Spring 2023

FIELDNOTES

Spring 2023

letter from the editors

It’s been a year since our last issue, and we are excited to be back again sharing research from across the College of the Environment and highlighting community stories. From brainstorming sessions to answering icebreaker questions to grabbing a coffee after meetings, our team of editors has thoroughly enjoyed creating this issue of FieldNotes.

Our feature article highlights undergraduate research on kelp growth in a warming ocean. Additional research article topics range from exploring the symbiotic relationship between parasitic crustaceans and ghost shrimp to studying phenological differences between hatchery and wild-spawned salmon. Student researchers also dive into how the removal of a dam impacted stream health and steps to improving food security in Seattle. Lastly, a photo essay takes us on a visual journey aboard the R/V Rachel Carson, showcasing research cruises conducted by the Washington Ocean Acidifcation Center.

Within the community, we take a closer look at individuals making a difference in the environmental sphere through podcasting and UW Registered Student Organizations. Our authors also explore the rise of regenerative agriculture, the trials of captive animal release and the devastating outcomes of chemical spills in Ohio.

This journal would not be possible without the continued support and generosity of the College of the Environment for which we are most grateful. In addition, we thank Rachel Fricke and Julian Olden for their guidance, leadership, wisdom and unwavering enthusiasm this quarter. Lastly, we are happy to share our new logo below designed by Ling Tsiang!

Best,

The FieldNotes Editorial Board

meet the team

AUTUMN VANDEHEY EDITOR-IN-CHIEF

LAUREN GREENLEAF EDITOR

GRACIA ANDERSON EDITOR

LING TSIANG EDITOR

REESE BROWERS EDITOR

KYLIE BAKER EDITOR

LAUREN GRADY EDITOR

RACHEL FRICKE GRADUATE ADVISOR

JULIAN OLDEN FACULTY ADVISOR

feature article

THE IMPACTS OF TEMPERATURE AND SALINITY ON GROWTH RATES OF BROWN ALGAE SPECIES

ERIKA PIROZOK, MARINE BIOLOGY ‘23

research communications

AIDING THE BANDAID: SOLUTIONS FOR IMPROVING FOOD CHARITY

HANNAH WHOBREY, ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES ‘23 AND FOOD SYSTEMS, NUTRITION, AND HEALTH ‘23

ARE THE COSTS TOO DAM HIGH?: ASSESSING BOEING CREEK STREAM HEALTH POST-HIDDEN LAKE

DAM REMOVAL

JESSIE COX, ESRM: WILDLIFE CONSERVATION ‘23

THE PARASITIC ISOPOD L. CORNUTA AND ITS COPEPOD ROOMMATES WHEN INHABITING GHOST SHRIMP HOSTS

GRACE DAVIS, MARINE BIOLOGY ‘23

EARLY FISH GETS THE WORM: ANALYZING DISCREPANCIES IN SPAWNING TIMING BETWEEN HATCHERY AND WILD CHUM SALMON

MATT DOLLINGER, ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES AND POLITICAL SCIENCE ‘23

SOUND SCIENCE: THE LANDSCAPE OF MARINE FIELD RESEARCH IN THE PUGET SOUND

LEILANI COMBS, MARINE BIOLOGY ‘23

community features

“IT’S NOT ABOUT REACHING MILLIONS”: A DIVE INTO ENVIRONMENTAL PODCASTS

AUTUMN VANDEHEY, ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCES ‘23

CHEMICAL CATASTROPHE: A LOOK AT THE RECENT DEVASTATING CHEMICAL SPILLS IN EAST PALESTINE, OHIO

LING TSIANG, ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCES ‘23

REGENERATIVE RANCHING: FOSTERING A RECIPROCAL RELATIONSHIP WITH NATURE

KYLIE BAKER, ESRM ‘23 & LAUREN GREENLEAF, EEC BIOLOGY ‘23

CREATING A SUSTAINABLE CAMPUS: UW RSOs AS CHANGEMAKERS

GRACIA ANDERSON, ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES ‘24

TOKITAE: A CASE STUDY IN THE CHALLENGES OF CAPTIVE ANIMAL RELEASE

REESE BROWERS, ESRM ‘26 AND LAUREN GRADY, MARINE BIOLOGY ‘25

PHOTO JACQUIE STARK

The impacts of temperature and salinity on growth rates of brown algae species

BY ERIKA PIROZOK, MARINE BIOLOGY

ABSTRACT

Understanding how various types of kelp are responding to climate change is important for the management of kelp farming and ensuring its contributions to carbon sequestration. This study tested how increased temperature and decreased salinity affect bull kelp (Nereocystis luetkeana) and ribbon kelp (Alaria marginata) growth using a short-term experiment. Growth was measured using the wet weight of kelp before and after treatment as well as an estimate of kelp length and width. A stress test was also conducted to assess the functionality of photosystem II (the frst protein complex of oxygenic photosynthesis). The survivability of N. leutkeana was 0% for both heat and heat and salinity treatments, whereas A. marginata survived in both treatments. Heat treatments produced signifcant differences in wet weight. Stress test results were signifcantly different between the control and heat trials, with bull kelp reporting a zero Rv/rm (variable fuorescence/maximum fuorescence) after 48 hours. These results suggest that both species of kelp demonstrate greater resistance to changes in salinity than heat, but the combination of both stressors had a strong negative effect on bull kelp survivability and led to a signifcant decrease in ribbon kelp’s ability to perform photosynthesis. Our fndings imply that continued heat waves associated with climate change may reduce kelp farming capabilities, especially for bull kelp. Furthermore, heat waves will also limit kelp’s ability to sequester carbon – an important process for mitigating climate change.

INTRODUCTION

Kelp forests are highly benefcial to both global and local ecosystems. They provide habitat and food for a variety of animal species including fsh, mammals and seabirds (Christie et al. 2009, Norderhaug et al. 2005). Kelp forests also contribute to carbon cycling and sequestration, serving as an extensive carbon sink. This role may be additionally valuable because kelp absorb excess nutrients and can limit eutrophication and reduce acidifcation, thus

benefting water quality for aquaculture production (Young et al. 2022). Kelp forests receive less public attention than other ecosystems such as rainforests or coral reefs (Krumhansl et al. 2016). Kelp are under threat from anthropogenic climate change and associated increases in ambient water temperature (Karl and Trenberth 2003). We can see this impact locally in Washington state because kelp in the Salish Sea, such as bull kelp (Nereocystis luetkeana) and ribbon kelp (Alaria marginata), have started to disappear

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Kelp absorb excess nutrients and can limit eutrophication and reduce acidifcation, thus benefting water quality for aquaculture production.

‘23

Research also conducted by Josie McKillop, Emma Smith, and Madison Weise

at a rapid rate (Hollarsmith et al. 2022). There is more kelp loss in areas with increased human disturbance, like shallow coastal areas.

Additionally, bull kelp and ribbon kelp both have temperature constraints for growth and survival. Studies show the optimum seawater thermal range for Salish kelp species is approximately 14.5–16°C, but climate change has pushed peak summer temperatures to 20°C in recent years (Berry et al 2021). Little research has been conducted on the effects of temperature spikes on bull and ribbon kelp in the Salish Sea, but results from different species of southern bull kelp in New Zealand show that Durvillaea poha and Durvillaea willana are susceptible to increased water temperatures of up to 23°C (Thomsen et al. 2019).

Decreased salinity can also negatively impact kelp forests. Kelp thrive at a salinity of 35 PSU (practical salinity unit), and hyposaline conditions can cause cell lysis – or membrane breakdown – thus killing the kelp. Decreased salinity has reduced the abundance of kelp in the Arctic Ocean, where fooding from glacial and sea ice melt has created hyposaline conditions (Diehl 2020). In other areas, freshwater infux to the ocean can similarly create less than optimum conditions for kelp forests. For example, freshwater input to the Salish Sea from the Fraser River increases in the summer and decreases

the salinity of seawater in the region (Khangaonkar et al. 2018). Increasing volumes of freshwater input from climate change related fooding could adversely affect local kelp populations. Seeking to understand how climate change may impact local species of bull kelp and ribbon kelp, our study asked how increases in Salish Sea water temperatures and decreased salinity affect the growth rates and survivability of N. luetkeana and A. marginata

METHODS

Three of the four most common kelp species for commercial use grow naturally at Friday Harbor Labs on San Juan Island, WA. In September 2022 we collected 20 blades of ribbon kelp and bull kelp. In the laboratory, we built four water tanks to mimic different temperature and salinity scenarios. The control tank mimicked the natural environment with respect to water temperature and salinity (12 °C and 30 PSU). Temperature was increased to 19 °C in treatment tanks to represent the highest temperatures of recent heat waves.

Additionally, salinity was decreased to 26 PSU to refect salinity levels when large volumes of freshwater runoff fow into the ocean. The three experimental groups were increased temperature/normal salinity (19 °C and 30 PSU), normal temperature/decreased salinity (12 °C and 26 PSU), and increased temperature/ decreased salinity (19 °C and 26 PSU). Each of these scenarios aligns with predicted temperature and salinity values for the Salish Sea. We placed a submersible water fow pump in each tank to create water fow over the blades of kelp. Lastly, sun lamps turned on for 12

PHOTO Collection location of Nereocystis luetkeana. East of Turn Island State Park on San Juan Island, Washington at station FI G 5M “3”.

PHOTO Experimental setup. Tanks are different treatments of high heat, low salinity, high heat and low salinity, and control conditions.

hours each day were placed over all of the tanks to mimic daily light cycles.

Five blades of each kelp species were placed in each tank. Each blade was hole punched twice 3 cm apart for width and length to measure vertical and horizontal growth. At 24, 48, and 72 hours we measured the distance between hole punches and recorded the wet weight of each blade. This allowed us to normalize the growth rate of each species. Furthermore, we conducted a stress test every 24 hours using PAM Fluorometry to assess the functionality of photosystem II during photosynthesis. PAM Fluorometry is measured in Fv/Fm which is the ratio of variable fuorescence to maximum fuorescence.

RESULTS

At the conclusion of the experiment, all but two groups of kelp were alive. All treatments of the ribbon kelp survived, but only half of the bull kelp survived. Neither the combination treatment of low salinity and high temperature nor the high temperature treatment of bull kelp survived past 24 hours. Results from PAM fuorometry showed that within 24 hours of the high temperature treatment, as well as the combination treatment of high temperature and low

salinity, bull kelp was measuring at 0 Fv/Fm (Figure 1). No signifcant change was observed between 24 and 48 hours in the control and low salinity treatments.

