryzkivka,Donetskregion).

Overall,likeintheothersixcountries,thetrainingofferedbythenon-formaleducationsector empowersUkrainianteachersintheformaleducationsector.Teacherstrainedbylocalandforeign NGOsshowconfidenceindesigninginnovativeextracurriculaactivitiesbothinsideandoutside theclassroom.TopreparefortripstosynagoguesandJewishcemeteries,teachersexplore withstudentsonlineresourcesprovidedbydifferentNGOs.Amongthemostmentionedarethe followingwebsites:

1 https://trans-history.centropa.org/uk/pro-proekt-trans-history/institut-centropa/

2 https://judaicacenter.kiev.ua/archive/

3 http://ukrzurnal.eu/ukr.archive.html/732/

4 https://www.holocaust.kiev.ua

However,manyteachersindicatethattheyrequiremoresystematicin-servicetrainingonJewish historyandheritage.ToconductlessonsonavarietyofpossibletopicsinthespaceofaJewish cemetery,teachersneedmoreeducationalresourcestoachievespecificlearningexperiences andoutcomes.

InUkraine,likeinMoldova,manyJewishcemeteriesweremasskillingsites,orarelocated nearmassgraveswherethe“Holocaustbybullets”tookplace,sostudentssometimeslearnabout thesiteofanatrocityinthespaceofaJewishcemetery.Schoolsalsoparticipateinannualcommemorativeeventssuchason27January,InternationalHolocaustDay,andthecommemorations oftheBabynYaratrocityinSeptember,oronaspecificMemorialDaycommemoratingthemass murderofalocalJewishcommunity.InthecityofMykolaiv,thelocalJewishcommunityinvites highschoolstudentsfromtheareato “honourthevictimsoftheHolocaustinthecity’sJewish cemetery”. (E.M.Teacher).Butthisisnotastandardeducationalpracticeconductedinallschools throughoutUkraine.

Insomecases,teacherswouldliketoutilisethelocalJewishcemeterytolearnabouthiding spacesandtherescueofJewishfugitivesduringthe Holocaust.(L.M.Teacher,Domanivka, Mykolaivregion).OnlyafewteachersexpressreservationsaboutteachingHolocausthistoryin thespaceofaJewishcemetery.

However,thekeyproblemwithutilisingJewishcemeteriesinUkraineineducationistheir physicalstate.Asreportedbymanyteachers,asignificantnumberofJewishcemeteriesarestill inastateofdisarray,soschoolscannotusethemforeducationalpurposesandcannotclean themwithoutprofessionalassistance.L.P.,ateacherfromacomprehensiveschoolinDomanivka, Mykolaiv,wouldliketoparticipatewithherstudentsinthemajorclean-upofaneglectedlocal

cemetery,butindicatesthatthecemeteryrequiresaprofessionalclean-upfirst.Oncethecemeteryistidyandsafe,shewouldliketoworkwithstudentsonmakinganindexofnamesofthose buriedinthecemeteryandcreateadatabaseofrelativesoftheburiedindividuals,interviewthem and“writethestoriesofthesefamilies.”

ManyJewishcemeteriesweremisusedandevendemolishedduringtheSovietera.V.P.,a teacherfromIvano-FrankivskwheretheSovietauthoritiesbuiltacinemaonthesiteofademolished Jewishcemetery,suggeststhatspecialcommemorativeseventsshouldtakeplaceinthatspace withtheactiveparticipationofstudents.Somecemeterieshavealsobeendamagedduringthe currentwarinUkraine,sonoeducationalprojectscouldtakeplace. “Unfortunately,todaythe localcemeteryisabandonedandneedsprotectionandcleaning”. (A.S.TeacherfromKorostyshiv, Zytomirregion).

