(Ebook) Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History Workbook 2C - Depth Study: the United States, 1919-41 2nd Edition by Benjamin Harrison ISBN 9781398375147, 9781398375048, 1398375144, 1398375047
(Ebook) Miracle of Education: The Principles and Practices of Teaching and Learning in Finnish Schools by Hannele Niemi, Auli Toom, Arto Kallioniemi (eds.) ISBN 9789463007740, 9789463007757, 9789463007764, 9463007741, 946300775X, 9463007768
(Ebook) The Teacher's Role in the Changing Globalizing World : Resources and Challenges Related to the Professional Work of Teaching by Hannele Niemi; Auli Toom; Arto Kallioniemi; Jari Lavonen ISBN 9789004372573
(Ebook) The Routledge International Handbook of Universities, Security and Intelligence Studies by Liam Francis Gearon (editor) ISBN 9781138572416, 1138572411
Edited by Liam Gearon, Arniika Kuusisto, Saila Poulter, Auli Toom and Martin Ubani
Religion and Worldviews in Education
This timely book offers a critically important contribution to debates around the meeting place of religious and secular worldviews in education.
Edited by five leading figures in the field, and drawing on expert international scholarship and research, the book provides cutting-edge analysis that bridges the religious and secular in global educational contexts. Considering the role of the United Nations, UNESCO, OECD and PISA in varied international contexts, the book draws on critical analysis of primary empirical research and secondary critique to offer a coherent blend of theoretically complex yet practical analysis of policy implementation. Throughout this accessible and logically structured volume, the authors assert that the meeting place of religious and secular worldviews is one of the most important and pressing issues for religion in education.
As a field-defining work of research into education, religion and worldviews, the book will be essential reading for scholars, researchers and postgraduate students in the fields of religious education, religious studies, philosophy of education and international education.
Liam Gearon is Senior Research Fellow at Harris Manchester College and Associate Professor at the Department of Education, University of Oxford. A philosopher and theorist of education, Liam Gearon is a specialist in critical, historical and contemporary analyses of education in multidisciplinary contexts. Concurrently Conjoint Professor at the University of Newcastle, New South Wales, he was formerly Adjunct Professor at the Australian Catholic University and also previously Professor of Education at the University of Roehampton and Research Professor at the Faculty of Education, University of Plymouth. With a published doctorate in English Literature, he is the author or editor of over 30 books and over 70 articles and book chapters.
Arniika Kuusisto, PhD, is Professor of Early Childhood Education at the Faculty of Educational Sciences, University of Helsinki, and Honorary Research Fellow at the Department of Education, University of Oxford. Her research focuses on the agentic construction of values and worldviews along individual life trajectories from early childhood to teacher professionalism, as
well as young children’s existential resilience. At present, she leads the Academy of Finland funded (2018–2023; grant 315860) ‘Growing up radical? The role of educational institutions in guiding young people’s worldview construction’ research project.
Saila Poulter, PhD, is Senior University Lecturer in Religious Education at the Faculty of Educational Sciences, University of Helsinki. She has the title of Docent in education at the University of Jyväskylä. Her research interests concern religious and worldview education, teacher professionalism, and citizenship education. Poulter’s current research is on diversity of worldviews in early childhood education and care, children’s grief in institutional contexts and performative religious education.
Auli Toom, PhD, Full Professor of Higher Education, works as Director of the Helsinki University Centre for University Teaching and Learning (HYPE) and Vice-Dean for research at the Faculty of Educational Sciences, University of Helsinki. Dr Toom is a member of the Finnish Academy of Science and Letters. Her research interests include teacher knowing, agency and teacher education as well as teaching and learning in higher education. She leads and co-leads several research projects on these themes and supervises PhD students. She serves on editorial boards in different journals and has acted as a reviewer for many scientific journals, conferences and international research programs. Her research articles have appeared in several scientific journals and edited books. She also works as an expert in many international research and development projects.
Martin Ubani (PhD, MTheol) is a Professor of Religious Education at the University of Eastern Finland. His research interests focus on religion in public education. He serves on several editorial boards of scientific journals. He also serves currently in the evaluation council of the Finnish Education and Evaluation Centre. He is a research fellow at Van Leer Institute Jerusalem.
Routledge Research in Religion and Education
Series Editor Michael D. Waggoner, University of Northern Iowa, USA
18. Islamic Religious Education in Europe A Comparative Study
Edited by Leni Franken and Bill Gent
19. Teaching Religious Literacy to Combat Religious Bullying Insights from North American Secondary Schools
W. Y. Alice Chan
20. Law, Education, and the Place of Religion in Public Schools International Perspectives
Edited by Charles J. Russo
21. Engaging with Vocation on Campus Supporting Students’ Vocational Discernment through Curricular and Co-Curricular Approaches
Edited by Karen Lovett and Stephen Wilhoit
22. Equipping Educators to Teach Religious Literacy Lessons from a Teacher Education Program in the American South Emile Lester and W. Y. Alice Chan
23. Conceptualising Religion and Worldviews for the School Opportunities, Challenges, and Complexities of a Transition from Religious Education in England and Beyond
Kevin O’Grady
24. Inclusion and Sexuality in Catholic Higher Education Possibilities for Institutional Change
Mark A. Levand
25. Religion and Worldviews in Education
The New Watershed
Edited By Liam Gearon, Arniika Kuusisto, Saila Poulter, Auli Toom and Martin Ubani
Religion and Worldviews in Education
The New Watershed
Edited by Liam Gearon, Arniika Kuusisto, Saila Poulter, Auli Toom and Martin Ubani
First published 2024 by Routledge
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British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Title: Religion and worldviews in education : the new watershed / edited by Liam Gearon, Arniika Kuusisto, Saila Poulter, Auli Toom, and Martin Ubani.
Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2023. | Series: Routledge research in religion and education | Includes bibliographical references and index. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2023006393 (print) | LCCN 2023006394 (ebook) | ISBN 9781032208794 (hardback) | ISBN 9781032208848 (paperback) | ISBN 9781003265696 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Religious education. | Church and education. | Religion and state. | Education and state
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023006393
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023006394
ISBN: 978-1-032-20879-4 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-20884-8 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-26569-6 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003265696
Typeset in Galliard by KnowledgeWorks Global Ltd.
