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Brief Contents
1. Preface
2. Acknowledgments
3. About the Author
4. PART I • FOUNDATIONS
1. Chapter 1 • The Nature and Functions of Nonverbal Communication
2. Chapter 2 • The Development of Nonverbal Communication: Acquiring Everyday Skills
5. PART II • CODES AND FUNCTIONS
1. Chapter 3 • The Human Body: Signaling Multiple Identities
2. Chapter 4 • Personal Space, Eye Contact, and Touch: An Approach–Avoidance Signaling System
3. Chapter 5 • Facial Expression: Communicating Emotion
4. Chapter 6 • Voice and Gesture: Speaking and Replacing Speech
6. PART III • APPLICATIONS
1. Chapter 7 • Nonverbal Communication in Non-Intimate Encounters
2. Chapter 8 • Nonverbal Communication in Intimate Encounters
3. Chapter 9 • Nonverbal Communication in Deceptive Encounters
4. Chapter 10 • Nonverbal Communication in Workplace Encounters
5. Chapter 11 • Nonverbal Communication in Mediated Encounters
7. Appendix
8. References
9. Index
Detailed Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments About the Author
PART
I • FOUNDATIONS
Chapter 1 • The Nature and Functions of Nonverbal Communication
When Does Communication Occur?
Intrinsic Communication Codes
Iconic Communication Codes
Arbitrary Communication Codes When Is Communication Nonverbal?
Communicating with Words
Words Are Discrete, Meaningful Units
Language Must Adhere to Grammatical Rules
Language Can Refer to Things Removed in Space and Time
Language Contains Propositions That Can Be Proven True or False
Communicating without Words
Many Nonverbal Signals Are Universal Some Nonverbal Signals Are Sent and Received Spontaneously
Nonverbal Signals Can Resemble What They Represent
Nonverbal Signals Can Occur Simultaneously
What Are the Functions of Nonverbal Communication?
The Identification Function
The Relationship Function
The Emotion Function
The Delivery Function
The Basic Nonverbal Signaling Systems
The Human Body: Signaling Multiple Identities
Space, Eye Contact, and Touch: An Approach–Avoidance Signaling System
Facial Expression and the Communication of Emotion
Voice and Gesture: Speaking and Replacing Speech
Summary
Chapter 2 • The Development of Nonverbal Communication:
Acquiring Everyday Skills
Nonverbal Communication Skills
Sending Skills
Simple Encoding Skills
Complex Encoding Skills
Receiving Skills
Simple Decoding Skills
Complex Decoding Skills
The Development of Nonverbal Communication Skills
The Development of Simple Encoding and Decoding Skills
Simple Encoding Skills
Simple Decoding Skills
The Development of Complex Encoding and Decoding Skills
Complex Encoding Skills
Complex Decoding Skills
Individual Differences in Nonverbal Communication Skills
General Competence
The Female Advantage
Age Makes a Difference
A Personality Profile
Interpersonal Successes and Failures
From Different Environments
Education and Training
Summary
PART II • CODES AND FUNCTIONS
Chapter 3 • The Human Body: Signaling Multiple Identities
Communication Codes
Intrinsic Codes
Iconic Codes
Arbitrary Codes
Communication Functions
Identification: The Primary Function
Physical Beauty
Age and Fitness
Individuality
Gender and Sexual Orientation
Race and Ethnicity
Occupation and Social Class
Character and Personality
Establishing Relationships
Delivering Verbal or Symbolic Messages
Communicating Emotion
Summary
Chapter 4 • Personal Space, Eye Contact, and Touch: An Approach–Avoidance Signaling System
Communication Codes
Intrinsic Codes
Iconic Codes
Arbitrary Codes
Communication Functions
Establishing Relationships: The Primary Function
Intimacy
Control
Identification: A Significant Secondary Function
Gender Differences
Cultural Differences
Personality Differences
Other Secondary Functions
Delivering Verbal or Symbolic Messages
Communicating Emotion
Summary
Chapter 5 • Facial Expression: Communicating Emotion
Communication Codes
Intrinsic Codes
Facial Expressions in Nonhuman Primates
Facial Expressions in Humans
Iconic Codes
Arbitrary Codes
Communication Functions
Communicating Emotion: The Primary Function
Simple Encoding and Decoding
The Intrapersonal Domain
The Interpersonal Domain
Identification
Culture
Gender
Personality and Behavior
Delivering Verbal or Symbolic Messages
Establishing Relationships
Summary
Chapter 6 • Voice and Gesture: Speaking and Replacing Speech
Communication Codes
Intrinsic Codes
Iconic Codes
Arbitrary Codes
Communication Functions
Delivering Verbal Messages: The Primary Function