Intownsandvillageswithwellpreservedpre-warJewishcemeteries,moreeducationalactivitiesshouldbeconductedbecause,assometeachersnote,cemeteriesarenotbeingusedenough ineducationtolearnabouttherichpolitical,culturalandsocialJewishhistoryandJewish/nonJewishrelations.Manyteachersregardthe2020ESJFJewishcemeteryclassroomguideasthe bestavailableeducationalresourcetolearnaboutJewishtombornamentsandtheirmeanings. FromfieldworkwithstudentsusingtheESJFGuide,teacherslearnthatstudentsfinditmeaningful beingengagedinreadingtheancientHebrewinscriptionsandthustouchthehistoryofaperson’s lifewhohadlivednearbyalongtimeago.

Oneteacherpowerfullysummarisestheneedforfurtherexplorationoftheincorporationof cemeteriesinhighschooleducation:

“JewishcemeteriesareevidenceoftheJewishpresence.Theyremainanimportantpartofthe culturalspaceandarewitnessesofthecommonUkrainian-Jewishhistory.Attentiontothemas aneducationalresourceiscurrentlynotattheproperlevel.Behindeverystoneliesastorythat needstoberevealedandhighlighted…..WiththehelpofaJewishcemetery,itispossibletocollect, writeandpublishlocalJewishandUkrainianstories,includingwartestimonies,aswellasprovide ahistoricalchronologyofthelocalJewishcommunity,includingcurrentdescendantslivingaround theworld.ItisalsopossibletocreateanexhibitionontheJewishcommunityincooperationwith amuseumoflocalhistory.” (M.M.teacherfromDryzkivka,Donetskregion).

Overall,forthefutureofeducationonJewishheritageandtheHolocaustinUkraine,itisimportant thattheforeignNGOssupportlocalNGOsinthedevelopmentofpre-andin-serviceteacher training,andtheproductionofavarietyofeducationalresources.Suchresourcesshouldengage withUkraine’sdifficultpast pertainingtothemassmurderofUkrainianJewsbynon-Jewish Ukrainiancitizens.EducationonthedifficultpastaswellasotheraspectsofJewish-Ukrainian heritageshouldbetaughtaspartofawiderprogrammeofeducationondemocracyandpluralism–valuesthatpost-communistUkrainehasbeenstrivingforandthataresocentraltoitssurvival inthecurrentwarwithRussia.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Iwouldliketoheartilythankthefollowingscholars,practitionersandeducatorsfortheir enthusiasmandvaluablereflectionsandadviceinshapingthisreport:Prof.EliyanaAdler, Prof.JolantaAmbrosewicz-Jacobs,DrAnaBărbulescu,DrPaulDarby,DrMartaDuch-Dyngosz, Prof.EdytaGawron,DrSimonGeissbühler,Prof.PaulHanebrink,Prof.SamuelKassow, Prof.StevenKatz,Prof.BarbaraKirshenblatt-Gimblett,DrBorbálaKlacsmann,AdamMusiał, Prof.NinaPaulovicova,Prof.AndreaPetö,Prof.AntonyPolonsky,DrWilliamRoberts,DrPaula Sawicka,DrKatarzynaSuszkiewicz,Prof.PiotrTrojański,DrMonikaVrzgulová,andanonymous informaleducatorsfromHungary,PolandandSlovakia.Iwouldliketoexpressmydeepest thankstohighschoolteachersandeducatorsfromGeorgia,Hungary,Lithuania,Polandand SlovakiawhotooktimetoanswermyQuestionnaire.Iamimmenselygratefultoacohortof Ukrainianteacherswho,despitefacingtheRussianWarofAggressionintheircountry,have providedmewithdetailedresponses.Finally,IwouldliketothankMichaelMail,ChiefExecutive oftheFoundationforJewishHeritage,forhisenergyandsteadysupportinshapingthereport, aswellasFabianRühleandhiscolleaguesfromCentropa,andtheteamatESJF,fortheir assistance,timeanddedication.