GEARON, ARNIIKA KUUSISTO, SAILA POULTER, AULI TOOM AND MARTIN UBANI
VESA ÅHS AND MARJAANA KAVONIUS
15 Teaching Climate Issues in Finnish Upper Secondary School Science Subjects
JARI LAVONEN AND KALLE JUUTI
16 Religion, Worldviews, and Integrated Instruction: How Do Finnish Class Teachers Define the Purpose of Religious Education and Ethics?
KAISA VIINIKKA, TUULI LIPIÄINEN, AND MARTIN UBANI
17 Watershed Revisited
MARTIN UBANI, AULI TOOM, SAILA POULTER, ARNIIKA KUUSISTO, AND LIAM GEARON
10.1 Transformations and politics for sustainability and development (Scoones 2006, p. 304) 137
16.1 Forms of instruction and teachers’ practical perceptions of their purposes 231
Contributors
Essi Aarnio-Linnanvuori is a university lecturer at Tampere University and an experienced environmental and climate change education expert. In her research, her long-term interest is to develop environmental education that is interdisciplinary, holistic and considerate of identity, values and worldview of the learner. She has more than 20 years of experience as an environmental education instructor in different organizations, including several NGOs. Aarnio-Linnanvuori works as a postdoctoral researcher in the European project CCC-CATAPULT.
L. Philip Barnes is Emeritus Reader in Religious and Theological Education at King’s College London and Visiting Scholar in the School of History, Anthropology, Philosophy and Politics at Queen’s University Belfast. His book, Crisis, Controversy and the Future of Religious Education (2020), continues his genealogical analysis and critical account of the nature of postconfessional British religious education, which began with Education, Religion and Diversity: Developing a New Model of Religious Education (2014). He also recently edited Religion and Worldviews: The Triumph of the Secular in Religious Education (2023) and explored a range of issues relevant to religious education in articles and essays.
Liam Gearon is Senior Research Fellow at Harris Manchester College and Associate Professor at the Department of Education, University of Oxford. A philosopher and theorist of education, Liam Gearon is a specialist in critical, historical and contemporary analyses of education in multidisciplinary contexts. Concurrently Conjoint Professor at the University of Newcastle, New South Wales, he was formerly Adjunct Professor at the Australian Catholic University and also previously Professor of Education at the University of Roehampton and Research Professor at the Faculty of Education, University of Plymouth. With a published doctorate in English Literature, he is the author or editor of over 30 books and over 70 articles and book chapters.
Jukka Husu, PhD, is Professor of Teacher Education and Dean in the Faculty of Education at the University of Turku. His research focuses on teachers’ pedagogical knowledge, reflection and moral issues in teaching. Together
with D. Jean Clandinin, Prof. Husu has edited The SAGE Handbook of Research on Teacher Education (2017).
Kalle Juuti is Professor of Digital Learning at schools at the University of Helsinki. He is Director of the Doctoral Programme of School, Education, Society and Culture (SEDUCE). He is a member of the University of Helsinki Teachers’ academy. He teaches general and adult education study track courses on learning and instruction. His research interests focus on digital aspects of teaching and learning, engagement in learning, science and sustainability education and professional learning.
Marjaana Kavonius (PhD, ThM) works as a university lecturer and teacher trainer in the Faculty of Educational Sciences at the University of Helsinki. Her research interests include worldview education, pupils’ experiences of education, diversity in educational contexts and teachers’ awareness of religions and other worldviews.
Arniika Kuusisto (PhD, Docent) is Professor of Early Childhood Education at the Faculty of Education, University of Helsinki, and Professor of Child and Youth Studies at the Department of Child and Youth Studies, Stockholm University, as well as Honorary Research Fellow at the Department of Education, University of Oxford. Her research focuses on the agentic construction of values and worldviews along individual life trajectories. At present, she is the PI for the Academy of Finland funded (2018–2023; grant 315860) ‘Growing up radical? The role of educational institutions in guiding young people’s worldview construction’ research project.
Elina Kuusisto is a University Lecturer (diversity and inclusive education) at the Faculty of Education and Culture, Tampere University, Finland. She holds the title of Docent (Associate Professor) at the University of Helsinki, Finland. She worked as Associate Professor at the University of Humanistic Studies, The Netherlands during 2018–2019 and she was Coordinator of EARLI (European Association for Research on Learning and Instruction) Special Interest Group 19 Religions and Worldviews in Education from 2015 to 2019. Her academic writings deal with teachers’ professional ethics and school pedagogy, with a special interest in purpose in life, moral sensitivities and a growth mindset.
Jari Lavonen, PhD, is Professor of Physics and Chemistry Education at the University of Helsinki, Finland. He is currently Director of the National Teacher Education Forum and Chair of the Finnish Matriculation Examination Board. He has been researching both science and technology and teacher education for the last 34 years. His publications include 160 refereed scientific papers in journals and books and 160 books on education for science teachers and science education.
Tuuli Lipiäinen, Med, is Lecturer at The Normal Lyceum of Helsinki and Doctoral Researcher at the University of Helsinki in the Faculty of
Contributors xiii
Educational Sciences. Her research interests include worldviews, and religious and worldview education.
Anette Mansikka-aho is a doctoral researcher (MEd) in the Faculty of Education and Culture at Tampere University, Finland. Her main research interests are in the field of environmental education, especially in climate education. Currently she researches young people’s climate agency in the European project CCC-CATAPULT.
Sami Pihlström is Professor of Philosophy of Religion at the University of Helsinki, Finland. He is also the President of the Philosophical Society of Finland and Vice-President of Institut International de Philosophie. His recent monographs include Pragmatist Truth in the Post-Truth Age: Sincerity, Normativity, and Humanism (2021), Toward a Pragmatist Philosophy of the Humanities (2022) and Humanism, Antitheodicism, and the Critique of Meaning in Pragmatist Philosophy of Religion (forthcoming 2023).
