Towards an Integrative Research Agenda for Public Affairs and Development: Framework, Synthesis...

Cover Design by Azel Glory C. Banganan Lay-out by Azel Glory C. Banganan and Eula Marie DC. Mangaoang Printed by __________________

TOWARDS AN INTEGRATIVE RESEARCH AGENDA FOR PUBLIC AFFAIRS AND DEVELOPMENT: FRAMEWORK, SYNTHESIS AND META-ANALYSIS

College of Public Affairs and Development University of the Philippines Los Ba単os College, Laguna August 2011

Suggested Citation:

CPAf (2011). Towards an Integrative Research Agenda for Public Affairs and Development: Framework, Synthesis and Meta-Analysis.

College of Public Affairs and Development, University of the Philippines Los Ba単os, College, Laguna, Philippines. 109 pages.

Philippine Copyright:

2011 by the University of the Philippines Los Ba単os.

All rights reserved. This publication should not be reproduced by any means in part or in whole.

ISBN No. 978-971-95231-1-5

PREFACE This publication is an output of the in-house project of the College of Public Affairs and Development. Started in 2008, the project aimed to define the body of knowledge that CPAf has produced during its first decade of existence, 1998-2008. In 1998, CPAf was created as an aggrupation of five applied social science units at the UPLB to compose the new college. In 2011, it was restructured into one institute and two research centers with the hope that the College can work in a more integrative and synergistic manner. It was also renamed as the College of Public Affairs and Development to more fully reflect its functions and academic domain. Moreover, the restructured CPAf will establish a deeper research culture to achieve its original objective of developing, refining and accessing a body of knowledge, theories, and principles to make public affairs and development a trans-disciplinary field of study and a cutting edge of local and national development efforts. Still, results reported here represent a first cut in the development of the CPAf research agenda.

An inductive approach was used to come up with the four themes of the CPAf research agenda during the period covered: 1) institutions, governance and delivery of services; 2) social development for poverty reduction; 3) strategies for community resource management; and 4) science and technology policy for development. Through time, these themes were reformulated and validated as to their relevance as CPAf’s research foci.

All the faculty and REPS (research and extension staff) population of the College were assigned to at least one theme. The purpose was not only to collaborate in a theme based on the various perspectives, but also to establish the synergy for the faculty and REPS to work together.

The integrative research agenda defined is expected to serve as basis for knowledge generation activities of the CPAf students and faculty for at least the next five to ten years. This should guide the College in strengthening its role in the fields of transdisciplinary studies, policy and institutional research, and governance initiatives.

Agnes C. Rola Dean, College of Public Affairs and Development

ACKNOWLEDGMENT This in-house project was funded through the UPLB Distinctive Excellence Fund. The CPAf faculty and staff gratefully acknowledge the unconditional support of Chancellor Luis Rey I. Velasco in this undertaking.

This publication was also supported by the able administrative staff of the CPAf, namely: Ms. Adelaida C. Cosa, Administrative Assistant at the Knowledge Management Office of CPAf; The administrative staff of the Support Services Office of CPAf: Ms. Elizabeth dR. Clemente, Ms. Rosemarie A. Cornista, Mr. Roberto F. Cuevo, Mr. Ernesto del Rosario, Mr. Orlando N. Felismino, Mr. Victor A. Maas, Ms. Eileen Lorena M. Mamino, Mr. William A. Paming, Mr. Teodoro A. Pelegrina, Ms. Lavinia M. Puhawan, Mr. Danilo G. Reforma, and Mr. Mario S. Tandang; Ms. Doris D. Aquino, Ms. Lenita T. delos Reyes, Ms. Yolanda B. Micosa, and Ms. Teresita A. Vergara of the Institute of Governance and Rural Development (IGRD); Ms. Lily T. de Castro, Ms. Angelica C. Javier, and Ms. Ofelia E. Llarena of the Community Innovations Studies Center (CISC); Ms. Vivian Fabiana T. Mejia and Ms. Rowena A. Noche of the Center for Strategic Planning and Policy Studies (CSPPS); and The administrative staff of the former Agricultural Credit and Cooperative Institute (ACCI): Mr. Fernando M. Banalo, Ms. Rosalinda V. Manese, Mr. Ronnel M. Rafols, Mr. Tomas Reyes, and Mr. Raymond L. Vargas.

All errors are the sole responsibility of the authors.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface Acknowledgment List of Tables List of Figures List of Abbreviations

i ii vi vii viii

Chapter 1. Introduction

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Agnes C. Rola and Eula Marie DC. Mangaoang 1.1 CPAf Research Synthesis and Meta-Analysis Project 1.2 Defining Trans-disciplinarity 1.3 Formulating the CPAf Research Framework 1.3.1 Methodology 1.3.2 Meta-Analysis Overview 1.3.3 Defining the CPAf R and E framework 1.4 About this book Chapter 2. Innovation Systems and Strategies for Community Development

1 2 2 2 3 4 6 7

Virginia R. Cardenas, Maria Ana T. Quimbo, Merlyne M. Paunlagui, Miriam R. Nguyen, Rufino K. Mananghaya, Francisca O. Tan, Yolanda B. Mendoza-Ripley, Eldy Z. Martinez, and Rosita L. Velasco 2.1 Worldviews 2.1.1 Agriculture and Forestry 2.1.2 Sustainable and Community Development 2.1.3 Environment 2.1.4 Education 2.1.5 Science and Technology 2.1.6 Organization Management and Governance 2.1.7 Health and Nutrition 2.2 Key Problems and Variables 2.3 Theoretical and Conceptual Anchors 2.4 Research Methodology 2.4.1 Research designs 2.4.2 Data collection method 2.4.3 Units and levels of analysis

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8 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 11 11 13 13 15 16

2.4.4 Data analysis techniques 2.5 Significant Findings 2.6 Research Gaps and Future Academic Programs Chapter 3. Science and Technology Policy

19 20 22 25

Rogelio N. Tagarino, Agnes C. Rola, Jaine C. Reyes, Aser B. Javier, Rufino K. Mananghaya, Rowena dT. Baconguis, Dulce D. Elazegui, Agnes R. Chupungco, Macrina G. Umali, Estrellita C. Collado, Evangeline C. Sulabo, Noeme M. Ledesma, and Marceliano M. Celeste 3.1 Analytical Framework 3.2 Technology Generation 3.3 Technology Transfer and Innovation Management 3.4 Technology Application/Utilization 3.5 Research Foci and Gaps 3.6 Future Academic and Research Programs Chapter 4. Institutions, Governance and Delivery Systems

25 27 31 33 35 38 41

Josefina T. Dizon, Eulogio T. Castillo, Rolando T. Bello, Rowena dT. Baconguis, Ernesto L. Bumatay, Wilfredo B. Carada, Aser B. Javier, Winifrida D. Medina, Anselma C. Manila, Merle F. Antolin, Julieta J. Mercadal, Blanquita R. Pantoja, Lorna P. Domingo, Elvira E. Dumayas, and Macrina G. Umali 4.1 Areas of Specialization 4.1.1 Agriculture 4.1.2 Cooperatives 4.1.3 Agrarian reform 4.1.4 Extension and education 4.1.5 Environment 4.1.6 Health 4.1.7 Local Government Units 4.1.8 Poverty Alleviation 4.2 Research Foci and Gaps 4.3 Future Academic and Research Programs

iv

41 45 47 49 51 53 54 55 56 59

Chapter 5. Social Development

61

Linda M. Pe単alba, Carolina P. Santillana, Severino I. Medina, Jr., Wilfredo B. Carada, Nelson Jose Vincent B. Querijero, Merlyne M. Paunlagui, Mimosa C. Ocampo, Arminga B. Peria, Aida O. Grande, Flordeliza A. Sanchez, Cristeta A. Foronda, Zenaida D. Tan, Susan S. Guiaya, and Juliana E. Aramil 5.1 Theoretical Framework 5.2 Sub-areas of Social Development and Innovations 5.2.1 Social Inclusion and Equity 5.2.1.1 Agrarian reform and cooperatives 5.2.1.2 Gender and gender relations 5.2.2 Empowerment 5.2.3 Protection from Risks 5.3 Research Foci and Gaps 5.4 Future Academic and Research Programs Chapter 6. Summary of Recommendations and Areas for Future Research Integration

64 65 65 66 71 72 76 77 79 81

Agnes C. Rola, Mayo Grace C. Amit, Damcelle TorresCortes, and Eula Marie DC. Mangaoang 6.1 Summary of Recommendations 6.1.1 Methodologies for Community Development 6.1.2 Science and Technology Policy for Development 6.1.3 Social Development for Poverty Reduction 6.2 Reformulated Research Themes 6.3 Initial Operational Plans per Theme 6.3.1 Innovation Systems and Strategies for Community Development 6.3.2 Science and Technology Policy 6.3.3 Institutions, Governance and Delivery Systems 6.3.4 Social Development 6.4 Recommendations for a Relevant and Integrative CPAf R and E Agenda 6.4.1 Process and Methods 6.4.2 Revisiting the Framework Bibliography

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81 81 81 81 82 85 85 85 85 86 94 94 94 97

LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1.

Units of analysis of various studies reviewed in the meta-analysis in community development (1998-2006)

Page 18

2.2.

Statistical tests used in reviewed CPAf studies, from 1998-2006

21

3.1.

Research foci and gaps identified in reviewed CPAf studies under science and technology policy

36

4.1.

Research foci and gaps identified in reviewed CPAf studies under institutions, governance and delivery systems

56

5.1.

CPAf-based studies on agrarian reform used for metaanalysis.

57

5.2.

Research foci and gaps identified in reviewed CPAf studies under social development

77

6.1.

Summary of reformulated R and E themes for CPAf’s R&E agenda

83

6.2.

Initial Operational Plan for the Innovation Strategies and/or Strategies for Community Development theme

87

6.3.

Initial Operational Plan for the Science and Technology Policy theme

89

6.4.

Initial Operational Plan for the Institutions, Governance and Delivery Systems theme

91

6.5.

Initial Operation Plan for the Social Development theme

92

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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1.

Cake framework: levels of disciplinarity/expertise combining competencies in CPAf from a systems perspective

Page 5

1.2.

CPAf’s Research Framework

6

2.1.

Meta-analysis framework for emergent methodologies in community development

8

2.2.

Theoretical framework used in CPAf studies on community development (2001-2006)

14

2.3.

Graph showing the frequency of research designs used in reviewed CPAf studies on community development, 1998-2006

15

2.4.

Data collection methods used in reviewed CPAf studies on community development, 1998-2006

16

2.5.

General levels of analysis used in the reviewed CPAf studies on community development from 1998-2006

16

3.1

Conceptual framework showing the role of science and technology in a public affairs system

27

5.1.

ADB-Enhanced Poverty Reduction Strategy

63

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ADB AED ARB ARC ARCDP ARISP ASE BARSP BIDANI BIOTECH BOD CA CADP CALABARZON CARL CARP CBPAR CDCB CHE CHED CMBQP CPAf DA-BAR DA-NDA DAR DAR-UNDP-SARDIC DAT-BAT DENR DepEd DFID DOST

Asian Development Bank Agriculture and Enterprise Development Agrarian Reform Beneficiary Agrarian Reform Community Agrarian Reform Communities Development Program Agrarian Reform Infrastructure Support Project Agri-Sector Ethiopia Project Belgian Agrarian Reform Support Project Barangay Integrated Approach for Nutrition Improvement National Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology Board of Directors UPLB College of Agriculture Comprehensive Area Development Plan Cavite, Laguna, Batangas, Rizal, Quezon Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program Community-Based Participatory Action Research Community Development and Capacity Building College of Human Ecology Commission on Higher Education Cooperative Bank of Quezon Province College of Public Affairs Department of Agriculture – Bureau of Agricultural Research Department of Agriculture – National Dairy Authority Department of Agrarian Reform DAR-UNDP Support to Asset Reform through CARP and Development of Indigenous Communities Diploma of Agricultural Technology/Bachelor in Agricultural Technology Department of Environment and Natural Resources Department of Education Department for International Development Department of Science and Technology

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DTG EIA EPISTLE EUFS FAO FAT-LPRU FFS FNSIP FSD GAD GIS GMO GPA IAAS IARDS IBP ICT IEC IPM IPR ISPPS IT KASP LAD LGC LGU LIVECOR M&E MDG NAFC NGO PA PAP PITAS PMME PO

Debay Tilat Gin Community Environmental Impact Assessment Environmental, Psychological, Institutional/Social, Political, Technological and Economic variables Environmental User’s Fee System Food and Agriculture Organization Faculty of Agricultural Technology in Lampang Rajabhat University Farmers’ Field School Food and Nutrition Surveillance and Improvement Program Farming Systems Development Gender and Development Geographic Information System Genetically-Modified Organism Grade Point Average Integrated Aquaculture-Agriculture Systems Institute of Agrarian and Rurban Development Studies Individual Business Plan Information and Communications Technology Information, Education and Communication Integrated Pest Management Intellectual Property Rights Institute of Strategic Planning and Policy Studies Information Technology Knowledge, Attitudes, Skills and Practices Land Acquisition and Distribution Local Government Code Local Government Unit Livelihood Corporation Monitoring and Evaluation Millennium Development Goal National Agriculture and Fishery Council Non-Government Organization Precision Agriculture Participatory Area Planning Policy Initiatives and Technical Assistance Support Participatory Management, Monitoring and Evaluation System People’s Organization

ix

R&E RBEC RDE S&T SANREM-CRSP SCUs SSCI SSD STS SWIP UN ESCAP UNDP UNDP-CARERE UPLB UPLBCDC WID

Research and Extension Revised Basic Education Curriculum Research, Development and Extension Science and Technology Sustainable Agriculture and Natural Resources Management – Collaborative Research Support Program State Colleges and Universities Support Service Coordination and Integration Support Services Delivery Science, Technology and Society Small farm reservoirs and Water Impounding Project United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific United Nations Development Programme UNDP Cambodian Repatriation and Resettlement Project University of the Philippines Los Baùos UPLB Credit and Development Cooperative Women in Development

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Agnes C. Rola and Eula Marie DC. Mangaoang 1.1 CPAf Research Synthesis and Meta-Analysis Project The creation of the College of Public Affairs in 1998 was prompted ―by the need to attune academic programs of the UP Los Baños in the pursuit of its mission to promote nationalism and development in the face of profound changes occurring in the global environment‖. Its goal was to establish scholarship that is problem focused to address the following development concerns: food security, land reform and land use, governance, strategic planning, population, environment, education, agrarian and rurban development, and cooperatives.

Five institutes were formed to compose the new college. These are as follows: 1) Agricultural Credit and Cooperative Institute (ACCI), (now renamed as the Institute of Cooperatives and Bio resource Enterprise Development (ICOPED) and was re-integrated to the College of Economics and Management (CEM) effective November, 2010); 2) Institute of Agrarian and Rurban Development Studies (IARDS) which was formerly the Institute of Agrarian Studies (IASt), 3) Institute of Community Education (ICE) which came from the defunct Department of Agricultural Education and Rural Studies (DAERS) a department under the College of Agriculture, 4) Institute of Development Management and Governance (IDMG), which was the Department of Development Management under the College of Economics and Management; and 5) Institute of Strategic Planning and Policy Studies (ISPPS), which was formerly the Center for Policy and Development Studies, under the Office of the Chancellor.

One of its objectives is to develop, refine and access a body of knowledge, theories, and principles to make public affairs and development a trans-disciplinary field of study and a cutting edge of local and national development efforts. In revisiting its vision and mission statements in 2007, CPAf faculty and staff agreed to make it ― an

academic institution with distinctive excellence in development studies and governance in support of national development goals in the agriculture and rural sectors, and communities in transition.‖

One of the strategies taken to be able to attain this vision and thus, establish the trans-disciplinary field of study on development studies and governance is the conduct of an in-house Research Synthesis and MetaAnalysis Project.

1.2 Defining Trans-disciplinarity Trans-disciplinarity in the literature is a specific form of interdisciplinarity, in which boundaries between and beyond disciplines transcend, and the knowledge and perspectives from different scientific disciplines as well as non-scientific sources are integrated (Klein et al.

2001). As trans-disciplinarity originates from the increasing demand for relevance and applicability of academic research to the challenges of our complex society, some prefer to center the definition around societal challenges rather than academic research. Trans-disciplinarity is also considered a new form of learning and problem solving, involving cooperation among different parts of society; which includes the academia; in order to meet complex challenges. Solutions are devised together with other stakeholders and through mutual learning, the knowledge of participants are enhanced.

The in-house project guided CPAf in developing a thematic framework that would help determine the niche and the boundary of its academic and research programs to achieve its vision.

1.3 Formulating the CPAf Research Framework 1.3.1 Methodology In 2007, the faculty and researchers of the College of Public Affairs grouped themselves into the four themes: 1.

2.

3.

4.

Institutions, Governance and Delivery of Services; Strategies for Community Resource Management; Science and Technology Policy for Development; and Social Development for Poverty Reduction.

Generally, these themes reflect the flexibility of the College in addressing a variety of issues on development concerns defined above. Through time, these themes have been constantly reformulated and reviewed to fit the changing needs and demands with regards to governance and development, while still keeping them consistent with the main thrusts and focal areas of the College. The in house study sought to bring out a

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pool of new knowledge, concepts and research methods from CPAf research results, as well as encourage inter-institute collaboration.

