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DetailedContents
Preface
ExercisesandActivities
Ancillaries
Acknowledgments
1 WhatIsOrganizationDevelopment?
OrganizationDevelopmentDefined
MakingtheCaseforOrganizationDevelopment
WhatOrganizationDevelopmentLooksLike
WhatOrganizationDevelopmentIsNot
WhoThisBookIsFor OverviewoftheBook AnalyzingCaseStudies Summary
2 HistoryofOrganizationDevelopment
LaboratoryTrainingandT-Groups
ActionResearch,SurveyFeedback,andSociotechnicalSystems ManagementPractices
QualityandEmployeeInvolvement
OrganizationalCulture
ChangeManagement,StrategicChange,andReengineering
OrganizationalLearning
OrganizationalEffectivenessandEmployeeEngagement Summary
3 CoreValuesandEthicsofOrganizationDevelopment DefiningValues
WhyAreValuesImportanttotheODPractitioner?
CoreValuesofOrganizationDevelopment
ChangestoODValuesOverTimeandtheValuesDebate ChallengestoHoldingOrganizationDevelopmentValues
StatementofOrganizationDevelopmentEthics Summary Appendix
CaseStudy1:AnalyzingOpportunitiesforOrganizationDevelopmentWorkatNorthernCounty LegalServices
4 FoundationsofOrganizationalChange
LevelsandCharacteristicsofOrganizationalChange
ModelsofOrganizationalChange:SystemsTheoryandSocialConstructionApproaches
OrganizationsasSystems
OrganizationsasSociallyConstructed
Summary
5.TheOrganizationDevelopmentPractitionerandtheODProcess
TheConsultingRelationshipandTypesofConsulting
TheOrganizationDevelopmentConsultingModel
ODPractitioners:WhoAreTheyandWhereDoTheyWork?
TheOrganizationDevelopmentConsultingProfession
TheODConsultingProcessandActionResearch
ADialogicApproachtoOD
Summary
6.EntryandContracting
Entry
Contracting
Summary
7.DataGathering
TheImportanceofDataGathering
PresentingProblemsandUnderlyingProblems
DataGatheringProcess
DataGatheringMethods
CreatingaDataGatheringStrategyandProposinganApproach
EthicalIssuesWithDataGathering
Summary
CaseStudy2:ProposingaDataGatheringStrategyatTLGSolutions
8.DiagnosisandFeedback
Diagnosis:Discovery,Assessment,Analysis,andInterpretation FindingPatternsbyAnalyzingData
InterpretingData
SelectingandPrioritizingThemes
Feedback
Resistance
EthicalIssuesWithDiagnosisandGivingFeedback
Summary
CaseStudy3:SortingThroughtheDataFromLoganElementarySchool
9 AnIntroductiontoInterventions InterventionsDefined WhyInterventionsFail
ConsiderationsinSelectingtheRightInterventionStrategy
StructuringandPlanningInterventionsforSuccess
TheChangeAgent’sRoleintheIntervention
EthicalIssuesWithInterventions
OverviewofInterventionTechniques
Summary
10.IndividualInterventions
IndividualChangeandReactionstoChange
IndividualInstrumentsandAssessments
Coaching
Mentoring
360Feedback
CareerPlanningandDevelopment
Summary
CaseStudy4:IndividualTypeStylesattheParksDepartment
11.TeamInterventions
DefiningTeams
WhatMakesaSuccessfulTeam?