NOTEABOUTTHEAUTHOR

JoannaBeataMichlic isasocialandculturalhistorianspecialisinginthehistoryoftheHolocaust anditsmemoryinEurope,EastEuropeanJewishchildhood,rescueofJewsandantisemitism andnationalisminEurope.Sheisalsopassionateaboutpublichistory,Holocausteducationand Jewishheritage,andhasbeenworkingondevelopinginnovativeeducationalmethodstoteach abouttheHolocaustandantisemitism.Currently,sheisaVisitingHeddaAnderssonProfessor ofContemporaryHistoryandtheHolocaustinLundUniversity,Sweden.SheisalsoanHonorary SeniorResearchAssociateattheUCLCentrefortheStudyofCollectiveViolence,theHolocaustandGenocide,UCLInstituteforAdvancesStudies,andResearchFellowatWeiss-Livnat InternationalCentreforHolocaustResearchandEducation,UniversityofHaifa.Sheservesas oneofthreeCo-Editors-inChiefofGenealogyJournal.Sheisarecipientofmanyprestigious academicawardsandfellowships,mostrecentlyaGerdaHenkelFellowship,2017-2021.

Hermajorpublicationsinclude NeighborsRespond:TheControversyaboutJedwabne (2004; co-editedwithAntonyPolonsky), Poland’sThreateningOther:TheImageoftheJewfrom1880to thePresent,(translatedintoPolishin2015andnominatedfortheBestHistoryBookofKazimierz MoczarskiAward2016inPoland;Hebrewtranslation,withnewepilogue,publishedbyYad VashemStudies,2021), BringingtheDarkPasttoLight:TheReceptionoftheHolocaustinPostcommunistEurope,co-editedwithJohn-PaulHimka(Lincoln,NUP,2012),and JewishFamily 1939–Present:History,Representation,andMemory,BrandeisUniversityPress/NEUP, January2017)thatmadeittotheEthicalInquirylistofthebestbookspublishedin2017at BrandeisUniversity:http://www.brandeis.edu/ethics/ethicalinquiry/2017/December.html HerlatestbookisacollectionofessaysaboutchildHolocaustsurvivors, PiętnoZagłady,(Warsaw, ZIH,December2020).

QUESTIONNAIRE

HighschooleducationaboutJewishheritagewithaparticularemphasisonusing thespaceofaJewishcemetery–aJewishsacredsite–asaneducationalresource.

Pleaseanswerallthequestionsandprovidedetailedandconcreteanswers.

1

AtwhatagedostudentsathighschoolstartlearningaboutJewishheritage–Jewishhistory,religionandculture,includingmaterialculture?

2 DostudentslearnaboutthedifferentaspectsofJewishheritagethroughouthighschool?

3

HowmanyhoursoftheschoolcurriculumperyeararedevotedtoteachingaboutJudaism, andJewishsocialandculturalhistory?

4 Howmanyhoursoftheschoolcurriculumperyeararedevotedtoteachingabout theHolocaust?

5 Inyouropinionistheallocationofhourssufficienttoeducateaboutdifferentaspects ofJewishheritageandtheHolocaust?

6 IsJewishheritagepartofteaching?

a.History

b.Literature

c.Philosophy

d.Geography

e.Sociology

f.Arts

g.Alltheabove

h.None

7 HowistheteachingofJewishheritageconducted?

a.Intheclassroomonly

b.OutsideoftheclassroominaJewishsite,forexample,Jewishcemeteryorsynagogue

c.Bothinandoutsidetheclassroom(a&b)

d.Organisedvisitstolocal,regionalandnationalmuseums

8 WhatteachingmethodsareusedintheclassroomtoteachaboutJewishheritage?

a.Traditionallecture/talkbytheteacherwithuseofpublishedmaterialassigned inthecurriculum

b.Innovativemethodsincludingonlineseminars,lectures,interviews,images, andinteractivemaps

c.Bothmethods

9 WhatresourcesdoestheschoolhavetoteachaboutJewishheritageintheclassroom? Chooseallrelevantoptionsandprovideconcreteexamples.

a.Financialresourcestoinvitelocalhistoriansandotherguestsfromlocaluniversities andmuseums

b.Accesstorelevantwebsites,onlineresourcesofimagesandinteractivemaps, onlinelectures,workshops,interviews,andseminars

c.Libraryofdocumentaryandfeaturefilms,books,andotherpublishedmaterial

d.Accesstospecialeducationalresources,bothpublishedandonline,aboutJewish heritagepreparedbynon-governmentalorganisations(NGOs)

e.Accesstospecialeducationalresources,bothpublishedandonline,aboutJewish heritagepreparedbyMinistryofEducation/governmentalinstitutions

10

WhomakesthedecisiononimplementationofeducationaboutJewishheritage inyourschools?