Producing Speech
Marking Speech
Visualizing Speech (and Thought)
Synchronizing Speech
Replacing Speech
Identification
Individuality
Age
Personal Traits and Behavior
Gender
Race, Ethnicity, and Culture
Social Class
Communicating Emotion
The Voice of Emotion
Gestures of Emotion
Establishing Relationships
Intimacy
Control
Summary
PART III • APPLICATIONS
Chapter 7 • Nonverbal Communication in Non-Intimate Encounters
Casual Encounters: Building Conversational Rapport
Approach–Avoidance Signals
Entering, Exiting, and Avoiding a Conversation
Getting Involved in a Conversation
Interpersonal Coordination
Turn Taking
Adaptation
The Interpersonal Context
Influential Encounters: Getting Help
Nonverbal Communication Makes a Difference
Attractiveness
Clothing
Immediacy Behavior
Mimicry
Why Nonverbal Communication Makes a Difference
Attraction
Authority
Affiliation
Arousal
Summary
Chapter 8 • Nonverbal Communication in Intimate Encounters
Relational Intimacy and Nonverbal Communication
The Dynamics of Intimacy Regulation
Nonverbal Communication in Close Relationships
Nonverbal Communication and Relationship Success
Nonverbal Communication in Intimate Encounters
Romantic Encounters: Attracting a Potential Partner
Identity Signals
Courtship Signals
Confrontational Encounters: Managing Relational
Conflict
Nonverbal Hostility and Conflict
Nonverbal Conflict Management
Nonverbal Conflict Behavior and Marital Stability
Comforting Encounters: Providing Emotional Support
Attachment and Nonverbal Communication
Comforting Messages
Recognizing Distress
Reflecting Feelings
Reaching Out
Relinquishing Control
Reinforcing Speech
Rewarding Optimism
Summary
Chapter 9 • Nonverbal Communication in Deceptive Encounters
Lying and Deception in Everyday Life
Theories of Nonverbal Communication and Deception
Nonverbal Leakage and Clues to Deception
The Four-Factor Theory of Deception
Attempted Control
Physiological Arousal
Displays of Emotion
Cognitive Processing
Self-Presentation Theory
Interpersonal Deception Theory
Studies Comparing Liars and Truth Tellers
Catching Liars
Factors Influencing the Success of Lie Catching
Communication Skills: Good Liars and Bad Liars
What Are the Stakes? What Is the Risk? The Context in Which Lying Occurs
Beliefs, Perceptions, and Behavior of the Lie
Catcher
Experience and Expertise of the Lie Catcher
Training People to Catch Liars
Summary
Chapter 10 • Nonverbal Communication in Workplace Encounters
Superior–Subordinate Encounters: Communicating Status
Status Reminders: The Nonverbal Dimension
Dressing Up and Dressing Down
Size Matters
“Do Not Disturb” Signs
Up
Close and Personal
The Center of Attention
The Cold Shoulder
The Silent Treatment
Kicking Back
The Voice of Authority
Belated Appearances
Monopolizing a Conversation
An Emotional Roller Coaster
Nonverbal Displays of Status: Mishaps and Misunderstandings
Dysfunctional Leadership
Sexual Harassment
Workplace Discrimination
Cross-Cultural Misunderstandings
Task-Oriented Encounters: Getting the Job Done
Self-Fulfilling Prophecies: Expectancy Effects in the Workplace
Emotional Exchanges in the Workplace
Emotional Contagion
Emotional Labor
Emotion Recognition
Successful Nonverbal Communication in Task-Oriented Encounters
Customer Service Transactions
Professional Interviews
Oral Presentations
Summary
Chapter 11 • Nonverbal Communication in Mediated Encounters
Informative Encounters: Staying Connected
Media Coverage of the News
Nonverbal Communication of the News
Nonverbal Communication in the News
Nonverbal Communication of Media Bias
Interactive Uses of Media
Comparing Communication Media
Applications of Interactive Media
Persuasive Encounters: Resisting Influence
The Impact of Nonverbal Communication
Physical Appearance
Nonverbal Behavior
Explaining the Impact of Nonverbal Communication
Entertaining Encounters: Absorbing Popular Culture
Media Portrayals of Physical Attractiveness
Media Portrayals of Nonverbal Interaction
Summary
Appendix
References
Index
Preface
I first became interested in the subject of nonverbal communication as a graduate student in 1973, a time when the scientific study of physical appearance, eye contact, personal space, touch, facial expression, voice, and gesture was still in its infancy. Today, countless researchers from most academic disciplines are doing research on these topics, making it a tremendous challenge to stay abreast of the latest discoveries and applications.