SpecialTypesofTeams
TeamDevelopment
Team-BuildingInterventions
IntergroupInterventions
Summary
CaseStudy5:SolvingTeamChallengesatDocSystemsBilling,Inc
12.WholeOrganizationandMultipleOrganizationInterventions(Part1)
CharacteristicsofContemporaryLarge-ScaleInterventions
OrganizationalCultureAssessmentandChange
OrganizationDesignandStructure
DirectionalInterventions
Summary
CaseStudy6:ReorganizingHumanResourcesatASPSoftware
13 WholeOrganizationandMultipleOrganizationInterventions(Part2)
QualityandProductivityInterventions
InterventionsinMergersandAcquisitions
TransorganizationorInterorganizationDevelopment
DialogicODConsultationandInterventions
Summary
CaseStudy7:TheFutureoftheCrossroadsCenter
14 SustainingChange,Evaluating,andEndinganEngagement
SustainingChangeAftertheIntervention
Evaluation
EndinganEngagement:SeparationandExit
Summary
15.GlobalIssuesinOrganizationDevelopment
OD’sChallengesinaGlobalEnvironment
DimensionsofGlobalCulturalDifference
ODValues,Interventions,andCulture
CaseExamplesandResearchFindings
AdvicefortheGlobalODPractitioner
Summary
CaseStudy8:AGlobalPartnershipatGFACConsulting
16.TheFutureofOrganizationDevelopment
IncreasingComplexityofChange
ChangingWorkforceDemographics
ChangingNatureofWork
TheCurrentStateofOD:Strengths,Weaknesses,andOpportunities
Conclusion:TheFutureofOD
Summary
References
AuthorIndex
SubjectIndex
AbouttheAuthor
Preface
Itseemsthateveryfewyears,thefieldoforganizationdevelopment(OD)findsitselfatacrossroads Some feelthatthefieldhasstrayedtoofarfromitsfoundinghumanisticvaluesofdemocracy,diversity,autonomy, collaboration,andchoice.TheyarguethatODisindangerofbeingdilutedorcollapsedintohumanresources roles,leadershipdevelopment,andtalentmanagement Othersfeelthatthe“touchyfeely”oldvaluesdeservea freshupdateandthatODpractitionershaveagreatdealtocontributetoorganizationalefficiency, effectiveness,andenhancedperformance.Theyseetheroleofthepractitionerasabusinessadviserwhocan incorporatehumanisticvalueswithoutbeinghypocritical
Iwrote(andcontinuetoupdate)thisbookbecauseIfirmlybelievethatODasafieldofresearchandpractice hasmuchtooffertopeopleincontemporaryorganizationswhoarestrugglingwithanincredibleamountof change.Oldmanagementstylesnolongerfittheneedsoftoday’sworkplaceandworkers.Neworganizational formsareemergingtocopewiththeincreasingpaceofchange,globalization,digitizationandthelatest technologies,economicpressures,andtheexpectationsofthecontemporaryworkforce.Managersstruggleto engageemployeesdespiteever-presentthreatsofdownsizingandoutsourcing.Insuchanenvironment,many employeesfindworktobelesspersonallysatisfyingthantheydidbefore
SkilledODpractitionersunderstandthedynamicsofhumansystemsandcanintervenetoencouragea healthy,engaging,andproductiveenvironment.Unfortunately,ithasbeenchallengingformanystudentsto developtheseskills Itgenerallyrequires“breakingin”toanODdepartment,findinga(hopefullyskilled) mentor,andlearningasmuchaspossiblethroughacademiccoursesorself-discovery Whiletheyareregularly testedonthejob,managersandexecutiveshavefewopportunitiestodeveloptheirskillsaschangeagentsas well Projectmanagers,ITprofessionals,educators,andhealthcareadministratorsallreportthattheskillsof ODareapplicabletotheirjobs
MyhopeisthatthisbookwillprovidetheoreticalandpracticalbackgroundinODtogiveyouanintroduction tothebasicprocessesoforganizationdevelopmentandchange Itwillalsogiveyouachancetopracticeina safeenvironmentwhereyoucandevelopyourskills Ihopeyoufindthebooktobereadablebutrigorous practicalandrelevantbutwithasolidacademicfoundation andcomprehensiveenoughwithoutbeing exhausting
Forthisfourthedition,Ihaveupdatedmanysectionsofthebooktoreflectrecentresearchandadvancesin practicewhileretainingclassicapproachesandfoundationaltheorieswithwhichmostpractitionersoughtto befamiliar.Highlightsofthisneweditionincludethefollowing:
AnewcasestudyafterChapter7thatcanbeusedasamultipartcase(additionalpartsarelocatedonthe companionwebsite)
Additionalexamplesofglobalissuesinorganizationdevelopment EnhancedcoverageofrecenttheoryandpracticeindialogicapproachestoOD Discussionquestionsattheendofeachchapter
Activities,exercises,androleplaysfollowingmostchapters Newreadingsattheendofeachchapter,whereappropriate
MycontinuedthankstothestudentsattheUniversityofDenveraswellastheclientswhosharewithme theirstrugglesinachievingchangeatwork.Asalways,Iamgratefultomyfamilyandfriends,especiallymy wife,Jennifer,whoseencouragementmeanseverything
ExercisesandActivities
Manychapterscontainexercises,activities,androleplaysthatcanbeusedtopracticeskillsandapplyconcepts developedinseveralchaptersofthebook Thischartdetailswhichexercisesandactivitiesaccompanywhich chapterandtopic
Ancillaries
InstructorTeachingSite
Apassword-protectedinstructor’smanualisavailableatstudy.sagepub.com/andersonod4etohelpinstructors planandteachtheircourses Theseresourceshavebeendesignedtohelpinstructorsmaketheclassesas practicalandinterestingaspossibleforstudents
AnOverviewfortheInstructorofferstheauthor’sinsightsonhowtomosteffectivelyusethisbookina courseonorganizationdevelopmentandchange
PowerPointSlidescapturekeyconceptsandtermsforeachchapterforuseinlecturesandreview
CaseEpiloguesprovideadditionalinformationabouttheorganizationsorscenariosfeaturedinthetext.