Saila Poulter, PhD, is Senior University Lecturer in Religious Education at the Faculty of Educational Sciences, University of Helsinki. She has the title of Docent in Education at the University of Jyväskylä. Her research interests concern religious and worldview education, teacher professionalism and citizenship education. Poulter’s current research is on diversity of worldviews in early childhood education and care, children’s grief in institutional contexts and performative religious education.
Inkeri Rissanen is Lecturer of Multicultural Education at Tampere University, Faculty of Education and Culture, and a docent of school pedagogy at the University of Helsinki. Her research interests in the areas of intercultural and worldview education include intercultural professionalism of teachers, religion in public education and growth mindset pedagogy. Currently Rissanen leads a Finnish sub-project on a European Consortium CCC-CATAPULT (Challenging the Climate Crisis: Children’s Agency to Tackle Policy Underpinned by Learning for Transformation) researching young people, climate agency and climate education.
Friedrich Schweitzer holds a doctorate in education/social science and an honorary doctorate in theology. He held professorships in Protestant religious education and practical theology at the universities of Mainz and Tübingen where he now works as a senior professor. His current research projects refer to kindergartens as well as to schools and RE in school, but he has also conducted major projects on non-formal religious education (confirmation work in different European countries). Interreligious education has been one of his main interests for many years as well. At present, this interest has taken the form of cooperation with the new Tübingen Center of Islamic Theology. He has also been interested in questions of methodology. One of his latest publications is on international knowledge transfer in religious education (2021).
Henrik Simojoki is Full Professor of Practical Theology and Religious Education at the Faculty of Theology at Humboldt University of Berlin, Germany. His research focuses on religious education in global society, professionalisation of RE teachers, international comparative research, history of religious education and confirmation work.
Geir Skeie is Professor of religious education and UNESCO Chair in Diversity, inclusion and education at the University of Stavanger. He also is Science Ombud with attention towards scientific integrity. He has been Professor at Stockholm University and guest professor at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology. His research has focused on diversity and religion in education with both empirical and theoretical contributions. This includes a focus on inclusion, human rights and impartiality in religious education. Skeie has mainly used qualitative methods and document studies including action research, but even some quantitative work. He has been a leading researcher in several national and international research projects with a strong network nationally and internationally and he was the leader of the working group writing the new Norwegian curriculum for religious education in 2020.
Kirsi Tirri is Professor of Education at the Faculty of Educational Sciences at the University of Helsinki and Visiting Professor at St. John’s University, New York, USA. Tirri was Professor of Religious Education at the Faculty of Theology at the University of Helsinki from 2002 to 2010. Professor Tirri was President of ECHA (European Council for High Ability) from 2008 to 2012 and President of the Finnish Academy of Science and Letters in 2016–2017. Her research interests include school pedagogy, moral and religious education, gifted education, teacher education and cross-cultural studies. She has published 14 monographs and numerous journal articles related to these fields.
Auli Toom, PhD, Full Professor of Higher Education, works as Director of the Helsinki University Centre for University Teaching and Learning (HYPE) and Vice-Dean for research at the Faculty of Educational Sciences, University of Helsinki. Dr Toom is a member of the Finnish Academy of Science and Letters. Her research interests include teacher knowing, agency and teacher education as well as teaching and learning in higher education. She leads and co-leads several research projects on these themes and supervises PhD students. She serves on editorial boards in different journals and has acted as a reviewer for many scientific journals, conferences and international research programs. Her research articles have appeared in several scientific journals and edited books. She also works as an expert in many international research and development projects.
Martin Ubani (PhD, MTheol) is a Professor of Religious Education at the University of Eastern Finland. His research interests focus on religion in public education. He serves on several editorial boards of scientific journals.
Contributors
He also ser ves currently in the evaluation council of the Finnish Education and Evaluation Centre. He is a research fellow at Van Leer Institute Jerusalem.
Kaisa Viinikka (PhD, ThM, MSSc) is a university lecturer at the School of Applied Educational Science and Teacher Education and the School of Theology at the University of Eastern Finland. Her research interests are focused on religious education, teacher education and professionalism.
Andrew Wright is Visiting Professor at Bishop Grosseteste University, in Lincoln, United Kingdom. He has previously worked as Professor of Religious and Theological Education at King’s College, London and University College London. Having retired from full-time work, he now works part-time at the World Religions and Education Research Unit (WRERU) at Bishop Grosseteste University (BGU) and Lincoln School of Theology. Andrew is an author of numerous academic publications. He has taught religious, theological and worldview education for many years.
Elina Wright is Visiting Senior Fellow at Bishop Grosseteste University, in Lincoln, United Kingdom. She has previously worked as a teacher and researcher in religious and theological education at the University of Helsinki, King’s College London, and Regent’s Park College, University of Oxford. She currently leads Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) course in secondary RE and conducts research at the World Religions and Education Research Unit (WRERU), both at Bishop Grosseteste University (BGU).
Vesa Åhs (PhD, ThM) is a teacher and teacher trainer at a University of Helsinki teacher training school. His current research interests include co-teaching, worldview education in integrative settings, the concept of worldview in educational contexts and pragmatism as a philosophical framework for educational research and teacher training.
Series Editor Foreword
The opening years of the 21st century brought increased attention to religion as an important dimension of culture and politics. The dramatic multipronged attacks of September 11, 2001, came as a jolting reminder of the potential for violent action that can have bases in religious motivations. Over the same period, we came to see an increase in religiously motivated activity in politics. In the United States, we see this in the evolution from the Moral Majority movement that emerged as a force in the late 1970s as the beginning of the New Religious Right. On further reflection, however, we can see the involvement of religion extending much further back as a fundamental part of our social organization rather than a new or emerging phenomenon. We need only recall the religious wars of early modern Europe through to the contentious development of US church and state relations as evidence of the longstanding role religion has played as a source of competing values and beliefs.
There has been a significant upturn in research and scholarship across many disciplines relative to the study of religion in recent decades. This is particularly the case in the area of the interplay of education and religion. While religious education – study toward formation in a particular faith tradition – has been with us for millennia, religion education – study about religion as an academic subject apart from theology – is more recent.