Choosealltherelevantoptionsandprovidedetails.

a.MinistryofEducation

b.Localstateauthorities

c.Individualheadteacher

d.Individualteacher

e.LocalNGOs

f.Other

11

12

13

Inyourview,doyourschoolsreceivesufficientfinancialsupporttoeducateabout JewishheritagefromtheMinistryofEducation?

Inyourview,doyourschoolsreceivesufficientfinancialsupporttoeducateabout Jewishheritagefromlocalstateauthorities?

Whatarethekeyinstitutionsthatprovideteachertrainingforeducationabout JewishheritageandtheHolocaust?

a.MinistryofEducation

b.OthergovernmentalInstitutions

c.NGOssuchasMuseumsandInstitutesofJewishHistoryandCulture

d.Specialeducationaltrainingatlocaluniversities

14

DoyourschoolssupportteachertrainingonJewishheritageandtheHolocaust atuniversities,institutionsofhighereducationandmuseumsabroad? Pleaseprovideconcreteexamplesofsuchsupport.

a.Regularlyonceayear

b.Occasionally,dependingonavailablefunding

c.Rarely

d.Never

15 Howoftencanteachersapplyforfundingforspecificteachertraining/attendteacher trainingforeducationaboutJewishheritage?

a.Onceayear

b.Regularlythroughoutaschoolyear

c.Oncein2-5years

d.Rarely

e.Never

16 Whichteachertraininginstitutionsareviewedtobeofthegreatestbenefittoteachers toeducateaboutJewishheritage?

a.MinistryofEducation

b.OthergovernmentalInstitutions

c.NGOssuchasMuseumsandInstitutesofJewishHistoryandCulture

d.Specialeducationaltrainingatlocaluniversities

e.Specialeducationaltrainingabroad

17

Inyourview,thebestteachertrainingaboutJewishpastandpresent,promotingempathy, toleranceandrespectandcombatingantisemitism,prejudiceandracism,areorganisedby: (providedetailedanswerandexplainwhy)

a.MinistryofEducation

b.OtherGovernmentalInstitutions

c.NGOssuchasMuseumsandInstitutesofJewishHistoryandCulture

d.Specialeducationaltrainingatlocaluniversities

e.Specialeducationaltrainingabroad

18

DoyourschoolsusethespaceofalocalJewishcemeteryasaneducationalresource forteachingaboutJewishhistory,Jewishsociety,Jewishculture,andJudaism?

Chooseallrelevantoptionsandprovideconcreteexamples.

a.AbouttheconnectionsbetweenJewishreligiousandsociallife

b.AbouttheconnectionsbetweenJewishreligiousandculturallife

c.AboutthefunctionalandspiritualsignificanceoftheJewishcemetery asasacredJewishspace

d.AboutindividualmembersoftheJewishcommunitywhowereburiedinthecemetery, localJewishhistory,andconnectionswithnon-Jewishmembersofthelocalcommunity

e.None

19

DoyourschoolsusetheJewishcemeteryasaneducationalresourceforteaching abouttheHolocaust?

Chooseallrelevantoptionsandprovideconcreteexamples.

a.AbouttheJewishcemeteryasasiteofescape

b.AbouttheJewishcemeteryasaplaceofsmugglinggoods

c.AbouttheJewishcemeteryasaplaceofconcealment/shortandlong-term hidingofJewishfugitives

d.AbouttheJewishcemeteryasasiteoftheperpetrationofgenocide

e.Alltheabove.

f.None

20

DoyourschoolsparticipateincommemorativeeventsheldinalocalJewishcemeteryasa partofeducationaimedatpromotingempathy,tolerance,andrespectforJewishcommunitiespastandpresent?

