Academic Preparation Lux2015

Luxembourg 2015 – Academic Preparation Introduction ................................................................................................................ 2 COMMITTEE ON ENVIRONMENT, PUBLIC HEALTH AND FOOD SAFETY I (ENVI I) ..... 4 COMMITTEE ON HUMAN RIGHTS (DROI) .................................................................. 9 COMMITTEE ON EMPLOYMENT AND SOCIAL AFFAIRS (EMPL) ............................... 15 COMMITTEE ON WOMEN’S RIGHTS AND GENDER EQUALITY I (FEMM I) .............. 21 COMMITTEE ON ENVIRONMENT, PUBLIC HEALTH AND FOOD SAFETY II (ENVI II) . 26 COMMITTEE ON CONSTITUTIONAL AFFAIRS (AFCO) ............................................... 31 COMMITTEE ON ECONOMIC AND MONETARY AFFAIRS (ECON) ............................ 35 COMMITTEE ON INDUSTRY, RESEARCH AND ENERGY (ITRE) .................................. 39 COMMITTEE ON WOMEN’S RIGHTS AND GENDER EQUALITY II (FEMM II) ............ 45

1

Introduction To make the most of the discussions at Luxembourg 2015 and to create a solid resolution with your committee, you will have to spend some time preparing: as a basis for that, this Academic Preparation Kit contains a topic overview for each of the 6 topics which will be discussed. These introductions were written by your committee chairpersons and will help you understand the topic and provide a starting point for your own research. The overviews are merely a guidance towards which parameters need to be investigated further. They should be seen as the foundation, which will enable you to continue your work towards a great resolution. – To get there however, you need to research your topic even further. The overview and the links provided alone, will not provide you with adequate information that will allow you to constructively contribute during committee and GA.

In each one, you will find the following: Definitions and Key Words – some central terms, which will help you research information on your topic, be it in news, documents or search engines.

Social Relevance of the Topic -­‐ The explanation of the problem positions your topic in current European polititics and the greater scope of things. What is the wider context of your topic? Why does it matter?

Main Conflicts – Every topic has a number of inherent conflicts that you will need to assess as a committee. How are the different aspects interlinked, how do they interact? You should not immediately take position for yourself at this point, but understand the dynamics of the topic to a maximum.

Stakeholders – Every topic touches upon a certain number of actors and agents linked to the issue. In order to address a political problem correctly, a very important basic condition is to know which actors are competent in what regard.

Legislative Background -­‐ Measures already in place -­‐There’s no need to reinvent the wheel!

Knowing what policies and institutions are already in place is central in your preparation and will result in a much better resolution.

2

Relevant Links – You will also find links to more information throughout the overview. The links provided are some more food for thought and an assistance for your research’s starting point. Remember that the overview is meant as a basis for you to go and do your own research!

Useful links outside the immediate topic preparation

Here you will find some documents that will help you with your understanding of the European Union, and by so understanding the broader context and framework you will be operating in.

We most definitely recommend looking into the EU Institutional triangle, and taking a look at this TED video about public speaking. Likewise, remember that the session is about exchanging ideas and opinions, to stay open-­‐minded about having your existing conceptions challenged, and to engage in constructive discussion. You will get most out of this experience if you allow yourself to take on new perspectives, and see things in the bigger picture.

i) Excellent guide to the EU, its competencies, legislation, etcetc ii) EU fact-­‐sheets (complex issues presented in easy to understand language) iii) Remember that there exists simple.wikipedia.com, for when you need a simplistic explanation of a complex topic: example EU)

Regarding the discussion-­‐phase itself, we believe this guide to be of great use to remember when things get heated: • Demonstrate mutual respect at all times.

• Criticize ideas, not people.

• Remember that they, as people, are not being criticized, just the ideas they're putting forwards at the time.

• Focus on good decision-­‐making, not winning.

• Listen actively, and ask for clarification when necessary.

• Commit to understanding all sides of an issue.

• Are willing to change positions when the evidence suggests it's necessary.

• Use rational arguments, including inductive and deductive logic, and draw conclusions based on evidence and well-­‐structured reasoning.

In case of any doubt, please don’t hesitate to contact your chairs-­‐ Ask for help before its ‘’too late’’. Good luck!

3

COMMITTEE ON ENVIRONMENT, PUBLIC HEALTH AND FOOD SAFETY I (ENVI I)

By Anna Nichols (IE) With the inevitable melting of Arctic ice exposing unprecedented economic opportunities on the borders of the European Union, how should the EU best position itself in order to take advantage of these opportunities, whilst remaining environmentally responsible and maintaining political stability in the region?

Key Terms − Climate change: any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or as a result of human activity.1 − Sea-level rise (SLR): SLR results from an increase in ocean volume due to rising ocean water temperatures and increased inflow of melt-water from glaciers and ice-sheets, in particular the Greenland and west Antarctic ice sheets. Rising sea levels increase the likelihood of storm surges, enforce landward intrusion of salt water and endanger coastal ecosystems and wetlands.2 − Natural resource: A feature or component of the natural environment that is of value in serving human needs. Some natural resources have an economic value while others have a "noneconomic" value (eg scenic beauty).3 Social Relevance Despite the negative consequences of melting ice, such as self-accelerated climate change and threats to biodiversity, the disappearance of Arctic ice presents a number of significant opportunities for the EU. A decrease in ice has greatly increased the feasibility of using shipping routes such as the Northern Sea Route (NSR) across the 1 2 3

http://glossary.eea.europa.eu/EEAGlossary/C/climate_change. http://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/indicators/sea-level-rise. http://glossary.eea.europa.eu/terminology/concept_html?term=natural resource.

4

top of the Arctic Circle and Siberia, which cuts transport times from Western Europe to Eastern Asia by roughly a third. The change in landscape and climate provides great agricultural opportunities for Arctic states such as Greenland, who could increase their agricultural output, and decrease their reliance on external suppliers for food by 25%.4 Most importantly, however, the northern Barents Region is the richest region in Europe when it comes to natural resources - oil, gas, iron, ore and other minerals lie relatively unexploited in these areas.

Key Conflicts The potential exploitation of the abundance of natural resources in the Arctic, and the benefits for the regional and global economies that such exploitation would present poses a number of environmental problems and political problems for the EU. Taking advantage of mineral, oil and gas deposits is likely to upset the fragile and delicate nature of unique Arctic ecosystems, leading to the disappearance of struggling species such as the polar bear and the eradication of more niche habitats such as meltwater pools.5 Given that rapid climate change has largely been a man made problem, huge uncertainties exist surrounding how fast and extensive future changes would be, making it difficult to quantify the effects of further mineral exploitation.

Furthermore, the Arctic Circle was a likely location for a nuclear war outbreak for the duration of the Cold War, and some see potential for fresh conflict in the opening of increased transport and trade movement. A number of Arctic countries are reported to be remilitarising, with Norway shifting its military command centre to the Arctic town of Reitan in 2009, and Russia replacing and upgrading its six nuclear icebreakers.6 Although many argue that the generally clear demarcation of borders in Arctic Circle and the fact that most Arctic countries are members of NATO7 should eliminate most potential instability, increased use of the NSR and other shipping lanes, particularly by big Asian exporters such as China, Korea and Japan could complicate rights to territory and sea areas, compromising the current balance of relationships.

Stakeholders The most important groups with vested interests in the Arctic region include intergovernmental international institutions, large natural resource businesses, and the Arctic states themselves. Most crucially, in many of these bodies, the EU is 4

http://www.economist.com/node/21556798. http://www.endangered.org/the-disappearing-sea-ice-habitat-of-the-arctic/.

6 http://www.economist.com/node/21556798.

7 Russia, Finland and Sweden are the only Arctic countries who are not full members.

5

5

not necessarily one of the most significant players, and may struggle to fully capitalise on any economic opportunities that arise unless it reevaluates its stance in the region.

However, the EU is an integral destination of resources and goods from the Arctic region, meaning that many of its policies and regulations have implications for Arctic stakeholders.

The Arctic Council is the primary forum and leading regional body for cooperation, and is composed of eight Arctic permanent participants - the US, Canada, Russia, Finland, Sweden, Iceland, Norway and the Kingdom of Denmark, who represents Greenland and the Faroe Islands. However, the European Commission (EC) is not a permanent member or participant in the Arctic Council, as its application for observer status was deferred in May 2013.8 Although the EC is a full member of the Barents Euro-Arctic Council (BEAC), the chairmanship of the BEAC only rotates between Norway, Finland, Russia and Sweden,9 again limiting the EU’s clout as a representative for all its Member States’ energy interests.

Outside of these frameworks, many large oil and gas companies have been keenly watching the growing new market for resources in the Arctic, and are eager to exploit the region as soon as they can. Although extraction may not actually be possible for another 10 years, arrangements between companies have already been made, such as the $500 billion investment deal made between ExxonMobil and Russia’s Rosneft last April.10 The issuing of such an exploration license has yet to occur between any EU Member States and external companies, while the facilitation of such an agreement is made more difficult by the lack of coastal territories the EU currently has, though this may change if Iceland successfully becomes a full Member State, pending its accession application from 2009. Meanwhile, the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) is the United Nations specialised agency that is responsible for the safety and security of shipping and the prevention of marine pollution by ships, and is a crucial policymaker in the area of shipping law in the region.

Legislative Background The UN Convention on the Law of the Seas (UNCLOS) provides the legal basis for the shipping and ocean management regulations of all Arctic states, while its adoption of the Polar Code in November 2014 enhances the safety of ship operation and protection of the polar environment. However, the implementation of these policies is also likely to incentivise greater use of the NSR (which until 2010 had no

8

9

http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2013/04/no-european-union-membership-in-the-arctic-council http://www.beac.st/in-English/Barents-Euro-Arctic-Council

10

http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/09/29/rosneft-arctic-exxon-mobil-idUSL6N0RU07B20140929. Due to Rosneft’s involvement with the Ukraine conflict, this deal has currently been suspended.