Whereas theology departments proceeded from religious assumptions aiming to promulgate a faith tradition, the religious studies field emerged as a discipline that sought to bring a more objective social scientific approach to the study of religion. The origins of this approach date back to the European research centres that influenced US scholars beginning in the 18th century. The formalization of this trend, however, is a fairly recent phenomenon as illustrated by the 1949 formation of the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion with its scholarly journal and the creation of religious studies departments across the United States in the wake of the US Supreme Court decision in 1963 that allowed, even encouraged, teaching about religion (rather than for) in public education institutions. That same year, the American Academy of Religion was born out of a group of scholars that had since 1909 been meeting under the various names related to biblical study.
It is out of this relatively recent increase in scholarly attention to religion and education that this book series arose. Routledge Publishers have long been an important presence in the respective fields of religion and of education. It seemed like a natural step to introduce a book series focused particularly on Research in Religion and Education. My appreciation extends to Max Novick for guiding this series into being in 2011 and now to Alice Salt and Sophie Ganesh for continuing Routledge’s oversight.
In this 26th volume in this series, editors Liam Gearon, Arniika Kuusisto, Sailia Poulter, Auli Toom and Martin Ubani bring us Religion and Worldviews in Education: The New Watershed. In three parts and 17 chapters from a range of scholars, they make the case for recognizing a New Watershed in education regarding belief and non-belief that incorporates and transcends the study of religious education.
The secularization thesis introduced in 1967 by sociologist Peter Berger in The Sacred Canopy – that modernity would displace religion – had been, by the turn of the 21st century, disputed and pronounced dead by many including Rodney Stark and later even Berger himself. Charles Taylor’s 2007 magisterial tome, A Secular Age, recognized an emerging landscape of belief and non-belief in which Christianity and religion generally no longer enjoyed a privileged position but were ideologies now on equal footing with others. It is in this context that the authors lay out their arguments for the watershed and its implications that extend beyond RE to social policy on a global scale.
The book takes an international view and draws upon years of work by the United Nations, particularly UNESCO, to underpin the need for and importance of employing a worldview approach. The authors also take as a more recent point of departure the Final Report of UK’s 2018 Commission on Religious Education, Religion and Worldviews: The Way Forward. The report defines worldview as a “translation of the German Weltanschauung, which literally means ‘a view of the world:’
A worldview is a person’s way of understanding, experiencing and responding to the world. It can be described as a philosophy of life or an approach to life. This includes how a person understands the nature of reality and their own place in the world. A person’s worldview is likely to influence and be influenced by their beliefs, values, behaviors, experiences, identities and commitments. We use the term ‘institutional worldview’ to describe organized worldviews shared among particular groups and sometimes embedded in institutions. These include\what we describe as religions as well as non-religious worldviews such as Humanism, Secularism or Atheism. We use the term ‘personal worldview’ for an individual’s own way of understanding and living in the world, which may or may not draw from one, or many, institutional worldviews. (CoRE, 2018)
The commission cites the development of a child’s ‘personal worldview’ as a central educational task and the book draws upon the 1989 UN Declaration or the Right of the Child to bolster this aim.
Religions and Worldviews in Education: The New Watershed is the second in the Routledge Research on Religion and Education series to address worldview and religious education in the wake of the 2018 CORE report. Kevin O’Grady’s 2022 Conceptualizing Religion and Worldviews for the School: Opportunities, Challenges, and Complexities of a Transition from Religious Education in England and Beyond focused on current debates surrounding the transition from the teaching of religious education (RE) to the more holistic subject of Religion and Worldviews (R&W) in England and posits criteria for the best practice among educators in varied settings and in a broader international context.
These two books are important companion volumes in understanding and negotiating the new terrain represented in the religions and worldviews approach.
Michael D. Waggoner Series Editor
Routledge Research in Religion & Education
Reference
CoRE, Comission on Religious Education (2018) Religion and Worldviews: The Way Forward. A National Plan for RE. The Final Report. https://www.religiouseduca tioncouncil.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Final-Report-of-the-Commis sion-on-RE.pdf
Preface
We are living in a world full of complexities, inequalities and tremendous challenges, particularly climate change and the loss of biodiversity. Deepening social inequalities between people, violence, wars and hate are making the world unsafe and even dangerous. UNESCO (The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) requires everyone to work for a better world. UNESCO also places education in a special role and sees education as a cornerstone for change. Many scientific and societal efforts are needed to solve problems, but education lays the foundation for these activities. UNESCO released the report Reimaging Our Futures Together in late 2021 and demanded high-quality education for all children to make the future more equal and provide the competencies needed for a better future. However, education is not only about learning specific content and subject matter. Education should evolve from a common vision of a joint future and have a strong value basis. UNESCO calls for respect for human rights and believes that pedagogy in schools should be organized around the principles of cooperation and collaboration. The urgent task of schools is to foster the intellectual, social and moral capacities of students to work together and transform the world with empathy and compassion. Unlearning must also be done, including the unlearning of bias, prejudice and divisiveness. Additionally, the spread of misinformation should be countered through scientific, digital and humanistic literacies that develop the ability to distinguish falsehoods from truth. In educational content, methods and policy, we should promote active citizenship and democratic participation. The same message UNESCO (2006, 2015) has set for intercultural education that is framed within a human rights perspective as expressed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948): education shall be directed to the full development of human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial and religious groups and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.
The new book Religion and Worldviews in Education: The New Watershed is dedicated in honour of Professor Arto Kallioniemi. He has extensive expertise in developing religious education and worldview education in schools. Professor Kallioniemi’s perspective is wide and inclusive. His aim is to provide
students with a comprehensive picture of what happens in our global world and to lead them with the knowledge and values of social justice, democracy and active citizenship. Human rights are core in all his research, teaching and societal contributions. Professor Kallioniemi was appointed 2018–2021 UNESCO Chair on Values, Dialogue, and Human Rights, and this status was renewed for 2022–2026. As the Chair, Professor Kallioniemi has promoted a culture of peace by teaching and researching intercultural and worldview dialogue and encouraging young people and students to build communities that share values and practices of mutual respect and tolerance, while seeking peace, non-violence, and reconciliation in society. Professor Kallioniemi is also vice dean of international affairs at the Faculty of Educational Sciences, promoting societal interaction and equality. The new book’s theme fits extremely well with Professor Kallioniemi’s interest areas in which worldview education has been a central theme in his latest projects, discussions and studies with his colleagues, doctoral students and postdoctoral researchers.