The four teams were tasked to review and analyze using the metaanalysis method the CPAf student and faculty research, conducted from 1998 to 2008 in each of the four themes, with the aim of identifying research gaps, understanding the boundaries, niches and value addition of this generated knowledge as well as identify strategies to move forward. These reports were presented in various Research and Extension (R and E) planning meetings. During the November and December 2010 CPAf R&E planning workshops, the faculty and staff validated and polished the College’s R&E themes identified in 2007, based on the initial results of the CPAf Meta-Analysis Project.

1.3.2 Meta-Analysis Overview Meta-analysis pioneers have defined meta-analysis as ―the statistical analysis of a large collection of results from individual studies for the purpose of integrating the findings‖, making it a more thorough alternative to the casual, narrative synthesis and review of research studies (Glass, 1970, in Florax, de Groot and Mooij, 2002). Simply put, meta-analysis is the ―analysis of analyses‖ (Hunter and Schmidt, 1990).

The research method was developed to help grasp theories, concepts and implications derived from research studies even with growing breadth and number of research literature (Rudner, Glass, Evartt and Emery, 2002). Lamug (2008) explained that meta-analysis is devised to collate and synthesize major themes and concepts from studies on a certain subject, or to integrate findings from a number of studies.

Meta-analysis has been applied in both basic and applied research. In the area of basic research, it is being used to strengthen evidence of research studies on social psychology, economics, political science, genetics, and other fields. It is also a research tool in applied research on medicine, education, criminology, psychology, among others, particularly to assess and point out which treatments, interventions, or strategies work best in a given problem or situation (BioStat, Inc., 2006).

While meta-analysis is commonly known to be a quantitative research endeavor, it can also be tapped to analyze research results in a qualitative way. Lamug (2008) indicated that re-analysis of research may look upon pre-existing qualitative data. It is differentiated from secondary data analysis, in that it involves summarizing and appraising existing research data, not formulating new research questions. The

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qualitative meta-analysis also involves study of research reports, not raw data. Moreover, new interpretations may arise from analyzing texts through meta-analysis.

How does meta-analysis contribute to the research process? Aside from summarizing a particular research problem for further study, metaanalysis may also help researchers determine which problems needed to be addressed the most, which findings or situations have the most significant impact, and which strategies or plans yield best results. It also encourages (or discourages) the need to explore new study areas, and contextualizes research results. BioStat, Inc. (2006) indicated that a number of research grant providers require meta-analysis of previous research studies to apply for a grant.

Meta-analysis is a good research method for analyzing impact assessment studies, and studies which describe management and participation activities. Under the positivist paradigm, meta-analysis may be used to apply knowledge or theories to address needs of the community and change the environment (Lamug, 2008).

1.3.3 Defining the CPAf R and E framework After several deliberations and especially during the December 2010 workshop, CPAf research themes were refocused to be the following (see also Chapter 6, this volume): 1. Innovation Systems and Strategies for Community Development; 2. Science and Technology Policy; 3. Institutions, Governance and Delivery Systems; and 4. Social Development.

Two frameworks integrating the levels of expertise in CPAf (Figure 1.1) and highlighting CPAf’s niche in the achievement of social development (Figure 1.2) were also laid out. The R and E agenda of the College as suggested by the faculty should be able to tap 1) trans-disciplinary; 2) institutional; and 3) individual expertise.

4

Figure 1.1. Cake framework: levels of disciplinarity/expertise combining competencies in CPAf from a systems perspective.

The first framework identifies the trans-disciplinary grid to complement the research framework. Each faculty brings his/her individual discipline into the fore. The second layer is the institutional expertise of the institute that he/she belongs. The research will then also be tailored along this and the individual expertise will be integrated into the institutional disciplinarity. From the institution, and to address development problems, the third layer will be the multi/trans-disciplinary approach to problem solving. Now the individual expertise will be molded to fit in this third layer through practical applications.

The second framework (Figure 1.2) attempts to lay down the relationship of the four themes that were originally identified as CPAf’s research niches.

The framework identifies the type of scholarly response that CPAf needs to develop to be relevant to the demands of the developmental problems of the institutions. The goal is to achieve social development and ultimately, sustainable development. The methodological and theoretical underpinnings are shown to be in the fields of policy/governance, institutional analysis, and delivery systems. The trans-disciplinary expertise grid is also indicated as a base of the framework to illustrate complementation of such as a basic resource in the research problem formulation and implementation.

5

Figure 1.2. CPAf’s Research Framework.

1.4 About this book This book reports of the findings of the research synthesis and metaanalysis that CPAf faculty and staff conducted from 2008 to 2010.

Chapter 2 discusses the meta-analysis outputs in the theme Strategies for Community Development particularly focusing on the research methodologies that were used in studies on community development. In the theme, Science and Technology Policy for Development discussed in Chapter 3, the focus was on the three stages of S&T generation, i.e. technology generation, transfer and utilization. Chapter 4 discussed institutions, governance and delivery systems, where delivery systems includes a body of institutions, people, processes, and rules which make up the enabling mechanism. Chapter 5 lays out the findings in the Social Development theme. The final chapter summarizes the proceedings of the November and December 2010 CPAf Research and Extension Planning Workshops where the findings of the meta-analysis project by the four teams were discussed, the research themes validated and areas for future work agreed upon.

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CHAPTER 2 INNOVATION SYSTEMS AND STRATEGIES FOR COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT Virginia R. Cardenas, Maria Ana T. Quimbo, Merlyne M. Paunlagui, Miriam R. Nguyen, Rufino K. Mananghaya, Francisca O. Tan, Yolanda B. Mendoza-Ripley, Eldy Z. Martinez, and Rosita L. Velasco Through research and extension activities, CPAf is able to strengthen its theory and practice of community development. In any kind of research endeavor, it is the choice of the right research methodology or approach which determines how great the impact of a particular research outcome would be on the body of knowledge or practice. In other words, research outputs borne from the right methodologies should have a significant impact or influence on a particular theory or practice. In line with this, a meta-analysis of concurrent CPAf community development research projects was conducted to look into the emergent methodologies used in most of the CPAf studies to hopefully address research gaps in community development. It also looked for research gaps and future research and academic programs in the use of community development approaches which CPAf could venture in the future.

This chapter follows a theoretical framework (Figure 2.1), which outlines the different problems that CPAf studies on community development tried to address. It also describes the research methods used, and the theories and concepts which explains certain situations in these studies.

Furthermore, the meta-analysis extracted significant findings which contributed to the community development field.

It is assumed that issues on community development, being universal and multi-faceted in nature, are addressed by the studies through different worldviews (e.g. agriculture, fisheries, sustainable community development, science and technology, organization management and governance, health and nutrition).

Figure 2.1.

Meta-analysis framework for emergent methodologies in community development.

2.1 Worldviews The studies conducted on community development highlighted eight worldviews: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)

Agriculture and forestry Fishery and food Sustainable development Environment Education Science and technology Organization management and governance Health and nutrition

These worldviews were borne out of different needs and demands that community development studies looked into. It stressed the multifaceted concept of community development and how researchers aimed to address these through their own perspectives.

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2.1.1 Agriculture and Forestry Most of the studies sought to address development problems by looking into sustainable agriculture and use of forest resources. This is most probably because most of the countries in Southeast Asia have agriculture- or forestry-based economies, and that the pressing problems of rural poverty and environmental degradation are also prevalent in the region.

Under this worldview, research studies have taken into account the importance of participatory research, extension and development, and recognized the role that applied social science plays in the context of agriculture and forestry. Because these studies put premium into their methodologies and approaches with the people in communities, they commonly use stakeholder profiling and other user-oriented and bottomup approaches in solving community development problems.

Moreover, the studies under the worldview of agriculture and forestry are also problem-solving oriented, focusing on agricultural modernization, food security and food safety. Other studies also dealt with conflict and cooperation in community development, stakeholder participation, and financing rural development.

2.1.2 Sustainable and Community Development In this category, studies looked into how community development fits under the more general concept of sustainable development.

Community development could also be sustainable if development plans take into account the needs of the future generation.

Studies under the category focused on poverty alleviation, environmental degradation issues, and natural resource management. They also generally tried to address problems in participation and collaboration among stakeholders, and explored the implications of using electronic communication technology on community development. Other studies dealt with women’s participation in development, small and medium enterprises, microfinancing and cooperatives. Still, others explored the role of community organizing in community development, social inclusion, indigenous groups, and empowerment of communities. Multistakeholder approaches in solving community problems form a large part of this category.

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2.1.3 Environment In general, community development studies with this worldview particularly focused on different environmental protection strategies that institutions implemented to address environmental issues and mitigate environmental degradation.

Most of these studies looked into environmental impact assessment (EIA), environmental protection protocols, ecotourism, conservation and waste management.

2.1.4 Education Many community development research studies also fall under this category, education being an important dimension in community development. Studies looked at education as a means of solving community development problems.

They specifically reviewed environment-centered curricula in colleges and universities, non-formal education, cooperation and conflict management.

2.1.5 Science and Technology A number of community development studies looked at science and technology as a component of community development. Most of these explored appropriateness of technologies and S&T interventions in a community. In addition, studies also inquired into gender and social relations in technology development processes, cooperation and conflict management, and stakeholder participation in R&E and development activities. Other studies also looked into food production intensification and modeling strategies.

2.1.6 Organization Management and Governance In the area of management and governance, most of community development studies dealt with strategic planning and participatory approaches, conflict management, and problems in project implementation. A number of studies also focused on the role of institutions, program reforms and social inclusion. Altogether, these studies looked at community development as a system governed and managed by people.

2.1.7 Health and Nutrition

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Occupational health risks and maternal child care are but a few of the worldviews adopted by some of the studies on community development.

2.2 Key Problems and Variables The key issues identified in the reviewed studies on community development mainly include the working environments and processes in an organization or institution, or what we dub as ―organizational culture‖. This includes structural-functional coherence, organizational values, social capital and human resource development, adaptation and decision-making processes in an organization. A few also dealt with leadership, accountability and empowerment.

A number of studies also tried to address inter-organizational collaboration among government, non-government and people’s organizations (GO-NGO-POs). This stemmed from the need to reconcile the different niches and interests of these organizations as they engage in development work. The studies implied that organizations could best collaborate where advocacies or issues are stronger in sense and action.

Other problems tackled by the studies were centered on the nature and importance of participation. Among these issues are on community participation, benefit participation, gender participation, participation fatigue, and participatory governance.

Meanwhile, key variables used in community development studies include indicators on sustainable development, which were general, location-specific, or culture-specific. Stakeholder characteristics were also identified, in terms of their socio-economic conditions, and/or their knowledge, attitudes, skills and practices (KASP), as described by behavioral change studies.

2.3 Theoretical and Conceptual Anchors Figure 2.2 shows the common theories/concepts on which the studies were carried out.

Recognizing the human face of community development, most of these studies adopted frameworks on participation, social capital, social learning theory, systems theory and technology and user acceptance.

It is interesting to note that most of the studies surveyed used a combination of two or three theoretical foundations. Participation theories were the most common frameworks used from 2001-2006,

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followed by systems theories. These concepts are very essential to the field of community development, hence their popularity and relevance.

Meanwhile, theories on organization, community organizing, and sustainable development were each used only once, which is somehow underwhelming since a bulk of the studies dealt with organizational culture and community organizing as worldviews.

The prominence of certain frameworks in a given year or two may indicate that community problems or situations in these periods would be better addressed under an appropriate framework. Participation theories may have gained popularity because of the recently growing interest on social capital and people’s participation in development activities.

According to Fernandez (2001), participation theorists have stressed in their arguments the significance of two-way relationships between participation and the context under which it operates.

Most of the studies also used systems theories, which looked at the different factors explaining and influencing community development problems. For instance, study by Battad (2006) indicated that many different factors, such as community culture, business, environment, family and other attributes, influence women’s roles in development activities.

Another study by Sochivi (2006) affirmed that fishery communities are made up of interdependent components which interact with each other and with their external environment.

Social theories were commonly used in the period 2004-2005 to explain certain problems and phenomena in communities.

Rotter’s and Bandura’s social learning theories dealt with the changing conditions in people’s behavior, way of life and environment.

Meanwhile, the Progressive Theory of Learning stated that knowledge gain could stem from a person’s change in behavior (Beldia, 2005).

Organizational theories, which were also prominent in the same period, were used to look into the interrelationships among the components and functions of an organization or social system.

The Structural Functionalist Theory and Organization Theory looked at organization or society as a system of interrelated components with a specific purpose in achieving goals (Hebding and Glick, 1992, cited in Guico-Bondoc, 2005).

The relatively new theories on motivation were used at different points in 2001-2006, indicating that these were very sparingly used in community development studies. Theories include the push-pull theory of migration, which argues that people move from one place to another

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due to socio-economic factors (Saleh, 2001), and the Motivation Theory, which explains the means and goals by which people are motivated to take a course of action (Guico-Bondoc, 2005).

A few studies were also grounded on technology diffusion and adoption theories, specifically from 2004-2005. Mula (2004) explained that, in the Diffusion-Adoption Theory, technology adoption consists of a number of stages through which an end-user decides to adopt or reject a technology. As the person undergoes these stages, he/she eventually gains new knowledge, and his/her responsibilities in the adoption process changes. In a similar theory, the Technology Acceptance Model, perceived usefulness and ease of use of a technology determines a person’s intention to use a certain technology (Mendoza, 2005).

2.4 Research Methodology The meta-analysis of community development studies focused on the research methodologies used in order to aid in analysis of the significant findings and highlights of the studies reviewed. In particular, the study looked into the different research designs, data collection methods, levels and units of analysis, and data analysis techniques used in the reviewed literature.

2.4.1 Research Designs Most of the studies on community development used purely quantitative research designs, characterized as structured and prescriptive (Wiersma, 1995). Research results from this type of design are expressed in figures, which are interpreted by the researcher through comparison and partitioning. The quantitative studies were further classified into causalcomparative or ex-post facto, survey-correlational, and surveydescriptive studies.

Ex-post facto studies looked into the change in variables after a certain phenomena to explore possible explanations for causes and effects.

Survey studies, on the other hand, measure certain characteristics of research subjects, such as attitudes, performance, socio-economic variables, among others, to address a certain research problem. Surveycorrelational studies look for relevant or meaningful relationships among these variables, while survey-descriptive studies aim to explain the incidence of an event or phenomena.

13

Theory/Framework

2001

2002

Year 2003 2004

2005

14

Community organizing Constructivist Theory Diffusion-Adoption Theory Espoused Theory Motivation Theory Organization Theory Participation Theories Progressive Learning Theory Push-pull theory on migration Social Action Theory Social Capital Social Learning Theory Socio- Psychological Approach Structural-Functionalist Theory Sustainable Development Systems Theory Technology Acceptance Model Theories in Use Theory of Action Figure 2.2. Theoretical framework used in CPAf studies on community development (2001-2006).

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Meanwhile, some of the studies employed quantitative-qualitative designs, combining quantitative approaches with tools such as participant observation, field observation and focus group discussion to further strengthen quantitative findings. These studies became popular beginning 2001. Studies that employ purely qualitative designs have yet to be conducted. No experimental designs were used, since the studies were conducted in a natural social setting.

Figure 2.3 illustrates the frequency of research designs used in CPAf studies on community development.

Figure 2.3. Graph showing the frequency of research designs used in reviewed CPAf studies on community development, 1998-2006.

2.4.2 Data Collection Method The most popular data collection methods in the community development studies reviewed were interviews, observation, secondary data review, and self-administered questionnaires.

The interview method was commonly used, either involving individuals or groups.

Meanwhile, the observation method, consisting of participant and field observation approaches, was rarely used in the studies (Figure 2.4).

15

Frequency of Use (Number)

35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Data Collection Method (1998-2006) Figure 2.4. Data collection methods used in reviewed CPAf studies on community development, 1998-2006.

2.4.3 Units and Levels of Analysis The units of analysis used in the studies were grouped into the following levels: individual or household heads, aggregate households, organizations, and communities. More than half of the studies reviewed looked at individual or household heads. Some studies dealt with communities, while only a few studied organizations (Figure 2.5).

Household 15%

Organizational 5%

Community 25%

Individual 55%

Figure 2.5. General levels of analysis used in the reviewed CPAf studies on community development from 1998-2006.

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In particular, most of the studies dealt with individual farmers, women, academicians, barangay health workers, and beneficiaries of different development activities. A few studied fisher folks, extension agents, and youth. Meanwhile, other studies analyzed a combination of different types of individuals or groups, e.g. farmers and rural women, or farmers and extension workers (Table 2.1).

At the community level, the most common units of analysis were coastal and rural communities. A few dealt with a coastal, lowland and upland communities simultaneously, while only one looked into upland communities. The following table summarizes the units of analysis in the reviewed studies on community development.

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Table 2.1. Units of analysis of various studies reviewed in the meta-analysis in community development (1998-2006).