6

more than 4 passings a year) and similar routes - this increase in traffic is likely to have unprecedented environmental and logistical ramifications for the region.11 The Kiruna Declaration 2013 of the Arctic Council12 is the piece of legislation that deferred the EU’s application for observer status, and is also significant for its consolidation of the first legally binding agreement made by the Arctic Council, the Agreement on Cooperation in Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue in the Arctic. The EU’s Arctic Policy is summarised in a Joint Communication document entitled ‘Developing a European Union Policy towards the Arctic Region: progress since 2008 and next steps’.13 The Joint Communication emphasises three crucial steps for the EU’s Arctic Policy - protecting and preserving the Arctic in unison with the population, promoting a sustainable use of resources, and fostering international cooperation. Since the Joint Communication’s release, the EC has recommended further attention to three key areas - supporting research and knowledge sharing to address environmental and climate change in the Arctic, acting responsibly to ensure that economic development in the Arctic is based on the sustainable use of resources and environmental expertise, and stepping up constructive engagement and dialogue with Arctic states, indigenous peoples and other partners.

Key Questions How can the EU improve its current stakeholder status in order to be able to fully exploit the resources riches of the Arctic when they become attainable?

• Can this be achieved without compromising its policy objectives for sustainable development and responsible stewardship of the Arctic ecosystem?

• How can these issues be balanced with current underlying power struggles in the region?

•

Research Links Putting the EU’s Arctic Policy into an international context: http://arcticreview.no/index.php/arctic/article/view/30/30 • Arctic Council Homepage- Read the member state profiles to understand each individual countries’ predominant interests: http://www.arcticcouncil.org/index.php/en/ • Interesting article warning of the economic, political and environmental problems posed by the melting ice caps: http://www.economist.com/node/21556798 •

11

http://www.thearcticinstitute.org/2014/10/NSR-Shipping-Report.html. http://www.arctic-council.org/index.php/en/document-archive/category/5declarations?download=1793:kiruna-declaration-signed-2013.

13 http://eeas.europa.eu/arctic_region/docs/join_2012_19.pdf.

12

7

EU Arctic Policy- it would also be helpful to read the various links at the bottom: http://eeas.europa.eu/arctic_region/index_en.htm • Most recent EU statement on Arctic Policy: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?type=TA&language=EN&ref erence=P7-TA-2014-0236 • Brief overview of the BEAC, a more detailed introductory pdf is at the bottom : http://www.beac.st/in-English/Barents-Euro-Arctic-Council/Introduction • Explaining the IMO and Polar Code: http://www.imo.org/MediaCentre/HotTopics/polar/Pages/default.aspx •

8

COMMITTEE ON HUMAN RIGHTS (DROI) The recent attacks on Charlie Hebdo highlighted the existing conflict between ensuring the right to the freedom of speech, all the while respecting the cultural sensitivities prevalent in European societies. What steps can the EU take to afford sufficient protection to minority groups, without compromising the freedom of the press?

By Michel Wirth (LU) and Daniels Grinevičs (LV)

Key Terms • Freedom of speech: the basic idea that every human being has the right to express any opinions without censorship. The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union defines it as: “Everyone has the right to freedom of expression. This right shall include freedom to hold opinions and to receive and impart information and ideas without interference by public authorities and regardless of frontiers.”

• Hate Speech: although there is no internationally agreement upon definition of hate speech, it usually refers to an expression which “is abusive, insulting, intimidating or harassing or which incites violence, hatred or discrimination against individuals or groups identified by a specific set of characteristics.”14 • Freedom of the press: closely related to the freedom of speech, it includes the ability to impart your ideas through such means as the written or audiovisual press. Recently the focus has shifted more to social media with web pages such as Twitter or Facebook.

14

Council of the European Union, (2014). EU Human Rights Guidelines on Freedom of Expression Online and Offline. Brussels.

9

Social Relevance The solidarity marches following the attacks on “Charlie Hébdo” united more than 3.7 million people solely in France 15 , an indication that freedom of opinion and expression is still a major concern for a large part of the society in the European Union (EU).

The attacks in Paris can be seen against the backdrop of earlier attempts to assassinate and intimidate journalists, cartoonist and film makers. The Dutch film maker Theo van Gogh was killed in 2004 after his film criticized the treatment of women in Islam16 and the editors of the Danish newspaper Jyllands Posten have been the target of numerous assassination attempts after publishing cartoons containing the Prophet Muhammad.17 It seems striking that most of these attacks have been carried out by people who belong to an ethnic or religious minority within their country. A notable exception to this “rule” is the attempted assassination of Larry Flynt in 1978.18 Even though the general consensus remains that these individuals do not represent the view of the overwhelming majority of the Muslims in Europe, some commentators have tried to explain the attacks as a consequence of a feeling of alienation and latent discrimination

15

Willsher, K., Topping, A. and Penketh, A. (2015). Paris anti-terror rally: all religions, ages and nations in massive show of unity. [online] the Guardian. Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jan/11/paris-france-anti-terror-rallymassive-show-unity [Accessed 14 Mar. 2015].

16 Smith, D. and Torres, L. (2006). Timeline: a history of free speech. [online] the Guardian. Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/media/2006/feb/05/religion.news [Accessed 14 Mar. 2015].

17 Associated Press, T. (2010). Norway: Admission in Bomb Plot Against a Danish Newspaper. [online] Nytimes.com. Available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/29/world/europe/29briefs-NORWAY.html?_r=0 [Accessed 14 Mar. 2015].

18 BBC News, (2013). Flynt: Don't execute man who shot me. [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-24579849 [Accessed 14 Mar. 2015].

10

of minority groups. The publications of cartoons with illustrations of the Prophet Mohammad are in their view only the tip of the iceberg.19 This interpretation of the events leads to the question whether the Member States are doing enough to protect the minorities within the EU. The protection of minorities is a cornerstone of the European values and enshrined under Article 21 and 22 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the EU: “The Union shall respect cultural, religious and linguistic diversity.” Do the cartoons with the image of Muhammad violate this principle or are these publications protected by the freedom of expression and opinion and, possibly the freedom of arts?

Conflicts Part of the problem has already been outlined, questioning if the publication by the press constitutes a discrimination against minority groups or not.

This is not the sole issue though, as there seems to be an inherent conflict among legal texts. The United Nations International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which has been ratified by all Member States of the EU illustrates this issue. It states simultaneously that: “Everyone shall have the right to hold opinions without interference”, and that: “Any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence shall be prohibited by law.” So the question arises that even if the cartoons were advocating discrimination, which of the aforementioned principles takes priority.

Many Muslim countries have accused Western countries of having double standards for free speech, pointing out that in many European countries the denial of the holocaust and anti-Semitic speech is illegal, whereas, from their point of view, islamophobia does not get tackled in the same way.20

19

Caglayan, M. (2015). Norman Finkelstein: Charlie Hebdo is sadism, not satire. [online] Aa.com.tr. Available at: http://www.aa.com.tr/en/s/452396--normanfinkelstein-charlie-hebdo-is-sadism-not-satire [Accessed 14 Mar. 2015].

20 Saletan, W. (2012). How Can We Ban Insults Against Jews but Not Muslims?. [online] Slate Magazine. Available at: http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/frame_game/2012/09/free_speech_v s_hate_speech_why_is_it_legal_to_insult_muslims_but_not_jews_.html [Accessed 14 Mar. 2015].

11

So whereas those countries seem to argue in favour of stronger restrictions of free speech, President Obama made it clear that “the strongest weapon against hateful speech is not repression; it is more speech.”21 Furthermore he also mentioned that in the interconnected world nowadays, with the modern technology, it seems nearly impossible to limit freedom of speech.

Stakeholders Religious groups are one of the main actors in the debate. Pope Francis, in reaction to the events in Paris, seems to have offered some understanding for the terrorists.22 In general, most religious leaders are stuck in a dilemma. On one hand they feel extremely offended by illustrations of their respective deities, but on the other hand, they cannot accept the assassinations.

Press organisations and other civil society organisation represent the other side of the debate. They are afraid that a further restriction of freedom of speech might path the way for restrictions in the future. Often these groups go even further in their recommendations and want, for example, the decriminalization of defamation.23 Arguably the European Commission, in its role as “the guardian of the Treaties”, has most at stake regarding our topic. In his state of the Union address in 2012, Barroso called for “a better set of instruments”24 to protect the European values mentioned in the treaties. This raises the question how these instruments could look like and whereas the idea of unitary instruments regarding freedom of speech is even applicable

21

The White House, (2012). Remarks by the President to the UN General Assembly. [online] Available at: https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-pressoffice/2012/09/25/remarks-president-un-general-assembly [Accessed 14 Mar. 2015].

22 The Economist, (2015). Mothers, punches and turning cheeks. [online] Available at: http://www.economist.com/blogs/erasmus/2015/01/christianity-and-freespeech [Accessed 15 Mar. 2015].

23 Harris, M. (2012). Time to step up: The EU and freedom of expression. [online] Indexoncensorship.org. Available at: http://www.indexoncensorship.org/2013/12/eureport/ [Accessed 15 Mar. 2015].

24 European Commission, (2012). State of the Union 2012 Address. [online] Available at: http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_SPEECH-12-596_en.htm [Accessed 15 Mar. 2015].

12

considering all the different national legislation, which exists at this point (e.g. in some countries the denial of communist crimes is illegal25).

Legislative Background Surprisingly little international and European legislation has so far been passed on freedom of speech. In 1976, the UN International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights26 came into force. This treaty has been ratified by all Member States of the EU and is hence legally binding. The potential conflicts in the Treaty have already been pointed out under section three. The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the EU27 has first been ratified in 2000, but became official binding with the adaptation of the Treaty of Lisbon in 2009. It defines the political, economic and social rights of citizens of the EU, among them the Freedom of Expression and the Freedom of the arts. An important piece of legislation is Framework decision 2008/913/JHA of 28 November 200828 on combating certain forms of racism and xenophobia by means of criminal law. It gives a clear outline what forms of speech should be outlawed in the member states.