Global discussions surrounding religious and worldview education are actively ongoing. What kind of role do they play in future schools? How does religion and worldview education prepare a new generation for a world that urgently needs solidarity and interconnectedness? Does religious and worldview education connect or divide people? How can young people have religious, cultural and philosophical literacies that open their eyes to dialogue and solidarity? The new book focuses on the relationships of religions, worldviews and society and what role they play in education policy and curriculum design. The work also reflects on worldview education from philosophical and practical perspectives, focusing on what kind of pedagogy and practice is needed in worldview education.
I congratulate the editors and authors for a valuable and comprehensive book on worldview education. I also sincerely congratulate Professor Kallioniemi, my dear student, on his 60th birthday. The book is dedicated in his honor.
In Helsinki. November 7, 2022
Hannele Niemi
PhD, Professor UNESCO Chair on Educational Ecosystems for Equity and Quality of Learning Faculty of Educational Sciences, University of Helsinki
References
UNESCO (2006). UNESCO guidelines on intercultural education. Paris: the United Nations Educational.
UNESCO (2015). Rethinking education. Towards a global common good? Paris: the United Nations Educational.
UNESCO (2021). Reimagining our futures together. A new social contract for education. Report from the International Commission on the Futures of Education. Paris: the United Nations Educational.
Religion and Worldviews in Education
The
Subterranean Territory
Liam Gearon, Arniika Kuusisto, Saila Poulter, Auli Toom and Martin Ubani
Introduction
The meeting place of religious and secular worldviews is one of the most important and pressing issues for religion in education. Over only the past few decades, there have been major developments in national and international educational and social policy. In terms of policy, one of the key origins for the specific inclusion of “worldviews” into the political and educational lexicon can be seen as deriving from the United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief, passed on 25 November 1981. If this foundationally outlined human rights regarding the freedom of religion, its usage of the simple two words ‘or belief’ was the landmark acknowledgement (during the late Cold War) of the importance of secular as well as religious belief. The continued global importance of this inclusive stance is ever more present today, not only in Western liberal democracies but also in the Far East, critically in countries with significant proportions of the world’s population, particularly China and India. The move in education – and in the fields of philosophy, religious studies and theology – to accommodate this diversity and hold it in plural tension is now, in a contemporary context, acute and pressing, with deep level societal impacts.
In this context, religion in education has taken on an ever-intensifying multiplicity of cultural, social and political agendas. National and international education policy has in response sought to incorporate new models of teaching, learning and teacher training to accommodate major changes in the demographic of local and national populations in the light of international legislation (Berglund, Shanneik, & Bocking, 2016; Davis & Miroshnikova, 2017). Particularly pertinent have been models which encourage the facilitation of cohesive systems of societal values through educational institutions (Kuusisto & Gearon, 2017).
These values and the educational systems which inform and in practical terms enshrine them are invariably guided by human rights norms presented by the United Nations and developed through intergovernmental bodies such as UNESCO (for instance, Gearon, 2011; UNESCO/Ade-Ajayi et al., 6) for implementation in schools, further education and university teacher training
DOI: 10.4324/9781003265696-1
programmes worldwide. The most notable shift is towards ever more inclusive models of religion in education which reflect therefore the shared values of citizens and their human rights. The shift towards increasingly politicised agendas for religious education is not without contestation (Lewin, 2017). The ever more prominent security dimensions of such are even more contested (Gearon, 2013, 2018, 2019). The ever-present problem remains, however, a matter of policy and pedagogic practicality – an inclusive educational model which serves to incorporate diverse and often diametrically opposed values and worldviews is far from an academic abstraction. Despite accommodations and attempts at reconciliations, such differences between religious and secular have defined the intellectual and political movements of modern history (Arthur, Gearon, & Sears, 2010; Cornelio, Gauthier, Martikainen, & Woodhead, 2020; Gearon and Prud’homme, 2018; Scott & Cavanaugh, 2004; Woodhead, Partridge, & Kawanami, 2016).
At the extreme, such divergencies around worldview, in the broadest sense, have been at the heart of the rise, fall and continued problematics of totalitarianism across the twentieth century and into the twenty-first (Friedrich & Brzezinski, 1967; Gearon, 2010, 2021; Talmon, 1961).
Thus, most recently, we see intensified global moves to incorporate inclusive models of educational provisions in policy systems with worldwide influence and impact. Human rights values are very much to the fore here, with these seen, through the endorsements of the United Nations, as a values orientation of primacy, with corresponding educational efforts at addressing the urgency of plurality and difference by integrating such ‘universal’ values with an often divergent cultural and religious understanding of the world. Such moves are prominently evidenced by the Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD) and the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). The OECD/PISA initiatives are significant moves to supplement emphases on educational achievement with the scales of ‘global competence’ (OECD/PISA, 2018), defined as ‘… the capacity to examine local, global and intercultural issues, to understand and appreciate the perspectives and world views of others, to engage in open, appropriate and effective interactions with people from different cultures, and to act for collective well-being and sustainable development’ (OECD/PISA, 2018). One of the most dramatic developments, in only the past few years, are moves to attain state religious education a terminological adaptation from religious to ‘worldviews’ education, for instance, in the latest renewal of the Finnish National Curriculum for ECEC (2018), in an attempt to reach wider inclusivity in regard to non-religious outlooks to life.
The worldviews watershed: Philosophical origins
The academic literature specific to a worldview in the historical-philosophical analysis is often abstruse and involved scholarly discussions about the differences between, for instance, Kant’s Weltanschauung and Humboldt’s
Weltansicht; the former more conceptual, ideological, philosophical, and the latter being defined more geo-spatially as a linguistic entity of cultural identity shared by national communities of native speakers and multiple attempted historical-philosophical syntheses (Makkreel & Rodi, 1989).