Units of Analysis Year Total 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 No. % Individual Level 22 55 Farmers 3 3 1 7 Women 1 1 1 1 4 Academicians 1 1 2 Barangay health 1 1 2 workers Pax community projects 1 1 2 Fisher folks 1 1 Extension workers/ 1 1 practitioners Youths 1 1 Farmers/rural women 1 1 Farmers/extension 1 1 workers Household Level 1 2 1 2 6 15 Community level 10 25 Village/Rural 1 1 1 1 4 Fishing/Coastal 1 1 1 1 4 Coastal/Lowland/Upland 1 1 Upland 1 1 Organizational Level 1 1 2 5 Total 1 2 2 4 9 4 4 10 4 40 100

Individuals may have been common units of analysis because they directly give information or data that would help explain study variables and outcomes. However, generalizations are more difficult to make from individual responses, since each person is characterized by a different set of perceptions, values and cultures which could affect their way of answering queries in a research tool. Meanwhile, it could also be difficult to use groups as units of analysis, because results may not really reflect the real perception of the different sub-groups or aggregate of individuals.

2.4.4 Data Analysis Techniques Majority of the studies reviewed used a mix of descriptive and inferential statistics as data analysis techniques. Three studies, on the other hand, only used descriptive statistics: gender sensitivity of technological innovations in an aquaculture-agriculture farming system; adaptation mechanisms of families relocated due to the expansion of Batangas City Port Area; and formation of empowerment concepts among indigenous people groups in Southern Tagalog region.

It is noted that most studies used non-parametric tests, such as the Spearman’s rank correlation, for analyzing data. These need only a few assumptions about the shapes of population distributions, and often replace parametric tests if the assumptions made from the latter have been completely disregarded (e.g. if distributions are too skewed). (http://www. angelfire.com/wv/bwhomedir/notes/nonpar.pdf).

Chi-square test of independence was the most commonly used statistical test, and had also been used throughout the study period, except the year 1998. This could be because many studies handled nominal data in looking, for example, at relationships between socio-demographic and entrepreneurial characteristics, and women’s participation in home-based dairy industry.

Meanwhile, many studies used the Spearman rank correlation as a data analysis technique to identify relationships between ordinal variables.

Among the studies which used this technique were: study on the community mobilization strategies in agrarian reform communities; empowerment of women groups and how they affect community selfreliance; and factors influencing adaptation process in war-torn areas.

Table 2.2 shows the statistical tests used in the reviewed studies from 1998-2006.

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Some community development studies also used qualitative analysis tools. Among these techniques are case study, content analysis, crosssectional and categorical indexing, and retrospective analysis.

2.5 Significant Findings The reviewed studies generally contributed new insights on the following concepts: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)

Commitment participation and information sharing Stakeholder characteristics Equity Role performance Goal attainment Local governance Environmental compliance

In terms of participation, the studies highlighted indicators such as social interaction and community participation indices. Collaboration and stakeholders involved in development activities or institutions were also explored. Some of the studies also looked into community organizing, community mobilizing and adaptation processes.

Most of the studies strived to identify relationships between and among study variables, explain certain events or phenomena, concepts and processes, predict causality of perceived factors on other variables and determine the linearity or co-linearity of relationships.

Participation was the most common research focus, comprising one-third of the studies reviewed. Many of the studies that delved on participation were done in the context of environmental decision-making, such as the study on an eco-tourism project in Thailand, one on the forestry development project in Vietnam, a study on watershed management in Samar province, and another study on water supply projects, and on a local upland development program.

Some of the studies also investigated on the participation fatigue among farmers, a pest management project in Indonesia, maternal and child health care, and seaweed farming.

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Table 2.2. Statistical tests used in reviewed CPAf studies, from 1998-2006.

Statistical 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 test Cramer V 1 1 Spearman rank 1 1 1 correlation Chi square 1 1 1 2 1 1 Pearson 1 1 product moment correlation Wilcoxon rank 1 sum test Odds ratio 1 Logit 1 regression method Spearman’s 1 rho Kruskal Wallis

2005

2006

2 9

6 1

Total

2

10 2

1 1 1 2

3

1

1

Some studies also dealt with food security, empowerment, and community adaptation and response to change. Examples of these studies include: community adaptation strategies in a tomato-based farming system, response of farmers to a new agricultural technology, community adaptation strategies in a war-torn Cambodian community, and that in relocated communities. Other studies dealt with sustainable community resource management. The prevalence of participation as a research focus signifies the contribution of participatory approach into community development. Furthermore, it emphasizes the role that community members play in the community development process.

Based on these findings, it can be concluded that trans-disciplinary and holistic approaches continue to evolve in the study on community development, and sustainable development in general. CPAf studies on community development should continue this tradition, and likewise evolve to meet the current needs and demands in different communities and the global environment.

The value of stakeholder participation or involvement is also being recognized by the studies on community development. This implies that community members indeed can be development partners, and when they do take part in creating opportunities, they become more participative in development activities. Thus, research and extension activities should involve more the stakeholders and other beneficiaries of community development interventions.

2.6 Research Gaps and Future Academic Programs With community development being trans-disciplinary, holistic and participatory in nature, the following future research and academic areas may help the field address different issues and widen opportunities along the way.

Some of the concepts under community development still need to be unearthed and explored both as an academic and research theme. In line with this, research studies may look into knowledge gaps in community development theory and practice. These could particularly delve into the changing community development paradigms and strategies, entrepreneurship, and the role of information and communication technology (ICT) in addressing community development needs.

In particular, studies can further explore collaborative interactions and nature leadership among institutions and communities,

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and the use of ICT in LGU offices to better convene leaders and beneficiaries of development interventions.

Furthermore, studies may also look into the social aspects of a certain field in natural sciences—for instance, technology acceptability or human nutrition programs. They can also highlight benchmark practices in community development in different areas.

In terms of research methodology, future conceptual frameworks and models must be formulated as a basis for analyzing qualitative, less tangible variables that explain and predict complex issues in community development. Likewise, qualitative researches may be further conducted for inquiries or issues which cannot be explained by generalization of numerical data.

Community development should be strengthened as an academic field in university units such as the UPLB College of Human Ecology and the College of Public Affairs. School curricula should be improved such that students would be able to engage more in field work, and help uplift living conditions in communities.

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CHAPTER 3 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY POLICY Rogelio N. Tagarino, Agnes C. Rola, Jaine C. Reyes, Aser B. Javier, Rufino K. Mananghaya, Rowena dT. Baconguis, Dulce D. Elazegui, Agnes R. Chupungco, Macrina G. Umali, Estrellita C. Collado, Evangeline C. Sulabo, Noeme M. Ledesma, and Marceliano M. Celeste Science and technology (S&T) is one of the pillars of the societal development, and its role lies in the wide range of complex and pervasive effects and implications that it bears on the community. Many developments in this field have paved way for communities to progress even more and uplift their conditions, but these also harbored new challenges and problems ahead, such as environmental degradation, health problems, social inequities, among others.

As S&T initiatives are being done to strengthen agriculture and uplift communities in the country, they yet had to fit the needs and interests of the communities that they serve. Thus, there is a need to develop appropriate public policies for use and control of these S&T-based interventions. Formulating the right kind of policy options for S&T activities would require a full understanding of the S&T development process and how public policy works out within that process.

3.1 Analytical Framework CPAf, being in a scientific community, deeply recognizes the role of science and technology intervention in promoting sustainable community development, which basically provides people more availability and accessibility of goods and services to meet their demands on a sustainable basis. Since 1998, CPAf has studied a wide range of policies, programs, and issues on the appropriate use of science and technology.

Basically, these were classified under three stages of S&T development: 1) Research and development or technology generation; 2) Technology transfer and innovation management; and 3) Technology utilization and effects/impacts assessment.

A meta-analysis of CPAf studies on S&T policy was conducted to determine how science and technology policy contributes to community development. In particular, it synthesized and analyzed S&T policy studies to determine their potential contribution in the three stages of

S&T development.

It also tried to review the evolving roles of policymakers, social scientists, leaders, and community members in implementing S&T policies that address more technical concerns, such as GMO, bio-safety, environmental degradation, and others.

The framework used for the study was that of a public affairs system, which views science and technology as one of the elements of a community, along with natural resources and institutions.

These elements are run by a set of policies or rules which guide community members in achieving their goals and improving their quality of life. This implies that natural resources, institutions, and S&T are always present in all societal activities, which are guided by policies carried out by a government or administration (Figure 3.1).

Synthesis of CPAf studies on S&T policy mainly involved content analysis.

The objectives, methods, and findings of these studies were reviewed and analyzed for common themes in terms of the three stages of S&T development, and in terms of specific focus (e.g. agriculture, biotechnology and environment).

The meta-analysis work took into consideration the indicators and parameters of community development, which are also used in validating the appropriateness of S&T policies and interventions. In particular, it used the EPISTLE scheme: environmental, psychological, institutional/social, political, technological and economic variables, which are important indicators for social well-being.

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Organization -Institutions (formal & informal)

Non-market Constitution PEOPLE Policy Market Natural Resources (renewable & non- renewable renewable)

ScienceTechnology (hardware & software)

Figure 3.1

Conceptual framework showing the role of science and technology in a public affairs system.

3.2 Technology Generation A group of experts, with assistance from the UPLB Foundation, Inc., conducted a series of research projects entitled ―Policy Initiatives and Technical Assistance Support‖ or the PITAS research program, beginning 1998. The project stressed further prioritizing sustainable agricultural practices in research and development activities. As such, it involves studies on root crops, cacao, livestock, water management technologies, and R&D activities on safety and quality standards. The PITAS research programs on agriculture not only implied modernization of agricultural technologies but also suggested initiatives and policies in marketing and dissemination of these products. Hence, most of these studies are interand multi-disciplinary in nature.

Results of the PITAS study on water management technologies (Baradas, 1998) indicated that small farm reservoirs and water impounding projects (SWIPs) should be redesigned and improved to cater to the

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needs of upland communities and other places with very limited water supply. It recommended the use of water management technologies such as hydroponics and evaporation suppressants to ensure the supply of water in the remote communities.

The PITAS study on cacao focused on improving its productivity in farms at a minimal production cost through the use of fitting farmer- and environment-friendly technologies.

A number of schemes were suggested to help cacao farmers achieve this goal.

It included development of high-yielding cacao varieties through efforts of a Cacao Biotechnology Group, further studies on cost-efficient cropping systems, and optimizing performance of processing facilities. It also suggested development of appropriate technologies, conduct of studies to assess the best production and marketing schemes of cacao, and building of techno-demo farms that feature technologies.

Three PITAS studies also looked into the potential of agricultural crops and waste products as livestock feed. Feeds based on sweet potato, copra meat, cassava, and dried banana peels were developed (UPLBFIPITAS Annex 11 & 12, 1998).

While these three studies mainly dealt with technology generation and R&D, the study on safety and quality standards development (UPLBFIPITAS Annex 7, 1998) also featured an analysis on institutions and safety policies to come up with agricultural R&D priorities that cater to standardization of farm and fishery products. This was done in collaboration with the Bureau of Agriculture and Fisheries Product Standards (BAFPS), Bureau of Agricultural Research (BAR), state and private universities and colleges (SPUCs) and research and extension institutions.

In addition to the commodity studies, the PITAS research program also bore an inventory of relevant technical issues to be addressed by research, and a list of R&D priorities that take into consideration commodity characteristics and socio-economic aspects.

CPAf-based studies on technology generation in the field of biotechnology and environment were mainly conducted by the Institute of Strategic Planning and Policy Studies. Most of these looked into policy issues on the development of appropriate S&T products for disease diagnosis and treatment of agricultural crops, and some studies explored the impacts of genetically-engineered crops. They generally studied the

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potential, as well as risks, of using biotechnology to improve agricultural production and food and feed sufficiency in the country.

Aside from technical analyses of biotechnology products and processes, the studies also conducted ex-ante analyses (using the EPISTLE scheme) to ensure that quality and standards are met and policy implementation for applying these products are in place. To evaluate economic potential and viability of biotech products, the studies mainly used cost-benefit analyses, budget analyses and valuation methods. Farmer surveys and interviews were administered to determine the acceptability of these technologies and further deepen analysis.

A PITAS study on biotechnology showed that in the country, biotechnology is looked upon by scientists and policymakers usually as means of improving food production. Scientists usually developed conventional biotech products, e.g. wine fermentation, food, feeds and tissue culture of farm crops.

Public and private investments on biotechnology R&D were allocated on production of these technologies, and not on the management of risks associated with using them.

Meanwhile, the study confirmed that biotechnology can greatly contribute to achieving food security. It recommended that the following issues should be open to biotechnology debate: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)

Variety improvement breeding Food safety Seed multiplication Harmonization of regulations with other countries Intellectual property rights (IPR) Moral and ethical issues Inadvertent trans-boundary movement of GMOs

Another study, this time looking at the role of policies in biotechnology development and its prospects, cites a number of problems in R&D (ISPPS, CPAf, & DOST, 1997): 1) 2) 3) 4)

Limited manpower capability Lack of adequate facilities and equipment Lack of market demand orientation and culture Limited or absence of effective mechanisms to commercialize the product 5) Lack of venture capital 6) R&D efforts diffused and lacking in focus 7) Incomplete, unclear, very strict bio-safety guidelines

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8) Poor administrative support, utilities (e.g. water, electricity) 9) Inadequate funds for research 10) No appropriate evaluation and monitoring of quality and assessment of research results 11) Lack of incentives for Filipino scientists 12) Low extension support particularly in research result evaluation and assessment A research study conducted by ISPPS staff on animal vaccines for infectious coryza, fowl cholera and hemorrhagic septicemia re-echoed some of the problems mentioned above. It revealed the lack of monitoring and prevention of these illnesses, especially among small poultry growers. Furthermore, it showed that poultry growers would only adopt local vaccines if they are cheap, highly available with a sustainable supply, high in quality, and well-packed. Their decision to adopt the vaccines also depends on the marketing strategy and appropriateness of the vaccine strains. The study generally outlined the need for administrative and extension support, refocusing of R&D priorities, government (as well as private sector) back-up on regulation, and an appropriate marketing strategy and culture (Dumayas, 2001; Chupungco, 2002; Elazegui, 2002).

On a more positive note, results of the ex-ante assessment on genetically modified (GM) abaca implied that this type of crop poses greater advantages than traditionally-grown abaca, especially in disease resistance. The study highlighted the economic advantages of R&D investment in GM abaca, and encouraged dissemination of planting materials along with knowledge of proper nurturing of GM abaca. It also suggested that infected abaca farms should be rehabilitated (Rola, et al., 2007).

The study on plant diagnostic kits for banana, abaca and potato viruses noted that the crops for which the kits were designed are priority commodities of DA. Moreover, the crops are usually the most widely grown, in high demand, and profitable for farmers.

Thus, the technology would have significant impact on the productivity of these crops and on the agriculture sector in general. However, the project noted problems such as lack of funds for developing the technology.

The BIOTECH Diagnostic Kits Project team relied only on donor-driven financial support. There also seems to have a conflict of interest among clients and stakeholders in using the diagnostic kits and other laboratory services to detect plant diseases (Calderon, 2002; Dumayas, 2002; Elazegui, 2002).

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The study on the role of policies and prospects of biotechnology urged scientists to cautiously develop biotech applications, since these deal with living organisms and could therefore be risky (ISPPS, CPAf, & DOST, 1997). This is reflected by the study on Bt cotton, which indicated inherent risks especially in terms of diseases and pest infestation. The study recommended the plantation type of cotton farming to attain socio-economic viability, and stricter government monitoring on pests and diseases associated with Bt cotton (Chupungco, et al., 2007).

Another recommendation by the joint ISPPS, CPAf and DOST (1997) study on biotech prospects and role of policies was the reinforcement of Environmental Impact Assessment protocols for researches on biological systems.

It also strongly called for risk benefit assessment or accountability clauses in the conduct of researches. Aside from that, other suggestions were made: 1) Upgrade of existing research staff through retooling, graduate studies; 2) Visiting fellowships for Filipino scientist expatriates, encouraging them to stay; 3) Science career system for government institutions; 4) Partnerships with private investors through collaboration and funding; 5) Administrative system for technology transfer and commercialization; 6) Allocation of more funds for research and development (R&D); 7) Upgrade of facilities and equipment; 8) Clear, practical guidelines for biosafety, bioprospecting, regulation and monitoring of biotechnology products; 9) Reformulation of auditing system to hasten R&D; 10) Hiring of professional fellows; and 11) More coordinated, focused research programs.

3.3 Technology Transfer and Innovation Management Two studies on technology transfer highlighted the use of information technology (IT) as an avenue for extension activities and innovation management. Bayabos’ (2003) study on the use of IT-based agricultural extension services found that availability of facilities and technical support, backed by financial and policy support, could help farmers use IT-based extension services. On the other hand, IT-based agricultural extension is still scarcely used in rural communities, mainly due to

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personal barriers. With this, the study recommended that extension activities should build farmers’ capacity to access IT agricultural extension services and overcome hindrances in using them.

Another study also indicated the low use of IT-based agricultural extension services in farming communities. In a survey of end-users of extension services under DOST and DA networks, Maningas (2003) related that, while the users tapped a wide range of communication technology media and other information services, there is still a low level of use of these services, particularly in the DA network because of socioeconomic (e.g. gender, education, occupation, income) and behavioral factors (e.g. knowledge, awareness, attitude towards ICT use). Aside from a sustainable budget and funding for ICT, the study also called for strong policy and institutional support to ground ICT in the area of agricultural extension.