None of the ribbon kelp reached 0 Fv/Fm, but the combination treatment averaged 0.6 Fv/Fm at 24 hours and decreased to 0.2 Fv/Fm at 48 hours. The high temperature treatment of ribbon kelp averaged 1.5 Fv/ Fm at 24 hours and increased to 2.0 Fv/ Fm at 48 hours with signifcant variance among blades.

Control treatments remained consistent, measuring 6.9 Fv/ Fm at 24 hours and 7.0 Fv/Fm at 48. The low salinity treatment measured 6.1 Fv/Fm at 24 hours and 7.2 Fv/Fm at 48 hours.

Results from the wet weight measurements also showed that the heating and combination treatments had adverse effects on both ribbon and bull kelp (Figure 2). Bull kelp blades in the temperature and combination treatments did not survive past 24 hours, so their weights were not recorded beyond that time point. However, blades in the control and salinity treatments grew with a 21% and 23% increase in wet weight at 48 and 72 hours, respectively. Ribbon kelp blades survived all treatments but decreased in wet weight in both the temperature and combination treatments by -7%. Similar to bull kelp, the wet weight of ribbon kelp blades in the control and salinity treatments increased, with a percent change of 11% and 15% respectively.

PHOTO PAM Fluorometry testing on a blade of kelp that has also been hole punched to measure vertical and horizonal growth.

FIGURE 1 (A) Bull kelp PAM Fluorometry test on treatments that survived after 24 and 48 hours. The combined heat and salinity treatment did not survive 48 hours and was not measured. Each bar represents the variable fuorescence/maximum fuorescence ratio, which measures the maximum potential quantum effciency of Photosystem II. Error bars are standard error. (B) Ribbon kelp PAM Fluorometry test on all treatments for both 24 and 48 hours.

Average percent change in wet weight for all four treatments of ribbon kelp. Signifcant difference found comparing the four treatments using a Kruskal Wallis rank sum test. Post Hoc Dunn’s test found signifcant differences between combined treatment with control and salinity treatments.

DISCUSSION

Climate change has been affecting the world’s oceans for some time now, causing numerous cascading effects over recent years. Factors such as increasing ice and snowmelt, marine heatwaves and ocean acidifcation have been at the forefront of the challenges we are facing in the ocean today. Kelp distribution is heavily reliant on water temperatures (van den Hoek 1982, Breeman 1988, Simonson et al. 2015), and if ocean warming continues and the global sea surface temperature surpasses an increase of 1.5 °C kelp forests will be at high risk for distribution loss (Bindoff et al. 2019). Our results found that kelp growth and fuorometry rates decrease with the coupling of increased temperatures and decreases in salinity. In addition to direct effects on kelp growth and survival, increases

in temperature and decreases in salinity concentrations can also indirectly affect the marine ecosystem. For example, if kelp populations decline this could impact the habitat and food availability of marine organisms that rely on kelp, which will have cascading effects throughout the food web.

During the study, some unforeseen logistical challenges occurred which prompted adjustments to our experimental setup. We added an aquarium heater to adjust the water temperature, but the units we used had a narrow range of temperature settings and the high-temperature value in our experimental setup was the lowest temperature setting available on the water heaters. This made managing the temperature of the tanks diffcult, and eventually led to an overheating event that killed many of our bull kelp samples. Fortunately, this event

allowed us to compare the resilience of these species and demonstrated that ribbon kelp are more tolerant to spikes in temperature.

Our fndings suggest ribbon kelp are better adapted to survive in an environment that is both warmer and less saline than bull kelp. Future studies could assess the resilience of other Pacifc Northwest kelp species, or experimentally test kelp species’ capacity to recover in preferred water temperatures after being exposed to a short-term heating event. This work will inform future kelp farming practices to ensure that farming has a place in our warming oceans. The long-term integrity of Salish Sea kelp forests is crucial to provide habitat for fsh species, maintain job security and mitigate climate change locally through carbon sequestration and ocean acidifcation reduction.

CONCLUSION

Kelp forests hold great ecological and economic value globally and throughout the Pacifc Northwest. We found evidence that when bull kelp and ribbon kelp are placed in an environment with increased water temperature and decreased salinity, the kelp’s ability to grow and survive is greatly or even fatally diminished. Conversely, in a lower salinity environment the kelp’s growth and survival increased. Overall, increased temperature and decreased salinity can negatively impact the intertidal ecosystem where ribbon and bull kelp reside. It is important to understand how these environmental factors can affect the kelp species of the Pacifc Northwest to inform effective management and conservation plans and ensure these species will survive and thrive in the future.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to thank Robin Fales, Sasha Seroy, and José Guzmán for their assistance and guidance throughout the process of this project. We would also like to thank Friday Harbor Labs for providing lab space and facilities.

FIGURE 2 (A) Average percent change for the remaining two treatments of bull kelp. Error bars are standard error. The treatments for both combined treatment(20°/30°C, 25 PSU) and temperature increase (20°/30°C) resulted in no repetitions surviving. The remaining results were not signifcant according to the Kruskal Wallis rank sum test. (B)

PHOTO DYLAN LOCKHARD

Aiding the Bandaid

Solutions for improving food charity

By Hannah Whobrey

Environmental Studies and Food Systems, Nutrition, and Health ‘23

At least 1 in 10 Americans experience food insecurity, yet the U.S. has not moved past bandaids to this issue. Food insecurity refers to a state where a person “lacks regular access to enough safe and nutritious food for normal growth and development and an active and healthy life” (FAO 2022). Food insecurity deeply impacts health and quality of life and is disproportionately concentrated among oppressed communities (DuPuis et al. 2011; Morales 2022; Ramírez 2015). In 2021, as many as 1 in 3 Washington state households experienced food insecurity (Otten et al. 2021).

Food assistance programs, which distribute food to populations experiencing limited food access, are an example of a “bandaid” response to food insecurity. American programs are mostly private and operate in a decentralized network (Lohnes 2020). This creates limitations and ineffciencies in addressing food access in food insecure populations. Charity-based programs may be inaccessible and perpetuate indignities, and their food can be insuffcient, inappropriate, nutritionally inadequate and in unstable supply (Berg et al. 2022; Booth et al. 2018). These faws stem from programs lacking power or resources to address systemic causes of food insecurity (such as extreme poverty), which require a national, policy-based response (Berg et al. 2022). Small service level changes are quicker and more practical (Lohnes 2020). Directly improving the support provided by these programs to reduce inequities is critical (Benson et al. 2018).

To achieve this, I identifed four best practices for programs based on research conducted in Summer 2022. I administered a series of qualitative, semi-structured interviews with staff at Seattle-based food assistance programs (n=10) and an anonymous online survey (n=68) in collaboration with my research partner Ozi Goldstein.

Eliminate Barriers

Food assistance programs must be accessible to a maximum number of people with as few barriers as possible. Barriers include service hours, entrance requirements, overly invasive data collection and language. One interviewee explained that “asking for birth certifcates or social security numbers” to obtain identifcation “impl[ies] proof of citizenship in order to ask for food,” meaning that “immigrant communities were opting out, not wanting to leave

behind any record…that they felt could be used against them.”

Interview participants frequently recommended Seattle Community Fridges, a mutual aid program that stocks and maintains a network of outdoor fridges across 8 neighborhoods (Figure 1) (“Locations” 2022). These fridges are open at all times, removing the barrier of limited service hours. Although 24/7 service is a lofty goal for staffed food assistance programs, service hours that extend outside of typical work hours and weekend service are feasible options.

Programs should ensure a broad selection of languages are spoken by staff and volunteers. An interview participant highlighted that “for a long time, what contributed to our power dynamics was not having many volunteers or even people on staff who are native language speakers.” By increasing language support, “for the frst time, we were able to hear more about people’s needs that weren’t being met” and “get information about what kind of food items … would help families be able to meet traditions. People felt cared for and responded to.”

FIGURE 1 Interview participants emphasized that food assistance programs must be as accessible as possible. Community-led efforts like this network of fridges, open 24-hours, are a Seattle example of no-barrier food assistance. Photo by Hannah Whobrey.

Community-First Service Programs should center their communities, ideally through community-led programming and/or operating decisions, so food insecure populations are better able to secure the specifc aid desired. For example, program guests can infuence service through open, accessible feedback routes. Many organizations shared that they currently use listening sessions (such as hosting an open forum where community members can share feedback) to collect input.

Most food banks interviewed operated with a grocery store model and/or food choice model. In a grocery store model, visiting a food bank mirrors shopping at a grocery store, except no payment is needed. In a food choice model, people choose what they want, instead of picking up a standardized box. These models have higher rates of guest satisfaction (Booth et al. 2018). The grocery store model moves away from paternalistic charity systems by returning power to guests. Furthermore, interview participants emphasized using an “abundance” framing instead of traditional “scarcity” mindsets (Figure 3). As one participant explained, there is more than enough food for everyone in the United States. Programs should empower communities to access this food, not encourage scarcity myths.

Current success metrics (e.g. pounds of food) often leave out measures like guest satisfaction or food quality, minimizing the importance of connecting communities with good, enjoyable food (Martin 2021). Community-based metrics could draw from community evaluations and surveys (Martin 2021).

Actively Work to Counter Stigma

Stigma around accessing food assistance resources is a signifcant barrier within eligible populations (Booth et al. 2018). Almost all participants felt that their program could, and should, reach more people. Improvements in program communication beneft both food insecure populations and the general public by increasing mainstream knowledge of equity issues and access to helpful resources.

Stigma can be further reduced by encouraging all community members to access the program or resource, regardless of need. Re-imagining a program site as a community hub, not just a food distribution center, can increase program reach and uplift guest morale by providing a positive experience via art, music and events. For example, the Kindness Cafe hosted by Ballard Food Bank is a free cafe open to the entire community (Figure 2). By removing the stigma associated with the resource only being for “the needy,” guests do not feel singled out for accessing the space.

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By increasing language support, ‘for the frst time, we were able to hear more about people’s needs that weren’t being met’ and ‘get information about what kind of food items … would help families be able to meet traditions.

People felt cared for and responded to.’