This new, fourth edition of Nonverbal Communication in Everyday Life endeavors to present the latest developments in the field. Written for a wide audience, it presents the research in a way that is interesting and highly readable without sacrificing the need to be comprehensive and critical.
Instructors can use this book as the primary text in any undergraduate course that introduces students to the subject of nonverbal communication, regardless of whether that course is taught at the freshmen/sophomore level, or at the junior/senior level. In addition, graduate-course instructors should find the book very useful as a supplementary text, providing a basic foundation, a conceptual framework, and an extensive up-to-date review of the literature, particularly for students with little or no background in the subject.
By far, the biggest challenge in writing new editions of this book is the need to make difficult choices about what to include, what to add, and what to delete from previous editions. As in the past, I have tried to make these choices guided by my belief in the need to include the seminal works most often cited in other introductory textbooks, along with my own judgment of what is most interesting, relevant, and useful to readers. I also believe that it is vital to provide balanced coverage of the foundations, codes, functions, and applications of nonverbal communication.
Conceptual Approach and Organization
Part I of the text, Foundations, consists of two chapters that give readers the general background needed to appreciate the significance of nonverbal communication in everyday life. It also introduces many of the key concepts and principles needed to understand the material presented in subsequent chapters.
The first chapter addresses the key issues involved in defining nonverbal communication and differentiating it from verbal communication; it also introduces and discusses the four basic functions of nonverbal communication as well as the connection between each nonverbal communication code (i.e., physical appearance, eye contact, touch, personal space, facial expression, voice, and gesture) and its primary function. The second chapter introduces the concept of nonverbal communication skills and discusses the various types of sending and receiving skills. It also reviews the research on the development of these skills from infancy into adulthood and includes important studies of how individuals differ in the development of nonverbal communication skills and the impact of education and training.
While other textbooks tend to organize the subject according to either (1) the codes (channels) of nonverbal communication (e.g., physical appearance, gestures, personal space, voice, etc.) or (2) the functions of nonverbal communication (e.g., signaling identity, expressing emotion, building relationships, etc.), Part II of this text tries to integrate codes and functions by showing how each of four nonverbal signaling systems serve a different primary function. Chapter 3 focuses on physical appearance primarily as a way of signaling identity; Chapter 4 highlights the use of personal space, eye contact, and touch (i.e., contact codes) as a means of building relationships; Chapter 5 stresses the emotion function of facial expression; and Chapter 6 focuses on how voice and gesture replace speech and work in tandem to facilitate speech (i.e., the delivery function).