Other research projects featured the technology diffusion and adoption processes occurring in farming and fishery communities in the country.

Most of the policy implications in these studies called for policy and institutional systems that help target communities adjust to or accommodate technology transfer.

One study looked into the extent of gender differences influenced by the establishment of integrated aquaculture-agriculture systems (IAAS) technology, and how IAAS complemented the natural management strategies in an upland community in Quirino (Bimbao, 2001). The study found that men still have more authority and opportunity to take part in development activities, while women still take on household duties, preventing them from participating in the activities. There was also a disparity between men and women in terms of farming activities, wherein men engage in more physically strenuous and socially valuable activities. The study recommended gender-sensitive initiatives and technologies, which would only be developed in a policy environment that allows greater women participation in public affairs, accommodates gender equality, and strengthens gender capacity.

Meanwhile, a study by Natural, Jr. (2000) recognized the importance of farmers’ traditional or indigenous knowledge in management of mixed crop-animal farming systems. This was characterized by heterogeneous land and labor management patterns among many farming households and homogeneous technology management pattern within individual households. One of the problems found in the management of the farming systems was the deterioration of the watershed, to which the

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study recommended reforestation and rehabilitation activities. The study also called for capacity building for barangay council members to enable them to lead in community resource management.

Villancio’s (1999) study of a tomato-based farming system in Mt. Banahaw also featured the inherent knowledge and skill of farmers in adapting to farm technologies. Farmers were able to modify some of the technologies due to their functionality, ease in modification/adaptation, and suitability to biophysical and socio-economic conditions. It was also found that technology adaptation could affect the attitude and behavior of farmers towards a certain technology, and that, through social interaction, the adaptation process is eventually magnified from the individual farmers to the whole community. The results implied that farmers should be given options to evaluate technologies and adapt to them according to circumstances. Furthermore, farmers should be able to share their experiences on technology use and assess them with other farmers to facilitate technology diffusion in the community.

Generally, the aforementioned studies implicated three important avenues for facilitating technology diffusion and innovation management in a community: 1) information and communications technology; 2) policies and institutions; and 3) community members.

3.4 Technology Application/Utilization Many research studies on technology application highlighted factors that help or hinder stakeholders in the use of agricultural technologies and modernized agricultural practices. Most of these encouraged stakeholder participation in policy formulation and implementation. Others called for empowerment of farmers by enhancing their farming knowledge and skills, and by allowing them greater access to resources.

In a study on pesticides, food safety and environment, it was found out that while farmers used integrated pest management (IPM) practices for pest control, the high demand for high-quality farm produce mainly influenced them to traditionally use pesticides. Nonetheless, pesticide dealers, farm traders and the farmers themselves are aware of the risks of pesticide use, and the LGUs are found to be actively implementing policies that regulate it. The study recommended economic and market strategies (e.g. consultation on pricing, implementation of price policies) to regulate pesticide use. It also pushed for the conduct of information, education and communication campaigns (IECs) to educate both traders and farmers on pesticide use and on its policies and programs.

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Another study explored social equity and policies concerning rice and corn technologies, noting that farmers with bigger land and more resources are able to use the technology and eventually rake in higher produce and income. End-users of the technology are given incentives along with the use of the technology, the most common of which is seed subsidy. However, only small farmers availed of this incentive. It is interesting to note that more women availed of technology adoption incentives than men.

Meanwhile, the study pointed out that farmers lacked participation in consultation and planning activities, and that the LGUs simply adopted plans and policies by DA. Municipal agricultural officers (MAOs) were also passive in implementing IEC campaigns in the communities. Just like the analysis on pesticides, this study recommended comprehensive IEC campaigns and urged stakeholder participation in policy formulation.

It also suggested that farmers should be given better access to rural credit.

The economic study on grain dryers also encouraged government and private sectors to be more participative in providing farm communities with mechanical grain dryers, which were said to increase income of grain farmers. It deduced that cooperatives and other financial and market institutions are the best institutional conduits for mechanical drying.

The market potentials and policy implications of biotechnology in agriculture was studied in another research project, which focused on the use of Bio-N and Bio-Green fertilizers in Cebu, Nueva Ecija and Oriental Mindoro. The study found that farmers most likely used these fertilizers because of the benefits that it brought (i.e. increased crop productivity and income, improved soil quality, resistance to pests and diseases, and less production costs). Meanwhile, farmers found the fertilizers difficult to acquire from the source, thus hindering their adoption of the technology. It also urged government units and extensionists to conduct more comprehensive IEC activities featuring the technology and how to use it, and called for more R&D activities to sustain the supply and extend shelf-life of the fertilizers.

Another study highlighted problems in developing root crop starches, such as delayed loans, natural calamities, biophysical conditions, lack of funds, and incentives. To improve production of root crop starches, the study recommended that policies on production include crop zoning and

34

specialized regional farming. On the RDE side, it also urged the promotion and improvement of appropriate root crop varieties. Policies which help ensure the socio-economic viability of root crop starch processing should also be formulated and ably implemented.

Two notable studies re-imagined the prospects and challenges of agricultural productivity and development in the country. One of these highlighted the strategies and technologies developed in the SANREM research on sustainable development of the Upper Manupali River community in Bukidnon province. The action research was found to integrate principles of inter-sectoral participation and collaboration, and the landscape approach in addressing resource and environmental problems in the community. It called for an approach to sustainable development that considers macro- and micro-conditions of markets and policies, and emphasized the importance of multi-sectoral partnership building for upland development.

Meanwhile, the other study outlined the future sources of agricultural growth in the country. It took into account the important factors for agricultural planning: institutions, biophysical and international environment. In terms of economic growth, trade expansion and increasing domestic income can nurture agricultural outputs through new technologies and production innovation. Policy-wise, equity, economic efficiency and sustainability should be regarded in policy formulation for agricultural development, and that these policies should be acted upon by stepping up poverty alleviation, food security, competitiveness, and environmental protection.

A study that looked into the biosafety regulations in the country found that the Philippine Biosafety Guidelines are consistent with the 2000 Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, and that the R&D institutions are consistently trying to reinforce human resources, facilities and biosafety regulations. Given the limited resources, research institutions should lean more on testing appropriate technologies developed abroad.

3.5 Research Foci and Gaps The studies on science and technology policy outlined a number of focal areas and gaps. These are summarized in a table below (Table 3.1).

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Table 3.1. Research foci and gaps identified in reviewed CPAf studies under the science and technology policy theme.

SUB-THEME RESEARCH RESEARCH GAPS FOCUS 1. Technology Policy Initiatives Variety improvement generation and Technical breeding Assistance Support Food safety (PITAS) Seed multiplication Commodity Harmonization of characteristics and regulations with other market potentials countries Safety and quality Intellectual property rights standards (IPR) development Moral and ethical issues Disease diagnosis Inadvertent transin crops and boundary movement of animals GMOs Genetically Prioritization of R&D modified organisms activities and R&D agenda (GMOs) Institutional innovation Ex-ante analysis issues Technical analysis Institutional analysis Policy analysis 2. Technology transfer/ innovation management

Information and communications technology (ICT) for technology transfer Farming/fishing systems (e.g. IAA, tomato-based farming) Gender differences in farm resources management Indigenous knowledge Stakeholder participation

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Enabling policy and institutional systems that facilitate technology transfer Assessment of gendersensitive technologies IEC campaigns to allow stakeholders to be aware and perhaps adopt technology Innovation management (e.g. capacity building, business models, private sector participation)

SUB-THEME 3. Technology utilization/ application

RESEARCH FOCUS Factors that facilitate/hinder technology adoption Economic feasibility of biotech applications Social acceptability Ex-ante analysis Biosafety Policy and institutional systems that facilitate/hinder technology use and acceptability Stakeholder participation

RESEARCH GAPS IEC campaigns to promote knowledge and use of biotech applications Testing appropriateness and feasibility of technologies developed abroad Monitoring and evaluation of S&T applications

From the table, it can be deduced that studies on technology generation were technical or technology-based and descriptive, where the characteristics and attributes of a certain technology are assessed and their economic potentials explored.

Meanwhile, research studies on technology transfer recognized the potential of communication and communications technology as a channel in the transfer process. They also highlighted the importance of reconciling modern and indigenous farming knowledge to further technology diffusion. Here, we refer not only to the technical side of S&T but also the social side, looking into gender differences, biases, indigenous knowledge, and participation, among others.

On the other hand, technology utilization studies dealt with the benefits and risks of using a particular technology, and the factors that help or hamper farmers and other stakeholders in adopting the technology. It also incorporates the importance of social acceptability and stakeholder participation in the proper use and regulation of technology. This area delves deeper into institutional and policy environments under which the technologies are used and controlled. On the other hand, innovation management principles such as capacity building and stakeholder participation were also tackled albeit minimally in these studies.

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Let us note that policy and institutional analyses are almost ever-present in all the phases of the technology development process, being one of the main foci of the S&T theme of CPAf. This implies that policies and institutions play an important role as enabling mechanisms in the said process. Furthermore, the studies imply that stakeholders likewise are contributors of the technology process not only as end-users but also as institutional and policy implementers.

The research gaps generally indicate that CPAf, UPLB, and other academic institutions should widen their R&E activities to delve deeper into more current S&T issues. Furthermore, studies should explore ways by which current policies and institutional arenas can facilitate use and control of technology for development, and that R&D activities should be tailored fit to cater to the needs of the marginalized sector (i.e. farmers, women, disabled, etc.). The use of communication and information campaigns for technology adoption was also stressed.

Public policy for S&T apparently showed a human side to the technical nature of science and technology. It is important both for bio-physical and social scientists to recognize this side of S&T, and address their own gaps and differences through dialogues and multi-stakeholder meetings.

Furthermore, scientists should immerse themselves in multi-disciplinary research studies and projects.

Ex-ante assessment research studies on S&T interventions were conducted in CPAf. This type of research should be given more attention. Moreover, the studies on S&T policy should be more prescriptive and analytical than descriptive.

3.6 Future Academic and Research Programs The existing general education course on science, technology and society (STS) in UPLB, which gives students an overview of the roles and functions of science and technology, perhaps S&T policy, in society, should be further enriched, looking at both the technical and social side of S&T. It suggests that the course should be taught by teachers from both bio-physical and social sciences.

There is also the need for academic and research programs that deal with appropriate policy development approaches and impact assessment.

Other fields may also include institutional innovation management, intellectual property rights, bio-safety policies, among others.

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As CPAf values holistic understanding and appreciation of social issues and public affairs concerns, the studies on S&T policy reveal that science may possibly be integrated with politics to form a new theoretical approach in the field of public affairs.

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CHAPTER 4 INSTITUTIONS, GOVERNANCE AND DELIVERY SYSTEMS Josefina T. Dizon, Eulogio T. Castillo, Rolando T. Bello, Rowena DT. Baconguis, Ernesto L. Bumatay, Wilfredo B. Carada, Aser B. Javier, Winifrida D. Medina, Anselma C. Manila, Merle F. Antolin, Julieta J. Mercadal, Blanquita R. Pantoja, Lorna P. Domingo, Elvira E. Dumayas, and Macrina G. Umali A number of research and extension activities conducted by CPAf deal with institutions, governance and delivery systems.

These three concepts are very much intertwined in the principles of public affairs.

An institution consists of a set of positions, values, norms and roles embedded in a wide range of social systems, and in organized human activities that address social problems and sustain the social structures in a given environment (Turner, 1997, in Rola et al., 2009). Governance is basically a decision-making and implementation process (UN ESCAP, in Rola et al., 2009). Lastly, institutions benefit individuals, groups, and/or communities through a delivery system. It is with these attributes that institutions, governance and delivery systems form part of the concept of public affairs.

CPAf took stock of studies covering this theme from 1998-2007, hoping to extract certain research foci and gaps, and hopefully generate future academic programs and research agenda enhancing the study of institutions, governance, and delivery systems.

Studies under the theme cut across different areas of specialization: agriculture, environment, education, local government, poverty alleviation, cooperatives, health and research and development (R&D).

It may be assumed that governance is a big umbrella that may touch on different fields in bio-physical and social sciences.

4.1 Areas of Specialization 4.1.1 Agriculture Most of the studies on governance looked into the nature of participation by stakeholders in organizational and development activities. This

concept is to be re-echoed in the succeeding fields. This revealed the human dimension to agricultural development, particular that of the farmers.

One study looked into the participatory approach employed in one of the farmers’ organizations in Infanta, Quezon. It outlined the roles of farmers and other stakeholders in the organization, and their level of participation in the organization’s activities. Results indicated that the participatory approach helped the organization contribute to agricultural productivity and the agricultural development in general, through increased farm yield, reduced farm inputs, knowledge gain, and moral and social benefits. Farmers were also able to discover new varieties and served not only as mere farmers but as information sources and development partners (Atienza, 2002).

Another study also looked into the stakeholder roles, this time including extension workers, in a devolved agricultural extension system in Bukidnon province. Devolved extension workers performed their roles very well, and farmers highly participated in extension activities. The farmer’s level of education and exposure to mass media influenced their level of participation (Damag, 1999).

Meanwhile, Alumaga (2003), in a study on role performance of farmerscientists in a regional R&D agency program, found out that the information-seeking capacity, and organizational factors such as program support and linkages with local government units (LGUs), also affected the role performance of farmer-scientists. In addition, integration of extension service approaches also benefitted program stakeholders.

While other studies were generally descriptive, a few studies were able to prescribe or formulate models that would hopefully address agricultural problems. One of these was Neyra’s (2004) Geospatialbased Extension Management Model for Sustainable Agriculture, designed for one of the special agrarian reform communities (ARCs) in Cotabato province. It involved scenario building, agro-ecological zone characterization, and formulation of socio-economic indicators. The study found out that a number of socio-economic factors, and ethnic group endowments were related to farmers’ knowledge and practice of sustainable agriculture technologies.

The study also considered the elements of participation, coordination and linkages in the program components.

It also recommended strategies on institutional adjustment, new professionalism, message

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design and positioning, policies, and pluralistic arrangements (Neyra, 2004).

Meanwhile, Bautista (2006) looked into the effectiveness of the Community-Based Participatory Action Research Program (CBPAR) of the Bureau of Agricultural Research (DA-BAR).

While other studies suggested success in the implementation of action research programs, this study indicated that the program sites were still not able to experience the benefits of the program. It suggested a more thorough re-evaluation of the program in terms of a number of factors and indicators, and urged the program to focus on turning farmers into farmer-entrepreneurs.

Some of the studies in the field of agriculture featured benchmark practices in management processes and program implementation.

Although these studies weren’t that ambitious enough to call the development programs successful and sustainable, they were at least able to point out important attributes in management and governance.

In a study of the dairy program reforms of Department of Agriculture – National Dairy Authority (DA-NDA), Bayawa (1998) noted the welldefined goals, management system, policies and working relationships among the staff of DA-NDA. The staff was also able to engage farmers in decision-making, and provide them with adequate technical and veterinary services. Furthermore, the programs were reformulated according to the current needs of dairy farmers and the industry in general.

However, there was lack of monitoring and evaluation activities, which tell the agency where they are in terms of their goals.

In Vietnam, Trin Dinh Thau (2001) did a comparative analysis of organization performance of dairy cattle raising communities. He found out that the factors influencing technical efficiency of the community organizations include educational attainment, farm experience, family income, perception and attitudes towards the organizations, equipment and raw materials, community leadership, credit, training course, extension services and functions of the organization.

On the other hand, the factors influencing empowerment are education, farm experience, perceptions and attitudes towards the organization, community leadership, credit, training, course, roles and functions of the organization. He added that the combined supportive role of the State and NGO is important in developing household dairy organizations.

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Rosales’ (2001) Farmers’ Field importance of Farmers’ Field productivity.

study dealt with the training management process in Schools (FFS) in Los Baños.

It emphasized the training management in successfully implementing Schools to enable farmers to enhance agricultural

Another study looked into the potential of precision agriculture (PA) in shaping the country’s agricultural development, particularly in CALABARZON region. It determined the readiness of LGUs in promoting and carrying out PA, based on local leadership acceptance, extension and service delivery capacity, human resource capacity, information and communications technology (ICT) capacity, and financial capacity.

Results showed that the region is partially ready to carry out PA (Medrana, 2007).

Other reviewed studies addressed the influence of indigenous communities on agricultural systems and extension activities. Ghimere (2004) compared the performance of irrigation systems managed by indigenous communities to that managed by migrant communities. It indicated that, despite low education and affiliation levels, indigenous communities do more consultative work especially on labor contributions and water allocation. Migrant communities, on the other hand, carry out planning and design of irrigation systems. Indigenous communities perform well economically only because they have high-quality land resources.

Tombali’s (2003) study analyzed the degree of influence that indigenous farming institutions (specifically the Kankanoey tribe) have in agricultural extension management in Mountain Province.

While the farmers believed that these indigenous groups have slightly influenced the extension activities in their communities, the extension workers believed otherwise.