Key Questions • What, if any, limitations on free speech should there exist within the EU? • Should the EU have a position on laws that criminalise individuals who intentionally offend religious feelings? And if yes, what should this position be?

• Are the national laws that have been past to limit freedom of speech (e.g. holocaust denial, defamation) part of the problem or part of the solution?

• To what extent can legislation regarding freedom of speech be effective in a society that is so interconnected with Internet and social media?

25

BBC News, (2010). EU won't legislate on communist crimes. [online] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-12059475 [Accessed 15 Mar. 2015].

26 https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volume%20999/volume-999-I14668-English.pdf 27 http://www.europarl.europa.eu/charter/pdf/text_en.pdf 28 http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2008:328:0055:0058:EN:PDF

13

Research Links • Index on censorship is a non-profit organisation that favours a more absolute position on free speech. This link contains the recommendation the organisation made to the European Union regarding its laws on freedom of speech: http://www.indexoncensorship.org/2013/12/eureport/ • A brief timeline on how freedom of speech has developed over the years: http://www.theguardian.com/media/2006/feb/05/religion.news • Short journal article arguing for some basic limitations on freedom of speech, while also providing a summary of the actions which had been undertaken by the European Union until that point (Pay attention to the fact that the article was published in 2009), the other articles in the journal may be worth reading as well: http://amsterdamlawforum.org/article/view/104/186 • Article in The Economist which makes a summary of the current threats faced by free speech, while possibly indicating a double standards in Western countries: http://www.economist.com/news/international/21640324-reactions-parisattacks-highlight-threats-free-expression-around-world

14

COMMITTEE ON EMPLOYMENT AND SOCIAL AFFAIRS (EMPL) Whilst the rate of youth unemployment across the EU-28 stands on average at 22%, many Member States, despite having many job vacancies, experience a skills mismatch within their internal labor market. What steps can the EU take to facilitate a more efficient alignment of skills held by young people, to the jobs that are available in contemporary economies?

By: Olga Prisyazhnyuk (RU) and Siebe Geerts (BE)

Key Terms:

• Youth unemployment: unemployment of youth, defined by the UN aged 15 to 24. This includes those who are and are not actively searching for a job.

• Skills mismatch: gap between an individual’s work skills and the job

• • • •

•

requirements within the labour market. There is a horizontal mismatch wherein level of study does not match the job demands (over- or underqualification) and a vertical mismatch where the type of skills is inappropriate to the job requirements29.

Labour mobility: movement of people from one job to another regardless of geographical location30,31.

Vocational training: a special training aimed to train someone for a certain job.

NEETs: people who are Not in Education, Employment or Training.

Brain drain: emigration of intelligent, well-educated individuals to another country for better pay or work conditions, resulting in a loss of skilled people in the origin country.

Push and pull factors: factors that either push or pull someone to go work on a new location.

29

A brief explanation on skills mismatch: Skills Mismatch An explanation of the positive and negative aspects of labour mobility within the EU: Intra-EU Labour Mobility 31 Speech by László Andor about the advantages and disadvantages of intra EU labour mobility: http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_SPEECH-14-622_en.htm 30

15

• Internal labour market (ILM): system by which a company looks inside its

own firm to find a suitable employee for junior positions, instead of giving it to one from outside the company.

Social Relevance

With unemployment rates of 53.5 % in Spain, 49.8% in Greece and 34.5% in Portugal amongst youngsters aged 15-24 32 , the European Union (EU) and its southern Member States, such as Spain, Portugal and Greece, struggle with employing its youth. However, not only southern Member States are affected, considering that the number of young unemployed citizens has increased with 60% in the United Kingdom between 2004 and 201433.

The problem with youth unemployment is that it affects society in an economic and fiscal way. Since those without a job do not contribute to the social security system nor pay their taxes, national governments receive a lower income. Adding up to this, young unemployed often benefit from social assistance, meaning that they become a financial burden to their government. Therefore society suffers from lower consumption, lost productivity and a higher financial investment.

It also has an effect on a social level knowing that the longer people remain unemployed, the more they become alienated from society and the labour market.

Accordingly this so called ‘lost generation’ is an easy prey to poverty and social exclusion.

One of the main reasons for increased unemployment rates is skills mismatch34.

Even though education levels have been on the rise and the quality of skill supply has increased, competences have failed to keep pace with job requirements long before the crisis, and the situation only worsened ever since. Additionally, despite high unemployment rates, about one third of enterprises in the EU regions are unable to meet their needs for labour and skill requirements because employees are either under or over skilled for their jobs, resulting in a loss of the resources invested to acquire those skills.

Highly affected by this and the increased competition in the labour market due to raised working ages and a lack of proven experience, many young Europeans struggle with the tough decision to face a jobless future in their home country or

32

http://www.statista.com/statistics/266228/youth-unemployment-rate-in-eu-countries/

A clear overview of youth unemployment rates within the EU countries: Youth unemployment rate in EU countries 33

34

Summary of a World Summit in Davos: https://efareport.wordpress.com/2012/01/31/youth-jobscrisis-pushes-eu-to-address-skills-mismatch/

16

leave all behind to find work abroad. Thereby intra-EU labour mobility is on the rise, particularly in southern MS where youth is driven by push-factors such as high unemployment rates and worsening political environments. Consequently some MS are left with a brain drain, losing their high-educated youth.

Conflicts

Since the start of economic crisis youth unemployment has been on the rise.

However, southern and peripheral States of the euro area such as Spain and Hungary have been affected severely while employment has increased in others such as the Baltics and Ireland. This confirms a growing divergence amongst MS. Additionally Germany and Austria have reported labour shortages35 while millions are unemployed at all levels of skills and education within southern European countries, clearly showing the regional unbalance in employment that exists in Europe.

Pushed by high unemployment rates and helped by the freedom of movement between MS, youth within the affected EU States leave their home country in search for a job abroad in countries with a more stable economy. Consequently, it becomes more difficult for countries like Spain, Greece and Portugal to achieve economic recovery because of the loss of their talented and high-educated youth. Therefore, although the host-countries benefit from this labour mobility, origin countries suffer from brain drain.

A last level of conflict is the difficult transition between education and the labour market due to a skills mismatch. Graduated students often fail at meeting the skills and job requirements set out by enterprises. Employees are, therefore, often over- or under skilled which results in lack of appreciation for their job and a negative effect on productivity levels for enterprises. On the level of firms, they struggle reaching their full work potential and fail to reach their job requirements. Accordingly, educational systems and enterprises within the labour market are not adjusted to each other.

Stakeholders

Since we are talking about youth unemployment, it is clear that young people at the age of 15-24 are one of the main stakeholders in this topic. In order to tackle this problem the European Union actively supports Member States in implementing the

35

http://www.ceps.eu/taskforce/labour-mobility-eu

17

Youth Guarantee 36 , an initiative that was launched by the Committee on Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion 37 within the European Commission (EC)38.

The national governments of EU Member States are also an important stakeholder since they suffer from youth unemployed in many ways. Due to the high unemployment rates, some States that are affected deeply by the economic crisis, struggle to recover economically, therefore they have key interests in tackling youth unemployment.

However, Educational institutions of all levels are also directly involved since they are responsible to help providing youth with the competences to meet the skill requirements to enable them finding a job. Through having a high unemployment rate of its graduates, institutions lose credibility and suffer from reduction of funding from the National Governments.

The lack of skilled workers within Member States makes it very difficult for enterprises and firms to reach their full work potential. Especially considering that labour mobility is still on a low level, countries such as Germany and Austria struggle with labour shortages and their firms fail at satisfying their job requirements amongst local workers.

Legislative Background

The Youth Employment Package (YEP) is part of the Employment package39 and is a package of measures aiming at tackling the high youth unemployment by improving the access to the labour market and facilitate the school-to-work transition for young citizens. The European Alliance for apprenticeships that strives to improve the quality and supply of apprenticeships by spreading successful apprenticeship schemes across MS and reducing obstacles to intra-EU mobility, is part of the YEP.

The Youth Guarantee Scheme40,41 is introduced within the YEP and is based on the national scheme in Finland. It starts from the idea that no young person should be left unemployed or inactive for longer than four months. Thereby it proposes a quick

36

chapter 5 on the Legislative background A summary of the speech by Marianne Thyssen, the Commissioner for Employment, Social Affairs, Skills and Labour Mobility: http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_SPEECH-15-3500_en.htm 38 Key actions by the European Commission on Employment, Social Affairs & Inclusion to tackle youth unemployment: http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1036 39 http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1039 40 http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1079&langId=en 41 A short video explaining results of the Youth Guarantee Scheme: Youth Guarantee Scheme 37

18

way towards a job by combining short-term measures with long-term reforms to educational institutions, improved public employment services and job creation. The Youth Guarantee is adapted to the individual need of each MS and therefore functions different within each EU country. The YEP is reinforced by the Youth Employment Initiative (YEI) 42 , 43 which supports young NEET’s in regions with high unemployment rates by integrating them into the labour market.

The main responsible for investment in Europe’s workers is the European Social Fund (ESF)44,45 that works closely with the YEI. As part of the Europe 2020 Strategy its priority is to support people receiving decent job opportunities by boosting the adaptability of workers with new skills, improving the transition between education and the labour market, and improving less-skilled workers job prospects through vocational training and lifelong learning opportunities.

To help Europe’s youth with education and employability across the borders of their home countries, Youth on the Move46 sets a range of policy initiatives in line with the EU 2020 Strategy to achieve 75% employment rate for the working age population by making education and training more relevant for young people’s needs, encouraging them to benefit from grants to study, work or train abroad, and by helping EU countries to simplify the transition from education to work.