Abstract as this lineage is, it has become – conceptually, methodologically and theoretically – indispensable for contemporary religious education, and the critical elements in all of this are the increasing applications of the notion of worldview to the study of religion itself. Taliaferro (2019) shows how this inclusion of worldview marks a new inclusiveness in the philosophy of religion: ‘Philosophy of religion also includes the investigation and assessment of worldviews (such as secular naturalism) that are alternatives to religious worldviews’. Evidence of this worldview shift, of similar relevance, is demonstrated by Droogers and van Harskamp’s (2019) edited collection, From Religious Studies to Worldview Studies. Itself part of an importantly innovative series, Methods for the Study of Religious Change, the editors fashion an approach which no longer sees pertinence in using ‘Christianity as its measure, still frames the world through the model of five world religions, still largely avoids analysis of key issues around power, poverty, violence, pollution, science, and social conflict, and still looks to highlight differences rather than commonalities’ (Droogers & van Harskamp, 2019). Methods for the Study of Religious Change, by contrast, ‘aims to redefine the study of religion as the study of worldviews, of ideas which are active in shaping the world’, arguing ‘that the study of religion should focus on people’s worldview-making capacities and should contribute to the critical analysis of global problems and the promotion of cultural and spiritual respect across religions’ (Droogers & van Harskamp, 2019).
In sum, as per Mascolo’s (2014) definition of ‘worldview’: ‘A worldview consists of a comprehensive set of philosophical presuppositions, beliefs, and values about the nature of physical and social world’. Here,
A worldview consists of a generic set of presuppositions and about the fundamental nature of the physical and social world. At its most basic level, a worldview serves as a kind of organizing structure. The concept of worldview is founded on the epistemological principle that observation of the physical and social world is a mediated rather than direct process. From this view, understanding does not occur by fixing the spotlight of attention onto a pre-structured reality. Instead, observation proceeds as the active process of interpreting and organizing the world in terms of some sort of already existing system or conceptual framework. Without such existing frameworks, observation is simply unintelligible.
(Mascolo, 2014)
Such inclusivity is mirrored in the contemporary interface of psychology and the study of religion. Taves, Asprem and Ihm’s (2018) ‘Psychology, Meaning Making and the Study of Worldviews: Beyond Religion and
Non-Religion’ aims to ‘get beyond the solely negative identities signalled by atheism and agnosticism’ by conceptualising ‘an object of study that includes religions and non-religions’. They ‘advocate a shift from “religions” to “worldviews” and define worldviews in terms of the human ability to ask and reflect on “big questions” (… e.g., what exists? how should we live?)’. Here, from a ‘worldview’ perspective, ‘atheism, agnosticism, and theism are competing claims about one feature of reality and can be combined with various answers to the BQs [Big Questions] to generate a wide range of worldviews’. The intention of the authors is here to ‘lay a foundation for the multidisciplinary study of worldviews that includes psychology and other sciences’ grounded in human beings’ ‘evolved world-making capacities’.
Taves et al.’s (2018) naturalistic premises are self-evident in their argument that ‘the language of enacted and articulated worldviews (for humans) and worldmaking and ways of life (for humans and other animals) is appropriate at the level of persons or organisms and the language of sense making, schemas, and meaning frameworks is appropriate at the cognitive level (for humans and other animals)’. With all the marking of what has come to be called a ‘posthuman’ philosophy (here, just as the Enlightenment shifted worldview from God to humanity, posthumanism oriented human beings as one element of the natural world): ‘Viewing the meaning making processes that enable humans to generate worldviews from an evolutionary perspective allows us to raise new questions for psychology with particular relevance for the study of nonreligious worldviews’ (Taves et al., 2018). All this, as they write, ‘presupposes a critical realist ontology, which embeds constructivism within a naturalistic perspective, and enables a variety of accounts of why things are the way they are that can be grounded (at least distally) in evolutionary theory’ (Taves, 2018). Taves’ (2018) ‘From religious studies to worldview studies’ elaborates these matters further for the study of religion to redefine the latter as a form of ‘goal directed action’, one ‘defined in terms of big questions, in order to offer an even-handed basis for comparing religious and nonreligious worldviews’. Perhaps ironically, this move cannot be attained without some form of epistemological power shift, one which relegates religion to a subservient position in the pantheon of worldviews, in disciplinary terms a shift which ‘locates Religious Studies as a subset of Worldview Studies’.
Gadamer’s (2004) distinction between the regulatory laws characteristic of the natural sciences and the messier assemblage of knowledge in the human sciences: ‘… the specific problem that the human sciences present to thought is that one has not rightly grasped their nature if one measures them by the yardstick of a progressive knowledge of regularity’ (Gadamer, 2004, p. 4). Here, for Gadamer, the ‘sociohistorical world’ shares the same physical environment, the physical world of the natural sciences, but its methodological approach and interpretive frames are of necessity different, forwarding an ideal ‘to understand the phenomenon itself in its unique and historical concreteness’ (Gadamer, 2004, p. 4). Gadamer’s Truth and Method is important, too, here in elaborating how for such reasons the social sciences bear as much if
not more resemblance in approach to aesthetics than to the natural sciences. Religions and worldviews in education, in their epistemological orientations, are similarly, and ambiguously, positioned, rooted in a philosophy, and the humanities, religious and worldviews education are permeated, too, with numerous theoretical and methodological orientations from the social and psychological sciences (Gearon, 2015).
The worldviews watershed
Policy origins
In the UK, the Final Report of the Commission on Religious Education, Religion and Worldviews: the way forward. A national plan for RE, offers a ‘national entitlement’ which ‘reflects a new and inclusive vision for the subject, fully embracing the diversity and richness of religious and non-religious worldviews’. The Commission’s evidence base of 3000 submissions and consultations with ‘a wide-range of concerned parties including pupils, teachers, lecturers, advisers, parents and faith and belief communities’ defines ‘worldview’ precisely as ‘a translation of the German Weltanschauung’, which literally means ‘a view of the world’:
A worldview is a person’s way of understanding, experiencing and responding to the world. It can be described as a philosophy of life or an approach to life. This includes how a person understands the nature of reality and their own place in the world. A person’s worldview is likely to influence and be influenced by their beliefs, values, behaviours, experiences, identities and commitments. We use the term ‘institutional worldview’ to describe organised worldviews shared among particular groups and sometimes embedded in institutions. These include what we describe as religions as well as non-religious worldviews such as Humanism, Secularism or Atheism. We use the term ‘personal worldview’ for an individual’s own way of understanding and living in the world, which may or may not draw from one, or many, institutional worldviews.