Nonetheless, the study recommended that indigenous practices be integrated into the management of local extension programs in indigenous communities.

Strains on agricultural productivity were also addressed by research studies on governance. For instance, Cadapan (2007) studied the policy dimension of the massive agricultural land conversion in Tanuan, Batangas. The study pointed out conflicting provisions and allocation of unreasonable tasks among LGUs. It also explained how rapid investment in commercial and residential areas in the region affected agricultural productivity in Tanauan City. Among the effects were: decline in agricultural productivity and in number of farmers interested in

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farming, less access to irrigation water, and limited markets for farm goods and services.

Focusing on the assessment of NAFC’s consultative mechanism towards effective agriculture and fishery sector governance, Libarnes (2202) found out that there was weakness in almost all variables studied, namely, supportive and enabling environment, secretariat capacity, process and systems, information resources, leadership, participation, and transparency. In addition, the Secretariat, which has the capacity and the resources, failed to respond to the expectations of the members because of its inability to use optimally the said resources.

In a related study, Ramos (2000) conducted an assessment of the NAFC as an enabling mechanism for private sector mechanism. The NAFC system has enabled the participation of the private sector not only in the exercises relative to policy or decision making process but also in other activities in agriculture and fishery development. The basic enabling factor is the opportunity to participate out of the legal issuances and institutional policies inherent of the mandate of the NAFC. The private sector has been enabled to participate in the agricultural sector but their involvement in the exercises and activities through consultative activities did not yield direct significant contribution to certain desired performance level of agri-based industries.

4.1.2 Cooperatives Again, there were studies which highlighted the importance of participation, particularly in rehabilitation and improvement of cooperatives and agrarian reform initiatives. A study by Talundata (2003) described and analyzed the collaborative activities between LGUs and NGOs to ensure sustainability of cooperatives in Sablayan, Mindoro Occidental. It used the Cooperative Organizational Capacity Index (COCI) to evaluate cooperative sustainability, and found that only the attitude of LGU and NGO personnel towards involvement in the activities was related to cooperative sustainability. Thus, involvement was deemed important in the collaboration between LGUs and NGOs. Bayawa’s (1998) study also noted that the involvement of DA-NDA in cooperative building, especially in the early phase project, contributed to the success of program reforms in the dairy industry.

A case study also discussed cooperative reforms and transformation, specifically dealing with the roles of professional managers in

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transformation of a farmers’ cooperative in Lanao del Norte. The manager’s role is generally in the cooperative’s economic activities. In particular, it involves adjusting the cooperative’s goods and services to changing external needs and issues, and ensuring competitiveness and position of the cooperative in the market. It is therefore important for the cooperative manager to possess managerial skills, establish public relations, and value commitment and integrity to help in the success of a cooperative (Antimano, 2000).

Meanwhile, there were studies that assessed the readiness, strengths and weaknesses of cooperatives and other related organizations. Quicoy (2001) assessed the administrative capacity of the UPLB Credit and Development Cooperative (UPLBCDC) in managing a housing project. It pointed out the slow progress in implementing the housing project plan, despite the adequate financial, human and management resources and the presence of appropriate policies to undertake the project. The study recommended appointment of the right persons for the housing committee in-charge.

A research study reviewed the concepts of governance and management by citing the case of the Cooperative Bank of Quezon Province (CMBQP).

It described the nature of governance in the cooperative bank, noting that good governance indeed exists in the bank, characterized by its performance, end-user satisfaction, impact on financial status of the organization, and good working relationships with external institutions.

The bank used half-corporate, half-cooperative style of governance, and that regulatory agencies take part in managing the bank (Rola, 2001).

Meanwhile, Villarimo (2000) evaluated problems of a non-operational cooperative in Candaba, Pampanga, and sought the possibility to revive the cooperative. Problems include problematic members, failure of management to perform its duties, and government intervention in cooperative formation. To revive the cooperative, the study suggested that the members be willing to participate in activities and handle cooperative affairs, and that there should be a core management team for the cooperative.

Eight additional studies on cooperatives were reviewed namely, Lantican, (2004), Duong Von Nhiem (2002), Mainali (1999), Castillo and Manila (2007a and b), Castillo and Peria (2007a and b), Castillo and Medina (2007). These studies used primary data gathering by interviewing the Board of Directors (BODs), management staff who were selected

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purposively, and coop members who were randomly or purposively chosen. The authors used descriptive and quantitative data analysis.

The studies highlighted that cooperatives provide a number of services.

All cooperatives studied provided credit to members who they primarily used as capital for their business ventures whether it be in their livestock and poultry raising, buy and sell business, and farming. Credit was also availed for providential purposes. In addition, the members of the five feedmilling cooperatives had access to quality-low priced feeds for their business, which were either in cash or credit payable from 1 to 30 days.

Cooperatives generated more job opportunities in the community where they were operating. Feedmilling cooperatives studied employed more than 625 regular employees besides the contractual ones. Further, through the loans which the cooperatives extended to their members, the latter were enabled to engage in income generating activities. The coop members also benefited from the cooperatives in terms of provision of low-priced quality meat products.

The cooperatives also provided other services in the community like provision of potable water, outreach programs, scholarship to deserving community members, and medical missions.

Finally, based on the studies on the five feedmilling cooperatives, the success of any cooperative is influenced by the following factors: 1) precise identification of services that answer the members’ needs, 2) involvement of the local talents, 3) continuous patronage of members, 4) dedicated, qualified and visionary officers who share their visions and talents to fellow members, and 5) initiative and perseverance of pioneering members to organize the cooperative and maintain their loyalty.

4.1.3

Agrarian Reform

Studies conducted on this topic can be grouped into benchmark studies, implementation strategies, impact assessment studies, and monitoring and evaluation studies. Two benchmark studies were conducted in 1998 and 1999 which were designed to set up a benchmark profile of selected ARCs covered by the Agrarian Reform Communities Development Program (ARCDP), and establish baseline information on the status of 11 ARCs under the Belgian Agrarian Reform Support Program (BARSP), respectively.

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Three studies focused on agrarian reform implementation strategies. The 1999 study dealt with the issue of credit as a component of support services. The key findings show that borrowing by ARBs declined from 1989 to 1995; informal sources of credit is the norm; average borrowing rates are exorbitant; existence of credit-market tie-up; and NGOs are seen as credit conduits together with POs. Meanwhile, the 2000 study analyzed civil society initiatives in the implementation of agrarian reform in four countries of S.E. Asia namely Cambodia, Indonesia, Philippines and Thailand. The key findings show that civil society initiatives varied across the four countries but the focus was largely on policy advocacy.

Using survey and KI interview, the 2003 study determined the parameters and indicators for a fair lease arrangement and provided a framework towards the operationalization of leaseback rental for CARP covered commercial farms.

A study conducted in 1997-2000 along agrarian reform monitoring and evaluation was designed to establish and operationalize a performance M&E system in all provinces covered by CARP. In addition, it presented a knowledge base of the performance of the program beneficiaries in the ARCs in terms of five indicators: land tenure, compliance with obligations, productivity, income and technology. The key findings reveal that share tenancy still exists; ARB household incomes are low and more than half comes from non-farm sources; farms are relatively small, rainfed, monocropped; productivity levels are lower than the national average; and ARBs in ARCs are better endowed with support services.

Another study done in 1999-2000 provided empirical basis for the rationalization of implementing CARP in medium-sized lands. It focused on determining the financial consequences of covering 5-24 hectare lands socio-economic conditions of landowners; history of landownership; perceptions, attitudes and plans as well as the indicative effects on productivity and income. Two other studies were implemented in 2003, one of which focused on comparative demographic and socioeconomic study of ARB households in ARC and non-ARC areas in Negros Occidental using structured interview. The other study documented the extent of land transfers, leasing and mortgaging of AR awarded lands and land-credit arrangements employing rapid assessment survey.

Among the reviewed studies, bulk fall under the impact assessment studies conducted between 1998 and 2005. These impact studies looked into the following:

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      

Impact of CARP on the status, rights and welfare of indigenous communities and associated institutions (1997-1998) Impact of land use conversion on CARP (1997-1998) Assessment of agrarian reform accomplishments (1999) Assessment of impact of ARCDP (2001) Assessment of CARP and its Impact on Rural Communities using Micro and Meso perspectives (2001) Impact of UNDP-SARDIC program (2002) Impact evaluation of policy-based creditor for agriculture on agrarian reform (2005)

Highlighting the importance of collaboration and partnership in agrarian reform communities, Alagcan (2005) identified the factors influencing collaboration. These are family members who can be tapped for resource generation; state of social community relations; sufficiency of projects; leadership quality; ability to motivate, forge partnership and collaborate with DAR and LGU; and high rating of existing linkages. On the other hand, the factors influencing partnership include state of social relations; sufficiency of DAR, DA, LGU, and PO projects; leadership quality; ability to motivate, forge partnership and collaborate with DAR and LGU; high rating of existing linkages sources; access to media sources. Only educational attainment significantly influenced collaboration and partnership.

4.1.4

Extension and Education

Participation, management practices, and indigenous communities were the common research areas addressed by studies under this category.

Rosales’ (2001) study on the training management of farmers’ field schools in Los Baños, Laguna noted that training management is important in the successful implementation of FFS. Meanwhile, Joshi’s (2001) study on FFS in promoting IPM in Nepal showed that the level of knowledge on IPM and extent of adoption was high in FFS than in conventional extension approaches (CEA). Factors related to effectiveness of both approaches include educational level, landholding size, and training. The main constraints to IPM technology adoption include difficulty in the application of integrated approach over a large area, requirement of the application by the whole community, slow response of the IPM treatment, and need of extensive knowledge on insect behaviour.

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Damag (1999) noted the high role performance and participation levels of devolved agricultural extension workers and farmer beneficiaries. The study implied that the involvement of both trainers and trainees in extension activities is important for the training program to attain its goals and capacitate its beneficiaries.

On the other hand, while Tombali’s study (2003) indicated poor influence of indigenous institutions on the local extension program management in indigenous communities, it re-echoed the call for indigenous practices to be integrated into the management of local extension programs.

One study looked into how four CHED-supervised colleges in Iloilo fared with the Agricultural Education Program, which was established with the RA 8435 (Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Act). The performance of these colleges was rated based on their internal and external graduate efficiency, and factors affecting the student performance were determined. The study found that curriculum, resources, program function, support services, organization and institutional linkages relate to the graduates’ performance. In addition, factors such as school culture, as well as the learner’s objectives, study habits, family income and health conditions influence his/her performance.

Taking into account socio-economic and geographical factors which are highly conducive for sustainable agriculture, Neyra’s (2004) study designed an extension management model for sustainable agriculture in a special agrarian reform community in Cotabato. It described the model as people-oriented, resource-based, and able to evaluate planning and implementation activities using systematic, rational and pragmatic approaches.

Focusing on the assessment of the extension support system in the micro home food processing industry in Laguna, dela Cruz (2004) covered 62 home food processing industries in six municipalities and two cities in Laguna. These micro home industries included bread and confectioneries, bottled preserved fruits, and dairy products. The entrepreneurs were women who were married, middle aged, and majority were with college degrees. They started their business in the 1990s with capital of Php150-5,000 mostly derived from own savings.

Very few of the entrepreneurs borrowed from coops and micro financing institutions. The findings show that financial support for R & D is very limited and extension support is very low.

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Meanwhile, Tingson (2006) described the different actors providing extension services to the Agricultural Development and Livelihood Training Program (ADLTP) in Valencia, Negros Oriental. Her findings show that organizational factors could encourage better collaboration among stakeholders. The respondents believed that there was adequacy of goods and services delivered by the ADLTP though the various extension players. The higher the participation, the higher are the benefits for the organization in terms of stability of organizational management and operations.

Siladan (2005) conducted an analysis of the effectiveness of the extension evaluation models used by the DOST Research and Development Institutes in the Philippines. She found out that there was a high level of effectiveness of the extension evaluation models used.

However, some constraints in attaining a high level of effectiveness include financial allocation and priority ranking of extension evaluation vis-à-vis other activities of the organization, feedback and usefulness of the extension evaluation results, difficulties encountered in administering the evaluation methods, reaction of the clients on extension evaluation, competency of the evaluators on the conduct of extension evaluation, and attitude of clients towards extension evaluation.

In Cambodia, a study on the AIT Aquaculture Outreach Program (Sochivi, 2001) showed that the farmers’ participation in the project activities and attitude towards the project have significant relationship with success of farmers’ fish culture. The latter, on the other hand, increased local capacity and farmers’ income and improved people’s quality of life. The author concludes that technical assistance is central to the success of the fish culture.

4.1.5 Environment Aside from participation, which is still prevalent in studies falling under this category, there was also emphasis on the social aspects of environmental protection strategies. They altogether suggested that knowledge and information gaps should be addressed to further enhance participation in environmental activities and compliance to policies.

Buendia (1998) conducted a quantitative study on the dynamics of public participation involved in decision-making processes concerning social acceptability and environmental impacts assessment (EIA). It found out that public participation is very limited to disclosure of the possible

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implications of a project, and determining social acceptability.

Meanwhile, it suggested that public participation can be increased with greater information access and level of awareness.

Fernandez’s (2001) study on community-based coastal resource management in Masbate indicated that the over-all well-being and equity of coastal ecosystems managed by people’s organizations (POs) can be attributed to communication, consultation, and adequate resources, as well as continuous commitment and indirect participation in the program activities.

Another study recounted the experiences of industrial companies complying with the Environmental User’s Fee System (EUFS) policy. The study noted that the EUFS is made to work under the command-andcontrol system. Some companies highly invested on pollution control facilities to reduce fees, but still involved a great cost for the companies.

Most companies thus considered the EUFS as a burden to their operation. Other companies, however, considered the fee system as an avenue for democratic decision-making to come up with the best pollution control systems. The study recommended that vigorous, sustained information campaigns be conducted to promote the policy and lake protection. It also suggested that the goal performance of agencies implementing EUFS be assessed (Baltazar, 2003).

Another one of the themes extracted from the review was the highly shifting, often conflicting social, political and institutional factors that affected implementation of policies on environmental and natural resource management, or what is termed as ―battlefields of knowledge‖.

Loevinsohn and Rola (1998) pointed out in their study on policy-making issues in pesticide and pest management in the country that regulation of pesticide use was only effective when the policymakers allowed civil societies greater participation and prioritized the health of rural population.

Elazegui, Espaldon and Sumbalan’s (2004) paper, meanwhile, indicated that implementation of LGU-led projects on environmentally critical areas were hampered due to lack of solid enabling mechanisms at the level of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR). Poor implementation of river laws, on the other hand, was suggested by Rola’s (2001) paper on the role of LGUs in sustainable river resources management.

While these studies looked into the mechanics and flow of research to policy implementation and the role of national agencies in the process,

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some papers also dealt with the local government units as key implementers of environmental regulations. This is an important area of research for CPAf, whose domain includes development and governance.

The role of LGUs was implied in five of the papers surveyed.

Rola (2001); Elazegui, Espaldon and Sumbalan (2004); and Paunlagui, Nguyen and Rola (2003) explored the role of the provincial government of Bukidnon in environmental policy implementation. These papers emerged from the action research program conducted by the Institute of Strategic Planning and Policy Studies (ISPPS) entitled ―Sustainable Agriculture and Natural Resources Management - Collaborative Research Support Program‖ (SANREM-CRSP), which ran from 1994-2004.

On the other hand, papers by Elazegui, de Guzman and Foronda (1999); and by Rebugio, Calderon, Dizon and Camacho (2005) studied on the environmental management strategies in various municipal and provincial government units. As was evident in these studies, there seemed to be a growing interest on local government units as environmental policy implementers and as unit of analysis for CPAf research studies.

The choice of topics/research areas of these studies may have been partly dictated by the funding institutions which sponsored the research projects. Then again, these areas were able to reflect well the policy issues that were relevant during the period of study.

4.1.6 Health Some of the studies also investigated governance and management systems in certain health and nutrition institutions and programs. One study by Zhang (1999) explored the administrative process of the Food and Nutrition Surveillance and Improvement Program (FNSIP), including its management, outputs, relationship with other food and nutrition programs and policies, strengths and weaknesses, and measures for effective management.

The study showed that the program is composed of many different components: nutrition surveillance, manpower training, development of appropriate interventions, and nutrition education.

The program is characterized by good planning and coordination, but it is hounded by problems such as the need for a formal contract before training for the program, weak nutrition education, lack of monitoring and evaluation, and financial resources (Zhang, 1999).

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Meanwhile, Arcadio’s (2003) study on BIDANI and its partnership with the LGUs implied that BIDANI is not only focused on nutrition improvement, but also on good governance, food security, participatory development, and rural development.

4.1.7 Local Government Units Studies that involve local government units as development partners suggested the significance of empowerment and capacity building in strengthening the role of LGUs as service delivery, governance, and development institutions. Still, participation was deemed an important factor in enhancing LGUs. Aside from that, LGUs should be trained to effectively address development problems.

Madriaga’s (1999) study on youth participation in barangay governance in Tarlac province indicated that youth leaders are aware of their responsibilities as outlined in the Local Government Code (LGC). Most of them were usually involved in basic policy and legislation, and monitoring and evaluation. Youth leaders assumed consultative roles in program planning and implementation, and they usually contributed to social, recreational, sports and civic activities, and campaigns against social problems.