FIGURE 2 Stigma can be reduced by encouraging all community members to access food assistance resources, regardless of need. Ballard Food Bank’s Kindness Cafe counters stigma by serving free meals to any and all customers, creating a community hub that is not only for “the needy.” Photo by Hannah Whobrey.

Finally, programs can unintentionally perpetuate stigmas through guest interactions with well-meaning but undertrained volunteers (Booth et al. 2018). Structured, intensive training for all program personnel, even the most low-ranking roles, creates a safer space for community members accessing these resources.

Inter-Organizational Collaboration

Food assistance programs are their own greatest resource. Interview participants frequently reported that Seattle’s programs are well-connected and enthusiastic about supporting each other. However, many also refected that there is still great resource inequity between programs in different geographic locations due to unequal distribution of resources among communities and programs. Resource misallocations can also manifest as limited staff capacity, which restricts operations and services and negatively impacts community members (Booth et al. 2018). Furthermore, private programs are often subject to the same economic pressures as their clientele, such as infation.

With more targeted inter-organization collaboration, programs can capitalize on each other’s strengths such as skills and labor. Programs should work together to secure

support for program funding at local, state, and federal levels, and share resources such as grant writing skills.

Although private food assistance programs are an imperfect solution, food insecure populations currently rely on their support (Tendall et al. 2015; Morales 2011). Therefore, improving service has both immediate and long term impacts (Martin 2021). Standardized practices can enable programs to quickly provide improved, expanded support to food insecure populations, mitigating harm on the ground while work toward systemic change continues.

FIGURE 3 Scarcity mindsets disempower program personnel and program guests. Implementing “abundance mindset” practices — because food actually is abundant in the U.S. — improves food assistance experiences. At Northwest Harvest’s SODO Community Market, the bottom platform of produce bins can be raised, communicating abundance even when stock is low. Photo by Hannah Whobrey.

There is still great resource inequity between programs in diferent geographic locations due to unequal distribution of resources among communities and programs.

Are the Costs Too Dam High?

Assessing Boeing Creek Stream Health Post- Hidden Lake Dam Removal

By Jessie Cox, ESRM: Wildlife Conservation ‘23

Dams showcase our abilities as technological beings to harness power from the natural world and use it to develop as a

society. Dams’ capabilities to produce energy, irrigate crops and store water are indisputable, and these benefts have prompted the construction of approximately 60,000 large dams (>15m) across the globe, with 11 small dams for every large one (Adamo et al. 2020; Couto & Olden 2018). However, the ecological impacts of these structures create a complex issue. Permanent changes to the streamfow can cause decreases in microorganism diversity, blockage of fsh migration routes and habitat fragmentation (Poff & Hart 2002). The dam barrier disrupts the native ecosystem, leading to species composition changes and a widespread decline in stream health.

In recent years aging infrastructure, relicensing, fnancial costs and environmental restoration have increased dam removals across the United States (Vahedifard et al. 2021). Since 1912, the U.S. has removed 2000 dams, with most removals occurring after the 1980s (American Rivers 2023). Despite the increasing frequency of dam removals, scientists still lack an

understanding of how removals impact aquatic ecosystems and surrounding areas. Every dam has unique site characteristics with complex community relationships to account for when assessing impact and ecological recovery. Deconstructing a multi-decade-old impoundment disturbs the biological integrity of the system through released sediment pulses, pollutants, and increased connectivity for invasive species. We have highlighted the essential need for future

FIGURE 1 (A) Photo of Hidden Lake pre-dam removal, (B) photo of drained reservoir with newly established stream and (C) photo of Hidden Lake dam.

We have highlighted the essential need for future research on ecological disturbances post- dam removal to help us better understand and evaluate the costs and benefts of future removals .

research on ecological disturbances post-dam removal to help us better understand and evaluate the costs and benefts of future removals.

Although small dam removals are still rare, they are becoming more common in Washington State. Last summer, an exciting opportunity to document the environmental consequences and recovery of a dam removal presented itself when the City of Shoreline removed Hidden Lake dam along Boeing Creek. The small, earthen dam was rebuilt in the 90s to create Hidden Lake for recreational purposes (Figure 1). The city proposed to remove the dam and drain Hidden Lake to minimize food risk, improve water quality, increase sediment fow downstream, remove known fsh barriers and improve native species’ habitat (City of Shoreline 2022). This research study addressed the following main question: Was the ecological health (as estimated using macroinvertebrates as a bioindicator) of Boeing Creek impacted by the removal of Hidden Lake dam?

Beneath the creek’s surface lies a buzzing metropolis of macroinvertebrates that we used to answer our objective. A healthy stream contains a high diversity of taxa and they offer a multi-dimensional lens into the biological condition of an aquatic system that ecologists use to measure changes in stream health. The freshwater organisms vary from sensitive to tolerant taxa. As stream conditions decline, the abundance of tolerant taxa increases, and diversity decreases (Tampo et

FIGURE 2 Detailed map of Boeing Creek Watershed with markers indicating sample sites (red circles) and Hidden Lake Dam (yellow circle).

A healthy stream contains a high diversity of taxa and they ofer a multidimensional lens into the biological condition of an aquatic system that ecologists use to measure changes in stream health.

FIGURE 3 Microscope photo of macroinvertebrates from one of the feld samples

al. 2021). Disturbances associated with dam removals, like excess sediment, shift macroinvertebrate composition to tolerant taxa as the sensitive organisms die off in the degraded habitat (Tampo et al. 2021). We can observe how stream health is affected by comparing pre and post-dam removal macroinvertebrate composition shifts.

We structured the research as a Before-After-Control-Impact (BACI) study design. This design tests the before-after effects at the impact site while accounting for stochastic events that may affect both the impact and control sites — an essential characteristic of observational environmental research. We established two sites downstream, DS1 and DS2, and two upstream, US1 and US2, along Boeing Creek (Figure 2). We sampled before dam removal in June 2022 and after removal in August and October 2022. Our sampling consisted of setting a Surber net in the water and aggravating the substrate to wash the macroinvertebrates into the net. We then processed the samples in the lab, using a microscope to pick out the organisms from the organic matter and later identifed them (Figure 3). To assess the signifcance of our results, we ran a multivariate test (PerMANOVA) in the statistical program R.

Table 1 displays the multivariate test results, showing insignifcant p-values for all explanatory variables tested. The important result is the insignifcant value (p = 0.889) for the interaction effect between location and time. This means there was no signifcant difference in the macroinvertebrate community post dam removal when considering random events that may affect both the impact and control sites. The multivariate test does not account for the specifc characteristics of the organisms, so we also conducted non-metric multidimensional scaling to identify specifc shifts in taxa. Figure 4 highlights the key results, which identifed an increase in tolerant taxa (Baetis, Crangonyx and Parapsyche) and a decrease in sensitive taxa Rhyacophila. However, the difference in this observation was not signifcant, suggesting potential dam removal impacts did not negatively disrupt and alter the macroinvertebrate community at a large scale.

dam was already a small structure and the city removed it in segments, further reducing the removal effort’s footprint. Additionally, Shoreline excavated most of the sediment buildup upstream of the dam, reducing the sediment load pushed downstream. Even though removing sediment is an expensive, laborious process, it may be worthwhile to minimize the negative impact on the biological conditions downstream as we saw in our study.

The outcome of our study supports an optimistic story for the future of small dam removals and the restoration of natural ecosystems. As for Boeing Creek, the City of Shoreline restored connectivity following drainage and plans to plant the surrounding areas with native vegetation – a much different ecosystem from the former waterfowl-dominated lake (Figure 1). Next year, the city also plans to remove the culvert downstream of the previous impoundment site, further eliminating another barrier in our quest to restore salmon habitat.

Overall, the results of this study indicate no signifcant ecological consequences following the small dam removal and draining of Hidden Lake. We theorize the lack of disturbance was due to multiple reasons. The Hidden Lake

Even though removing sediment is an expensive, laborious process, it may be worthwhile to minimize the negative impact on the biological conditions downstream as we saw in our study.

TABLE 1 Permutational multivariate analysis of variance (PerMANOVA) results comparing site locations (control vs. impact), time (pre-dam removal vs. 2-months after), and the interaction effect between location and time.

FIGURE 4 Bar chart of species composition shifts (% mean relative abundance) of combined DS1 + DS2 samples pre (purple) and post (gold) dam removal downstream.

By Grace Davis, Marine Biology ‘23

Research also conducted by Zach Child and Rachel Sechrist

This past summer, I had the opportunity to learn about marine infectious disease ecology at Friday Harbor Laboratories, a University of Washington marine feld station on San Juan Island in the Salish Sea. During my time there, I conducted an independent research project with two peers to examine the potential symbiotic relationship between parasitic isopods (Ione cornuta), copepods (Clausidium vancouverensis) and ghost shrimp (Neotrypaea californiensis).

Ghost shrimp are ecosystem engineers because of their role in marine nutrient cycling; shrimp suck water into their burrows in a process of sediment disturbance known as bioturbation (Dumbauld et al. 2011). Ghost shrimp are also an important food source for many species, and a decline in N. californiensis would be felt throughout the marine ecosys-

tem.

When I. cornuta infects a ghost shrimp, the isopod occupies the gill chamber of the shrimp and feeds on its hemolymph – the invertebrate equivalent of blood (Figure 1). This effectively castrates the female ghost shrimp by leaving her little energy for reproduction. Although the isopod does not kill the shrimp host, the decreased ftness of its host makes it more susceptible to further infections and diminishes its ability to compete for resources (Smith et al. 2008).

Our interest in these shrimp was spurred by the observa-

tion that copepods, or small crustaceous zooplankton, were found on nearly every healthy shrimp. C. vancouverensis are

FIGURE 1 (A) Photo of I. cornuta male clutching to a female ghost shrimp with a brood of eggs and (B) I. cornuta still in the gill chamber of the host shrimp.

Ghost shrimp are an important food source for many species, and a decline in N. californiensis would be felt throughout the marine ecosystem.

bright red copepods that have varied feeding styles, with some species using silica jaws to shred and consume larvae and others obtaining their food by flter feeding (Wagner and Wagner 2022). Since isopod larvae must settle into the gill chamber of the host, the presence of copepods raises the possibility that the larvae are consumed by the copepods before they attach to the shrimp.

After a preliminary literature review where we recorded a similar symbiotic relationship between copepods and ghost shrimp, we expected that no isopods would be recorded on shrimp where copepods were also observed. Second, we hypothesized

that isopod prevalence would increase with host size. Lastly, we aimed to observe and confrm the parasitic isopod species using morphological comparisons via a scanning electron microscope (SEM) which bounces an electron beam off an organism to produce a 3D image of its structure and makeup.