(CoRE, 2018)
Educationally, the Commission authors suggest, it ‘is one of the core tasks of education to enable each pupil to understand, reflect on and develop their own personal worldview’.
The dynamic interaction of cultural, social and political factors is ‘a wholeschool responsibility’ of which ‘the explicit, academic study of worldviews is an essential part’:
Through understanding how worldviews are formed and expressed at both individual and communal levels, the ways in which they have changed over time, and their influence on the actions of individuals,
groups and institutions, young people come to a more refined understanding of their own worldview – whatever this happens to be – as well as those of others.
(CoRE, 2018)
Such an approach is interdisciplinary – as with studies such as Taves et al. (2018) – where
Studying religious and non-religious worldviews gives young people the opportunity to develop the knowledge, understanding and motivation they need to engage with important aspects of human experience including the religious, spiritual, cultural and moral. It provides an insight into the sciences, the arts, literature, history and contemporary local and global social and political issues.
(CoRE, 2018)
Such moves are also strongly evident across a number of disciplines that directly impact religion in education. These refinements in nomenclature are more than linguistic. They are fundamentally epistemological. They will also dramatically alter the pedagogical landscape of religion in education. These developments also set high demands for teachers and teacher education. They call for holistic understanding and expertise in providing inclusive education for all pupils. This is a matter critically important, too, for future teachers and thus also for university teacher education and training. Teachers need capabilities for building and sustaining the environment in which pupils’ holistic growth and learning are supported. The volume aims not simply to engage in the pedagogical and policy developments in religions and worldviews but problematize their conceptual foundations and the practicalities of implementation.
Religion and worldviews in education: The new watershed
Religion and Worldviews in Education: The New Watershed aims here to offer a critically important contribution to a debate of genuinely global significance, one whose ramifications extend across formal educational settings in the public policy of societies worldwide. Edited and authored by some of the leading figures in the field, and drawing on expert international scholarship and research, Religion and Worldviews in Education: The New Watershed provides a cutting-edge analysis of these developments in global societal and educational policy. In particular, the chapters on the role of UNESCO, OECD/PISA and the United Nations system more generally show, unambiguously, that these considerations are of import to the global south as much as to the global north.
The foreword above by the UNESCO Chair on Educational Ecosystems for Equity and Quality of Learning, Hannele Niemi, frames the worldwide
significance of this policy move to religion and worldviews – what we define as a ‘new watershed’.
The volume hereafter is divided into three main sections.
Part I contextualises core frameworks for understanding the issues at hand under the heading ‘Religions, Worldviews and Societal Landscapes: Origins and Ends, Rights and Obligations’
Here, Liam Gearon’s ‘Freedom of “Religion or Belief”: The Origins of ‘Worldview’ Policy in the United Nations’ delineates the philosophical and political background to the contemporary scene where we see religion and worldviews at close pedagogical quarters. This chapter details the specific geopolitical origins of the notion of ‘worldview’ in the United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief, passed on November 25, 1981. Here, if this foundationally outlined human rights regarding the freedom of religion, its usage of the simple two words ‘or belief’ was the landmark acknowledgement (during the late Cold War) of the importance of secular as well as religious belief. The chapter shows that the geopolitical significance of this divide is as critical today as it was during the Cold War.
In ‘Losing (One’s) Religion? Pragmatist reflections on pluralism, secularism, and worldview education’, Sami Pihlström provides an intellectually powerful assessment of broad political-philosophical and societal context. The chapter examines the philosophical significance of the loss of religious faith using a number of distinctions. Through the pragmatist philosophy of religion, these reasons of loss can be identified as something that need to be taken seriously also in religious and worldview education. The chapter is fundamentally opposed to apologetics of any kind, whether pro-religious or anti-religious. Rather, in a pluralistic spirit, the author hopes to defend a pragmatist way of examining both religious faith and the loss of religious faith as personal traits of one’s individual existence that need to be analysed from a standpoint incorporating epistemic or intellectual as well as ethical and – possibly – irreducibly religious or theological dimensions.
Friedrich Schweitzer’s ‘Education on religions and worldviews: Perspectives to child’s right to religion’ explores, with his renowned expertise in this area, the issues around religion and human rights with a specific focus on the politically now designated rights of the child. Thus, continuing the geopolitical and educational interrelated theme, this chapter elaborates on the significance within the United Nations system of the UN’s landmark (1989) Convention on the Rights of the Child. Schweitzer’s long experience of research and notable track record of international publications on children’s rights in education provides an important foundation to the spheres of politics and pedagogy in unifying differences within the classroom and beyond.
Henrik Simojoki’s chapter ‘Globalised religion(s) and worldviews in education’ describes the interplay of globalisation and religion through the perspectives offered by the complementary theories by Roland Robertson and Peter Beyer. In the chapter, Simojoki distinguishes between three interdependent
tasks of religious education: (a) telic education in the context of a globalised world, (b) ecumenical education in the context of globalised Christianity and (c) interreligious education in the context of globalised religions. According to Simojoki, each of these tasks corresponds with a specific contextual dimension of globalised religion in contemporary world society. The chapter ends with a discussion on the potential of postcolonial approaches for an appropriate representation of global religion, both in religious education pedagogy and education more generally.
Geir Skeie’s ‘Global education policy on religion and education: UNESCO’ is written from the perspective of a UNESCO Chair. He notes that the ‘challenge from the editors of this volume was to address and discuss some aspects of religion in education that are relevant in the light of “global education policy”, with a particular interest in the role of United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)’. Skeie has here approached this by focusing on two overarching questions, also encompassing some aspects of the ongoing debate about worldviews in education. Namely, ‘How can we understand the place of religion and worldviews in the global education policy of UNESCO?’ and ‘Which challenges and opportunities does this raise for the discussion about religion and worldviews among educators on a national level?’