However, participation of youth in barangay governance was found to be low. The study thus recommended that the youth be encouraged to participate especially in educational, livelihood and capacity-building activities.

Collaboration among different BIDANI and municipal government units in Mabitac, Laguna was the focus of Arcadio’s (2003) study. In particular, the study looked into the nature, structure, mechanisms, and linkages in the collaboration of the agencies towards good governance. The BIDANI program provided benchmark practices in good governance, characterized by equitable, high-transparency information and decisionsharing, highly complementary relationship, adequate linkages and moderate mechanisms. The study also highlighted the nature of relationships and mechanisms in the collaboration as determined by the level of governance. There is an indirect relationship between the number of linkages and level of governance.

Meanwhile, Medrana’s (2007) assessment of the readiness of selected LGUs in CALABARZON to adopt precision agriculture (PA), implied that conflict of interest and support of LGUs to agricultural programs should be reconciled and financial support be given for them to be prepared to

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apply PA in their respective areas. LGU officials should also be trained to use GIS and other technologies needed to update data, map out areas of concern for agriculture, and implement PA practices.

The study on the application of land use policies on the massive land conversion in Tanauan, Batangas, pointed out irregularities and conflicts in laws and policies, which may have caused LGUs to poorly implement land use and land conversion policies. The study recommended LGUs to have an inventory and evaluation of current needs and resources in their areas for them to ably formulate and implement appropriate land use policies (Cadapan, 2007).

4.1.8 Poverty Alleviation Studies in this category also recognize the importance of participation in governance. Moreover, it did not only emphasize participation per se, but also the nature and quality of participation that stakeholders should contribute to development programs.

In the case of the UNDP-CARERE Project in Siem Reap, Cambodia, Vothana (1998) looked into the value of people’s participation in livelihood programs. The study noted that most of the beneficiaries participated in the decision-making and implementation activities, although there was lower participation level in the implementation phase. This kind of participation made sure that the project was beneficial to the stakeholders.

Despite the lack of an extensive information campaign, the beneficiaries understood the objectives and provisions of the project. On the other hand, the quality of contribution of the beneficiaries to the program was poor. This implied that capacitybuilding activities be conducted for beneficiaries to be able to contribute well to the project. The study also recommended that more M&E activities be put in place for stakeholders to participate in benefit-sharing and monitoring.

The studies also called for adjusting livelihood programs and other related activities to meet the needs and interests of its stakeholders. In line with this, there also emerged the need to monitor and evaluate these programs and find out if they are still sustainable.

Delos Reyes (1998), in her study on the strategies employed by the processing centers of the Livelihood Corporation (LIVECOR) to address the changing needs of its partner-beneficiaries, cited problem areas in LIVECOR’s implementation of the programs, including absence of a clear,

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well-defined national livelihood plan, lack of coordination in program implementation and monitoring, and the need to refocus the livelihood intervention strategies towards poverty alleviation. There was also lack of monitoring and evaluation (M&E) schemes and guidelines for the corporation to improve and market its products and services, and the lack of inherent funds to sustain the program.

Nonetheless, LIVECOR was still able to deliver increase in income and family savings, funds for investment, productive capacity and greater resource access and control to its beneficiaries. In general, LIVECOR recognizes people-centered development and the social dimension of the project.

4.2 Research Foci and Gaps Table 4.1 summarizes the focal areas and gaps unearthed by CPAf studies on institutions, governance and delivery systems.

Table 4.1. Research foci and gaps identified in reviewed CPAf studies under institutions, governance and delivery systems.

SUB-THEME RESEARCH FOCUS RESEARCH GAPS 1. Agriculture Indigenous communities Monitoring and Goal performance evaluation of program Stakeholder roles activities Participation Partnerships/ Indigenous practices collaboration integrated into Delivery of services management of local Program sustainability extension programs Training management Capacity building Influence of groups Research and development (R&D) Model building Scenario-building Benchmark practices Problem-focused approach 2. Cooperatives

Partnerships/

Monitoring and

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SUB-THEME

RESEARCH FOCUS collaboration Participation Program sustainability Goal performance Delivery of services Stakeholder roles Problem-focused approach

RESEARCH GAPS evaluation of program activities Expansion of client base through branching Venturing into other business enterprises Fine-tuning governance

3. Agrarian reform

4. Extension and education

5. Environment

Benchmark studies Implementation Monitoring and evaluation Impact assessment Training programs and processes Training management Capacity building Participation Stakeholder roles Influence of groups Delivery of services Model building

Assessment framework

Social acceptability Stakeholder roles Public participation Environmental impact assessment Community organizing Benchmark practices Goal performance Policy formulation

Impact of policies on industrial companies

Criteria and indicators for sustainable ARCs Factors affecting roles of performance of extension workers Indigenous practices integrated into management of local extension programs

Refocusing of environmental guidelines and policies in response to various needs of industries Goal performance of agencies implementing environmental policies Adaptation

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SUB-THEME

6. Health

7. Local Government Units

8. Poverty Alleviation

RESEARCH FOCUS

RESEARCH GAPS mechanisms for communities

Food and nutrition surveillance Management processes Policy formulation Stakeholder roles Youth participation Capacity building Land use Problem-focused approach Policy formulation

Improving management functions of local agency

Problem-focused approach Program sustainability Delivery of services Stakeholder roles Partnerships/ collaboration

Monitoring and evaluation of program activities

IEC campaigns to strengthen local leadership support Mandates on data standards, sharing and manpower development

It is noted that most of the CPAf studies on institutions, governance and delivery systems possess certain commonalities. Among these is the concept of participation, which is present in almost all the studies surveyed through meta-analysis. They particularly explored the levels of participation and factors affecting participation of the stakeholders/beneficiaries of different institutions and development activities.

It is also essential to note that most of the studies were problemfocused, involving the community members in identifying needs and problems.

It stresses that people in communities would greatly contribute to development and governance in institutions since they know first-hand the needs and problems in the community. Studies on governance should therefore continue to focus on the most pressing needs of communities if they are to generate impact and action.

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Processes were also a prominent subject in these studies, which tackled in particular stakeholder roles, program implementation, performance, and sustainability. Studies on stakeholder roles focused on the kind of involvement of stakeholders in activities, and their performance in terms of the roles that they play. Other studies also looked into the nature and structure of partnerships and collaborations among different institutions involved in development activities. Program implementation processes and sustainability were also explored, taking into account a number of variables and indicators which affect these areas.

Studies on stakeholder roles made one important point in the area of governance.

To further deepen the participation and role of stakeholders from being mere consultants or advisers to development partners and collaborators, groups should convene and agree on the type of participation that they want to have in a development intervention. This would also help address the confusion of roles and responsibilities among the stakeholders.

Furthermore, institutions should not only look at the beneficiaries, but also at the people responsible for service delivery (e.g. extension agents, local officials).

They should also be capacitated to disseminate information and benefit communities with high-quality services.

Organizations and units should not only invest in service delivery mechanisms but also in learning engagements and skills development initiatives.

Some studies noted the lack of monitoring and evaluation mechanisms in institutions. Institutional analysis should be done more intensively, and its methods should fit different community types and situations. On the other hand, institutions should also take the initiative to conduct research projects, or allow other agencies to conduct research projects with them, to determine their performance, impact and sustainability in a community.

4.3 Future Academic and Research Programs Academic institutions should work hand-in-hand with communities and other stakeholders in carrying out research and extension activities, as well as academic engagements. Courses on governance should involve more field work and provide students with hands-on participation in community activities.

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State colleges and universities should also delve more on participatory and action research programs, putting premium in collaboration and trans-disciplinarity. Recognizing the capacity of communities to identify their own needs and problems, academic institutions should also invest in enhancing their capacity to engage in community-based research projects.

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CHAPTER 5 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT Linda M. Peñalba, Carolina P. Santillana, Severino I. Medina, Jr., Wilfredo B. Carada, Nelson Jose Vincent B. Querijero, Merlyne M. Paunlagui, Mimosa C. Ocampo, Arminga B. Peria, Aida O. Grande, Flordeliza A. Sanchez, Cristeta A. Foronda, Zenaida D. Tan, Susan S. Guiaya, and Juliana E. Aramil Social development is a relatively new concept, but it is important in addressing the issues of poverty, social unrest, gender inequality, and other related problems. Through time, the term ―social development‖ has evolved along with the emergence of critical issues, needs and problems in the society today.

Basically, social development is anchored with the concept of poverty, from which the ideals of social development would have likely stemmed and evolved. Contrary to common knowledge, poverty goes beyond just having no money. World Bank (2005) pointed out that poverty also implies lack of opportunities and access to resources, services and certain rights, and helplessness amidst social exclusion and poor governance. Moreover, the complexity of world problems suggest that poverty is affected by many factors, such as gender, social exclusion, allocation of resources, crime and violence, availability of and access to support, and power relations, even geographical location.

Meanwhile, the Asian Development Bank (ADB) has asserted in 1999 that poverty is indeed multi-faceted and complex in nature, but it can be addressed with the right policies and actions (ADB, 2007).

The concept of social development has long been the center of interest for a number of multi-lateral organizations and development programs.

Definitions of social development mainly emphasized uplifting the conditions of marginalized sectors. For instance, ADB defined social development as the ―equitable and sustainable improvements in the physical, social, and economic well-being of individuals and social groups, especially those socially or economically disadvantaged‖, referring to the marginalized communities as the disadvantaged groups (ADB, 2007).

Likewise, the World Bank (2005) saw social development as having the goal of capacitating and transforming ―marginalized men and women‖ and other institutions towards greater inclusion, cohesion, and accountability. The concept is fueled by the struggles of different societies to step up on the following terms: a. b. c. d. e. f.

Border security; Law and order situation; Food and shelter self-sufficiency; Knowledge; Leisure and enjoyment; and Artistic creativity.

On the other hand, the Department for International Development (DFID), a UK-based development organization working to help other countries fight poverty, considers social development as ―peoplecentered‖: that people of any race or gender can not only benefit from development, but also contribute to it (DFID, 2011). It implies that social capital and human resources are also important contributors to social development. The Inter-American Development Bank described social development as investments in human capital to improve welfare in communities (ADB, 2003).

Most development institutions regard social development as an outcomeoriented initiative.

It involves activities and strategies that are implemented to bring about positive, life-changing effects to a community, and rule out or prevent negative effects (e.g. poverty, crime, poor health, drug addiction, etc.) (Department of Community Services, City Government of Prince Albert, Canada, 2011).

According to ADB, social development guides institutions and policies towards the following outcomes (ADB, 2007): 1. Greater inclusiveness and equity in access to services, resources, and opportunities; 2. Greater empowerment of poor and marginalized groups to participate in social, economic and political life; and 3. Greater security to cope with the chronic or sudden risks, especially for the poor and marginalized groups.

The organization strengthens these goals by considering the aspects of participation, gender and development (GAD), social safeguards, and risk management. In fact, ADB has named inclusive social development one

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of the pillars in its Enhanced Poverty Reduction Strategy, along with sustainable economic growth and good governance (Figure 5.1).

Figure 5.1. ADB-Enhanced Poverty Reduction Strategy (ADB, 1999, in ADB 2007).

On the other hand, social development is also seen as a form of ability or capacity. In particular, social development is the capacity of people and communities to make their own path towards progress (UNESCO, 1999).

Jacobs and Cleveland (1999) noted that this led to an emphasis on the enabling mechanisms rather than the results towards social development. This includes strategies, public policies, good governance, and management, among others.

While social development is commonly seen as the ends (outputs) and means (enabling mechanisms), many fail to see that social development in itself is a process, which taps will, power, direction, organization and skills for it to grow, continue and complete itself (MSS; Posner, undated).

The Millennium Development Declaration of 2000 imbibed in its provisions some main concepts related to social development and

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poverty reduction. These are: 1) freedom, which is best protected by participatory governance; 2) equality; 3) solidarity, described as the fair share of burdens and costs parallel with equity and social justice; and 4) tolerance, which is nurtured through respect despite difference in values, race, and culture.

Social development is also the main focus of the World Commission on the Social Dimension of Globalization established in 2004. In the same year, the 12th South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation Summit convened member countries and forged in them a commitment to develop and maintain well-balanced social policies and programs to alleviate poverty and promote equality. With this commitment, the member countries recognize the significance of cultural diversity, women and youth empowerment, and institutional accountability and transparency.

Why is social development and poverty reduction one of the research themes of CPAf? It is noted that aside from social organization and resource appropriation, social development also deals with institutions and governance. There is a paradigm shift in social development, from material to information and technology resources; from regard for the social importance of land to that of importance of knowledge and money. Social development is also geared towards the respect for all human rights, laws and shared values.

With social development being one of the main research areas of CPAf, a group of faculty and staff analyzed a wide range of R&E projects of the College for their scope, strengths and gaps in capturing the concepts of social development and poverty reduction.

5.1 Theoretical Framework While the theory of social development is universally applicable in addressing human problems and determining the direction and progress of communities, it can only be understood in the context and processes by which social development takes place (Macfarlane,undated).

In the meta-analysis on Social Development theme, the research studies were reviewed based on their field of focus (i.e., agrarian reform and cooperatives, gender, poverty alleviation, education, and livelihood).

The three outcomes indicative of social development as explained by ADB were used as the main framework of the meta-analysis study, and

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the sub-themes by which CPAf studies on social development were grouped and analyzed. These concepts are (ADB, 2007): 1. Social inclusion and equity; 2. Empowerment; and 3. Protection from risks.

To clarify the scope of the theme, the group conducted a review of literature related to social development and poverty reduction. A total of 115 theses, dissertations, field studies, reports and other research papers were surveyed under the theme.

Based on the social development concepts, CPAf’s R&E projects were grouped into the subareas and further analyzed using different methods and approaches (e.g. analysis of research methods, epistemology, etc.).

5.2 Sub-areas of Social Development and Innovations 5.2.1 Social Inclusion and Equity Many CPAf research studies on social development continue to recognize the gap between communities that enjoy socio-economic prosperity, access to social services, thorough participation in societal development, and other related benefits, and those that have an unstable, if not nil, access to social welfare and participation opportunities. Social inclusion, is both a means, an end, and a process by which marginalized groups in communities gain more participation in education and employment, and play a more substantial role in building a stronger and more inclusive community (Victoria University, undated).

Social exclusion, its ―alter-ego‖, was thought to exist only in terms of gender, which Acharya (2007) pointed out to perhaps be the most universal form of social exclusion. However, DFID (2005, in Acharya, 2007) defined social exclusion as ―a process by which certain groups are systematically disadvantaged because they are discriminated against on the basis of their ethnicity, race, religion, sexual orientation, caste, descent, gender, age, disability, HIV status, migrant status or where they live.‖ From this definition, social exclusion does not only take the form of gender inequality but also includes a wider range of sociodemographic characteristics.

Social inclusion, on the other hand, brings attention to the processes, organizations and approaches that promotes equitable access to services, markets, public decision making and community activities and

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support (ADB, 2007). STAR-Ghana (undated) posits that, in order to increase a marginalized individual or group’s access to development opportunities, benefits should be improved and institutional barriers (e.g. unfair institutional arrangements, gender roles, etc.) be removed for them to further participate in development.

As what the abovementioned definitions suggest, the term ―equity‖ coexists with social inclusion, in terms of ―access‖ (availing of social services and involvement in development activities per se), and ―quality‖ (enhancement of incentives, removal of barriers, improved capacity).

5.2.1.1 Agrarian reform and cooperatives Inequitable access to land and other agricultural resources has been a pervasive problem for farming communities in the country.

To hopefully address the pervasive problems on agrarian reform, the government developed and reformulated agrarian reform programs that would not only allow farmers equitable access to resources but also provide them support services that would make their lands more productive.

The Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law (RA 6657) was one of the government’s answers to the renewed call for agrarian reform and social change. It was passed in 1988, to give farmers the needed access to agricultural resources and support services. In particular, it recognized the role of farmers, farmer organizations and cooperatives, as well as landowners, in planning and implementing support service programs covered by the law. It also encouraged the use of appropriate technology and research to improve farm outputs, provided for improvement of marketing and financial services to farmers, and enabled landowners to invest in industrialization and privatization of public enterprises for rural development. The law covered all farms, regardless of crops and land tenure arrangements (Peñalba, 2006, PBD for SSD, The CARP: Scenarios for Future Development).

Despite the improvements in land tenure in agrarian reform communities (ARCs) as noted by the results of the CARP Impact Assessment Studies (Gordoncillo, et al., 2003; Gordoncillo, et al., 2009), the socio-economic conditions in the countryside did not greatly improve. Gordoncillo (2008) pointed out excessive land coverage, nil redistributive effects on covered lands, and obsolete leasehold policies as some of the constraints in the CARP implementation. Furthermore, Reyes (2002) pointed out that rural

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communities are vulnerable to shocks and risks, such as weather incidents and financial crises.

Studies on agrarian reform and cooperatives have been conducted in CPAf to document and evaluate various agrarian reform programs in the country.

Most of these studies dealt with land acquisition and distribution scenarios, and looked into the impact/outcomes of government-sponsored initiatives on agrarian reform and rural development.