Our team of three set out equipped with rusty shovels and unfaltering determination to collect as many ghost shrimp as possible from False Bay, located on the southwest side of San Juan Island. We hoped to obtain upwards of one-hundred shrimp to get a representative sample of the population occupying this muddy habitat. To collect the shrimp we dug several one-foot-deep holes which fooded with seawater, prompting the shrimp to emerge from their burrows. We gathered a sample size of eighty-six shrimp in the quicksand-like sediment.

Next, we recorded several different measurements and observations in the lab. First we measured carapace length, or the length from the base of the shrimp’s eye to the frst segment of its abdomen. Then, we visually detected and counted the number of copepods and isopods. Finally, we carefully removed the parasitic isopods from the infected shrimp using tweezers.

After this initial assessment we prepared the extracted specimens – which included four female isopods (Figure 4), six male isopods (Figure 5), and three copepods (Figure 3) – for SEM imaging. Before capturing the images, we dehydrated the samples by adding ethanol to remove water without changing the size or compromising the integrity of the specimen. Each sample was then placed in the critical point dryer, a machine that further dries the specimens converting the remaining liquid clinging to the specimens to a gaseous state. After this, the samples were stark white and fragile. The brittle samples were then sputter coated, where a thin layer of gold is applied to help facilitate scanning with the electron microscope (Angstrom Sciences).

Finally, the coated specimens were each scanned individually using the SEM machine, the Jeol Neoscope JCM-5000. We found that the isopod-infected shrimp were signifcantly smaller than the non-infected shrimp. The average length of the infected shrimps’ carapaces was 1.09

cm, while the healthy shrimp average was 1.36 cm. This fnding refutes our original hypothesis, instead suggesting the isopod’s preference for juvenile shrimp causes the shrimp’s growth to be stunted. This may happen because the isopod draws energy from the organism.

Out of the 86 shrimp collected 11.6% had a visible isopod. Some selectiveness, an incoming tide and a few structurally compromised shrimp may

FIGURE 2 All ten of the infected shrimp (orange) were absent of copepods. Of the remaining seventy-six uninfected shrimp (blue), ffty-three were absent of copepods while copepods were present on the other twenty-three.

FIGURE 3 (A) SEM of C. vancouverensis copepod. Ventral and dorsal views of females with visible egg masses and (B) raptorial maxillipeds and suckers.

have altered observed data slightly from actual isopod prevalence. Observing the shrimp we did not collect, we visually approximated isopod prevalence as 5-9%. There were no copepods on the ten infected shrimp; this result, added to copepod presence on uninfected shrimp, gave an overall copepod prevalence of 26.7%. Excluding the infected shrimp, the prevalence of copepods on uninfected shrimp is 30.3%. These fndings suggest a positive association between copepod presence and isopod absence.

Examining the SEM images of the copepods (Figure 3), we see sickle-shaped maxillipeds (an appendage for feeding) near the mouth area. These maxillipeds are typical in copepods that feed by predation, indicating that these copepods may be consuming isopod larvae before settling into the gill chambers of the shrimp. These feeding structures are also indicative of a flter-feeding strategy, where copepods can sense the vibrations of their prey

(Wagner and Wagner 2022). However, neither feeding strategy suggests a parasitic relationship between the copepods and the shrimp.

Our SEM project assessed the parasitic relationship between isopods and ghost shrimp, and revealed a possible mutualistic relationship between copepods and ghost shrimp. As ecosystem engineers, the survival of ghost shrimp is integral to the function of their niche. By reducing the reproductive ability of ghost shrimp, the presence of these parasitic isopods indirectly affects many other organisms of trophic levels that rely on services provided by ghost shrimp. By examining the potential predation by copepods on isopods, we gain valuable insight into how this symbiotic relationship may act as a natural mechanism enhancing

ghost shrimp survival. In light of our project’s limited time scale and resources, more research is necessary to fully ascertain the relationship between these three species. However, I hope to take advantage of this invaluable experience and explore this topic further in the future.

FIGURE 5 SEM of the pleopod structure of a male I. cornuta

FIGURE 4 SEM of (A) female Ione cornuta head and antenna and (B) her feather-like pleopods.

By examining the potential predation by copepods on isopods, we gain valuable insight into how this symbiotic relationship may act as a natural mechanism enhancing ghost shrimp survival.

Analyzing discrepancies in spawning timing between hatchery and wild chum salmon

As natural salmon stocks decline, hatcheries have become a critical part of mitigating the loss for commercial and public use alike. Fish hatcheries are both a laboratory and a farm, where fsh are spawned, hatched and cared for. Fish remain at the hatchery until they are large enough to transfer to a fsh farm or released into the wild as part of a stock enhancement program. In short, hatchery fsh are bred artifcially and raised in non-wild settings.

Alaskan hatcheries play a signifcant role in the region’s economic output and conservation strategies. 600 million dollars annually are attributed to Alaskan salmon hatchery production, with Alaskan fsh hatcheries releasing over a billion fsh into wild ecosystems every year (Alaska Department of Fish and Game 2018). Despite their prominence, salmon hatcheries pose serious biological threats to already-existing wild stock. Hatchery salmon often lack the necessary genetically inherited traits and predatory capabilities for long term survival in the wild (Quinn 1993). Even

more concerning, a study suggests that hatchery salmon who are able to successfully reproduce give birth to offspring with even lower levels of reproductive ftness (Araki 2008). I wondered, will we soon live in a world without wild salmon?

With this in mind, I traveled up north to Southeast Alaska where I worked as a fshery technician for the Sitka Sound Science Center. From July 20th to August 26th 2022, I hiked through Alaskan streams collecting DNA samples from dead chum salmon carcasses and recording live fsh counts. We were contracted by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADFG) to study hatchery-wild salmon interactions, though I simultaneously worked on some research of my own. I had the unique

opportunity to see in-person the mating habits of salmon; I watched as they scoured the creeks looking for both an area to spawn and a fsh to mate with. Spawning ground for salmon is fnite and fsh often compete with one another for territory to lay their eggs. Timing is crucial for reproductive success and, as the famous adage goes, “the early bird gets the worm!” So, if the salmon that spawn frst have the greatest success in passing on their genes to offspring, it is crucial to understand who tends to spawn frst: hatchery or wild salmon.

To solve this mystery, I relied on ‘Mark Reports’ provided by the ADFG. These reports detail the sex, hatchery status and date of collection for all chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta) carcasses found across creeks in Southeast Alaska. For my individual research, I focused on the two creeks where I spent the most time: Prospect Creek and

PHOTO View downstream about a mile up from the mouth of Prospect Creek. Photo by Matt Dollinger.

PHOTO Chum salmon carcasses. Photo by Matt Dollinger.

Sawmill Creek. I analyzed reports from 2019–2021 which included data for over 1500 individual chum salmon. In my analysis I grouped chum salmon based on their stream, sex, and hatchery status, and found the median collection date of each group. I also created frequency distribution graphs for each group to visually depict trends in spawning timing based on hatchery status and sex while using carcass collection date as a proxy for spawning timing. My analysis

paints an interesting picture. The median carcass collection date at both creeks, regardless of sex, was consistently earlier for hatchery salmon than for wild salmon (Figure 1).

Regardless of hatchery status, salmon tend to die at similar rates after spawning. We see that hatchery salmon are spawning earlier than their wild counterparts in these two creeks. These results hold true for both creeks and for both male and female chum salmon. Hatchery chum salmon, it seems, have a distinct temporal advantage over wild chum salmon.

Along with contributing to the broader feld of salmon research, my fndings uncover a potentially troubling phenomenon. We have reason to believe that hatchery origin salmon are less equipped to survive in the wild compared to their wild counterparts (Quinn 1993), and that these hatchery fsh traits can be passed down to future generations during spawning (Araki 2008). Spawning timing is an important metric for eventual spawning success as salmon must compete for spaces to build their nests (Knudsen, 2021), and because hatchery chum salmon on Sawmill and Prospect Creek tend to arrive at their spawning streams before wild chum salmon, they have a greater chance of successfully reproducing. These fndings also suggest spawning salmon have a greater chance of inheriting hatchery gene lines, making the future survival of wild salmon unclear.

If we are to sustain wild chum salmon, it is imperative we equip offspring with the best genetically inherited traits for survival. This may mean rethinking the role that salmon hatcheries play in conservation efforts. Some organizations have called for a full-stop of hatchery release programs (Tomine, 2018), while others argue that the economic beneft of more salmon in our watersheds – hatchery or otherwise – outweighs the potential damage (Hess, 2012). There is no clear answer, but salmon are a Pacifc Northwest staple and the questions of if hatcheries should exist and how to operate them will undoubtedly come center stage

future.

in the near

FIGURE 1 Number of hatchery (green) and wild (blue) chum salmon carcasses sampled by days since July 22 (frst day of the spawning season in Southeast Alaska) for (A) females and (B) males in Sawmill Creek and (C) females and (D) males in Prospect Creek. Dotted lines denote the relative trend and peak spawning for hatchery (green) and wild (blue) fsh.

PHOTO Low tide from the remote beach campsite. Pictured is the small boat used to travel to Prospect Creek each morning. Photo by Matt Dollinger.

If the salmon that spawn frst have the greatest success in passing on their genes to offspring, it is crucial to understand who tends to spawn frst: hatchery or wild salmon.

SOUND SCIENCE

The Landscape of Marine Field Research in the Puget Sound

Visual Essay by Leilani Combs, Marine Biology `23

PHOTO (left) As part of an initiative to monitor ocean acidifcation in the Puget Sound, the Washington Ocean Acidifcation Center (WOAC) runs three research cruises annually. The excursions are conducted on the smaller of University of Washington (UW)’s two research vessels, the R/V Rachel Carson, and extend from the Admiralty Inlet to South Puget Sound. WOAC cruises are largely staffed by volunteers, undergraduate, graduate and professional scientists collaborating for the health of our local marine environment. (https:// oceanacidifcation.uw.edu/about/ )

PHOTO (right) Research at sea would be impossible without the ship’s crew and research scientists. Shown here, R/V Rachel Carson crew member Thor Belle and UW marine technician Loren Tuttle pull a CTD back onto the ship’s deck for sampling. CTDs (conductivity, temperature, and depth) collect water samples at selected water column depths and take density measurements. They are the workhorses of marine science technology.