DiscussionQuestionssuggestadditionaltopicstoengagestudentsduringclassroomdiscussionsand activities
SampleCourseSyllabiprovidemodelsforstructuringyourcourse.
ATestBankincludesmultiple-choice,short-answer,andessayexamquestionsforeachchapter.
VideoResourcesforeachchapterhelplaunchclassdiscussion
StudentStudySite
Anopen-accessstudentstudysitecanbefoundatstudy.sagepub.com/andersonod4e.Thesiteoffersvideosof theauthordiscussingthemajorstagesoforganizationdevelopment,Weblinkstoadditionaltools,and LearningFromSAGEJournalArticles,withaccesstorecent,relevant,full-textarticlesfromSAGE’sleading researchjournals.Eacharticlesupportsandexpandsontheconceptspresentedinthebook.Thisfeaturealso providesdiscussionquestionstofocusandguidestudentinterpretation
ThistextisaccompaniedbyCasesandExercisesinOrganizationDevelopment&Change,SecondEdition(ISBN 978-1-5063-4447-8),whichfollowsthesamechapterorganizationasthistext.Abundleofthistextwiththe casesandexercisesbookisalsoavailable
Acknowledgments
SAGEPublishingwouldliketothankthefollowingreviewersfortheircontributionstothemanuscript:
GeraldD Bouey,LewisUniversity
CarolA.Gravel,BinnacleOrganizationalandLearningDevelopment,LLC
MichaelA.Guerra,LincolnUniversity
GeorgiaL Hampton,JeffersonCountyPublicSchools
MelindaM.Howard,UniversityofOklahoma
AllenI.Kraut,BaruchCollege,CUNY
HelenMuyia,TexasA&MUniversity,CollegeStation
TomJ.Sanders,UniversityofMontevallo
JeffreyM.Zimmerman,NorthernKentuckyUniversity
Chapter1WhatIsOrganizationDevelopment?
Thinkforamomentabouttheorganizationstowhichyoubelong Youprobablyhavemanytoname,suchas thecompanywhereyouwork,aschool,perhapsavolunteerorganization,orareadinggroup Youare undoubtedlyinfluencedbymanyotherorganizationsinyourlife,suchasahealthcareorganizationlikea doctor’sofficeorhospital,achurchgroup,achild’sschool,abank,orthelocalcitycouncilorstate government Usinganexpansivedefinitionoforganization,youcouldnameyourownfamilyoragroupof friendsasanorganizationthatyoubelongtoaswell.Withjustafewmoments’reflection,youarelikelytobe abletonamedozensoforganizationsthatyoubelongtoorthatinfluenceyou
Nowconsideranorganizationthatyoucurrentlydonotbelongto,butonethatyouweredissatisfiedwithat somepointinthepast.Whatwasitaboutthatorganizationthatmadetheexperiencedissatisfying?Perhaps youleftajobbecauseyoudidnothavetheopportunitytocontributethatyouwouldhaveliked.Maybeitwas adissatisfyingteamatmosphere,oryouwerenotappreciatedorrecognizedforthetimeandenergythatyou dedicatedtothejob.Itcouldhavebeenachangetoyourresponsibilities,theteam,ortheorganization’s processes.Somepeoplereportthattheydidnotfeelalargersenseofpurposeatwork,theydidnothave controlorautonomyovertheirwork,ortheydidnotfindanacceptablepathtogrowthandcareer development.Perhapsyou’vewitnessedorbeenpartofanorganizationthathasfailedforsomereason. Perhapsitwentoutofbusinessoritdisbandedbecauseitcouldnolongerreachitsgoals.
You’velikelyhadsomeexcellentexperiencesinorganizations,too Youmayhavehadajobthatwasespecially fulfillingorwhereyoulearnedagreatdealandcoworkersbecamegoodfriends Maybeyourlocalvolunteer organizationhelpedanumberofpeoplethroughorganizedfundraisersorothersocialservicesactivities. Perhapsyoujoinedorstartedalocalcommunitygrouptosuccessfullycampaignagainstthedecisionofyour localcitycouncilorschoolboard
Allofthisistodemonstratewhatyoualreadyknowintuitively,thatwespendagreatdealofourlivesworking in,connectedto,andaffectedbyorganizations Someoftheseorganizationsfunctionquitewell,whereas othersstruggle Somearequiterewardingenvironmentsinwhichtoworkorparticipate,butinothers, organizationalmembersarefrustrated,neglected,anddisengaged.