Pleaseprovideconcreteexamples.

21

Doyourschoolscooperatewithoutsidepartners/differentstakeholdersinpromoting knowledgeaboutJewishheritageandEurope’smulti-culturalandmulti-religiouspast? Provideconcreteexamples.

a.LocalNGOs,suchasMuseumsofJewishHistoryandCulture, MuseumsoftheHolocaust

b.LocalJewishsurvivors

c.Jewishvisitorsfromabroad,IsraelandDiaspora

d.IsraelEmbassy

e.Otherforeignembassies

f.MinistryofEducation

22

23

24

Inyouropinion,howcouldyourschoolsimproveeducationaboutJewishheritage byutilisingthelocalJewishcemeteryasaneducationalresource?

Inyouropinion,howcouldyourschoolsimproveeducationabouttheHolocaust byutilisingthelocalJewishcemeteryasaneducationalresource?

Whatrecommendationwouldyou/yourschoolssuggestforstrengtheningeducation aboutJewishheritage?

a.Morefunding

b.Morehoursinthecurriculum

c.Moreeducationalresources,bothpublishedandonline

d.Betteraccesstoteachertraining

e.Alloftheabove

f.Other,pleaseexplain

25

Inyouropinion,whatwouldbetheoptimalnumberofhoursinthehighschoolcurriculum peryeartoteachaboutJewishheritage?

IMAGECREDITS

Imagesarereproducedbycourtesyofthefollowingpeopleandorganisations:

AntySchematyFoundation:frontcover(RygliceWorkshop);p.17(topandbottom);

Centropa

RobertBacsi:p.6;pp.20-21;p.44-45;pp.48-49

InnaGordeeva:p.25(bottom)

BekaKharebava:pp.42-43

GabrielKhiterer:pp.22-23;pp.54-55;pp.60-61

TarasKovalchuk:pp.98-99;pp.102-103

ZuzanaMartinková:pp.88-89;pp.92-93

OurielMorgensztern:backcover

OlgaTernavskaia:p.10(top);p.19(top);pp.64-64;pp.70-71

WojciechWojtkielewicz:frontcoverflap;p.2;p.10(bottom);p.19(bottom);p.25(top); p.26;pp.74-75;pp.80-81

ESJF:p.36-37

iStock(bodo23):backcoverflap

CONTACTINFORMATION

PreservingJewishCemeteries

projectwebsite:www.jewishcemeteries.eu

FoundationforJewishHeritage

e:info@foundationforjewishheritage.com

www.foundationforjewishheritage.com

UKCharityRegistrationNumber1162111

ISBN978–3–00–075354–1

March2023

PRESERVINGJEWISHCEMETERIESisanEU-fundedpilotprojectsetupwiththe aimofpreservingJewishcemeteriesinCentralandEasternEurope.

ItisajointeffortbythreeleadingJewishheritageNGOs(FoundationforJewishHeritage, ESJFEuropeanJewishCemeteriesInitiative,andCentropa),takingplaceacrossseven Europeancountries:Georgia,Hungary,Lithuania,Moldova,Poland,Slovakia,andUkraine.

Buildingonthesuccessofworkcarriedoutduringtwoprevi ousEUpilotprojects,the consortiumaimstoraiseawarenessofJewishcemeteriesinlocalcommunities;spearheadeducationalprojectswiththegoalofincorporatingJewishcemeteriesintoschool curricula;andhelpempowerlocalactorstopreservetheirJewishcemeteries.

BasedonintensiveresearchandteachinginthesesevenEuropeancountries,weaimto createthebroadestpossibleeducationalworkonJewishcemeteriesinEurope.Theproject consistsofaser iesofactivitiessuchasseminars,webinars,youthandartuniversity competitions,andvariousformsofengagementwithlocalinstitutions&NGOs.

ISBN978–3–00–075354–1