Part III, Applications, offers an in-depth treatment of how nonverbal communication is relevant in our everyday lives. This part of the text contains five chapters focusing on non-intimate encounters (Chapter 7), intimate encounters (Chapter 8), deceptive encounters (Chapter 9), workplace encounters (Chapter 10), and mediated encounters (Chapter 11). Taken together, these chapters consider how nonverbal communication influences
our ability to accomplish a number of important interaction goals:
Building conversational rapport
Getting help
Attracting a romantic partner
Maintaining an intimate relationship
Managing relational conflict
Providing emotional support
Catching liars
Projecting strength and confidence
Achieving workplace goals
Staying connected through social media
Resisting media influence
Absorbing the popular culture
Special Features
To assist the reader in understanding and retaining the information presented in this text, I’ve tried as much as possible to use plain English instead of academic jargon. In addition, each chapter contains an abundance of definitions, explanations, concrete examples, and vivid illustrations. As in previous editions, clarity continues to be my highest priority. To further assist the reader, each chapter also contains an outlined preview of main topics, a list of key terms that are boldfaced in the chapter, and a summary of main ideas at the end of each chapter. A new feature in this edition is a list of specific learning objectives that follow the chapter outlines.
Every chapter also contains a variety of boxed inserts to promote learning and to prompt in-class discussion. Instructors can also use these boxed inserts for graded or extra-credit assignments. The Try This boxes ask students to participate in an out-of-class activity relevant to a topic covered in the chapter; the Can You Relate to This? boxes encourage students to reflect on the personal experiences of other students. New to this edition are the Find Out More boxes found in each chapter. These boxes provide a brief, easy-toread synopsis of a recently published study and then prompt students to answer a series of questions about the study. Students can answer these questions and learn more about the study by visiting the publisher’s student
website, where they will find full-text copies of each study. The Find Out More boxes also encourage students to review the brief essay on “Approaches to the Study of Nonverbal Communication,” found in the textbook’s Appendix.
An instructor’s resource manual is also available. The manual provides sample course syllabi, guidelines for assigning and evaluating a research project, and useful Internet websites. Also, for each chapter, it includes a detailed topic outline, test questions, in-class activities, recommended readings, instructional videos, and relevant feature films.
Changes in the Fourth Edition
This fourth edition of Nonverbal Communication in Everyday Life continues to reflect the changing landscape of the field. Readers of previous editions will find new discoveries and applications in every chapter. In a few chapters, readers will notice slight modifications in the chapter outline where certain topics receive more or less in-depth treatment. This edition also adds some new key terms and deletes some others and adds a new series of boxes on recent scholarship that replaces the boxed readings found in previous editions. In keeping with the goal of introducing students to the best and latest research on nonverbal communication in a way that does not create information overload, this edition leaves out some of the material contained in previous editions. The most notable changes in this edition are listed below:
The Chapter 1 section on downplaying the difference between nonverbal and verbal communication has been deleted.
Chapter 2 has been deleted. Key information about the functions of nonverbal communication has been added to Chapter 1.
The chapter on non-intimate encounters (formerly Chapter 8, now Chapter 7) has been shortened to include only the sections on building rapport and getting help. The section on deception has been expanded into a full chapter (Chapter 9).
Chapter 11 has been revised, updated, and expanded to include the latest research and developments on the social uses of interactive media (e.g., texting, Facebook, etc.).
A new section addressing scientific and humanistic approaches to the study of nonverbal communication, as well as the many different methods used by nonverbal communication researchers, has been added as an Appendix.
Chapter Outline
When Does Communication Occur? 5
Intrinsic Communication Codes 6
Iconic Communication Codes 7
Arbitrary Communication Codes 8
When Is Communication Nonverbal? 11
Communicating with Words 12
Words Are Discrete, Meaningful Units 13
Language Must Adhere to Grammatical Rules 13
Language Can Refer to Things Removed in Space and Time 14
Language Contains Propositions That Can Be Proven True or False 14
Communicating without Words 15
Many Nonverbal Signals Are Universal 15
Some Nonverbal Signals Are Sent and Received Spontaneously 16
Nonverbal Signals Can Resemble What They Represent 16 Nonverbal Signals Can Occur Simultaneously 17
What Are the Functions of Nonverbal Communication? 18
The Identification Function 19
The Relationship Function 23
The Emotion Function 24
The Delivery Function 27
The Basic Nonverbal Signaling Systems 29
The Human Body: Signaling Multiple Identities 30
Space, Eye Contact, and Touch: An Approach–Avoidance
Signaling System 30
Facial Expression and the Communication of Emotion 30
Voice and Gesture: Speaking and Replacing Speech 31
Summary 32
After reading this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
1. Understand the role and importance of intentionality in attempting to define communication.
2. Identify and define the basic elements of a communication code.
3. Compare and contrast the intrinsic, iconic, and arbitrary codes of nonverbal communication.
4. Explain the four basic properties of verbal communication communicating with words.
5. Explain the four basic properties of nonverbal communication communicating without words.
6. Identify and discuss the four functions of nonverbal communication signaling identity, building relationships, expressing emotion, and delivering symbolic information and how each contributes to the survival of a species.