In close cooperation with Youth on the Move, ‘Your first EURES job’ initiative47 helps citizens aged 18 to 30 finding employment abroad by combining customised jobmatching and job placement services and financial contributions for travel expenses for job interviews and pre-job training.

To help youth filling the 2 million job vacancies that exist within Europe, the EU Skills Panorama 48 is a website launched by the European Commission (EC) that presents quantitative and qualitative information on short- and medium-term skills needs, skills supply and -mismatches provided sector by sector, profession by profession and country by country.

42

http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?langId=nl&catId=89&newsId=1829 Euractiv on how funds for the Youth Employment Initiative are allocated: Funds youth employment Initiative 44 http://ec.europa.eu/esf/main.jsp?catId=35&langId=en 45 A short video on the European Social Fund: http://ec.europa.eu/avservices/video/player.cfm?ref=I071595 43

46

http://ec.europa.eu/youthonthemove/about/index_en.htm https://ec.europa.eu/eures/main.jsp?catId=27&acro=eures&lang=en 48 http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?langId=en&catId=89&newsId=1753&furtherNews=yes 47

19

The last measurement in place is the Bologna Process49 which is a collective effort of education systems, international and national authorities, hiring companies, and students that aims to better adjust education and qualification systems on a European level in order to facilitate education and employment abroad. Erasmus builds on this process to enable European students to enroll in internships and to study abroad through financial reimbursements and scholarships.

Key questions

● What are the roots of the “skills mismatch”? ● Is the scale of the youth-unemployment problem in Europe a result of lack of jobs, lack of skills, or lack of coordination? ● What are the obstacles that youth face on their journey from education to employment? ● What policies are needed to close the skills gap? ● How to create an efficient alignment of skills in the contemporary economy? ● Which role should enterprises play to help facilitating the transition from education to the labour market?

Research Links

• An explanatory video about the benefits of solving the skills mismatch: video: Solving Skills Mismatch • An explanation of the transition between education and employment: Education to Employment • An insight into types of skills mismatch defined by the European Center for the Development of Vocational Training: different types of skills mismatch • Chapter 1-3 of the Social Europe guide pose a great view of past and recent initiatives to tackle youth unemployment. Employment policy beyond the crisis • Jörg Asmussen talks about his view on the lost generation Essay on the lost generation

49

The Bologna Process and the European Higher Education Area: who, what, why: http://ec.europa.eu/education/policy/higher-education/bologna-process_en.htm

20

COMMITTEE ON WOMEN’S RIGHTS AND GENDER EQUALITY I (FEMM I) Whilst the female population of Europe is estimated at 51.8%, the amount of women holding an elected national political position in Member States is far lower, standing at just approximately 27%. How can the EU best seek to generate equal political representation throughout the Union whilst respecting the need for open access to political office?

By Olivier Lanoo (BE)

Key Terms

− Gender equality: It is reached when men and women are treated in the same way and are granted the same rights and opportunities in all aspects of society.

− Gender balance zone: When a country’s government contains 40 to 60% women, it is in the gender balance zone.

− Electoral gender quotas: A mechanism to tackle the issue of women’s underrepresentation in elected political office and reach a gender balance in political institutions by using gender quotas on electoral lists.

− Gendered social roles: The result of one gender pushed into a position because of socio-cultural factors, media representation or traditions, that leads to gendered social expectations. An example would be the perception that women cannot compete with men on equal terms in time-consuming fields because of their domestic responsibilities.

Social Relevance

21

Female underrepresentation in political office distorts democratic representation with possible consequences for women’s rights and wellbeing. This relates to the theory that women in legislatives are more likely than men to have a policy impact that benefits other women and promote gender equality in general. Currently only 27% of MP’s and senior ministers in the EU and only 17% of the members of the European Council are women, despite the fact that women make up 51,8% of the population and are higher educated than men. This adds up to 24,8% of all women in the EU holding a tertiary education degree compared to 22,4% of men.50.

When a society has a good gender balance in its legislative bodies the quality of its democracy improves and women’s rights are more secured. The opposite of this is a vicious cycle; a distorted gender balance in politics is an obstacle itself for women’s political careers. When few women hold elected office, it won’t encourage other women to run for office. Women who get elected serve as an example for others and will stimulate political participation amongst women. It is for this reason, many female MP’s turn to other women in their position for mentoring.

Gendered social roles and expectations contribute to the high entry barriers for women in electoral competition. This results in an ambition gap at a young age already, between men and women.51 Misrepresentation of women in the media and socio-economic and cultural traditions also contribute highly to this issue.

Conflicts Governance is considered as one of the hardest stages in society to achieve gender equality; it first has to be reached in education, the labour market, family life, etc.

Sweden is a good example of this; it has the highest rate of women in Parliament in the EU (40%). The country has a welfare system that supports women strongly: cheap childcare, sex neutral parental leave and generous parental leave insurances. This has resulted in high workforce participation of women.52 Combined with a secular society, many women in higher education and influential feminist organisations created the

50

http://inequalitywatch.eu/spip.php?article80&lang=en http://www.womeninparliaments.org/wpcontent/uploads/2015/01/Final_13012015_The-Female-Political-Career.pdf 52 http://gup.ub.gu.se/records/fulltext/162723/162723.pdf 51

22

perfect environment for women in politics.53 However, since this is a process that took decades, many countries and parties have adopted electoral gender quotas to speed things up. The effects of the quotas are visible; in countries with legal quotas the number of women in parliament increase about four times as much in comparison to countries with no quotas at all. Critics of legal quotas often say electoral quotas harm democracy as they undermine the selection of candidates merely on merit. They prefer the ‘natural’ method, such as in Sweden, which has no legal quota system.

Maintaining the traditional open access-element of democracy whilst at the same time taking measures to increase female political participation is the biggest conflict of this issue.

Stakeholders When it comes to actually implementing quotas, only national governments and political parties have the ability to do this. Furthermore, it is also these two that can strongly influence public opinion regarding women’s emancipation, together with the media. Other than that, there are important women’s rights organisations that advocate for equal political representation. Women In Parliament (WIP) for example, is an organization that links 9000 female MP’s all over the world to record and share the experiences of female legislatures with each other and the world. Another one is the European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE), an EU-organization that uses education and campaigns to promote gender equality in the EU. The European Commission (EC) has put gender equality on its agenda and has several programs about it running at the moment. The EC is very aware of the importance of networking and mentoring for female MP’s, which reflects on its policies.

Legislative Background

− Article 23 of Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union states that “Equality between men and women must be ensured in all areas” and that ”the principle of equality shall not prevent the maintenance or adoption of

53

www.legislationline.org/documents/id/18893

23

measures providing for specific advantages in favour of the under-represented sex.” 54

− The European Commission’s “Strategy for equality between men and women” includes a specific program to promote gender equality in decisionmaking positions and keep the issue on the political agenda of the EU. 55

− Currently nineteen EU countries use electoral gender quotas to improve gender parity on candidate lists. These can be either legal quotas or voluntary party quotas. When designing a quota system, a government or party has to consider the electoral system in place, possible sanctions for non-compliance, the fixed percentage for the quota, rank-order rules and in which source of law the quotas are secured.56

− The Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, adopted by the UN in 1995 includes a specific objective for ‘Women in power and decision-making’. This was a huge women’s rights conference of the UN, which resulted in the most progressive blueprint for women’s emancipation of the 20th century.57 Apart from this Declaration, promoting Gender Equality has been adopted as one of the UN Millennium Goals.

Key Questions

− If the EU promotes electoral quotas, which system should it chose to promote, keeping in mind the vast differences in electoral system in the MS?

− What alternatives to quotas are there to achieve gender balance in elected political office?

54

http://www.europarl.europa.eu/charter/pdf/text_en.pdf http://ec.europa.eu/justice/gender-equality/gender-decisionmaking/index_en.htm 56 http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/note/join/2013/493011/IPOLFEMM_NT(2013)493011_EN.pdf 57 http://beijing20.unwomen.org/en/about 55

24

− In which other fields of society can the EU strive for more gender equality which will have a positive effect on women’s political representation and how?

Research Links

− Paper of the European Parliament about the different systems of electoral gender quotas currently in place in the MS and their results: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/note/join/2013/493011/IPOLFEMM_NT(2013)493011_EN.pdf

− The International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance explains how a government can create an effective quota system: http://www.idea.int/publications/atlas-of-electoral-genderquotas/upload/Atlas-on-Electoral-Gender-Quotas_3.pdf

− The WIP and the World Bank have joint forces to launch a survey for MP’s.

The result is this paper, which illustrates the struggles of female politicians in their careers: http://www.womeninparliaments.org/wpcontent/uploads/2015/01/Final_13012015_The-Female-Political-Career.pdf

− Overview of the current situation of the gender balance in leadership positions in the EU: http://ec.europa.eu/justice/genderequality/files/gender_balance_decision_making/131011_women_men_leaders hip_en.pdf

− The OSCE created a six-step action plan together with Harvard University and Washington University to create gender equality in political office: http://www.osce.org/odihr/78432?download=true

25

COMMITTEE ON ENVIRONMENT, PUBLIC HEALTH AND FOOD SAFETY II (ENVI II) Shaping a European waste policy and the challenge of growing waste volumes: how can Member States take advantage of their high consumption rates and move towards a more efficient recycling process?

By Zoë Brunner (CH) and Paulius Dovidavicius (LT) Key Terms: − Waste - Any substance or object which is intended for discarding. − Municipal waste - Waste generated by households or commerce; 14% of the waste stream. − European waste policy - The EU aims at protecting the environment and human health through the prevention of the harmful effects of waste generation and waste management.58 − Waste-Prevention/-Minimisation - Eliminating or reducing the quantity of waste produced, thus reducing the quantity of waste that must be managed.59 − Recycling - Any recovery operation by which waste materials are reprocessed into products, materials or substances for the original or other purposes. − Re-use - The use of a product on multiple occasions, for the same or for a different purpose, without the need for reprocessing. This avoids discarding a material into a waste stream. − Waste management - The collection, transport, recovery and disposal of waste, including the supervision and after-care of disposal sites as well as actions taken

58

http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/environment/waste_management/ev0010_en.htm; Summary by the European Commission 59

Prevention can take the form of reducing the quantities of materials used in a process or reducing the quantity of harmful materials which may be contained in a product

26

as a dealer or broker.