PHOTO (right) Anna Boyar from WOAC collects water samples to be assessed for dissolved oxygen concentrations. These are taken prior to any other samples to guard against contamination by atmospheric oxygen. Volunteers wait off camera to quickly and methodically collect chlorophyll, nutrient and environmental DNA (eDNA) samples.

PHOTO (below) Oxygen samples are collected in glass bottles because more porous materials can lead to unreliable sample values caused by contamination or changes in sample volume. Once collected, these bottles will be sealed with deionized water until they can be processed by volunteers. Oxygen concentrations are closely monitored for early signs of low oxygen zone formation, like the one that occurs annually in the Hood Canal.

PHOTO (right) As the ship pitches in the harsh currents of the Admiralty Inlet, UW Oceanography Junior Sophie Jenness titrates oxygen samples using a machine called an Eco Dosimat. This is completed through a series of chemical reactions that allow scientists to calculate the dissolved oxygen concentration in reference to a known chemical concentration. The process occurs on board because the sooner they are processed, the more accurate the data will be. Every step of this analysis, from collection to processing, is designed to ensure the integrity of the sample.

PHOTO (left) Marine scientists persevere through sea sickness and variable environments to maintain scientifc instrumentation and collect data to be used around the world. UW’s Applied Physics Lab vessel the R/V Robertson makes its way through choppy seas as cormorants relax nearby on a red channel marker.

PHOTO (right) The Olympic Mountains stand guard as scientists complete their work in the waters below. With thirteen people living aboard, this small vessel has limited storage space, so anything that cannot ft in the wet lab must be housed on deck.Pictured, Anna Boyar checks samples as oceanographer Zach Child delivers eDNA samples to the lab fridge.

PHOTO (below) UW Oceanography graduate student Haila Schultz checks the fowmeter on a tow net used to collect plankton samples from the water column. These nets are dropped vertically to collect smaller organisms, or dragged at an angle called an oblique tow to collect larger swimming organisms that might otherwise escape.

PHOTO (left) Plankton samples are used for a variety of research, including a collaborative genetics project with NOAA, DNA sampling and microscope assessment. In addition, these samples aid in monitoring the health of pteropods – small marine snails that are particularly vulnerable to ocean acidifcation. Pteropods’ calcium carbonate shells are thinner than those of oysters or clams, and thus they are harbingers of ocean acidifcation impacts on shell-forming species. They may have trouble forming shells or their shells can dissolve when there is less carbonate in the water as a result of ocean acidifcation.

PHOTO (below) As climate change progresses, marine scientists work tirelessly to understand the broader impacts of increasing temperatures, rising sea levels, and altered ocean chemistry on the natural world. From the multi-billion dollar shellfsh industry to a river otter fshing in the Hood Canal, an intricate web of human and animal lives hang in the balance.

Samples taken on the cruise will be transported to many different labs whose work relies on them. Once they have been processed, much of the collected data is made available to the public through the NANOOS Salish Sea data portal. This data is used by modelers, policy makers and other researchers to answer big questions about how we can best support vulnerable marine ecosystems into the future. (https://nvs.nanoos.org/CruiseSalish)

PHOTO DYLAN LOCKHARD

“It’s not about reaching millions” A dive into environmental podcasting

by Autumn

Vandehey, Atmospheric Sciences ‘23

During the last decade, podcasting has become a popular form of communication, and environmental podcasting has emerged as a new medium. Podcasts provide journalists and science communicators the creative freedom to cover environmental and climate-related topics however they want. Curious about the motivations and inner workings of environmental podcasts, I reached out to three different podcast creators to learn about their process for conveying environmental issues over an audio medium.

The Wild follows host Chris Morgan on his travels through nature. Through his rich storytelling, the audience learns about nature’s complexities and hears the voices of people protecting wildlife. Terrestrial, hosted by Ashley Ahearn, covers heavy climate and environmental topics while highlighting the stories of individuals dealing with climate change. Lastly, The Forest Overstory Podcast, created by Patrick Shults and Sean Alexander, is a conversational podcast that discusses forest management in Washington state and interviews forest management experts.

Despite these podcasts’ focus on different subjects, their hosts’ motivation for creating a podcast was the same: concern for and interest in the environment. Patrick Shults was new to the podcast-producing scene when he started The Forest Overstory Podcast with co-host Sean Alexander. “I have listened to hours and hours of podcasts, enough to

make me think that maybe I could do this,” Shults quips in the introductory episode. I contacted Shults to learn more about his motivations for creating this podcast. “I felt a podcast would be a valuable addition to my outreach program,” he says. Shults is the Extension Forester for the Southwest corner of Washington state where he educates forest and farm owners interested in forest stewardship and agroforestry. He realized that with the increasing popularity of podcasts and online content, “A podcast felt like a great way to regularly provide new

content to landowners, natural resources professionals, and the general public.”

In contrast to Shults’ motivation to educate, Ashley Ahearn was spurred to create Terrestrial by her personal curiosity and concern for climate change. Her frst episode was titled “You probably have eco-anxiety. You just don’t know it.” During our interview, Ahearn said her pioneering episode stemmed from her own personal anxiety around the tremendous challenges of climate change. When asked if making Terrestrial provided her with any hope for solving the climate crisis, she bluntly replied “No.” followed by a brief pause. I could tell she was collecting her thoughts. “Having courage is a better use of our time,” she stated frmly, “we have to live in courage, not in hope.” By creating podcasts, Ahearn has found a way to live in courage as well as “fll a need for storytelling”, which she has pursued even further in her newest podcasts – Women’s Work and Grouse

Chris Morgan shares Ahearn’s passion for storytelling, having produced and written numerous nature flms and TV shows in addition to his podcast The Wild. He has a deep passion for wildlife conservation and seeks to inspire others with his fervor. “It’s the only reason I do it,” he expresses

PHOTO Chris Morgan holding cougar kittens while recording the frst episode of The Wild. Photo by Brendan Sawaya.

enthusiastically. Morgan’s mission with his productions is to encourage people to care about the planet and “realize we’re a part of it, not apart from it.”

Different environmental podcasts share similar motives to communicate environmental issues, whether that be through informal conversations as in The Forest Overstory Podcast or via audio storytelling like Morgan and Ahearn. This is what makes podcasts so unique: they can be very fuid, and there is not necessarily a set structure. Chris Morgan shared with me an example of changing the outline of an episode after going out in the feld. For one episode, Morgan ventured to Ireland to learn about the pine marten but then re-workshopped the entire episode to discuss the Irish red squirrel (a species preyed upon by pine martens) instead. “It’s a bit of an organic process,” Morgan explained when describing how The Wild is produced. Podcast production is also time-consuming. I was surprised to hear from Ahearn that she spends up to a month editing, scripting and producing a single 20-minute episode. The amount of

effort put into these podcasts is clear from the sheer number of different sound bites, music clips, and interviews parsed apart and woven together into a single audio story. One of the main challenges of podcasting is knowing who your audience is, and if the show is impacting them. Shults acknowledged that it can be diffcult to improve the podcast when online metrics only show the number of listeners and subscribers. “We’re constantly having to prove that our efforts are having an impact on the ground. Not being able to talk to the audience makes that diffcult.” Since podcast metrics only provide numbers, the number of listeners is how podcasts (and many online platforms) gauge success. More listeners means a podcast is reaching more people, and may potentially make a difference in how the audience thinks about environmental and climate issues. But this is not necessarily the case. Morgan offered some insight, explaining “It’s not always about the numbers… Not every flm [or podcast] has to reach millions of people, sometimes just the right people.” He shared an example of a friend of

PHOTO Ashley Ahearn in the feld recording for her podcast Women’s Work. Photo by Louise Johns.

PHOTO Cover art for The Forest Overstory Podcast. Photo from Patrick Shults.

By creating podcasts, Ahearn has found a way to live in courage as well as ‘fll a need for storytelling’.

“ “

his who, ten years ago, was making a flm about climate change and had a single audience member. Morgan was shocked to hear this because normally flmmakers want to reach millions of people, but this flm was intended for one person: President Barack Obama. The flm was eventually screened in the White House and infuenced federal climate policy.

Ashley Ahearn shares similar sentiments. Terrestrial covers a wide range of topics and she speaks to people from all over the world, but in her new podcast Grouse her goal is to get small and local. “It’s not about reaching millions,” she emphasized to me over our phone call. “When I’m telling stories I want it to be personal.” Ahearn expressed her desire to share stories that represent diverse perspectives and inspire empathy. She loves podcasts because they offer the freedom to “dive deep into the roots of the story,” and there’s no creatively constraining formula to follow.

Chris Morgan is very passionate about storytelling. “Podcasts force you to distill stories down to the best possible stories because you haven’t got any visuals to lean on. My ancestry is Irish, a nation of storytellers, so I love telling stories,” he says with a laugh. After speaking with these podcast creators, it is clear more than ever that environmental podcasts are a valuable addition to the environmental communication landscape because they

PHOTO Chris Morgan in the feld interviewing for The Wild. Photo from Chris Morgan.

The amount of effort put into these podcasts is clear from the sheer number of different sound bites, music clips, and interviews parsed apart and woven together into a single audio story.

connect listeners to the environment, climate, and Earth systems through human-centric anecdotes.

Chemical Catastrophe

A look at the recent devastating chemical spills in East Palestine, Ohio

By Ling Tsiang, Atmospheric Chemistry ‘23

OnFebruary 3rd, 2023, a 151-car train carrying noxious chemicals including more than 115 thousand gallons of vinyl chloride derailed in East Palestine, Ohio. The excessive size

and length of this train caused overheating in the wheel bearings, leading to the derailment of over three dozen cars (Kaplan 2023). Almost half of East Palestine’s residents were told to evacuate (Hauser 2023). Norfolk Southern –a rail transport company worth 47 billion dollars – is responsible for the derailment.

Aside from vinyl chloride, the other chemicals spilled included ethylhexyl acrylate, ethylene glycol monobutyl, butyl acrylate and isobutylene (Marusic 2023). Some of these are known carcinogens with various detrimental effects on humans and aquatic life. Acute high exposure to these chemicals may cause headaches, irritated skin and irritated throats. Because vinyl chloride is an extremely hazardous chemical that boils at roughly 8 degrees Fahrenheit, a “slow burn” producing a large plume of smoke was conducted in order to prevent an explosion.