7. Indicate how humans use nonverbal signals for each of the functions.
People sometimes make judgments about us that are not accurate. Jennifer, a student in one of my classes, described one such experience:
During the winter semester in my freshman year, I took a history class that I really enjoyed. One day in class, I noticed that the instructor kept looking at me in a negative way. After class, a friend of mine, Angela, complained about how boring she thought his lecture was. I told her I liked it and that I was surprised at her reaction. Her response was, “Well, you sure didn’t look interested.” When I questioned her, she told me that I looked bored and even annoyed. I told her I wasn’t feeling well and didn’t get much sleep the night before. Then it occurred to me that the instructor must have gotten the same impression my friend did. I guess my posture and facial expressions gave them the wrong idea.
Jennifer’s experience illustrates several important points about the subject of this book, nonverbal communication, or communication without words.
First, it shows how a facial expression, a glance, or a posture can shape our opinions of others. In fact, these nonverbal cues usually have a greater impact on our judgments of a person’s attitudes, intentions, and emotions than spoken words do. Second, it demonstrates how easily we can misinterpret these actions. Compared to verbal messages, the meaning of most nonverbal messages is more ambiguous and more dependent upon the overall context in which they occur. Jennifer’s friend Angela assumed that Jennifer’s facial expressions and posture expressed the same negative feelings she had about the class; and Jennifer only assumed that the instructor’s look meant that he interpreted Jennifer’s behavior the same way Angela did. Third, it shows how unaware we are of how others are interpreting our actions. Finally, it raises a fundamental question about when nonverbal communication between individuals takes place: Do we send nonverbal messages whether we intend to or not? In this case, did Jennifer send a message to her instructor and her friend or did they merely think that she did? Did the instructor send a message to Jennifer when he glanced at her or did Jennifer only imagine it?
You may think there is a single answer to the question raised above, that experts on the subject have long agreed on when nonverbal communication occurs. But there are different points of view regarding the importance of intentionality, as well as other relevant factors such as mutual understanding and the presence or absence of feedback (Andersen, 1991; Motley, 1990). Despite these differing viewpoints, however, a growing consensus seems to be emerging that favors less rather than more restrictive definitions of nonverbal communication (Manusov & Patterson, 2006). In the sections that follow, we’ll discuss when communication occurs, explore the distinction between nonverbal and verbal communication, identify the primary functions of nonverbal communication, and conclude the chapter by briefly introducing the four basic nonverbal signaling systems discussed in detail in Part II (Chapters 3–6).
We often send nonverbal messages, whether we intend to or not. While texting sends a verbal message to the recipient of the text, does it send any nonverbal messages during a class or on a date?
istockphoto.com/adamkaz
istockphoto.com/JenniferPhotographyImaging
Exercise 1.1 Try It
Has Communication Taken Place?
Instructions:
For each of the scenarios described below, note whether you believe communication has occurred. Circle yes if you think it has, no if you think it hasn’t, and it depends if you think important information is missing. Be prepared to present your position in class.
Scenario 1:
As he walks toward the store, Frank sees a good friend of his, Ben, in the parking lot. Frank waves at Ben, but because Ben is looking away, he doesn’t see Frank waving. Is Frank communicating to Ben?
Yes No It depends
Scenario 2:
While standing in line in front of a movie theater, Darla overhears a conversation between a man and a woman standing behind her. They are yelling at each other in loud, angry voices. Darla can’t believe how rude they are to be acting this way in public. Is the couple communicating to Darla?