Thepurposeofthisbookistointroduceyoutothefieldoforganizationdevelopment,anareaofacademic studyandprofessionalpracticefocusedonmakingorganizationsbetter thatis,moreeffectiveandproductive andatthesametimemorerewarding,satisfying,andengagingplacesinwhichtoworkandparticipate By learningaboutthefieldoforganizationdevelopmentandtheprocessbywhichitisconducted,youwillbea moreeffectivechangeagentinsidetheorganizationstowhichyoubelong
OrganizationDevelopmentDefined
Organizationdevelopment(OD)isaninterdisciplinaryfieldwithcontributionsfrombusiness, industrial/organizationalpsychology,humanresourcesmanagement,communication,sociology,andmany otherdisciplines Notsurprisingly,forafieldwithsuchdiverseintellectualroots,therearemanydefinitionsof organizationdevelopment.Definitionscanbeilluminating,astheypointusinadirectionandprovidea sharedcontextformutualdiscussion,buttheycanalsobeconstraining,ascertainconceptsareinevitablyleft out,withboundariesdrawntoexcludesomeactivities WhatcountsasODthusdependsonthepractitioner andthedefinition,andthesedefinitionshavechangedovertime.Inastudyof27definitionsoforganization developmentpublishedsince1969,Egan(2002)foundthattherewereasmanyas60differentvariableslisted inthosedefinitions Nonetheless,therearesomepointsonwhichdefinitionsconverge
OneofthemostfrequentlyciteddefinitionsofODcomesfromRichardBeckhard(1969),anearlyleaderin thefieldofOD:
Organizationdevelopmentisaneffort(1)planned,(2)organizationwide,and(3)managedfromthe top,to(4)increaseorganizationeffectivenessandhealththrough(5)plannedinterventionsinthe organization’s“processes,”usingbehavioral-scienceknowledge.(p.9)
Beckhard’sdefinitionhasmanypointsthathavesurvivedthetestoftime,includinghisemphasison organizationaleffectiveness,theuseofbehavioralscienceknowledge,andtheinclusionofplanned interventionsintheorganization’sfunctions Somecritiquethisdefinition,however,foritsemphasison plannedchange(manyorganizationalchanges,andthusODefforts,areinresponsetoenvironmentalthreats thatarenotsoneatlyplanned)anditsemphasisontheneedtodriveorganizationalchangethroughtop management ManycontemporaryODactivitiesdonotnecessarilyhappenatthetopmanagementlevel,as increasinglyorganizationsaredevelopinglesshierarchicalstructures.
AmorerecentdefinitioncomesfromBurkeandBradford(2005):
Basedon(1)asetofvalues,largelyhumanistic;(2)applicationofthebehavioralsciences;and(3) opensystemstheory,organizationdevelopmentisasystemwideprocessofplannedchangeaimed towardimprovingoverallorganizationeffectivenessbywayofenhancedcongruenceofsuchkey organizationaldimensionsasexternalenvironment,mission,strategy,leadership,culture,structure, informationandrewardsystems,andworkpoliciesandprocedures (p 12)
Finally,Iofferathird:
Organizationdevelopmentistheprocessofincreasingorganizationaleffectivenessandfacilitating personalandorganizationalchangethroughtheuseofinterventionsdrivenbysocialandbehavioral
scienceknowledge
Thesedefinitionsincludeanumberofconsistentthemesaboutwhatconstitutesorganizationdevelopment TheyproposethatanoutcomeofODactivitiesisorganizationaleffectiveness Theyalsoeachstressthe applicabilityofknowledgegainedthroughthesocialandbehavioralsciences(suchassociology,businessand management,psychology,andmore)toorganizationalsettings
MakingtheCaseforOrganizationDevelopment
Perhapsthepointonwhichmostdefinitionsagreeisthatthebackdropandpurposeoforganization developmentischange Asyouhavenodoubtpersonallyexperienced,large-scaleorganizationalchangeis rarelysimpleandmetwithoutskepticism AsPeterSengeandcolleagues(1999)write,“Mostofusknow firsthandthatchangeprogramsfail.We’veseenenough‘flavorofthemonth’programs‘rolledout’fromtop managementtolastalifetime”(p 6) Becauseofitsimpactontheorganizationalcultureandpotential importancetotheorganization’ssuccess,organizationalchangehasbeenafrequenttopicofinteresttoboth academicandpopularmanagementthinkers.WithchangeastheoverridingcontextforODwork,OD practitionersdevelopinterventionssothatchangecanbedevelopedandintegratedintotheorganization’s functioning Significantchangestodayarefacingorganizationsandtheirteamsandindividualemployees