Social Relevance The concept seems rather simple - more consumption equals more waste. We often buy more than we need, which increases the amount of food scraps (12.5% of municipal waste), excessive packaging (17%) and electronic scrap (4%; expected growth is 3-5% per year)60, to name a few.61 The effects the growing amounts of waste have are not so simple. One effect are landfills; not only do they contribute to the deterioration of the landscape, they also emit significant amounts of methane 62 . If hazardous waste is not disposed of correctly and is instead unloaded in a landfill, it can pollute waterways that in turn can have serious effects on the human health.

Additionally, the source of waste can be natural resources such as fossil fuels (plastic), ore (metals) and wood (paper, carton). Preventing waste, especially from nonrenewable resources, is highly important both environmentally and economically in the long term. Appropriate waste management is therefore in everybody’s interest.

As the European Parliament suggests, waste management can be improved, both on an individual and Member-State-wide level, by focusing on three aspects: waste prevention/minimisation, re-use and recycling.

Conflicts The Environmental Data Centre on Waste estimates that every person uses 16 tonnes of material per year, which result in some 2.5 billion tonnes of waste in all EU Member States. Only around one third of the produced waste is recycled. This leaves the remaining two thirds in question: Where do they go? A lot of the time, the answer to this question simply is: to landfills, which not only use up a lot of valuable space but also intoxicate the environment.

60

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Municipal Solid Waste Generation, Recycling and Disposal in the United States: Facts and Figures 2007. Figure 6.

61

Comprehensible introduction to the types of waste and their effects: http://scp.eionet.europa.eu/themes/waste 62

Methane (CH4): The second most prevalent greenhouse gas emitted. It stays in the atmosphere for a significantly shorter time period than CO2, however it traps radiation 21 times more efficiently than CO2. Methane is therefore associated with global warming.

27

However, landfills and the damage they cause are only a fraction of the issues the EU faces while working towards its goals for 2020. Recycling does not come without a cost.

Ever since the New York Times published an article called “Recycling is Garbage”63 in 1996, the cost-benefit discussion of recycling really started. Even today, the main issues critics have with the concept of ‘recycling instead of restarting’ concern the environmental and financial benefit of it. Truth is, most kerbside recycling 64 programs are not financially self-sustaining. The costs of waste management often exceed the benefit. Additionally, the transport and processing of waste product further pollutes the environment65, creating a feedback loop with negative effects. This costbenefit problem is what keeps us from re-using and recycling the other two thirds.

On the other hand, recycling advocates argue that the process preserves natural resources. Recycling aluminium, for example, can reduce energy consumption by 95%66. The energy that is saved by avoiding the extraction of minerals from ore is cost (e.g. fossil fuel) that can be evaded.

To summarize, the “life of waste” can be imagined in a branch-like system: a user67 produces waste. This waste then is either recycled, re-used or simply disposed. This generates cost and requires the use of energy. The effort of moving towards more energy- and cost-efficient waste management targets all of these areas.

Stakeholders There are several stakeholders in the issue, each of which has a significant interest in the progression of the problem.

From a European viewpoint, there is the European Environment Agency68. It is their task to provide accurate and independent information concerning development, implementation and evaluation of the environmental policy. Since they mirror the 63

http://www.nytimes.com/1996/06/30/magazine/recycling-is-garbage.html?

Kerbside Recycling: Kerbside collection, or curbside collection, is a service provided to households, typically in urban and suburban areas, of removing household waste. It is usually accomplished by personnel using purpose built vehicles to pick up household waste in containers.

64

65

Example: Trucks that are fueled by fossil energy which collect the recycling

goods 66 67 68

Other substances: Plastic (70%), steel (60%), paper (40%), glass (30%)

Examples: a person, a household, a corporation EEA; an agency of the European Union

28

progress in the pursuit of the EU's recycling goals, it is in their best interest to achieve them.

The national governments, in turn, are responsible for the appropriate implementation of the policy in the respective Member States.

The effects of the recycling strategies thus influence companies which use and/or sell recycled goods, for example in the form of packaging. Their success is influenced by the market price of such goods. The price of scrap plastic for example has been sinking over the last few months (Jan. 15: ~0.24$/lb), which of course indicates an increase of scrap plastic supply. In this case, a positive attitude towards recycling in civil society is in their interest. Then again, it is estimated that the cost of recycling outweighs the cost of landfills more than fivefold. The profit of using recycled goods is therefore dependent on the environmental awareness of the typical buyer.

Legislative Background

In the Directive 2008/98/EC69, the European Parliament seeks to treat waste in the following hierarchy: prevention; preparing for reuse; recycling; other recovery, notably energy recovery; disposal.

The European Commission also adopted a proposal for a directive to review recycling and other waste-related targets70, which would amend the previously existing directives on the matter. The proposal and annex cover various areas, from reducing food waste to phasing out landfilling by 2025 for recyclable waste in non-hazardous waste landfills. Its main focus is reducing waste generation and maximizing recycling and re-use efficiency.

The 7th Environment Action Programme (EAP)71, which will be guiding the European environment policy until 2020, mainly focuses on long-term goals. Its key objectives are to: - protect, conserve and enhance the Union’s natural capital,

69

http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:32008L0098 EU Waste Framework Directive 2008/98/EC, the Landfill Directive 1999//31/EC and the Packaging and Packaging Waste Directive 94/62/EC: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52014PC0397 71 http://ec.europa.eu/environment/newprg/ 70

29

- turn the Union into a resource-efficient, green, and competitive low-carbon economy, - safeguard the Union's citizens from environment-related pressures and risks to health and wellbeing.

Key Questions - How can the production of waste be reduced?

- How can recycling and re-use be maximized?

- How can Member States phase out landfilling to non-recyclable and waste?

- How can long-term solutions in using resources be achieved?

Research Links - EU Waste Legislation: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/legislation/ - The EU’s approach to waste management (a neat summary): http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/pdf/WASTE%20BROCHURE.pdf - Article taken from The Economist: “Case history: The truth about recycling” http://www.economist.com/node/9249262 - European Topic Centre on Sustainable Consumption and Production: http://scp.eionet.europa.eu/themes/waste

30

COMMITTEE ON CONSTITUTIONAL AFFAIRS (AFCO) Acknowledging the recent security concerns on the borders of the European Union, how should the Common European Foreign and Security Policy be developed further in order to uphold coherency in the stance and action of the EU regarding its foreign affairs while respecting the sovereignty and differing priorities of the Member States?

By Łukasz Niemancewicz

Key terms • Coherency — in this context it implies clarity and unanimity between the Member

States (MS) regarding actions concerning foreign policy.

• Sovereignty — freedom of each MS to maintain its own policies and law;

legislative independency from the European Union (EU).

• Common European Foreign and Security Policy: agreed, organized foreign policy of the EU for mainly security and defence diplomacy and actions.

Social relevance EU Member States have committed themselves to a Common Foreign Security Policy for the European Union. The European Security and Defence Policy aims to strengthen the EU's external ability to act through the development of civilian and military capabilities in Conflict Prevention and Crisis Management.

Based on the Lisbon Treaty the coordinator and representative of the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) within the EU is the High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy (currently Federica Mogherini) who speaks on behalf of the EU in foreign policy and defence matters. It is her task to articulate all the positions expressed by the 28 Member States of the EU on fields of policy into one common alignment. For appropriate policies on any particular issue, the CFSP requires unanimity among all the EU member states.

In the current times, maintaining the unwavering solidarity and loyalty between Member States (MS) should be the principal concern of the decision makers in Brussels, as they are the ones holding the Union together. Moreover, the feeling of

31

economic and military unsafety could seriously harm the public opinion’s trust72 in such an organisation and significantly tune the moods negatively.

The Ukrainian Crisis should be regarded as warning signal or EU’s solidity test, as it raises doubts on the efficiency of existing security policies. As Jean-Claude Juncker said, the illegal annexation of the Crimean peninsula by Russia, and the ongoing political instability in parts of Eastern and Southern Ukraine have cast a spotlight on the EU's foreign policy as a whole. Europe cannot remain silent when international law is being violated in our immediate neighbourhood73.

Some ask themselves how is the EU prepared to provide its citizens with safe and peaceful existence in times of war threat while there is no common European policy on sanctions, which results in discrepancies of MS’ actions, consequently exposing the weakness of existing legislation.

Some argue that there is the need to develop legislation answering the times and circumstances, with a comprehensive and preventive approach adjusted to possibly every kind of crisis, substituting current obsolete regulations with clear and measurably binding laws. Leaning on Common Foreign and Security Policy is therefore crucial. The CFSP could be developed not only in terms of military facilities, but also tightening the bonds on the European market and providing the energetic independency (with Russia being the biggest supplier of gas in EU).

Conflicts Sovereignty vs. coherency-what is the right balance? This conflict arises between the European Union’s most important organs and national governments of Member States. Therefore, the main problem of the EU foreign policy is that the national governments have been extremely reluctant to transfer decision making authority for foreign and security policy to supranational European institutions. They have insisted on a heavily intergovernmental process for decision-making on foreign and security policy. As a result, the European Union is sorely limited in its ability to respond in real time to crises.

The main goal of EU foreign policy will be the navigation of the political agendas and identities of its member states. In the European Union’s view of the world, things such as armed intervention are simply not on the agenda, although individual Member States, such as France, continue to undertake military interventions on their own.