Yes No It depends
Scenario 3:
Peter and Alyssa are having lunch together during their break from work. Peter listens attentively as Alyssa tells him about her previous job. At one point during the conversation, Alyssa reaches across the table and touches Peter on his hand. Although she meant nothing by it, Peter sees her touch as a sure sign of romantic interest in him. Has Alyssa communicated this message to Peter?
Yes No It depends
When Does Communication Occur?
When people use words, there is little doubt that they intend to send a message. But can we be sure someone is sending a message just because he or she chooses to dress or act in a certain way? Also, much of what we take to be nonverbal communication facial expressions, eye contact, hand gestures, and so forth happens automatically and outside our conscious awareness. There is some disagreement about when communication occurs in situations not involving the use of a formal language. The position we develop here focuses on the use of a communication code. That is, communication takes place whenever two or more individuals, using a socially shared or biologically shared signaling system, send and receive a message. A communication code (signaling system) includes certain kinds of signs, which individuals use to exchange information. Generally speaking, a
sign is anything that stands for or indicates something else. When one or more signs carry information that gets through to a receiver, communication occurs. Nonverbal communication scholars usually use the term signal when referring to such signs. Of course, this distinction also implies that not all signs are signals. For example, eye blinking is an involuntary sign of stress (i.e., a result of stress), but if eye blinking doesn’t generally convey information that gets through to people (i.e., decoded by receivers) and has no clear social function, it is not a signal. In contrast, blushing, as an involuntary sign of embarrassment that occurs in the presence of other people, is a signal because the message usually gets through and it serves a social-emotional function. Nonverbal signals convey information in different ways. Paul Ekman and Wallace Friesen (1969b), pioneers in the study of nonverbal communication, have identified three primary types of communication codes, which we discuss below.
Intrinsic Communication Codes
Natural signs, or symptoms (Cronkhite, 1986), represent cause-and-effect relationships between the sign and what the sign indicates: Gray hair is a sign of aging, crying is a sign of distress, yawning is sign of boredom, and so on. Much of our nonverbal communication consists of symptoms. Many of our facial expressions are symptoms of emotional or motivational states and often occur automatically as part of a spontaneous communication system (Buck & VanLear, 2002). Also, there is compelling evidence that these expressions of anger, sadness, fear, and so forth are part of an inherited signaling system that evolved as an essential means of communication (Fridlund, 1994). On the other hand, sneezing may be a symptom of an allergy, but that does not mean sneezing evolved in large measure as a form of communication (i.e., that sneezing is less likely without an audience).
An intrinsic communication code is a biologically shared, innate signaling system in which a particular species uses symptoms for its communication with other members of the species. Much of the animal kingdom sends and receives messages in this way. Using a wide array of postures, movements, calls, scents, touches, and appearance displays, animals communicate important information about themselves and their environment. According to Michael Argyle (1988),
Animals conduct their entire social life by means of nonverbal communication: they make friends, find mates, rear children, cooperate in groups, establish leadership hierarchies, and get rid of enemies entirely by the use of nonverbal signals. This elaborate signaling system has mainly been built up in the course of evolution, as a result of its value for the survival of the species. (p. 27)
Humans and other primates take advantage of this intrinsic communication code to signal multiple identities; expedite relationships; exchange messages of emotion; and deliver symbolic messages through physical appearance, facial expressions, vocalizations, spatial behavior, gestures, and postures.
Iconic Communication Codes
Many of our nonverbal signals only resemble or appear to be symptoms. Picture this scene: You discover that some of the people you work with are planning a surprise party for you. Obviously, you don’t want them to know that you know. When you arrive at work and they shout, “Surprise!” you pretend to look surprised. Your jaw drops; your eyes bug out; you’re speechless. Your facial expression mimics the look of surprise but is not symptomatic of genuine surprise. These posed facial expressions exemplify a pseudo-spontaneous form of communication (Buck & VanLear, 2002). More broadly, communication scholar Jo Liska (1993) referred to these signs as semblances. Semblances include a wide variety of nonverbal signals: putting on a happy face, pretending to be afraid, wearing makeup to look younger, miming the act of drinking from a glass, drawing a picture of something in the air, getting a tattoo of a snake on your shoulder, and so on.