Seven completed research studies in agrarian reform used in this analysis highlighted accomplishments and other outcomes of CARP and its component programs. In particular, they compared the living conditions of ARBs and non-ARBs in terms of a number of indicators (e.g. income levels, access to resources and services, tenurial status, participation levels). These studies are outlined in the table below (Table 5.1).

Table 5.1. CPAf-based studies on agrarian reform analysis.

Title of study Location Current State of 67 out of the 74 provinces Agrarian Reform covered by the CARP Beneficiaries excluding Batanes, Romblon, (ARBs), Highlights Siquijor, Catanduanes, of Findings.

Camiguin, Apayao, Basilan February 14, 2000 and other provinces under the ARMM Assessment of Isabela, Camarines Sur, CARP Meso Negros Occidental, Quezon Perspective. 2003 province and Compostela valley Impact Assessment Capiz, Iloilo, Davao del Sur, of the UNDPNorth Cotabato and Lanao del SARDIC Norte Programme.

February 15, 2002 Assessment of Ifugao, Kalinga, Pangasinan, CARP Micro Cagayan, Isabela, Pampanga, Perspective. July Nueva Ecija, Tarlac, 2001 Batangas, Cavite, Oriental Mindoro, Occidental Mindoro, Palawan, Quezon, Albay,

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used for metaSample size 6, 130 ARBs

240 ARBs, 171 Non ARBs 300 ARBs (168 recipients and 132 non recipients) 870 ARBs, 984 Non ARBs

Title of study

Rapid Assessment of the Impact of ARCDP. July 2001

Profile of Selected Agrarian Reform Communities Covered by ARCDP. December 1999 Second ARCDP 2 Impact Assessment Study. July 2009

Location Camarines Sur, Masbate, Sorsogon, Antique, Capiz, Iloilo, Negros Occidental, Negros Oriental, Bohol, Eastern Samar, Leyte, Western Samar, Zamboanga del Norte, Zamboanga del Sur, Bukidnon, Agusan del Sur, Misamis Oriental, South Cotabato, Surigao del Sur, Davao del Norte, Davao Oriental, Davao del Sur, North Cotabato, Lanao del Norte, Sultan Kudarat Ilocos Norte, Isabela, Quezon II, Albay, Leyte, Southern Leyte, Misamis Oriental, Davao del Norte, Davao Oriental and Surigao del Norte Ilocos Norte, Isabela, Quezon II, Albay, Leyte, Southern Leyte, Misamis Oriental, Davao del Norte, Davao Oriental and Surigao del Norte Baseline survey for 83 ARCDP2-supported ARCs and 41 non-FAPs ARCs; Impact assessment study of 23 ARCDP1- supported ARCs; and Impact assessment survey for 74 of the 83 ARCDP2 ARCs and 41 nonFAPs ARCs, and for a total of 500 HHs sampled from 23 ARCs covered in the ARCDP1 impact assessment

Sample size

43 ARB, 27 Non ARBs

280 ARBs, 280 Non ARBs

1,131 ARBs, 2,746 Non ARBs

The studies were conducted in various parts of the country. Two studies (i.e. Rapid Assessment of the Impact of ARCDP; Profile of Selected

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Agrarian Reform Communities Covered by ARCDP) were conducted in the same study sites, while the study conducted by Gordoncillo, et al.

(2009) on the impact of the program at the micro-level covered 40 provinces in the country. Most of the impact assessment studies used baseline data generated by the College in previously conducted baseline studies.

Analysis of the findings pointed out certain trends in the outcome of CARP, SARDIC, ARCDP and other programs. In terms of changes in income, most of the results of these studies revealed increases in income among program beneficiaries. However, results of the CARP and ARCDP impact assessment studies pointed out that there is no significant difference between the income levels of ARBs and non-ARBs (Gordoncillo et al., 2003; UPLBFI, 2009). Income levels also varied across different provinces, since these areas grew different types of crops. For instance, farmers who were growing coconut and banana reported low income.

Meanwhile, in the study on the impact of the UNDP-SARDIC program on its beneficiaries, it was found that SARDIC recipients have significantly higher income than non-recipients (Gordoncillo, Pe単alba and Escueta, 2002).

The CARP impact assessment studies also stressed that there is no significant difference in the farm-based income levels between ARBs and non-ARBs (Gordoncillo et al., 2003; Gordoncillo et al., 2009). On the other hand, in the assessment of the second phase of the ARCDP program, it was noted that farm income levels were higher among ARBs, indicating that ARBs were better off five years after the program (UPLBFI, 2009). Meanwhile, Gordoncillo et al. (2003) and Gordoncillo et al. (2009), in their meso-and micro-perspective assessment of the CARP, revealed that most non-ARBs have higher off-farm income than ARBs. The impact assessment of the SARDIC Programme also highlighted the same case. However, Gordoncillo et al. (2003) related that ARBs reported higher off-farm income in some communities. Again, this was attributed to the type of crop grown. It was inferred that growing some types of crops (e.g. coconut) gave farmers more off-farm activities than other crops.

Furthermore, most of the studies highlighted an increase in income derived from non-farm sources (Bravo et al., 2000; Gordoncillo et al., 2003; Gordoncillo et al., 2009; Gordoncillo, Pe単alba and Escueta, 2002; UPLBFI, 2009). This implied that more households in ARCs are inclined to non-farm activities as sources of income.

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Another indicator that these studies assessed was the land tenure among ARBs and non-ARBs. In general, the studies pointed out that most of the ARBs and non-ARBs are owner-cultivators, while some of them are amortizing the lands that they cultivate. (Bravo et al., 2000; Gordoncillo et al., 2001; Gordoncillo et al., 2003; Gordoncillo et al., 2009). It may mean that more and more farmers have slowly gained full access and control of the lands that they cultivate.

The studies on CARP and ARCDP also highlighted that more ARBs have greater access to basic social services and communication facilities, postharvest technologies, credit and marketing channels. Likewise, the SARDIC Programme assessment study revealed that beneficiaries had greater income, value assets, and household facilities. The studies also pointed out that more beneficiaries have used farming tools and adopted sustainable farming practices.

In a few farming communities, however, many non-ARBs also have access to these opportunities and incentives. Moreover, some of the ARBs still hesitated in availing credit relative to non-ARBs (Bravo et al., 2000; Gordoncillo et al., 2003; Gordoncillo et al., 2009). In the mesoperspective assessment of the CARP, Gordoncillo, et al. (2009) also pointed out that some ARCs were still remote and distant from basic social service and communication facilities.

These findings imply that access to complementary inputs of CARP and other related programs, e.g. irrigation, credit, and support services may have a bearing on the income levels in ARCs. This could be the reason why some of the ARCs did not have significantly higher income levels relative to non-ARBs, despite of improvements in land ownership.

The level of participation was another aspect that the studies on agrarian reform programs looked into. This sees to it that beneficiaries of the program are not mere recipients but also working partners of the program implementation.

Bravo et al. (2000) pointed out that despite financial and credit constraints, the ARBs were still able to participate in community activities. Gordoncillo et al. (2003) also highlighted that more ARBs surveyed in the study were affiliated with cooperatives and POs, and that most of them are able to participate in meetings and other related activities.

On the other hand, non-ARBs had recently gained participation in community activities (Gordoncillo et al., 2003; Gordoncillo et al., 2009). SARDIC Programme recipients were likewise more

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participative in organizational activities (Gordoncillo, PeĂąalba and Escueta, 2002). Meanwhile, the project by UPLB Foundation, Inc. (UPLBFI, 2009) reported that most of the success in the Community Development and Capacity Building (CDCB) component of the ARCDP 2 is attributed mainly to community participation and planning.

Most of the studies that were reviewed revealed that most of the beneficiaries of the agrarian reform programs looked up to barangay officials as the most influential persons in the community. This implies that barangay council members could help, perhaps spearhead and supervise, the implementation and monitoring of agrarian reform programs at the community level.

Thus, they should also be capacitated to implement these programs efficiently.

The studies also suggested that success of CARP is marked not only by increases in income and productivity, but also by the beneficiaries’ willingness to be involved in various activities. Thus, service delivery and support systems should further be improved to help farmer beneficiaries participate in the programs.

The studies on CARP impact and outcomes imply that greater financial and marketing assistance should be extended to ARBs, and their participation should be encouraged for them to gain and sustain the benefits from CARP. Moreover, the high incidence of poverty in some ARCs implies that poverty reduction strategies and support service delivery systems should also be improved in these areas.

Hopefully, given these implications, future studies will be able to formulate innovative agrarian reform models to address current agrarian problems. In addition, future studies should focus on finding ways by which strengths of these programs are further enhanced, and their weaknesses improved. The current status of agrarian reform programs imply that much is still to be polished for ARBs to gain equitable access and control of their resources.

5.2.1.2 Gender and Gender relations Certain CPAf-based studies also looked into gender and gender relations as an aspect of social inclusion and equity, specifically dealing with gender and participation in economic activities and community development.

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The concept of gender relations as part of the Gender and Development (GAD) approach was partly used in the research projects to determine and analyze the needs and roles of men and women in different activities and situations, in access and control of resources, and participation in decision-making processes. It is noted, however, that most of the studies only dealt with the women’s participation in these activities and processes. As the common trend in gender and development studies, the research projects generally lacked further inquiry on the role of men and other household members.

Most of the researches have leaned more on the Women in Development (WID) approach. This mainly recognizes the role of women in the development process by integrating them mostly in women-specific development activities, usually making them more efficient and productive at work. While WID-oriented projects improved women’s socio-economic conditions in the short run, some have failed, particularly because they did not recognize women’s multiple roles, underestimated the flexibility of women in terms of time and labor, and likely overlooked the role of men in women’s dis/empowerment.

For instance, a PhD dissertation (Aming, 2004) dealt with the role of women in seaweed farming, the factors affecting their participation, and what their participation means to seaweed farming productivity. Another study (Manullo, 2002) examined the part that women participants play in the decision making processes of the Agri-Sector Ethiopia (ASE) project, and factors influencing their participation in the Debay Tilat Gin (DTG) community.

The only study which analyzed the role of men in agricultural activities and decision-making processes was that on the rice and livestock production in Nepal (Upadhyay, 2000), although the inquiry was made only with the use of a three-point scale measuring the level of involvement of men in the production activities. Two studies targeted rural women, with references on the roles of both men and women in resource access and control as well as decision-making activities.

However, only women who were willing to join livelihood training activities were encouraged to identify livelihood activities.

Approaches used in the gender studies implied that the gender analysis framework should be used for looking into gender involvement and role in development programs. Furthermore, the roles of men in women’s empowerment or disempowerment should also be examined.

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5.2.2 Empowerment CPAf studies have also explored ways by which the ability of certain individuals and groups to make and put into action their decisions and choices are strengthened—in other words, empowerment. The term has been defined by many development agencies based on experiences from working with rural communities, women, and other marginalized sectors, and the definitions integrated capacity building with purging development barriers that entail social exclusion and powerlessness (VeneKlasen and Miller, 2002). According to Alsop and Heinsohn (2005), empowerment is both a process of capacitating groups and individuals, and an outcome by which the individual or group is empowered.

Empowerment co-exists with social inclusion and equity; equitable access to resources, for example, is both a process and outcome of empowerment, as is equitable involvement in the development process (Longwe, in VeneKlasen and Miller, 2002).

One of the approaches to empowerment is education. Through education, marginalized groups gain the essential knowledge, skills, and confidence to make their own choices and be part of the development process.

A number of CPAf research studies dealing with education focused mainly on teaching, learning, curriculum, governance and societal learning environment. The studies indicated significant trends in these areas, which can help contribute to CPAf’s thrust of social development and poverty reduction.

A study highlighted cooperative learning approach as a powerful tool for college teaching. This learning approach cultivates a sense of positive interdependence among students and faculty, which in turn fosters trust and belongingness in the classroom environment. The studies also indicated the use of tangible teaching materials to make learning more interesting for students. These suggest that action-oriented learning increases information retention and comprehension and enhances the students’ cognitive skills.

Another study dealt with the Makabayan Component in the Revised Basic Education Curriculum (RBEC) of the Department of Education (DepEd).

It was found out that with the help of proper trainings/seminars, teachers teaching with the revised curriculum can be more competent in their teaching approaches.

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One of the studies also looked into the Diploma of Agricultural Technology/Bachelor in Agricultural Technology (DAT-BAT) Program of the Cotabato Foundation College of Science and Technology. Results implied that the program may help boost the economy of Cotabato region and provide communities with livelihood and income through agricultural technology.

A CPAf-based study which looked into the learning styles and academic performance of Muslim students showed that the student performance is affected by: 1) teaching method, 2) high school GPA, 3) age, 4) course valuing, and 5) parents’ income. Furthermore, it showed that certain factors such as demographic characteristics, school-related factors (e.g. school facilities and instructional resources), and teaching-related factors (e.g. appointment-related, teaching experience, class size, and level of motivation).

Results of a related study assessing the performance of graduates of the Faculty of Agricultural Technology in Lampang Rajabhat University (FATLPRU), Thailand, indicated that most of the graduates were employed, and that because of the training that the graduates received in the college in preparation for employment, they rated themselves as prepared for work.

A study looking into the interaction among farmer participants of the Field School training activities in selected areas in the country pointed out that the two-way participatory learning processes helped strengthen learning interaction among the farmers.

It also stressed that interactional and institutional resources facilitate learning interaction in knowledge generation and sharing. Hence, social capital indicators may also serve as a benchmark for interventions to strengthen social capital in communities.

Literacy programs for women in Nepal were assessed in another CPAf research study, which stressed that while literacy rate in Nepalese women has drastically improved in the last fifty years, there is still an impending gender gap that the country yet has to address. The government has implemented special literacy programs and genderrelated educational activities for illiterate women in the rural areas, but more funds should be allocated in these programs to educate and empower women.

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In general, CPAf-based studies on education viewed the field as a poverty alleviation strategy and empowerment tool for especially for developing and agriculture-based countries, such as the Philippines, Nepal, and Thailand. To enhance the learning styles, preparedness, and productivity of trainees, students and graduates in these countries, the following should be considered: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9)

Teachers Teaching approaches Curriculum School Physical facilities Parents’ income Community Institutional resources Other support services

Poverty alleviation strategies and livelihood projects also empower disadvantaged groups. Cheston and Kuhn (undated) pointed out that these programs can change power relations, and in turn, empower the poor.

One of the studies that looked into empowerment through livelihood is the one conducted by the Institute of Strategic Planning and Policy Studies (ISPPS) on one of the poverty reduction programs for fisherfolks in Lucena City, Quezon. The program served as an avenue for people living in coastal communities to engage in productive livelihood activities, such as food and fishery products processing (Foronda, 1996). With assistance from the LGUs and the city agriculturist’s office, the action research helped the fisherfolk organize their cooperative and explore better marketing and trade opportunities.

A study on one of the poverty alleviation programs in Indonesia found that the program prioritized economic development. It subsequently included strategic programs such as human resource development, industrial and agricultural development, and science and technology development.

The program also integrated urban planning, communication network expansion, and tourism (Astuti, 2000).

While people’s participation was encouraged by most of the studies on livelihood programs, one that looked into a mariculture program in Indonesia found out that people’s participation slowed down development in one of the provinces in Indonesia. It therefore implied

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the need for beneficiary participation to ensure the sustainability of poverty alleviation programs (Girsang, 2000).

Findings of these studies indicate that livelihood programs should be integrative, holistic and multi-sectoral, and that effective mechanisms should be implemented for people in the communities to engage in development. To elicit a better form of participation from communities, institutions should better present them with potential areas through which they can efficiently participate.

5.2.3 Protection from risks Another aim and means of the social development process is to protect the poor from social risks. According to ADB (2003), these risks could be related to the individual lifecycle, economy, environment, or society/governance. It also explained that lack of assets and opportunities make marginalized groups most vulnerable to social risks.

Hence, risk protection must also be put in place along with equity and empowerment.

Risk reduction mechanisms have been developed by various development institutions to help poor communities cope with these social risks. A number of CPAf studies dealt with these programs, specifically those that protect communities from economic risks (i.e. economic and infrastructure developments) and environmental risks (i.e. land conversion).

According to Sohne (2006), internally displaced persons are globally one of the most vulnerable populations. Ironically, research on the needs and interests of this population is scarce, further constraining these populations from airing their concerns and limiting the understanding of their coping strategies.

A few studies looked into other ways by which relocated households improve their living conditions, like scarcity adjustment, borrowing, employment diversification, among others. The studies also suggested some preconditions for the relocated or dislocated residents to be able to fight poverty. Among these are seed capital, alternative livelihood activities, fair resettlement package, livelihood training programs, basic social services and peace and order enforcement.

Impacts of infrastructure development is exemplified by Nicolas’s (2005) study, which looked into the changes in socio-economic conditions

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brought about by the construction of the Infanta-Nakar Bridge in Quezon province. Although problems such as prostitution, highway accidents, and downfall of ferry industry emerged with the infrastructure development, there were also socio-economic improvements. These included ease in access to health and educational facilities, improved communication and transportation, increase in property value, and alternative sources of income for the communities.