Tobecomeeffective,productive,andsatisfyingtomembers,organizationsneedtochange.Itwillcomeasno surprisetoanyobserveroftoday’sorganizationsthatchangeisasignificantpartoforganizationallife.Change isrequiredattheorganizationallevelascustomersdemandmore,technologiesaredevelopedwitharapidly changinglifecycle(especiallyhigh-techproducts;Wilhelm,Damodaran,&Li,2003),andinvestorsdemand results.AsRitaMcGrath(2013)writes,“Music,hightechnology,travel,communication,consumer electronics,theautomobilebusiness,andeveneducationarefacingsituationsinwhichadvantagesarecopied quickly,technologychanges,orcustomersseekotheralternativesandthingsmoveon”(p.7).Thisrequires thatorganizationsdevelopnewstrategies,economicstructures,technologies,organizationalstructures,and processes
Changeisrequiredofteammembers,whonowarelikelytoworkvirtuallyincollaborationwithmembers fromaroundtheglobe.Culturaldifferences,changesincommunicationtechnologies,andachangingdiverse workforceallcombinetocomplicatehowteammembersworktogether Roleconflictandconfusionin decisionprocessesanddecisionauthorityarecommonwhenmemberswhohaveneverworkedtogetherare thrownintoanadhocteamthatisresponsibleforrapidchangeandinnovation.
Changeisalsorequiredofindividuals Employeeslearnnewskillsasjobschangeorareeliminated Organizationalmembersareexpectedtoquicklyandflexiblyadapttothenewestdirection Best-selling businessbookssuchasWhoMovedMyCheese?teachlessonsinensuringthatone’sskillsarecurrentandthat beingcomfortableandreluctanttoadaptisafatalflaw Leaderstodayneedtoadapttomatrixorganizational structuresandnewparticipativestylesofleadershipratherthanoldhierarchicalpatternsandcommandand controlleadership(Holbeche,2015).Fororganizationalmembers,changecanbeenlighteningandexciting, anditcanbehurtful,stressful,andfrustrating
Whetherornotweagreewiththevaluesbehind“changeasaconstant,”itislikelytocontinueforthe foreseeablefuture Whereassomedecryanoverabundanceofchangeinorganizations(Zorn,Christensen,& Cheney,1999),othersnotethatitisthedefiningcharacteristicofthecurrenterainorganizationsandthat becomingcompetentatorganizationalchangeisanecessaryanddistinguishingcharacteristicofsuccessful organizations(Lawler&Worley,2006)
Thereare,however,moreandlesseffectivewaystomanagechange.Creatingandmanagingchangeinorder tocreatehigher-performingorganizationsinwhichindividualscangrowanddevelopisacentralthemeofthe fieldofOD.Whenwespeakoforganizationdevelopment,wearereferringtothemanagementofcertain kindsofthesechanges,especiallyhowpeopleimplementandareaffectedbythem.
WhatOrganizationDevelopmentLooksLike
Itmaybeeasiesttounderstandwhatorganizationdevelopmentisbyunderstandingwhatformsittakesand howitispracticed ThefollowingarefiveexamplesofpublishedcasestudiesofODinaction
Example1:IncreasingEmployeeParticipationinaPublicSector Organization
Publicsectororganizations,ithasbeennoted(Coram&Burns,2001),oftenfaceadditionalspecialchallenges inthemanagementofchange Bureaucraticstructures,interfaceswithregionalgovernmentsandlegislatures, politicalpressures,andlegislativepoliciesallcomplicatetheimplementationofnewprocessesandchangesto organizationalpractices.IntheRepublicofIreland,aspecialinitiativeaimedtoreducebureaucracyinthe publicsectortogainefficiency,improvecustomerservice,andimproveinterdepartmentalcoordination (O’Brien,2002) Manyprogramsofthistypehavebeenlaunchedinotherorganizationsastop-down mandatesfromseniormanagement,causingfrustrationanddecreasedcommitmentamongstaffmemberswho resistedthemandatedchanges
Onedepartmentwantedtodothingsdifferently TheofficeswereinthedivisionofSocialWelfareServices,a communitywelfareorganizationof4,000employees.TwoDublinoffices(50employeeseach)becamethe focusofthiscase Theseofficeschosetoinvolveemployeesinthedevelopmentofaninitiativethatwould improveworkingconditionsinthedepartmentaswellasincreasetheemployees’capacityformanaging changes.Aprojectsteeringteamwasformed,anditbeganbyadministeringanemployeesurveytoinquire aboutworkingrelationships,careerdevelopment,training,technology,andmanagement Follow-updata gatheringoccurredinfocusgroupsandindividualinterviews Thetremendousresponserateofmorethan90 percentgavethesteeringteamapositivefeelingabouttheengagementofthepopulation,buttheresultsofthe surveyindicatedthatagreatdealofimprovementwasnecessary Manyemployeesfeltunderappreciated, distrusted,andnotincludedinkeydecisionsorchanges Relationshipswithmanagementwerealsoaconcern asemployeesindicatedfewopportunitiesforcommunicationwithmanagementandthatjobshadbecome routineanddull