In the days after the incident residents reported dead fsh foating in local rivers, well water contamination, chemical smells and various health symptoms such as headaches and nausea. Later it was reported that roughly 3,500 fsh died from chemical spills in local streams and waterways, and further investigation showed that over 43 thousand animals including small fsh, amphibians and other creatures had died within a 5 mile-radius (CBS News 2023). The costly toll doesn’t end there; 15,000 pounds of soil and 1.1 million gallons of water were removed from the site to prevent

further contamination. The nature and lifetime of these chemicals is still unknown and their effect on residents and local environment may persist for years (CBS News 2023).

Professor Peter DeCarlo of Johns Hopkins University expressed concern for returning residents of East Palestine, especially over the EPA’s inadequate monitoring and reporting of the spill. “[The] EPA seems to be relying on air monitoring, and they make a distinction between air monitoring and air sampling … In air monitoring, they’re walking around with these handheld devices, which are really not designed to make the appropriate measurements … they just do not have the appropriate sensitivity to give you the accurate idea of a concentration,” he said in a recent interview (NPR 2023).

As a father of two young children, DeCarlo worries

PHOTO Derailed train cars in East Palestine, Ohio. Licensed under Creative Commons.

about chemical deposits onto indoor surfaces: “We don’t know what chemicals are made exactly when you burn something like vinyl chloride… especially with young children who are touching everything, we know that kids

PHOTO Aerial view of the derailed train cars in East Palestine, Ohio. Licensed under Creative Commons.

[The] EPA seems to be relying on air monitoring, and they make a distinction between air monitoring and air sampling … In air monitoring, they’re walking around with these handheld devices, which are really not designed to make the appropriate measurements … they just do not have the appropriate sensitivity to give you the accurate idea of a concentration...

PHOTO View of plumes from a residential area. Licensed under Creative Commons.

are more vulnerable to chemical exposures, so [we want to be] extra careful, especially when young children are involved” (NPR 2023).

Questioned about the future impacts of this disaster, DeCarlo said long-term implications would depend on whether the site is still emitting these chemicals, a question no government entity seems to be answering. Hopefully, continued monitoring of health and environmental data in East Palestine will provide insights to public health policy.

During a town meeting following the incident residents expressed frustration with Norfolk Southern offcials and blamed poor communication as the main reason for their distrust (Hauser 2023). On February 21st, the EPA issued a unilateral administrative order (UAO)

to Norfolk Southern demanding the company fund and repair any damages in East Palestine. Failure to comply with this order would result in further action from the U.S. Department of Justice. In March, the state of Ohio fled a lawsuit against Norfolk Southern, demanding reparations for current and projected damages (CBS News 2023).

This is not the frst time one of Norfolk Southern’s trains has catastrophically derailed. In the last year alone, major derailments in Pennsylvania, Ohio and Illinois spilled thousands of gallons of toxic chemicals (Yee 2023).

Why do hazardous chemical spills from train derailments happen so frequently? Experts suggest Norfolk Southern cuts corners on spending to stuff its shareholders’ pockets (Abdollah 2023). The three major contributors to train derailments are implementation of Precision Scheduled Railroading (PSR), increased train length and weight and outdated braking technology. PSR – a change lobbied for by Wall Street – allows companies to decrease the number of workers operating trains, ultimately cutting costs and increasing profts (Buck 2022). Instead of fve workers manning an 80–90 car train, only two workers are required to oversee a 150 car train (Gardner 2023). Productivity increases by the railroad industry aren’t from technological advancement – braking technology hasn’t been updated since the U.S. Civil War – but rather from a decrease in railroad work requirements and costs (Gardner 2023; Sirota 2023).

To decrease the number of train derailments, companies like Norfolk Southern would need to de-prioritize an over 50% proft margin (AJOT 2019). Increasing the workforce, modernizing braking technology and decreasing train car

lengths will diminish the likelihood of train derailments. Reducing derailments will prevent ecological and social disasters, while supporting railroad employees and the residents of towns like East Palestine.

After a railroad labor dispute in late 2022 and the February train derailment, rail union leaders and the CEO of Norfolk Southern issued a statement promising to improve safety standards for rail workers. New policy proposals include mandating more workers per freight train, regulating train length and increasing inspections (Marsh 2023). Our focus should be on preventing environmental disasters, which starts with improving workers’ rights and no longer allowing corporations like Norfolk Southern to employ predatory capitalistic practices. As Jared Cassity, a national legislative director for the union representing Norfolk Southern employees says, “if nothing changes, it will happen again” (Kaplan 2023).

We don’t know what chemicals are made exactly when you burn something like vinyl chloride… especially with young children who are touching everything, we know that kids are more vulnerable to chemical exposures, so [we want to be] extra careful, especially when young children are involved.

PHOTO Damage control workers. Licensed under Creative Commons.

Regenerative Ranching Fostering a reciprocal relationship with nature

Since the 1970s, agriculture has shifted from small scale, family owned farms to sprawling, automated factory farms. This means more land is dedicated to single, high production value crops, and barns are crammed full of animals to maximize proft. These changes also increased pollution from heavy machinery operation and shipping products worldwide (USGS 2019). These practices are unsustainable and contribute directly to climate change (Ruddy et al. 2006). Now, farmers across the globe are forging a reciprocal relationship with the earth through regenerative agriculture. Regenerative agriculture mimics natural ecological systems to balance short-term production and long-term land maintenance for generations to come. Using cattle to manage grasslands in a similar way to bison is a great example. The cattle disrupt the soil and facilitate soil turnover so that invasive species don’t outcompete native plants. Ranchers also consistently move the herd so no single location is overgrazed (Ryan 2021). Not only do these practices help promote biodiversity, but they can also improve water quality, soil health and

carbon sequestration (Fenster et al. 2021). Regenerative agriculture looks beyond agriculture’s typical narrow focus on production to consider alternative management practices aimed at improving land condition and ecosystem function.

Malou Anderson-Ramirez’s family has been ranching in Montana’s Tom Miner Basin Valley since the 1950s. The reintroduction of wolves to the Yellowstone Valley in the 1990s was a catalyst toward regenerative agriculture for her family. To decrease wolf-livestock interactions they implemented range-riding, a strategy many ranchers use to monitor their cattle and ensure proper rotational grazing practices. This is valuable for the land because it provides fertilizer and spreads the cattle’s impact across a larger area to minimize overgrazing.

Nestled deep in the central Idaho Rocky Mountains sits Alderspring Ranch, owned and operated by the Elzingas and their seven daughters. They use a form of range-riding called inherding to keep their cattle safe and minimize the impact to their land. Riders live on the range during the summer months and pen the cattle at night to better control which areas are impacted. Through these practices, Alderspring has prevented damage to their extensive riparian zone. This streamside habitat supports fourteen beaver colonies — compared to zero when the Elzingas frst bought the land (Elzinga 2022). Beaver colonies aren’t the only success this ranch has seen. Their inherding techniques have also eliminated wolf interactions and helped their land regenerate and store carbon. By making a few simple changes, Alderspring Ranch has completely transformed their land and initiated a series of domino effects when it comes to regeneration.

In addition to altering their cattle management, ranchers have also integrated technology such as GPS and electric fences with sustainable practices. Anderson-Ramirez is developing a new technology that would provide critical

PHOTO In Lamar Valley in Yellowstone National Park, grazing bison naturally disrupt the land. Photo by Diane Renkin, licensed under Creative Commons 2.0.

assistance in herd management: TEAL tags. These are small ear tags that monitor the cow’s heart rate and contain a GPS to quickly determine its location. They may be used to locate individuals that have been preyed upon or track the health of the herd. Blending technology with tried-and-true farming techniques is paving the way for a new generation of effcient and sustainable ranching practices. As agriculture faces intensifying stress from climate change, it is critical to have people like Anderson-Ramirez and the Elzinga family generating creative solutions to make ranching sustainable for years to come. But not everyone is on board with agriculture’s cultural shift.

Implementing regenerative agriculture requires a mindset shift. It can be diffcult to transition from traditional practices that have been passed down through family generations to new management practices. However, adaptation is not always as diffcult as it seems. There are fve core principles for implementing regenerative farming: maintaining soil

armor, minimizing soil disturbance, maintaining living plant roots, adding plant diversity and integrating livestock (Ersek 2022). The frst principle (maintaining soil armor) means keeping the ground covered with vegetation to reduce runoff and soil erosion, conserve moisture, increase organic matter and improve the soil structure. Putting this into practice may be as simple as leaving some grass behind to provide protection for pastures.

Alderspring Ranch carefully manages their pasture land with short grazing periods and frequent cattle

movement. By doing so, they have increased soil organic matter from below 2% to 7.75% over the last decade. The ranch has also seen plant diversity double to quadruple in the same timeframe, and cattle carrying capacity has doubled in response (Elzinga 2022). This benefts both the ecosystem and the Elzingas.

One misconception about regenerative farming is that it is not economically viable, but Anderson-Ramirez says it can be. She suggests ranches diversify their proft sources instead of solely relying on cattle production. The Anderson ranch has excelled in this regard – they built several sustainable tiny houses available to rent throughout the year. Ranchers can also teach workshops on sustainable ranching and host student groups for additional income. By minimizing reliance on external inputs such as chemical fertilizers and antibiotics, regenerative practices can also reduce production costs and enhance the fnancial sustainability of ranching operations. Additionally, regenerative ranching emphasizes direct marketing and the establishment of local food systems, allowing ranchers to forge closer connections with

PHOTO A crop duster applies chemicals – a polluting agricultural practice – to a feld of vegetation. Photo by Walter G. Arce, licensed under Creative Commons 2.0.

By minimizing reliance on external inputs . . . regenerative practices can reduce production costs and enhance the fnancial sustainability of ranching operations.

Blending technology with tried-and-true farming techniques is paving the way for a new generation of effcient and sustainable ranching practices.

consumers and make a direct proft. These unique practices may not ft the traditional expectations of a ranch, yet they can match economic output while taking some of the burden off the land.

Anderson-Ramirez says developing a reciprocal relationship with the land requires considering what we can offer of ourselves to wild spaces. The frst step is understanding how humans create a disconnect between ourselves and the Earth’s natural cycles. As Anderson-Ramirez explains, “The spirit of the living earth needs us as people to be in wonder and awe, to be grateful, together.” We need to realize that humanity is not separate from the Earth and all of the non-human species that inhabit it alongside us.