Stakeholders

72

http://www.euronews.com/2013/04/25/euroscepticism-on-the-rise-says-eu-poll/ 73

http://juncker.epp.eu/news/ukrainian-lessons-what-eu-must-do-improve-itsforeign-and-security-policy

32

High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy - body of the EU responsible for conducting and realising the CFSP, the external dialogue. It represents the EU in the terms of Foreign Affairs and Security, and speaks on its behalf in international organisations and conferences. It also watches over respecting loyalty and solidarity of MS actions in the field of foreign affairs.

European Commission - executive body of the EU, it submits the proposals of new legislation to European Parliament and the Council of European Union, is ‘the guardian of treaties’ — ensures compliance with EU law and negotiates international treaties.

European Parliament - legislative body of the EU Council of the European Union - legislative body of the EU, sets out guidelines of the Common Foreign and Security Policy, concludes the international agreements.

European Council - sets out general priorities and objectives for the EU National Governments - the legislative and executive power of each MS.

Legislative background Latest legislative update on that matter is included in Lisbon Treaty that dates back in 2007. The Treaty lays the responsibility of leading the CSFP in the European Council, but does not have its actions supervised by Court of Justice of European Union, speaks of a cooperation among MS as an option, not a requirement.

The European security strategy was drawn up under the authority of the EU's High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy, Javier Solana, and adopted by the Brussels European Council of 12 and 13 December 2003. It identifies the global challenges and key threats to the security of the Union and clarifies its strategic objectives in dealing with them, such as building security in the EU's neighbourhood and promoting an international order based on effective multilateralism. It also assesses the policy implications that these objectives have for Europe.

The European Border Assistance Mission to the Republic of Moldova and Ukraine, called "EUBAM", forms part of a Memorandum of Understanding between the Moldovan Government, the Ukrainian Government and the European Commission, which was signed on 7 October 2005. It forms part of the European Neighbourhood Policy.

The Instrument for Stability finances cooperation actions for development and for financial, economic and technical cooperation led by the European Union (EU) in partnership with third countries. These actions aim to: re-establish stability in emergency situations, situations of crisis or emerging crisis in order to enable the

33

effective implementation of development and cooperation policies; and strengthen the capacity of third countries to prepare for crises and global and transregional threats.

The Commission Communication of 11 April 2001 on Conflict Prevention is intended to increase the efficiency of EU action in the field of conflict prevention through more coordinated and systematic use of EU instruments and by promoting international cooperation and improving its capacity to react to incipient conflicts.

Communication from the Commission of 25 October 2007 – Towards an EU response to situations of fragility – engaging in difficult environments for sustainable development, stability and peace. This Communication proposes a strategy for an agreed and coordinated European Union (EU) response to fragile situations in third countries. The strategy is based on better use of the various instruments at the disposal of the EU at the political, diplomatic, humanitarian, development and security levels.

Key questions • How to find a common goal in such variety of interests and economic growth levels

among the whole EU? • Is there any way to ensure the further development of CSFP without restrictions

harming the internal politics and markets?

• Would establishing European army be received as undermining the meaning of

NATO or interfering with the national sovereignty of MS?

Research links • The Lisbon Treaty: http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:C:2007:306:FULL:EN: PDF • European Defence Agency: http://www.eda.europa.eu/ • Jean-Claude Juncker’s view on Foreign and Security Policy:http://juncker.epp.eu/news/ukrainian-lessons-what-eu-must-do-improve-itsforeign-and-security-policy

• Independent articles on EU’s foreign Policy:

http://www.ceps.eu/category/research-area/eu-foreign-policy

• EU’s legislation on Foreign and Security Policy:

http://europa.eu/legislation_summaries/foreign_and_security_policy/cfsp_and_esdp_i mplementation/index_en.htm

34

COMMITTEE ON ECONOMIC AND MONETARY AFFAIRS (ECON) The clash between austerity and welfare: In light of the mounting dissatisfaction of citizens towards increased austerity measures in countries in recession, how should the EU find the balance between economic recuperation and the principles of the welfare state?

By: Martha Saunders (UK) & Nicklas Kövamees (SE)

Key terms •

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

Multiplier effect: the economic theory that government spending and investment will encourage private investment, which stimulates the economy and increases growth.

Crowding out effect: the economic theory that excessive government spending, especially when financed by a larger deficit, will deter private sector investment, and have a negative effect on competitiveness and growth.

Cyclical budget deficit: a temporary budget deficit caused by low points in business cycles. Typical causes for cyclical budget deficits are diminished tax revenue and increased social security expenses due to unemployment.

Structural budget deficit: a non-temporary budget deficit which exists regardless of business cycles. Since the structural budget deficit component indicates the long-term balance between revenues and expenditure whilst disregarding business cycle factors, it is a good indication of a government’s financial management.

Austerity measures: measures taken in order to reduce budget deficits.

Typically, such include raising taxes, lowering public spending, or a combination of both.

Welfare state: a state that emphasises the government’s role in ensuring the well-being of its citizens. A characterising element is the redistribution of wealth, for example via publicly funded health care and state pensions.

Fiscal policy: government spending policies that aim to influence macroeconomic conditions, such as unemployment, inflation and growth. EU Member States decide on their own fiscal policies. Common tools for fiscal policies are public deficits and surpluses, reduced and increased tax rates, and changes in public spending.

Monetary policy: policies affecting the supply of money, commonly targeting interest or exchange rates in order to ensure price stability. Monetary policy is

35

executed by central banks, and in the case of the Eurozone the European Central Bank (ECB).

Social relevance Since the economic crash and consequential sovereign debt crisis of 2009-2010, the general response of European nations has been to cut on government expenditure, particularly in the welfare state, and increase tax revenue, in a set of policies known as austerity measures. Additionally, Greece, Ireland and Portugal, the countries struggling most acutely with national debt, were given bailout packages in the form of international loans under the conditions they meet strict austerity budgets and make sizeable spending cuts – Ireland’s sales tax reached 23% at one point and with middle class wages being cut by 15%, and both Portugal and Greece witnessed record unemployment rates7475. Along with a reduction in available state benefits, wage cuts, increased retirement ages, job cuts, tax hikes and public service cuts, the question of whether austerity is the way forward has come to the forefront of public debate.

Dissatisfaction has grown, with destructive riots and strikes in the most affected countries morphing into a visible political movement. The Green party in the UK has experienced a surge in membership with their zero-growth economy plan and promises to fund and expand the welfare state. The radical pro-welfare, anti-austerity SYRIZA recently made waves by winning the Greek election, with a similar momentous shift in ideology reflected by the popularity of its Spanish equivalent Podemos. Europe’s broad consensus on austerity policies and emphasizing the private sector and free market is being challenged by a resurgent interest in preserving welfare states and stimulating growth through public spending projects.

Conflicts There are two coexisting key conflicts inherent in this question. Firstly, which spending policies will work best to get Europe on the road to economic recovery – Keynesian-style stimulus packages76; lowering taxes, investing in public services, and public spending projects to facilitate social and economic growth? Or austerity measures and tax increases to cut public expenditure and reduce the budget deficit?

74

Usually, austerity causes unemployment in the short term. Austerity policies typically decrease the demand in the economy, thereby increasing unemployment in the short term. This reduces tax revenue, and increases social safety net spending – partially offsetting the austerity measures.

75 Austerity Europe, The Guardian (2012) http://www.theguardian.com/business/2012/may/08/austerityeurope-what-does-it-mean 76 Economic stimuli, in the context of fiscal policy, use monetary or fiscal policy to try to stimulate a struggling economy. Spending more money attempting to boost employment and spending and thereby increasing growth, economic stimuli often come with increased budget deficits in the short term. The underlying theory relies on the multiplier effect.

36

Secondly, even once the former conflict has been resolved, what is the social responsibility of a government in regard to welfare spending? Many European countries have increasingly stigmatised those on state support, and the idea of a “benefits culture” where welfare state provision discourages looking for work has become increasingly accepted. The Member States need to navigate whether they owe their citizens universal security, services and benefits, should help out those most in need, or should promote self help, meritocracy and individualism.

Whilst the Nordic countries have stuck to their strong social democratic welfare state and Greece is now also firmly in the anti-austerity camp, Germany, its biggest creditor, has been at the forefront of European austerity politics, with countries like The United Kingdom, Spain, and Italy implementing notably harsh cuts. In order to find a solution to this resolution, it is necessary to both determine what the best path is for securing economic growth in future, and find a balance with meeting the needs of citizens.

Stakeholders

While Member States are free to adopt any fiscal policy they wish, they are bound by policies such as the Stability and Growth Pact (SGP) and the European Fiscal Compact (EFC). These, amongst other things, impose limits on budget deficits and public debt levels. However, in spite of this, due to the financial crisis many Member States struggle with budget deficits and national debt levels that are considerably higher than the imposed limits.

The European Commission is tasked with monitoring the Member States’ compliance with the aforementioned policies. Should it note that a Member State deviates from these budget rules, it can request that the Court of Justice of the EU imposes financial penalties.

The European Commission and the European Central Bank also enjoy certain indirect influence over certain Member States’ fiscal policies. For example in Greece, which due to its bad financing conditions has been largely reliant on bailout loans from the Troika77, the Troika has been able to force austerity policies by requiring them as conditions for giving a series of bailout loans.

Further, in order to reduce their budget deficits and public debt levels, many Member States have implemented austerity measures. They include higher taxes and cuts in public spending, which has sparked controversies amongst their citizens.

Austerity measures are typically unpopular, since they often raise taxes and lower the amount and quality of government-provided services and benefits.

77

In the context of the Greek government-debt crisis, the Troika refers to the three major financiers: the European Commission, the European Central Bank and the International Monetary Fund.

37

Legislative background The Stability and Growth Pact (SGP) is a set of conventions established in order to ensure the soundness of all Member States’ public finances, and also aims to coordinate fiscal policies amongst the Member States. The SGP has three core elements: the preventive arm, the corrective arm, and enforcement. The preventive arm promotes sound public finances by establishing Member State-specific budgetary targets. Such budgetary targets should be well within the defined deficit limits, and strive towards a sustainable debt position.