Thesteeringteaminvitedvolunteers(employeesandtheirmanagement)toworkonseveralofthecentral problems Oneteamworkedontheproblemofcommunicationandproposedmanychangesthatwerelater implemented,includingaredesignoftheofficelayouttoimprovecirculationandcontactamongemployees. Astheteamscontinueddiscussions,theybegantoquestionstandardpracticesandinefficienciesandto suggestimprovements,eventuallydevisingalistofalmost30actionsthattheycouldtake Managerslistened toemployeesuggestions,impressedbytheirinsights.Asonemanagerputit,“Ihavelearnedthatalittle encouragementgoesalongwayandpeoplearecapableofmuchmorethangivencreditforintheirnormal everydayroutine”(O’Brien,2002,p 450)
Thejointmanagement–employeeworkingteamshadbeguntoincreasecollaborationandinteractionamong thetwogroups,witheachreachingnewinsightsabouttheother Asaresultoftheincreasedparticipation, “Thereappearedtobeanenhancedacceptanceofthechangeprocess,coupledwithdemandsforbetter communications,increasedinvolvementindecisionmaking,changedrelationshipswithsupervisorsand improvedaccesstotraininganddevelopmentopportunities”(O’Brien,2002,p 451)
Example2:SeniorManagementCoachingatVodaphone
Vodaphoneisamultibillion-dollarglobalcommunicationstechnologycompanyheadquarteredintheUnited Kingdomandwasanearlyleaderinthemobiletelephonemarket(Eaton&Brown,2002) Facedwith increasingcompetition,thecompanyrealizedthatinordertoremaininnovativeandaleaderinachallenging market,thecultureoftheorganizationwouldneedtoadaptaccordingly.Specifically,seniormanagement realizedthatitscurrent“commandandcontrol”cultureofblameandpoliticalgameswouldhinderthe collaborationandmutualaccountabilityneededtosucceedinacompetitiveenvironment Instead,the companywantedtoencourageacultureofempoweredteamsthatmadetheirowndecisionsandshared learninganddevelopment,speed,andaccountability
Severalcultureinitiativeswereimplemented,includingthedevelopmentofsharedvalues,theintroductionof ITsystemsthatsharedandexchangedinformationacrossmajordivisionsthathadhinderedcross-functional learning,andtheestablishmentofteamsandateam-buildingprogram.
Tosupporttheinitiativesandencourageanew,collaborativemanagementstyle,Vodaphoneimplementeda leadershipcoachingprogram Topmanagersattendedtheprogramtolearnskillsinconductingperformance reviews,helpingemployeessetgoals,andcoachingteams.Followingtheprogram,managershadone-on-one coachingsessionswithaprofessionalcoachwhoworkedwithparticipantstohelpthemsetcoachinggoalsand reflectonhowsuccessfullytheywereabletoimplementtheskillslearnedintheprogram
Asaresultoftheprogram,managersbegantodelegatemoreasteamsstartedtosolveproblemsthemselves. Teamsbegantofeelmoreconfidentintheirdecisionsasmanagerstrustedthem EatonandBrown(2002) attributeseveralsubsequentcompanysuccessestotheprogram,notingthatitwascriticalthatthecoaching programwasintegratedwiththeotherculturechangeinitiativesthatitsupported.“Culturalchangetakes time,”theynote,and“traditionalattitudestomanagementdonotdieawayovernight”(p 287) However, theypointoutthatagradualevolutiontookplaceandthenewculturalvaluesarenowthestandard
Example3:TeamDevelopmentinaCancerCenter
Healthcareworkerswhohavethechallengeofcaringforcriticallyillpatientsexperiencestress,emotional exhaustion,andburnoutatveryhighratescomparedwithworkersinotherfields Withoutsocialsupport fromfriendsorothercoworkers,manyworkersseektoleavethefieldortoreducehourstocopewiththe emotionalexhaustionofsuchademandingoccupation.Consequently,manyresearchershavefoundthat healthcareworkersinparticularneedclearroles,professionalautonomy,andsocialsupporttoreduceburnout andturnover
InoneCanadiancancercenter(Black&Westwood,2004),asenioradministratorsoughttoaddresssomeof theseneedsbycreatingaleadershipteamthatcouldmanageitsownworkinamultidisciplinaryteam environment Teammemberswouldhaveprofessionalautonomyandwouldprovidesocialsupporttoone another.Leadersvolunteeredorwerechosenfromeachofthecenter’smaindisciplines,suchasoncology, surgery,nursing,andmore.Organizationdevelopmentconsultantswereinvitedtoleadworkshopsinwhich theteamcoulddevelopcohesivetrustingrelationshipsandagreeonworkingconditionsthatwouldreducethe potentialforconflictamongdisciplines.