Agriculture is a complex system, full of contradictions. But outside of large factory farms there is a community of people searching for alternative solutions. Regenerative ranching’s holistic approach to land management – which focuses on soil health, biodiversity, economic viability, and community engagement – offers a pathway towards a more sustainable and resilient future. By embracing regenerative ranching, we have the opportunity to restore degraded landscapes, mitigate climate change and cultivate thriving ecosystems, all while ensuring the well-being of ranchers and nourishing our communities.

PHOTO The Jordan Ranch, a regenerative ranch in Livingston, Montana. Photo by Preston Keres, licensed under Creative Commons 2.0.

Regenerative ranching’s holistic approach to land management – which focuses on soil health, biodiversity, economic viability, and community engagement – offers a pathway towards a more sustainable and resilient future.

Creating a Sustainable Campus

UW RSOs as Changemakers

By Gracia Anderson,

Environmental Studies ‘24

Most of us are aware of Greta Thunberg’s fght against climate change on a global scale, but action is also being taken closer to home. The University of Washington (UW) has more than twenty-fve Registered Student Organizations (RSO) whose mission statements reference environmental improvement, and even more RSOs host activities and events promoting environmental awareness. UW RSOs have tackled environmental issues on individual, community, school, state and national levels. Their members are tired of inaction on fossil fuel emissions, unsustainable farming practices and excess consumption. This frustration has driven them to demand change.

Environmental RSOs at UW attract a diverse body of student members. The organizations interviewed for this article emphasized their members possess varying levels of prior experience with environmental work and advocacy. RSOs are a supportive place for students considering environmental careers, but also approachable so that anyone can join discussions and take action. They have implemented a variety of activities and strategies to bring students together to form positive and collaborative environments to implement change. Project Indoor Farm (Project IF), which operates a hydroponic farm on UW’s campus, offers many types of roles within the organization that allow students to choose their level of involvement. Their hydroponic farm uses nutrient based water solutions without soil inside, a more sustainable form of farm that has a smaller land footprint and uses less water. Giving members different positions within Project IF – such as farm management – has helped defne what the RSO means to individuals and made students excited about their involvement. Project IF allows groups to come in daily to make sure that the farm is getting proper nutrients and when the plants are ready to be harvested students can take some home. Through sharing their harvested food students were able to bring awareness to hydroponic farms among their peers and communities.

PHOTO Institutional Climate Action (ICA) protests at the Amazon Spheres with 350 Seattle, Unite Here Local 8 and other community groups to call out Amazon’s greenwashing and anti-climate lobbying. Photo by Brett Anton.

PHOTO Students at the 2023 Earth Day Eve celebration. Photo by Green Greeks.

To alleviate climate anxiety, RSOs have incorporated a variety of techniques to inspire optimism about our environmental future among their members. Environmental news often focuses on the negative impacts of climate change, making it diffcult for students to believe their actions will spark genuine change. The Environmental Policy Student Association (EPSA) spends meetings learning about environmental policies, discussing possible alternatives and taking action to demand change from our policy makers. By discussing the past, present and future of the environment, they inspire hope for the future. This holistic perspective, their co-president Kaylee Kobashigawa says, “allows students to see how far we have come from the past.”

Collective action by UW’s sustainability RSOs has

how to properly sort garbage, recycling and compost. A UW student, Isabelle Bittner 24’, said the event inspired her to “treat every day a little more like Earth Day.” Events like this have cultivated an eco-conscious student body that is eager to re-evaluate their impacts on the environment. The EPSA and ICA have taken collective action in the past to pass stronger climate policies within the UW Student Senate. The collaboration improved policies and gave students an opportunity to partner with others outside of their club. Not only have environmental RSOs been advocating for change, but RSOs whose mission is not explicitly focused on sustainability have also hosted events to promote sustainable practices throughout the UW community. Husky Snow Club collected and repurposed old gear for students that could not afford it, and HuskyFitted – a UW fashion RSO – has held secondhand clothes sales.

Events like Earth Day

produced impactful community events. In April 2023, six of UW’s environmental RSOs came together and hosted an Earth Day Eve celebration on the HUB lawn. The event was open to all UW students and promoted awareness about the environment and Earth Day. Green Greeks – an RSO that encourages sustainable practices at personal and community scales – hosted multiple booths including a makeshift thrift shop and waste diversion activities that taught attendees

Many RSOs have created smaller group projects to promote team bonding. Project IF and Green Greeks both use projects to let students tackle the issues they feel most passionate about. Project IF farm manager, Amelie Gahagan 25’, spoke about the increase in involvement after implementing

PHOTO ICA protest on May 19th, 2023, where indivduals chained themselves to UW’s steam powerplant. Photo by ICA.

PHOTO Project IF’s hydroponic farm in Condon Hall. Photo by Gracia Anderson.

Eve have cultivated an eco-conscious student body that is eager to reevaluate their impacts on the environment.

project groups into their club. “It gave people something to look forward to at meetings and a goal to achieve,” they said. By setting smaller objectives, both RSOs have created attainable goals for students to feel like their work is making a difference. In addition to proposing university-wide policy solutions aimed at curbing institutional emissions, Institutional Climate Action (ICA) hosts hikes, park cleanups and other activities to encourage team bonding. These activities foster excitement and appreciation for the environment. UW has been a leader in sustainability among academic institutions, with a plan to completely decarbonize campus by 2050. However, students from some environmental RSOs have organized protests pushing for more progressive climate action – specifcally 95% decarbonization by 2035. Many UW RSOs are frustrated with the institution’s reliance on burning fossil fuels; in 2021 UW emitted almost 90,000 metric tons of greenhouse gasses and ranked as Washington State’s third largest carbon emitter. RSOs like EPSA and ICA have organized multiple protests asking UW to change its energy use practices and the EPSA has also participated in protests throughout the greater Seattle area asking municipal and state governments to adapt their practices as well. The organization argues UW should take progressive action on climate change because it is one of the top academic institutions in the world whose actions set a prece -

dent. By decarbonizing and ending support of the fossil fuel industry sooner similar institutions will likely follow. ICA co-president Brett Anton says UW is “proud to have so many student activists allowing them to appear progressive, but rarely takes student and faculty demands seriously.” UW’s backlash toward the ICA’s decarbonization plan has been shown through postponing and delaying efforts to address our school’s use of fossil fuels (Moss 2023). On May 19th, 2023, the ICA led another student protest in which students chained themselves to the school’s steam power plant for over 36 hours. The story reached news outlets such as the Seattle Times and UW’s president, Ana Mari Cauce, went to negotiate with the protestors three times. After the protest, Cauce said that she would work with the Board of Regents in the fall to create a feasible plan for campus decarbonization.

UW students have addressed climate change on multiple levels from personal to national. With hard work and collaboration, they have created organizations and events that make a difference in our university community. To join these RSOs during their events, protests and weekly meetings you can visit their social media accounts or reach out to them via email. Contact info is listed below:

Institutional Climate Action

Email: insitutionalclimateaction@gmail.com

Instagram: @ica_uwchapter

Project Indoor Farm

Email: uwprojectif@gmail.com

Instagram: @projectindoorfarm

Environmental Policy Student Association

Email: epsa@uw.edu

Instagram: @epsauw

Green Greeks

Email: uwgreengreekdirector@gmail.com

Instagram: @greengreekuw

PHOTO Green Greeks’ Thrift Pop-Up selling second hand clothes on Earth Day. Photo by Green Greeks.

RSOs like EPSA and ICA have organized multiple protests asking UW to change its energy use practices.“

Tokitae and the Challenges of Captive Animal Release

On March 30th, 2023 offcials announced that Tokitae –the last Southern Resident Killer Whale in captivity – would be released from the Miami Seaquarium. Life for the orca, who was taken from her Salish Sea home over 50 years ago, has not been easy. Tokitae suffers from a multitude of health problems and has been kept largely in isolation during her residence (Johnson 2023).

Now she is returning to the Salish Sea, where she will likely reside in a seaside sanctuary separate from wild orcas but still able to experience her home waters. She may also be joined by Lii and Loke, two Pacifc white-sided dolphin companions from the Miami Seaquarium (Johnson 2023). This announcement is a major accomplishment for animal rights activists and marine biologists alike, as the demands for Tokitae’s release have persisted since her initial capture. But why has it taken so long for them to be answered?

First, it is important to distinguish between rehabilitation and commercial captivity. Wildlife such as Tokitae in commercial captivity were wrongfully taken from their homes for exploitation. Animals in rehabilitation are captured for conservation purposes and to recover from injuries and ailments.

“In a perfect situation, if an animal is taken into captivity because it is injured … the best thing to do for it is to rehabilitate it and release it back to its family in the wild,” says Deborah Giles, a marine mammalogist and professor at the University of Washington’s Friday Harbor Laboratories. Giles is a world-renowned expert on orcas, and has followed Tokitae’s case closely since she was frst brought to Miami Seaquarium in the 1970s.

A number of factors must be considered when reintroducing captive animals to their native environment. Potential disease transfer, complicated policy guidelines, long-term survival after reintroduction and readjustment to the natural environment are a few among many. Regardless, animal welfare outweighs the time investment and diffculties that may come with re-release. Reintroducing animals back into their natural habitat and reuniting them with others of their species is crucial for their health and wellbeing, and releasing commercially captive individuals can promote the long-term survival of both individuals and populations (Marcy 2020).

One concern when reintroducing captive animals to the wild is the potential for disease transfer. Animals can be exposed to a variety of pathogens in zoos and aquariums, often from human interaction. An example of this is the presence of epizootic toxoplasmosis in captive lemurs, primates, and marsupials. Epizootic diseases are diseases that infect a large animal population. Toxoplasmosis (Toxoplasma gondii) is a parasite that infects warm-blooded animals. The parasite can sometimes go undetected in humans because humans are often exposed to it through domesticated cats, but animals that evolved separately from T. gondii do not have this same resistance (Daszak et al. 2000). In one case, T. gondii was transferred to a group of captive squirrel monkeys that suffered a 30 percent mortality rate after exposure (Daszak et al. 2000).

Another example of disease exposure in captivity is the contraction of callitrichid hepatitis in captive primates, caused by a strain of lymphocytic choriomeningitis (LCMV)

PHOTO Scientists (including Giles, leftmost) aboard a National Marine Fisheries Service boat observing a Southern Resident Killer Whale spyhopping. Photo from NOAA Photo Library.