The SGP’s corrective arm, the Excessive Deficit Procedure (EDP), ensures the correction of excessive budget deficits or excessive public debt. Budget deficits are defined as excessive if above 3 % of GDP, and public debt if it exceeds 60 % of GDP. Currently 11 out of 28 Member States are involved in EDPs. Sanctions can be imposed if a Member State fails to adhere to the SGP’s preventive or corrective rules, such as ceased funding from EU investment funds and fines for Eurozone members.

One of the main aims of the SGP having been to ensure effective implementation of fiscal policies in the EU, the national debt and deficit limits therein have been widely ignored by many Member States. Consequently, the European Fiscal Compact (EFC) was established as a stricter version of the SGP. It binds only Eurozone members, though parts of it also apply to some other Member States. The EFC establishes a limit of a 0.5 % of GDP in structural budget deficit, and obliges its signatories to implement mechanisms for budget deficit correction into national law.

Key questions − How much influence should EU institutions have over Member States’ individual national policy approaches? − What potential advantages and disadvantages might come with increased EU coordination of and influence over Member States’ fiscal policies? − Which approach would do better for Europe’s economy; spending projects and stimulus packages or further austerity measures? What social consequences could come thereof?

38

COMMITTEE ON INDUSTRY, RESEARCH AND ENERGY (ITRE) With European power consumption continuing to rise excessively, how can Member States move away from a dependency on fossil fuels, while respecting the issues and concerns associated with alternative forms of energy production?

By Sara Alfirev (HR) and Olcay Soyalan (TR) Key Terms − Fossil fuel is a general term for buried combustible geologic deposits of

organic materials, formed from decayed plants and animals that have been converted to crude oil, coal, natural gas, or heavy oils by exposure to heat and pressure in the earth's crust over hundreds of millions of years. − Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that comes from resources

that are naturally replenished on a human timescale such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves and geothermal heat. − Nuclear energy: energy released by reactions within atomic nuclei, as in nuclear fission or fusion. − Biofuels are liquid or gaseous fuels made from organic materials such as

plants, agricultural and urban waste. They serve as a renewable alternative to fossil fuels in the EU's transport sector, in an attempt to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and improve the EU's security of energy supply. − ILUC (Indirect Land Use Change): Displacement of the farmlands to

previously non-cropland such as grasslands and forests as a result of sparing croplands for biofuels.

39

Social Relevance The last century was one of extremely fast economic development, with the necessity for energy increasing each day. The energy needs of most countries in the EU have been traditionally attended by the use of fossil fuels. However, pressing issues associated with fossil fuels raise concerns about EU’s energy policies. The use of fossil fuels creates greenhouse gases (GHG) contributing to global warming and pollution. The dependency of European countries on fossil fuels bears the risk of economic disruptions due to the scarcity or inaccessibility of fossil fuels, such as oil shocks and gas shortages. Also, political unrest in the countries which provide the EU with gas and petroleum-based fuels signals that the EU should divert from using fossil fuels. While many organisations and individuals have committed to source their energy from renewables, the EU-wide development could not match the set targets.

Conflicts There are several renewable energy technologies that Europe can benefit from such as solar panels, wind turbines or hydraulic fracturing and many others. The supplies for these energy sources in the EU are yet to be properly explored and there is a lot of room for improvement. Much of the underlying problem with converting to renewables is based on the positive economic short-term effects to import fossil fuels rather than committing to a long-term investment in renewables. Aware of the uncertainty of the energy market, many customers refrain from investing heavily in renewable energies.

In addition, currently 14 EU Member States out of 27 use nuclear energy for power generation while others are turning their backs to this energy production method because of its risks, especially after the Fukushima incident. Nuclear energy currently generates approximately one third of all electricity in the EU. Another significant problem in Europe is the harvesting crops for biofuels. While the biofuel technology looks promising to fulfil a great proportion of Europe’s energy needs, there are problems associated with the withdrawal of the food products from the market for use in biofuel production. According to new research by the EU’s Joint Research Centre (JRC), if biofuels received no EU policy support, the price of foodstuffs such as vegetable oil would be 50% lower in Europe by 2020 than at present and 15% lower elsewhere in the world. Also, the decrease in food present on

40

the markets caused by the spread of biofuel production leads to conversion of high carbon stock areas such as forests into arable lands for cultivation, negating the efforts to decrease carbon emission by employing biofuels.

Stakeholders The European Commission (EC) is the executive body of the EU. The Commission monitors current legislation, represents the Union in foreign relations and has the exclusive right to initiate legal text on the European level. The European Union and the Commission share the competence to issue legal text in the fields of energy and environmental policy.

EREC (European Renewable Energy Council) is the umbrella organisation to represent and promote the European renewable energy industry, renewable energy trade and research.

The Magritte Group is an independent association of ten of the largest energy companies in Europe, producing approximately 50% of Europe’s energy. The Magritte Group argues to lower EU subsidies for wind and solar power, as these industries have reached a mature stag, with no further state investment needed.

Major energy companies and their interest groups try to reduce the renewable energy targets set by the European Commission in order to reduce the negative effects of the fulfilment of these targets on their ongoing business models. On the other side environmental lobbyists are trying to promote the usage of renewable energies and promote more concrete targets on a European level. Many environmental campaigners suggest it is not ethical to spare agricultural products for generation of biofuels and let the food prices increase in a world where there is starvation and malnutrition.

Legislative Background According to the Paris-based International Energy Agency (IEA), the European members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) import 70% of their oil, close to 50% of the natural gas and 44% of coal. To combat the aforementioned numbers, the European Commission (EC) has set up its 2030 strategy, which aims at making “the EU’s economy and energy system more

41

competitive, secure and sustainable” and set a common approach to this goal for all Member States.78 The Renewable Energy Directive establishes a policy to attain the energy needs of Europe from renewable sources. Through efforts of the individual Member States, the Directive aims to fulfil 20% of the total energy needs with renewables by 2020.

Very important measures already in action are the Europe 2020, by which several targets listed below are aimed to be fulfilled: ● 20% cut in emissions of greenhouse gases by 2020, compared to 1990 levels; ● 20 % increase in the share of renewables in the energy mix; ● 20% cut in energy consumption as well as the Roadmap 2050 by which we have five different successful decarbonisation strategies.

The Europe 2020 and the Roadmap 2050 targets can possibly be achieved by ensuring high energy efficiency in order to reduce the amount of energy used, bringing new technologies to the market by investing in research and development, focusing on the renewable energies and technologies that employ carbon capture and storage (CCS)79.

Working in coherence with the United Nations’ Sustainable Energy for All Initiative (SE4All), Europe invests in research and development of new technologies in order to reach the goals of providing access to sustainable energy, significantly increasing the share of renewable energy in the energy mix and increasing the rate of efficiency and performance in the energy sector. The idea is to bring cheap energy to as many people. In accordance with that the EU has established a guideline by which all Member States are advised to spend at least 3% of their GDP for research and development. It is also recommended to educate and support people to take small steps to achieve the targets of Europe 2020 and the Roadmap 2050 by establishing renewable power plants locally.

The EU defines sustainability criteria for the government support to biofuels and bioliquids in order to prevent adverse effects caused by wide spreading of these

78

http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/2030/index_en.htm

79

Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) is a technology that can capture up to 90% of the carbon

dioxide (CO2) emissions produced from the use of fossil fuels in electricity generation and industrial processes, preventing the carbon dioxide from entering the atmosphere.

42

energy sources.80 In order for companies to demonstrate that their biofuels comply with the sustainability criteria to get public support is to participate in privately run voluntary schemes that have been recognised by the European Commission. With these methods, the use of food crops for biofuels is aimed to be taken under control.81 Key Questions What are the negative effects of transitioning to the renewables?

How can the EU attain to its energy needs?

Can the national governments meet demand without displacing production?

Which issues may occur when implementing renewable energy sources?

How should the EU promote sufficient energy provision?

What energies should the EU promote and why?

Should the EU enforce specific measures on the Member States? If so, and given the failure of the EU to enforce the Lisbon strategy82, does the Commission need new powers to enforce policy?

Are the EU’s long term renewable energy objectives achievable? If so, are they worth the effort and money?

Does it still make sense to talk about national energy grids in today’s united Europe?

Research Links

− The BBC analyse the context of the 20-20-20 targets:

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7765094.stm − Energy companies advocate a free market approach, rather than a government

directed one: http://www.euractiv.com/energy-efficiency/industry-split-roleeu-energy-efficiency-news-511381

80

http://ec.europa.eu/energy/node/73 http://ec.europa.eu/energy/node/74 82 http://www.voxeu.org/article/failure-­lisbon-­strategy 81

43

− Does the Commission have Member States and the Public’s support on

Roadmap 2050? http://www.euractiv.com/energy/europe-2050-energyroadmap-quiet-analysis-509890 − Disadvantages of Biofuels: http://biofuel.org.uk/disadvantages-of-

biofuels.html − Euractiv review the Energy Efficiency Directive:

http://www.euractiv.com/energy-efficiency/energy-efficiency-eus-newaction-linksdossier-496252 − Study by Germanwatch on the possible impacts of DESERTEC projects on

human rights and livelihoods of the local population in the MENA region: http://germanwatch.org/fr/download/6439.pdf − An informative article by EurActiv on current complications towards the

DESERTEC project: http://www.euractiv.com/energy/desertec-abandonssahara-solar-p-news-528151 − A page of Debating Europe, comprehensively reviewing the main arguments

for and against nuclear power: http://www.debatingeurope.eu/focus/infoboxarguments-for-and-against-nuclear/#.UkFFexZZtSo − Unconventional Gas (FRACKING): http://www.pism.pl/files/?id_plik=17872

44

COMMITTEE ON WOMEN’S RIGHTS AND GENDER EQUALITY II (FEMM II) According to the United Nations (UN) Population Fund, one-third of women worldwide have experienced physical and/or sexual violence. At the same time, men are increasingly the silent victims of domestic abuse. How can the EU support Member States in strengthening their criminal justice systems to prevent and respond to Gender Based Violence?