Meanwhile, the results of suggested that the local communities in urbanizing opportunities or participate in

Foronda and Bergonia’s (2000) study government should encourage farming areas to seek non-farm employment rural industries.

These studies mainly saw the different adaptation strategies that relocated and other vulnerable communities undertake to cope with the risks that they face. They generally suggest that, as these communities embark on new and perhaps more challenging situations and struggle towards a better quality of life, the government and other institutions should provide them with the enabling mechanisms to adapt to and mitigate social risks.

More research should also be done to broaden the understanding of the experiences and adaptation strategies that displaced communities undergo.

5.3 Research Foci and Gaps The table below summarizes the foci of research conducted by CPAf under the R&E theme ―Social Development‖, as well as the research gaps that still needed to be addressed (Table 5.2).

Table 5.2. Research foci and gaps identified in reviewed CPAf studies under social development.

SUB-THEME RESEARCH FOCUS RESEARCH GAPS 1. Social Impact assessment Technical assistance inclusion Baseline survey Innovative agrarian reform and equity Policy analysis models Institutional analysis Capacity building of Technical assistance to people’s organizations DARCO (POs) Post-LAD Scenario Gender and Development CARP Master Plan (GAD) approach beyond 2008 Gender analysis

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SUB-THEME

2. Empowerment

3. Protection from risks

RESEARCH FOCUS Women’s participation in agricultural activities Country studies on welfare Environmental use of local resources Livelihood Teaching Learning Curriculum Societal learning environment Country studies on poverty alleviation and livelihood programs Policy issues Socio-economic and demographic changes due to infrastructure development/industrializ ation Livelihood programs for displaced/relocated communities

RESEARCH GAPS Role of men in women (dis)empowerment

Teaching styles Teaching innovations Training needs assessment and analysis Impact assessment of poverty alleviation programs Studies on the aged and disabled Monitoring and evaluation of livelihood programs Improved service delivery programs Training needs assessment and analysis Impact assessment of relocation programs Social impact assessment of industrial development projects

These gaps may indicate the changing contexts and societal needs to which CPAf-based researches on social development should tailor their research and extension activities. In response to these gaps, future research areas should be anchored on other concepts related to social justice and equity, social inclusion, empowerment and risk adaptation or management. These may include, but not limited to, the following: 1) 2) 3) 4)

Migration Proportion of remittances to rural income Property rights Knowledge systems, specifically the use of traditional knowledge in a modernizing community 5) Traditional insurance systems and their applicability to rural communities

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6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12)

Traditional school curriculum vs. market demand Microfinance Communities in transition Multi-enterprise farming systems Millenium Development Goals (MDG) Climate change Adjustments in community structures

In addition, relatively new research methods that help address issues and problems in social development, such as gender analysis and gender disaggregation and social soundness analysis, may be used in future research studies.

However, trans-disciplinary and participatory approaches should not be disregarded as essential research methods for social development research.

5.4 Future Academic and Research Programs Academic programs should focus on skills training to meet market demands, particularly on entrepreneurship, community organizing, among others. Courses on management, community development, economics, agrarian studies, sociology and other social sciences should stress the trans-disciplinarity of these fields for social development.

Furthermore, CPAf may collaborate with other colleges and units such as CA and CHE in working on research activities in the field of social development.

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CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS AND AREAS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH INTEGRATION1 Agnes C. Rola, Mayo Grace C. Amit, Damcelle Torres-Cortes and Eula Marie DC. Mangaoang 6.1 Summary of Recommendations2 6.1.1 Methodologies for Community Development The meta-analysis outputs in this theme particularly featured the research methodologies that were used in studies on community development. In summary, it was explained that the process from policy formulation to the goal of sustainable development should be explored more carefully to come up with potential convergence points to make these processes possible.

6.1.2 Science and Technology Policy for Development In the theme, Science and Technology Policy for Development, it was observed that, while there was focus on the three stages of S&T generation (i.e. technology generation, transfer and utilization), the results somewhat failed to show ―research on research‖ and ―research on research organizations‖. The output also lacked focus on the social and policy side of the S&T development process. It was suggested that the meta-analysis results should show current trends in S&T policy, such as the Cartagena Protocol, bioprospecting, IPR in IP technologies, among others.

6.1.3 Social Development for Poverty Reduction A recommendation from this theme was to further explore and discuss social innovations as an additional R&E topic theme. The old framework of social development was presented along with the new framework to highlight the many, different, and ever-changing facets of social 1

Summary of the Proceedings of the CPAf Research and Extension Workshop held on November 9-10, 2010 in Tagaytay City, Philippines.

2 During the said workshop, the team on Institutions, Governance and Delivery of Services did not present its summary of findings and recommendations.

development. It was noted that, under social development, some interventions are dubbed as ―intangible assets‖, such as human relationships, values, and other related concepts. It was suggested that CPAf should address both the quantitative and qualitative aspects of social development.

6.2 Reformulated Research Themes The theme, Science and Technology Policy for Development, was changed to Science and Technology Policy due to implied redundancy of the term ―development‖ in the theme name. Meanwhile, after much debate on the concepts of community development and innovation vis-àvis strategies, the theme, Strategies for Community Resource Management was reformulated into Innovation Systems and/or Strategies for Community Development. The term ―systems‖ was tentatively included to show the dynamics of change and interaction of elements in a community.

There was a proposal to join the themes: 1) Institutions, Governance and Delivery of Services, and 2) Social Development for Poverty Reduction, as it paves way for the development of a social development index. However, the themes were eventually considered distinct to resolve cross-cutting issues in research studies and clarify focus on stakeholders. Furthermore, the two themes were renamed into: 1) Institutions, Governance, and Delivery Systems, which ably includes institutional, processes and rules in the delivery mechanism; and 2) Social Development. The term ―poverty reduction‖ was omitted also due to its redundancy (i.e., social development already equates to poverty reduction).

In summary, the validated themes for the R&E agenda of CPAf are as follows: 1.

2.

3.

4.

Institutions, Governance and Delivery Systems Innovation Systems and Strategies for Community Development Social Development Science and Technology Policy

Table 6.1 summarizes the proposed themes as well as the results of the plenary discussion/validation of themes.

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Table 6.1. Summary agenda.

Original Theme/Issue Institutions, Governance and Delivery of Services

of reformulated R and E themes for CPAf’s R&E Validated Theme/Issues Institutions, Governance and Delivery Systems (IGDS) 

Delivery systems includes a body of institutions, people, processes, and rules which make up the enabling mechanism (Based on principles of new public management concepts and regulatory economics)

Science and Technology Policy for Development

Science and Technology Policy

Strategies for Community Resource Management/ Emergent Methodologies and Gaps for Research and Intervention in Applied Social Sciences

Innovations Systems and/or Strategies for Community Development 

CPAf should look into the nature and concept of community development  Community development one of the focal areas and strongest academic programs of CPAf  Communities must be viewed from a systems perspective Innovations vs. strategies  Strategies - Not only concepts but also processes - Presents community development as evolving, transforming  Innovation - It is futuristic, more donor-friendly, trendy - Essence of usefulness, benefit - Involves changes to existing product or idea - Includes strategies  Systems to represent dynamics and interactions of elements

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Original Theme/Issue Social Development for Poverty Reduction

Validated Theme/Issues Social Development Separation vs merging with IGDS  Separate from IGDS - Clarifies focus on stakeholders - Merging would devalue interaction among sectors - Concept of institutions not always under governance - Taking into consideration the systems approach  Merge with IGDS - Paves way for developing the social development index - Treating the themes separately will not capture systems perspective - Governance is related with social development Poverty reduction and sustainable development already implied in the four themes

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6.3 Initial Operational Plans per Theme 6.3.1 Innovation Systems and Strategies for Community Development The programs and projects to be conducted in line with the Innovations and Strategies for Community Development theme were grouped into two areas: 1) theorizing community development, and 2) application of community development theories.

Table 6.2 shows the initial operational plan of activities in line with the theme.

6.3.2 Science and Technology Policy Four general programs or activities were laid out by the group in line with the Science and Technology Policy theme: 1) science education, 2) technology assessment, 3) technology, promotion, commercialization and utilization, and 4) policy analysis to address current emerging science and technology issues, protocols and legislation. Table 6.3 shows the initial operational plan for each of the programs.

6.3.3 Institutions, Governance and Delivery Systems The convergence of institutions towards service delivery is the main idea by which this theme will operate. Governance is recognized as having many actors, modalities, and levels. Methods on institution analysis will be employed to look into the economics, behavior, tangibles, arrangements and culture in different institutions. Policies on climate change, food security, biotechnology and land use, and the role of local government units (LGUs) in these provisions will also be studied. Rightsbased approaches will be developed in line with social development.

Policies and plans in local and national levels will also be streamlined so that conflicting plans can be identified.

For these programs, strong linkage to the UPLB growth areas was suggested since governance and institutions touch on these areas.

Transparency was identified as a shared value binding the different programs in line with the theme.

Table 6.4 shows the initial operation plan for the theme.

The concept of community development in the light of changing worldviews was recognized as the main point of this theme. From thereon, the following sub-topics or focal areas were identified:

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1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)

Social services for community development Millennium Development Goal with the Information Society Models for Sustainable Development Preparing for the Information Society (WSIS) Gender and Development Capability Building in Community Development/Human Resource Development in CD 7) Approaches and Strategies to Community Development

6.3.4 Social Development For the theme ―Social Development‖, six programs were laid out: 1) crafting of the Social Development Index; 2) technical assistance for poverty reduction (i.e. education and business asset transfer); 3) capacitating institutions to carry out research management information system (MIS); 4) organizational development and institution building; 5) climate change adaptation; and 6) radio programs in coordination with DZLB and DILG. An operational plan was laid out to facilitate the conduct of these future activities (Table 6.5).

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Table 6.2. Initial Operational Plan for the Innovation Systems and/or Strategies for Community Development theme.

Programs/ Projects/ Activities

Strategies Approach/ Methodology

Link to the University

Theorizing Community Development

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Communities in Transition (Ruralurban differentiation) Community Development Index Harmonizing Community Development approaches Application Harmonizing Innovations in CD as applied to UPLB (i.e., CBPEM, BIDANI)

Basic/applied

Partners/ Stakeholders DA-BAR, DILG, DAR, DENR, Foreign Institutions (IFRI,HDI Network)

Do-Ability/ Timetable Short- to mediumterm

Human Ecology, Social Sciences, CAS-UPLB

Basic/applied

Short-term (1 year)

Resource Requirement 3 community development experts

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Corporate social responsibility CD Audit Education and other social services (as input to CD development) CD response to Disaster Risk Reduction CD response to Changing Demographics Update the CD text book in the Philippines Strengthen the CPAf CD Program Validate with the CD experts at CPAf

Basic and applied Applied

Short-term Short-term Next week

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Table 6.3. Initial Operational Plan for the Science and Technology Policy theme.

Programs/ Strategies Projects/ Approach/ Link to the Partners/ Activities Methodology University Stakeholders Science Degree, nonAll units Teachers, schools education degree financed by both local programs; and national units, advocacy to DOST, DepEd, CHED, DepEd, DOST, private sector, SUCs CHED Technology Research All units DOST, DA, CGIAR, Assessment Impact other local and assessment; international R&D, action research and grant agencies, with training or SUCs RTDs; advocacy Technology Feasibility, CEM, CDC, CA, DTI , DOST, DA, etc. promotion, market studies; UPLB FI, commercializatio action research; OVCRE- IPO n and utilization technical assistance; Degree and nondegree programs

Doability/ Timetable Long-term

Resource Requirement Personnel – Extension and Faculty; Sponsored activity

Continuing

Endowment Seed fund – PhP 5 M

Continuing

PhP 5 M for NGW, equipment

Policy Analysis in support to current and emerging S&T issues:  Protocols (Cartagena)  Legislation (bio-safety, IPR, etc.)

Policy advocacy; Policy conferences; RTDs; technical assistance

OVCRE, CEM, CEAT, CA

DOST, DTI, DA, Congress/ Senate committees, Private sector, SUCs

Continuing

Sponsored activity

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Table 6.4. Initial Operational Plan for the Institutions, Governance and Delivery Systems theme.

Programs/ Projects/Activities

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Methodologies on Institutional Analysis a. Institutional economics b. Institutional behavior c. Institutional intangibles d. Institutional arrangements Review of policy provisions involving institutional arrangement in the delivery of services a. Climate Change Act and DRRM Act b. Food and nutrition security (AFMA, biotechnology, etc.) c. Land use policy d. Policy on LGU-run universities Exit strategy of DAR a. Institutions, governance, and delivery systems in postCARPER scenario b. Agrarian reform communities (ARCs), agrarian reform beneficiaries (ARBs) c. Role of LGUs/DILG d. Convergence role of DA Rights-Based Approach to Social Development (RBA) Review of the policy on rationalizing planning on the local levels (about 20 plans)

Strategies Link to the University Do-Ability/ Timetable CEM Short-term, medium-term, long-term

Short-term, medium-term, long-term

SESAM, CA Short-term

Medium-term, long-term Short-term, medium-term, long-term

Table 6.5. Initial Operational Plan for the Social Development theme.

Programs/ Strategies Projects/ Approach/ Link to the Partners/ Activities Methodology University Stakeholders Crafting of Social Review of CAS, LGUs, CSOs Development Literature CHE Index CEM Technical Assistance to reduce poverty: -

92 -

Resource Requirement

Doability/ Timetable 2011-2013

PhP 3 M

Training, Action Research

CEM,CEAT CA,CHE CAS

LGUs, NGOs

2011-2013

PhP 4.5 M

Human resource dev’t. i.e. training, job coaching

CEM,CEAT CHE

LGUs, NGOs, CBOs

2011-2013

PhP 4.5 M

Education (i.e. entreneurship, health, asset management, Business asset transfer

Capacitating institutions to carry out research MIS

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Programs/ Projects/ Activities Organizational dev’t./institution building

Approach/ Methodology Training, research, planning monitoring

Strategies Link to the Partners/ University Stakeholders CHE LGUs, NGOs, SESAM CBOs CFNR

Climate change Adaptation

Research, capacity building

CFNR SESAM

DZLB/CPAf/DILG Radio Program

Use of communication media esp. broadcast media Research and model building

CDC

Resource Requirement

Doability/ Timetable 2011-2013

PhP 4.5 M

LGUs, NGOs, CBOs

2011-2013

PhP 5 M

LGUs NGOs CSOs

2011-2013

PhP 4.3 M

6.4 Recommendations for a Relevant and Integrative CPAf R and E Agenda The review of meta-analysis outputs during the workshop brought up a number of recommendations for the R&E agenda of the College in the next several years.

6.4.1 Process and Methods To nurture more collaboration in research activities, a college-based research program could be established. Among these recommendations was making the meta-analysis project as a continuing activity of CPAf. Activities such as R&E planning workshops and round table discussions should also be a continuing research exercise for CPAf. To enhance the R&E capability of CPAf, its faculty and staff should conduct more literature reviews. Pre-conditions in the conduct of these activities, such as human resources, funds, and enabling environment, should also be considered.

Units of analysis used in the research studies of CPAf should be leveled off or harmonized. Furthermore, the meta-analysis outputs could be tapped for the proposed development of indices and acquisition of common definitions of concepts (e.g. community, institutions, governance, etc.). These would allow the establishment of working definitions to ensure that the R&E themes complement one another, and aid in theory-building for CPAf. Moreover, theory building will depend on how CPAf faculty and staff are learning from and prioritizing research.

Meta-analysis should be further viewed as a research tool and as a quantitative-qualitative approach of research synthesis. The outputs should be peer-reviewed by both experts and external stakeholders, and should also provide key entry points for further R&E activities.

6.4.2 Revisiting the Framework The new framework discussed in Chapter 1, which includes more detailed interactions among the different elements and facets of social development, could be used as the integrative framework for the R&E agenda of CPAf (see Figure 1.2). The framework starts with studies about methods and innovation strategies in governance and policy analysis, institutions and delivery systems as CPAf responds to the

94

demands of communities, both in sectoral terms and via integrative approaches.

Communities refer to agrarian, rural and peri-urban communities. CPAf research is thus problem-focused, addressing various problems in these communities. The output variable for CPAf research at least during this first iteration of R&E ideas, is social development.

This will be measured through the following indicators (ADB, 2007): 1. Greater social inclusion, through more participation in public affairs; and equity, through wealth distribution; 2. Greater empowerment of marginalized and disadvantaged groups; and 3. Greater protection against risks, through provision of social safety nets.

The challenge for the future research at CPAf would be to develop social development indices that would ably capture and compare statuses of social development across communities in an empirical manner.

In the short term, research directions to capture the goals of CPAf may include the following: 1. Post-CARP studies measuring program impact in terms of equity; 2. Development of participation index measures in local governance; 3. Ground theorizing in areas of community development, public affairs, and development management and governance, as they contribute to social development; and 4. Methods and approaches, i.e. institutional analysis, policy analysis, and other topics on greater protection against risks.

Some of the research challenges will be measuring the intangibles.

The reformulation and validation of themes suggest that components of each theme should be harmonized to avoid overlaps.

With these recommendations, the strategic role of CPAf in transdisciplinary initiatives and policy research can further be strengthened as it aims for its vision which is as center of excellence in development studies and governance.

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