PHOTO Toxoplasma gondii in a lymph node. Photo from Wikipedia Commons.

(Daszak et al. 2000). The primates contracted LCMV after caretakers failed to test their food for any pathogens (Daszak et al. 2000). While in captivity, Tokitae has suffered from many health complications including pneumonia and a persistent skin infection likely caused by bacteria within her enclosure (Johnson 2023). Potential disease transfer from Tokitae to other Southern Resident Killer Whales is part of why she will be released into a sanctuary separate from wild populations. “The idea of releasing her [directly] into the wild… [presents] too many unknowns,” says Giles.

To ensure captive animals are healthy and re-release efforts will not spread novel diseases to wild populations, thorough monitoring of their health, food, and enclosures is necessary before and after release. Experts involved with Tokitae’s release are advocating to supervise her in an enclosed area and provide her with human care to monitor

violated as she is moved from Florida to Washington will be challenging (Whaley and Borkowski 2009).

her health and prevent exposure of diseases she may have contracted in captivity to wild orcas.

Another crucial consideration for releasing captive animals is behavioral changes from long-term captivity and subsequent challenges reintegrating with wild counterparts. Studies on contemporary evolution – evolutionary changes that take place over less than a few hundred years – indicate sexual and natural selection in captive animals are different from wild populations. A long-term study on captive foxes found selective breeding programs produced noticeable physical appearance changes among offspring in just a few generations (McDougall et al. 2006). Changes in temperament such as mating behavior and hyperaggression, were also observed, and have been documented in captive black rhinoceroses as well (McDougall et al. 2006).

“We already knew how easy it is to capture whales,” said Charles Vinick for AP News, founder of the Friends of Toki organization. “What we learned with Keiko is how diffcult it is to put one back” (Johnson 2023). Keiko, the subject of the flm Free Willy, passed away after being released back into the wild because he was rejected by wild orcas and contracted pneumonia (Johnson 2023).

Beyond biological considerations, policy regulations underpinning the release of captive animals are complex. In Tokitae’s case, Southern Resident Killer Whales are protected under both the Endangered Species and Marine Mammal Protection Acts, part of which regulate the transport of endangered animals. Authorization to move her will take time, as authorities must approve that her health and wellbeing will remain stable upon re-release (Whaley and Borkowski 2009). Likewise, obtaining a permit and ensuring that no laws are

Given the hurdles associated with captive animal release, why do we go through the effort? Animal well-being is the most-cited reason. Wild animals thrive in their natural habitats and with populations of their own species. Though zoos and aquariums provide critical care to injured and sick animals, reintroduction, if possible, is crucial. Captive animal release is also crucial to species conservation. As climate change persists and wild animal populations decline, the need for translocation and reintroduction efforts only grows (Walker 2022). Conservation success stories like that of the California condors prove that reintroduction success is possible (Marcy 2020). For the endangered Southern Resident Killer Whales, every individual in the Salish Sea matters and is critical to the survival of the ecotype. Long-term monitoring of re-released animals, educating the public and collaboration between zoos and aquariums with conservation biologists is necessary. Despite the time, funds, and numerous biological and legal considerations required to release captive animals, the benefts of returning captive animals to the wild are invaluable.

PHOTO Tokitae, also known as “Lolita,” performs in a Miami Seaquarium show in 2011. Photo from Wikipedia Commons.

PHOTO A Southern Resident Killer Whale pod swimming. Photo from NOAA Fisheries West Coast.

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CHEMICAL CATASTROPHE: A LOOK AT THE RECENT DEVASTATING CHEMICAL SPILLS IN EAST PALESTINE, OHIO

BY LING TSIANG

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AJOT. 2019. Railroads are USA’s most proftable industry with a 50% proft margin. American Journal of Transportation https://ajot.com/news/railroads-are-usasmost-proftable-industry-with-a-50-proft-margin

Beier, J. 2023. How vinyl chloride, chemical released in the Ohio train derailment, can damage the liver – it’s used to make PVC plastics. University of Pittsburgh Department of Medicine https://dom.pitt.edu/how-vinyl-chloride-chemicalreleased-in-the-ohio-train-derailment-can-damage-the-liver-its-used-to-makepvc-plastics/

Buck, M. 2022. How America’s supply chains got railroaded. The American Prospect https://prospect.org/economy/how-americas-supply-chains-got-railroaded/

CBS News. 2023. Timeline: The toxic chemical train derailment in Ohio. CBS News https://www.cbsnews.com/news/timeline-east-palestine-ohio-train-derailmentchemicals-evacuations/

DeCarlo, Pete. Interview. Conducted by Steve Inskeep. Residents near the train derailment are told it’s safe to go home. Is it? February 16, 2023. NPR https:// www.npr.org/2023/02/16/1157398961/residents-near-the-train-derailmentare-told-its-safe-to-go-home-is-it

Gardner, E. 2023. Norfolk Southern boosted shareholder payouts 4,500%, slashed workforce 33% prior to Ohio Disaster. Perfect Union https://perfectunion. us/norfolk-southern-boosted-shareholder-payouts-4500-slashed-workforce33-prior-to-ohio-disaster/#:~:text=More%20Perfect%20Union-,Norfolk%20 Southern%20Boosted%20Shareholder%20Payouts%204%2C500%25%2C%20 Slashed%20Workforce%2033%25,are%20falling%20off%20the%20 train.%E2%80%9D

Hauser, C. 2023. How the Ohio train derailment and its aftermath unfolded. New York Times https://www.nytimes.com/article/ohio-train-derailment-timeline.html

Kaplan, M. 2023. Excess size caused train to break down in days before it derailed in Ohio, employees say. CBS News https://www.cbsnews.com/news/ohio-trainderailment-east-palestine-norfolk-southern-excess-size/

Marsh, J. 2023. Union group pushes for passage of rail safety bill. Freight Waves https://www.freightwaves.com/news/union-group-pushes-for-passageof-rail-safety-bill#:~:text=Rail%20union%20representatives%20are%20 poised,rail%20cars%2C%20locomotives%20and%20brakes.

Marusic, K. 2023. EPA Discloses additional, concerning chemicals released during train derailment in East Palestine, Ohio. Earth Island Journal https://www. earthisland.org/journal/index.php/articles/entry/epa-chemicals-trainderailment-in-east-palestine-ohio/P48

Sirota, D., Rock, J., Burns, R., and Cunningham-Cook, M. 2023. Rail companies blocked safety rules before Ohio derailment. Lever News https://www. levernews.com/rail-companies-blocked-safety-rules-before-ohioderailment/#:~:text=Before%20this%20weekend’s%20fery%20 Norfolk,documents%20reviewed%20by%20The%20Lever.

Yee, A. 2023. Poisoning America for proft: A brief history of Norfolk Southern’s greed. Liberation News https://www.liberationnews.org/poisoning-america-for-profta-brief-history-of-norfolk-southerns-greed/

REGENERATIVE RANCHING: FOSTERING A RECIPORICAL RELATIONSHIP WITH NATURE

BY KYLIE BAKER AND LAUREN GREENLEAF

Elzinga, G., Elzinga, C. 2022. Regenerative. Alderspring Ranch (blog). https://www.alderspring.com/regenerative/ Ersek, K. (2022, May 12). 5 Principles Of Regenerative Agriculture. Holganix. https:// www.holganix.com/blog/5-principles-of-regenerative-agriculture Fenster, T.L.D., LaCanne, C.E., Pecenka, J.R., Schmid, R.B., Bredeson, M.M., Busenitz, K.M., Michels, A.M., Welch, K.D., and Lundgren, J.G. 2021. Defning and validating regenerative farm systems using a composite of ranked agricultural practices. F1000Research. 10: 115. doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.28450.1

Ruddy, B.C., Lorenz, D.L., and Mueller, D.K. 2006. County-Level estimates of nutrient inputs to the land surface of the conterminous United States, 1982–2001: USGS Scientifc Investigations Report 2006-5012.

Ryan, B. (2021, October 31). Keeping cattle on the move and carbon in the soil. The New York Times https://www.nytimes.com/2021/10/31/climate/cows-grasslandcarbon.html

Teal tag. Teal Enterprises. (n.d.). https://www.tealenterprises.org/teal-tag

Water Sources Mission Area, USGS. 2019. Agricultural contaminants. USGS Science

CREATING A SUSTAINABLE CAMPUS: UW RSOs AS CHANGEMAKERS

BY GRACIA ANDERSON

Moss, R. (2023, May 21). UW students chain themselves to power plant, seeking climate action. The Seattle Times https://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/ environment/uw-students-chain-themselves-to-power-plant-seeking-climateaction/

TOKITAE: A CASE STUDY IN THE CHALLENGES OF CAPTIVE ANIMAL RELEASE

BY REESE BROWERS AND LAUREN GRADY

Daszak, P., Cunningham, A.A., and Hyatt, A.D. 2000. Emerging infectious diseases of wildlife-- threats to biodiversity and human health. Science. 287(5452): 443–449. doi.org/10.1126/science.287.5452.443

Johnson, G. (2023, April 4). Caregivers: Returning orca lolita to northwest is risky. AP NEWS https://apnews.com/article/lolita-tokitae-free-willy-orca-killer-whale-19bf 64fc234e0fe15a46c9a79a346738

Marcy, K. (2020, November 13). Why zoos and Aquariums are benefcial. Association of Zoos & Aquariums https://www.aza.org/connect-stories/stories/benefts-ofzoos?locale=en

McDougall, P.T., Réale, D., Sol, D., and Reader, S.M. 2006. Wildlife conservation and animal temperament: Causes and consequences of evolutionary change for captive, reintroduced, and wild populations. Animal Conservation. 9(1): 39–48. doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-1795.2005.00004.x

Walker, E.H., Verschueren, S., Schmidt-Küntzel, A., and Marker, L. 2022. Recommendations for the rehabilitation and release of wild-born, captive-raised cheetahs: The importance of pre- and post-release management for optimizing survival. Oryx. 56(4): 495–504. doi.org/10.1017/s0030605321000235

Whaley, J.E., and Borkowski, R. (1970, January 1). Best practices for marine mammal response, rehabilitation and release: Standards for release. Repository OceanBestPractices https://repository.oceanbestpractices.org/ handle/11329/501