By Tuusa Eriksson (FI) and Britta Thiemt (DE)

Key Terms - Intimate Partner Violence: Physical, sexual, or psychological harm inflicted on an individual by a current or former partner or spouse − Gender-based Violence (GBV): violence directed against a person on the grounds of their gender, gender identity or expression of that identity − Victim: a person who suffers from a destructive or injurious action or agency − Perpetrator: a person who commits an illegal, criminal or evil act − Gender inequality: the unequal treatment or perception of individuals based

on their gender

Social Relevance Gender-based violence is the most widespread global violation of human rights affecting all levels of society. Gender-based violence includes violence in close relationships (intimate partner violence) as well as sexual violence, human trafficking, slavery, and other harmful practices including forced marriage, female genital mutilation and so-called honour crimes. The terms “gender-based violence” and “violence against women” are used largely interchangeably as most victims of gender-based violence are women. Perhaps the most prevalent category is Intimate Partner Violence. This is a threat to both men’s and women’s health and wellbeing

45

that is widely underestimated, partly due to the lack of comparable data concerning physical and sexual abuse. This is why the EU’s Fundamental Rights Agency (FRA) conducted a survey based on interviews with 42,000 participants and published an extensive report on violence against women in March 2014.83 According to the UN Population Fund84, about a third of women have been subject to sexual or physical violence worldwide. Alarmingly, the FRA’s survey resulted in very similar results for the EU: 33% of respondents have experienced sexual and/or physical violence, with overall numbers ranging from 19% in Poland to 52% in Denmark85. Contrary to common belief, there are numerous studies suggesting that women are just as aggressive in relationships as men86, making men unnoticed victims of Intimate Partner Violence. Although a survey of similar scope is yet to be conducted on the subject of Gender-based Violence (GBV) against men, it seems likely that they suffer from domestic abuse to the same extent as women do. The FRA report mentions, among others, the following effects of physical and sexual violence: physical injuries commonly include bruises and scratches; less frequently also wounds, sprains and burns, and more rarely fractures, internal or brain injuries and miscarriages.

Additionally, victims’ emotional responses feature fear, anger, shame and embarrassment while long-term psychological consequences range from a loss of selfconfidence, anxiety and vulnerability to difficulties in relationships, insomnia and depression.87 Conflicts While violence against women has officially been characterised as a violation of human rights by the Council of Europe in its Istanbul Convention88 in 2011, there are still severe problems with the prosecution of perpetrators as well as the protection of victims. Particularly (but by far not exclusively) male victims suffer

83

http://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2014/violence-against-women-eu-wide-survey-surveymethodology-sample-and-fieldwork 84 http://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/media_asset/JC2602_UniteWithWomen_en_0.pdf 85 http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra-2014-vaw-survey-at-a-glance-oct14_en.pdf 86 http://web.csulb.edu/~mfiebert/assault.htm 87 http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra-2014-vaw-survey-main-results-apr14_en.pdf, p. 56 - 58 88 “The Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence”: A treaty by the Council of Europe aimed at providing a pan-European legal framework to fight violence against women. Established in 2011 and having entered into force in August 2014, it was signed by most EU Member States but only ratified in three of them. See also: http://www.conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/ChercheSig.asp?NT=210&CM=&DF=&CL=ENG

46

from fear to come forward about their experiences to organisations (such as victim support services) or public authorities (such as the police). The three most common reasons observed in a survey conducted within the Men’s Experiences with Partner Aggression Project were shame, fear of not being believed and fear of being accused of being the batterer themselves. The survey also shows that men who are affected by physical or sexual violence in the household often do not know where to turn in terms of government support, awareness campaigns, shelters and protection programmes.

Indeed, often when finally attempting to seek help, men may encounter ridicule, the denial of help or even referral to batterers’ programmes instead of victim support networks.89 However, even for women, the stigma of being a “victim” of physical or sexual violence and the dependency within their relationship leads to under-reporting: according to the aforementioned FRA survey, only 14% of women in the EU who experienced violence from a partner contacted the police after the most serious incident. Other reasons for not filing an official report included wanting to keep the incident private, regarding it as a family matter or being afraid of a reprise as a result of their report. The study also indicated that only 60% of victims of physical violence and no more than 49% of those of sexual violence were satisfied with the assistance provided by the police.90 The Member States’ Criminal Justice Systems are not specifically equipped or trained to help victims of physical or sexual violence, and the legal situation further impairs their protection: as many Member States criminal law rarely specifically tackles legislation on Intimate Partner Violence against men or women, including issues such as repetitive violent behaviour, and as many of them still have very narrow definitions of rape, perpetrators often remain unprosecuted.91 The issue of preventing and combating GBV has also been made worse by budget cuts implemented by Member States due to the financial crisis, resulting in a reduction of resources in this area.

Furthermore, another source of conflict arises due to the fact that the European Union lacks a common comprehensive strategy to combat GBV; despite the

89

http://wordpress.clarku.edu/dhines/files/2012/01/Douglas-Hines-2011-helpseeking-experiencesof-male-victims.pdf p.3 90 http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra-2014-vaw-survey-main-results-apr14_en.pdf, p. 59 - 65 91 http://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra-2014-vaw-survey-main-results-apr14_en.pdf

47

existence of the Istanbul convention, not all Member States have ratified it. The absence of this common strategy enables confusion in the definition of gender based violence as well as differences in legislation between Member States, which then leads to unequal levels of protection for victims. Particular problems with national laws include for example some Member States having restrictive definition of sexual violence, one Member State not criminalising rape of married women and some not addressing psychological violence, stalking or cyber-harassment. It is important to remember that the issue is under the jurisdiction of the EU - Article 83 (1) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union gives the EU power to adopt criminal law measures on specific offences that are deemed by the Treaty drafters to have a EU-wide impact. Indeed the EU has adopted directives regarding human trafficking and legislatively could do so for gender-based violence more widely.

Stakeholders The European Commission - involved in funding NGOs, drafting directives, programme of exchange of good practice.

European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE) - provides access to existing statistics, data and information on gender-based violence, aiming to support the institutions and experts engaged in preventing and combating gender-based violence in the European Union and beyond Healthcare providers – Healthcare providers are often the first point of contact for survivors of violence. They are in a critical position to reduce societal stigma around gender-based violence and to offer critical care to victims who might otherwise face violence and its consequences for many years92 Police – Police are at the front line of the criminal justice system, their attitude and response can have a dramatic effect on prevention of future violent acts and protection of victims. Measures taken up by the police include establishment of specialized police services to provide assistance and protection to victims of genderbased violence93 NGOs/Victim Support Services - Run awareness-raising campaigns 92

PDF about the role of health-care providers in responding to gender-based violence (Accessible at http://www.prb.org/igwg_media/crucial-role-hlth-srvices.pdf) 93 UN handbook on effective police responses to violence against women (Accessible at http://www.unodc.org/documents/justice-and-prisonreform/Handbook_on_Effective_police_responses_to_violence_against_women_English.pdf)

48

Legislative Background Istanbul Convention (opened for signature in May 2011) - the most far reaching international treaty to combat the violation of human rights in the form of gender based violence. The EU’s actions in this area seek to: - support Member States to sign and ratify the Istanbul Convention by providing technical and legal expertise, - enhance the implementation of the Istanbul Convention by involving all relevant bodies and entities of the Council of Europe, - collect and disseminate information on legal and other measures taken at national level and to provide visibility to good practices94.

EU Victims’ Directive - to be implemented by Member States into their national laws by 16 November 2015. The Directive ensures that victims can make use of protection measures even if they move to another Member State with different legislation on the matter by applying for a European Protection Order (to be implemented by 11 January 2015). It also ensures minimum standards for victim rights and compensation levels by offenders, ensures the right to be compensated when fallen victim of a crime abroad and is due to set up a number of projects, among them the DAPHNE programme95.

Daphne Programme - “The Daphne III programme aims to contribute to the protection of children, young people and women against all forms of violence and attain a high level of health protection, well-being and social cohesion.” The actions of the programme include financially supporting NGOs in their efforts to combat violence, support and intervention programmes for victims and perpetrators, studying violence and its consequences, designing and testing awareness-raising campaigns, funding measures against violence, etc.96 Programme for exchange of good practice - The Commission organises regular exchanges of best practices so that Member States can learn from each other about

94

The Council of Europe Gender Equality Strategy 2014-2017 (Accessible at http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/standardsetting/equality/02_GenderEqualityProgramme/Council%20of%20E urope%20Gender%20Equality%20Strategy%202014-2017.pdf) 95 96

http://ec.europa.eu/justice/criminal/victims/index_en.htm http://ec.europa.eu/justice/grants1/programmes-2007-2013/daphne/index_en.ht

49

successful policies. This has been used to share information on for instance awareness-raising campaigns and using new technologies to better support and protect victims

Key Questions - Should the EU have common legislation regarding gender based violence, or should Member States be allowed to act more independently?

- What can be done to reduce the social stigma surrounding gender-based violence?

Research Links Data Explorer for the FRA survey on violence against women http://fra.europa.eu/en/vaw-survey-results What is gender-based violence? Definitions from EIGE http://eige.europa.eu/content/what-is-gender-based-violence Opinion piece on measures against gender-based violence by Iratxe García Pérez, the chair of the Parliament’s Women’s rights and Gender Equality Committee https://www.theparliamentmagazine.eu/articles/opinion/eu-needs-strategytackling-gender-based-violence Factsheet summarising the concrete measures taken by the EU to eliminate violence against women http://ec.europa.eu/justice/genderequality/files/documents/140303_factsheet_vaw_en.pdf

50

51 Â