Inaseriesofthree2-dayworkshopsover3months,theteamparticipatedinanumberofimportantactivities. Membersdidroleplayanddramaticexercisesinwhichtheytookononeanother’srolesinordertobeableto seehowothersseethem Theycompletedsurveysoftheirpersonalworkingstylestounderstandtheirown communicationandbehaviorpatterns.Theteamlearnedproblem-solvingtechniques,theyclarifiedroles,and theyestablishedgroupgoals
Threemonthsafterthefinalworkshopwasconducted,thefacilitatorsconductedinterviewstoassessthe progressofthegroup.Alloftheparticipantsreportedabettersenseofbelonging,afeelingoftrustandsafety withtheteam,andabetterunderstandingofthemselvesandotherswithwhomtheyworked Oneparticipant saidaboutacoworker,“Ifeltthat[theworkshops]connectedmefardifferentlyto[acoworker]thanIwould haveeverhadanopportunitytodootherwise,youknow,inanormalworksetting”(Black&Westwood, 2004,p 584) Theconsultantsnotedthatparticipantswantedtocontinuegroupdevelopmentonanongoing basis
Example4:AFutureSearchConferenceinaNorthernCalifornia Community
SantaCruzCountyislocatedinNorthernCalifornia,aboutanhoursouthofSanFrancisco.Inthe1960s,the countyhadapproximately25,000residentsinanagriculturalregionandinasmallretirementcommunity In thelate1960s,theUniversityofCalifornia,SantaCruz,openeditsdoors,andinthefollowingyearsthe countybegantoexperienceademographicshiftaspeoplebegantomovetotheareaandrealestateprices skyrocketed By1990,thepopulationhadreached250,000residents,andincreasinglyexpensiverealestate pricesmeantthatmanyresidentscouldnolongeraffordtolivethere Affordablehousingwasespeciallya problemfortheagriculturalcommunity.Alocalleadershipgrouphadconvenedseveralconferencesbutcould neveragreeonanapproachtothehousingproblem
Inthemid-1990s,aconsortiumofleadersrepresentingdifferentcommunitygroupsdecidedtoexplorethe problemfurtherbyholdingafuturesearchconference(BlueSkyProductions,1996).Theyinvited72diverse citizenstoa3-dayconferencenotonlytoexploretheproblemofaffordablehousingbutalsotoaddressother issuesthattheyhadincommon Thecitizengroupsrepresentedacross-sectionofthecommunity from youngtoold,executivestofarmworkers andsocialservicesagencies.Attendeeswerechosentotrytomirror thecommunityasa“verticalslice”ofthepopulation Theycalledtheconference“ComingTogetherasa CommunityAroundHousing:ASearchforOurFutureinSantaCruzCounty”
Attheconference,attendeesexploredtheirsharedpastasindividualsandresidentsofthecounty They discussedthehistoryofthecountyandtheirownplaceinit.Next,theydescribedthecurrentstateofthe countyandtheissuesthatwerecurrentlybeingaddressedbythestakeholdergroupsinattendance The processwasacollaborativeone;asoneattendeesaid,“Whatonepersonwouldraiseasanissue,another personwouldaddto,andanotherpersonwouldaddto.”Therewerealsosomesurprisesasnewinformation wasshared Onecountysocialservicesemployeerealized,“TherewereacoupleofthingsthatIcontributed thatIthoughteveryoneinthecountyknewabout,and[I]listen[ed]topeoplerespondtomyinput,[andsay] ‘Oh,really?’”Finally,theattendeesexploredwhattheywantedtoworkonintheirstakeholdergroups.They describedafuturecountyenvironment10yearsoutandpresentedscenariosthattookacreativeformas imaginaryTVshowsandboardofsupervisorsmeetings Groupmemberscommittedtoactionplans, includingshort-andlong-termgoals.