Skeie’s chapter marks a useful transition point from the first section of the volume into the second. Part II explores national and international perspectives through a political-pedagogical lens under the heading ‘Thinking through Religion and Worldviews Policy in Education: Philosophical and Practical Problematics’
Here, looking at the British context, Philip Barnes’s ‘A conundrum for religious educators: personal worldviews or hermeneutics’ provides a trenchant critique of the notion of worldview as a ‘paradigm’. Passionately engaged, his chapter opens with a challenge: ‘Much has been written on CoRE’s proposed worldview paradigm, both “for” and “against”—one of the most serious issues is that the worldview approach is not grounded in a research project or can claim empirical research to support its conclusions. Criticisms are already well focused in a growing body of scholarly literature and there isn’t any need to rehearse them here … What has been overlooked by critics, however, is the interpretation of the post-confessional history of English religious education offered by Cooling and set out in the publications of the Worldview Project.’ His chapter takes the reader through these complexities. Since each national educational history has its own contours, Barnes here offers all educators much on which to reflect far beyond the United Kingdom. For, as he argues, ‘A new paradigm presupposes an old paradigm that needs to be replaced; Cooling and supporters of CoRE refer to this as “the world religions paradigm”, which is believed to have dominated English religious education for the last 50 years … Is this a credible reading of the history of religious education in England? What is the nature of the “world religions paradigm” that is to be replaced and what is the evidence that it dominated theory and practice for the last 50 years?’
Elina Wright and Andrew Wright’s ‘Critical religious education and worldview theory’ explores the concepts of ‘worldview’ and ‘worldview education’ in religious education in public education. The theoretically substantial chapter shows how some of the questions in the current debates have already been looked at in literature and theory-development before. The chapter by Wright and Wright begins with a discussion on notable developments in the UK that are relevant across Europe and beyond. After a description of the current use of the concepts in focus, the chapter moves to discuss the potential contribution of Critical Religious Education theory to the current academic conversation on worldviews in education. The chapter introduces Critical Religious Education and worldview theory, and the relationship between the two. The authors end with a summary of the ways in which Critical Religious Education can contribute to the conversation on worldviews in religious education.
Against the rapid change in the Finnish worldview context, the following chapter ‘Worldviews in flux – comparing separative and integrative contexts of worldview learning’ by Vesa Åhs and Marjaana Kavonius discusses the need for reconceptualising religious and worldview education in relation to pupils and their personal worldview construction. The authors find it urgent to establish new ways of communication across preset worldview boundaries, at the same time acknowledging the need for preparing pupils with adequate knowledge and skills on religions and worldviews. The chapter delves into a deeper pedagogical mandate for worldview education: in order to teach pupils how to react humanely to different sources of meaning in an ever more plural society, we need to anchor worldviews into the lived experience of individuals and place the personal worldview development at the centre of worldview education.
Martin Ubani’s ‘Theologies, religion and literacy: Towards socially sustainable religious education’ discusses the question of the place of religious literacy in the socially sustainable development framework. The chapter maintains that religious literacy as a critical skill is essential for promoting socially sustainable development that not only acknowledges the role of religion in, for instance, society and culture as such, but also involves the knowledge, skills and attitudes related to religion in public exchange. Based on the literature, the chapter argues that the spreading of literacy in societies has included aspects related to, on the one hand, worldview and value development and, on the other hand, individual social empowerment and grander sociocultural change. Ubani envisions that for those reasons, these aspects should also present standards for religious literacy today. Finally, the chapter concludes with implications for religious education in public education.
In their chapter ‘“And our little ones shall dwell”: Is there space for religion in Finnish early childhood education and care?’, Saila Poulter and Arniika Kuusisto investigate the contested ‘space’ for religions in early childhood education. For them, the concept of space is a pedagogical metaphor and concrete method to make religion understood by young children in the increasingly
secular societal educational contexts. As the authors challenge the indirect and distant ways of approaching religions, they argue for performative pedagogical approaches with direct encounters and participatory spaces for children. The authors hold that the pedagogical visions in religious and worldview education should stem from a holistic understanding and knowledge of how young children learn. As a particular perspective, religious spaces can offer a concrete means to approach spiritual and experiential dimensions of religion in a meaningful way.
The final section in the volume has an eye to the realities of teaching and learning. Part III analyses pedagogy in practice under the heading ‘Religions, Worldviews, Education: Pedagogy and Practice’. Here, we find many applications of theory and practice in particular to the Finnish context, with a strong relatedness to beyond.
Auli Toom and Jukka Husu’s chapter ‘Academic and moral obligations in teacher’s work and teacher education’ elaborates the characteristics of teacher’s work, including the academic and moral capabilities needed in it, as well as how they could be cultivated in teacher education. Toom and Husu discuss how essentially it is at the core of a teacher’s work to be able to educate pupils with diverse worldviews. They emphasise that the moral aspects of teacher’s work tend to remain implicit and unplanned in teacher education, and thus, why they would necessitate much more attention. Toom and Husu point out that it is especially important that teachers gain more capabilities for educating pupils with diverse worldviews. Hence, they conclude that the support to these skills is needed in both the pre- and in-service teacher education and in local communities connected to the schools.
Kirsi Tirri and Elina Kuusisto’s ‘Inclusive education from the perspective of teachers’ professional ethics – the case of Finnish teachers’ concludes with a suitably inclusive agenda of relevance to all teachers and learners. The chapter investigates teachers’ ethics in Finland with a specific focus on inclusive education and the current ethical challenges in instruction. In the chapter, Tirri and Kuusisto discuss the topic from both national and international perspectives, with a view to the implications for teachers’ work. The chapter describes first how the value base for teachers’ ethics in Finland is derived from the Comenius oath and the ethical codes for teachers devised initially a few decades ago. Furthermore, Tirri and Kuusisto explain how the Finnish educational system is based on the conceptions of inclusion, equality and equity. The authors identify ethical sensitivity as an important skill for teachers, as they aim to treat each student equally and promote social justice in their work. Notably, the chapter makes some suggestions for teacher education in order for the teachers to be better equipped for promoting inclusion, equality and equity in public education.
Inkeri Rissanen, Essi Aarnio-Linnanvuori and Anette Mansikka-Aho’s chapter ‘Worldview transformation in and through education: Mapping the nexus of climate education and worldview education’ contextualises the educational discussion of the ecological crises, which increasingly stresses the