Eighteenmonthslater,attendeeshadreachedanumberofimportantgoalsthathadbeendiscussedatthe conference Notonlyhadtheybeenabletoincreasefundingforafarmworkershousingloanprogramand createarentalassistancefund,buttheywereontheirwaytobuildinga$5.5millionlow-incomehousing project Participantsaddressedanumberofnonhousingissuesaswell Theyembarkedondiversitytrainingin theirstakeholdergroups,createdacitizenactioncorps,invitedothercommunitymemberstoparticipateon additionaltaskforces,andcreatedaplantorevitalizealocaldowntownarea.“Didthefuturesearch conferencework?”oneparticipantwondered “Noquestionaboutit Itprovidedalivingmodelofdemocracy”
Example5:ALong-TermStrategicChangeEngagement
ABA,aGermantradingcompanywith15,000employees,embarkedonamajorstrategicchangeinitiative drivenbystiffcompetition(Sackmann,Eggenhofer-Rehart,&Friesl,2009) Aglobalexpansionprompted thecompanytoreorganizeintoathree-divisionstructure Adecentralizedsharedservicesmodel,comprising 14newgroups,wascreatedforadministrativedepartmentsthatwouldnowsupportinternaldivisions.To supportthecultureoftheneworganization,executivesdevelopedamissionandvisionstatementthat explainedthecompany’snewvaluesandaskedmanagerstocascadethesemessagestotheirstaffs Thiseffort waskickedoffandmanagedfromthetopoftheorganization.
Thedirectorofthenewlyformedsharedservicescenterscontactedexternalconsultants,suspectingthata simplecommunicationcascadetoemployeeswouldnotresultinthebehavioralchangesneededinthenew structure.Thenewadministrativegroupswouldhavesignificantchangestoworkprocesses,andthelead managersofeachofthe14newgroupswouldneedassistancetoputthenewvaluesandbeliefsintopractice. Theconsultantsproposedanemployeesurveytogaugethebeliefsandfeelingsofthestaffandtoprovidean upwardcommunicationmechanism.Surveyresultswereavailabletomanagersofeachcenter,andtheexternal consultantscoachedthemanagersthroughaninterpretationoftheresultstoguideself-explorationand personaldevelopment Internalconsultantsworkedwiththemanagersofeachofthenewcenterstofacilitatea readoutofthesurveyresultswithemployeesandtakeactionscustomizedtotheneedsofeachgroup.
Consultantsconductedworkshopsformanagerstohelpthemfurtherdeveloppersonalleadershipand communicationskills,topicsthatthesurveysuggestedwerecommonareasofimprovementacrossthe managementteam.Overaperiodof4years,thecyclewasrepeated,usingvariationsoftheemployeesurvey questions,afeedbackstep,andmanagementdevelopmentworkshopscoveringnewsubjectseachtime.
Interviewsandsurveysconductedlateintheprocessshowedthatemployeeshadapositivefeelingabout changeingeneral Leadersreportednoticingamoretrustingrelationshipbetweenemployeesandtheir managerscharacterizedbymoreopencommunication.Centermanagerstooktheinitiativetomakeregular andongoingimprovementstotheirunits Sackmannandcolleagues(2009)notedtheneedforamajorchange likethisonetoincludemultipleinterventiontargets Thisorganizationexperienced“changesinstrategy, structure,managementinstruments,leadership,employeeorientation,andtheorganization’sculturecontext” (p 537),whichrequiredabroadsetofsurveys,coaching,andworkshopstosupport “Thesechange supportingactivitieshelpedimplementthechangewithlastingeffect”(p 537),theyconclude
Asyoucanseefromthisandthepreviousexamples,ODisconcernedwithadiversevarietyofissuesto addressproblemsinvolvingorganizations,teams,andindividuals ODisalsoconductedinadiversevarietyof organizations,includingfederal,state,andlocalgovernments(whichareamongthelargestemployersinthe UnitedStates,accordingtotheU.S.BureauofLaborStatistics),publicsectororganizationsaroundtheworld, healthcareorganizations,educationalsettings,andnonprofitandprivateenterprises Interventionscan involveasingleindividual,asmallteam(suchasthecancercenterteamdescribedearlier),multipleteams,ora wholeorganization.Itcanalsoconsistofmultipletargetsofchange,suchasintheVodaphoneinitiativethat involvednotonlylarge-scaleculturechangebutalsotheimplementationofteamsandindividualcoaching
