Table of Contents
Cover image
Title page Copyright
List of contributors
Preface
Chapter 1. Plant-based food as a sustainable source of food for the future
1 1 Introduction
1.2. Plant-based foods and current market trends
1.3. Plant-based foods are sustainable sources of foods for the future
1.4. Comparison of key nutrients from plant- and animal-based foods
1.5. Health benefits of plant-based foods over animal-based foods
1.6. Effect of plant-based food production on the environment
1.7. Summary and future direction
Chapter 2. General health benefits and sensory perception of plantbased foods
2.1. Introduction
2.2. General consumer expectations, sensory perception, and attitude toward plant-based foods
2.3. General health and nutrition of plant-based foods and ingredients
2.4. Antinutritional aspect of plant-based foods
2.5. The impact of antinutrients on human health
2.6. Summary
Section I. Plant-based proteins
Chapter 3. Sustainable plant-based protein sources and their extraction
3 1 Introduction
3.2. Preprocessing steps and milling
3.3. Dry protein extraction
3 4 Wet protein extraction
3.5. Methods to improve the functionality of protein isolates
3.6. Novel hybrid dry and wet extraction methods
3.7. Summary and future outlook
Chapter 4. Reducing allergenicity in plant-based proteins
4.1. Introduction
4.2. Sources of allergen and their effect
4.3. Techniques employed to reduce/remove allergenicity of plant proteins
4.4. Concluding remarks
Chapter 5. Functionality of plant-based proteins
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Functionality of plant-based proteins
5.3. Comparison between plant proteins and animal proteins
5.4. Bioaccessibility of plant-based proteins
5.5. Functional limitations of plant-based proteins in food applications
5.6. Summary and future direction
Section II. Plant-based dairy alternatives
Chapter 6. Plant-based beverages
6.1. Introduction
6.2. Processing methods employed to manufacture plant-based beverages
6 3 Plant-based beverages currently available
6.4. Physicochemical, nutritional, and sensory
6.5. Advantages and limitations
6 6 Summary and future directions
Chapter 7. Plant-based gels
7.1. Introduction
7.2. Classification of food gels based on plant ingredients
7.3. Fabrication techniques of plant-based food gels
7.4. Functions of plant-based gels in food industry
7.5. Physico-chemical and sensory of plant-based gels
7.6. Bioavailable components from plant-based gels
7.7. Recent trends and future for improving the quality-based gels
Chapter 8. Plant-based bu er like spreads
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Type of plant-based butter-like spreads
8.3. Factors affecting the textural properties of plant-based butter
8.4. Physical and sensory characteristics of the plant-based butter-like spreads
8.5. Advantages and limitations of plant-based spreads
8.6. Summary and future direction
Section III. Plant-based meat alternatives
Chapter 9. Plant-based meat analogue
9.1. Introduction
9.2. Structuring techniques of plant-based meat
9.3. Plant-based meat ingredients
9.4. Processing factors
9.5. Summary and future outlook
Chapter 10. Plant-based imitated fish
10.1. Introduction
10.2. Currently available plant-based alternatives to fish
10.3. Ingredients used for the manufacture of plant-based fish
10.4. Processing and manufacture
10.5. Physicochemical and sensory properties
10.6. Nutritional composition
10.7. Value for money
10.8. Gourmet plant-based fish for the food service industry
10.9. Conclusion and future recommendations
10.10. Abbreviations
Chapter 11. Plant-based imitated seafood
11.1. Introduction
11.2. Raw ingredients
11.3. Processing technologies in the manufacture of imitation seafood
11.4. Postprocessing of imitation seafood: packaging, shelf life, and safety
11 5 Nutritional profile of plant-based imitation seafood
11.6. Environmental impact from the rise of imitation seafood
11.7. Market demand, consumer attitudes, and regulatory challenges for imitation seafood products
11.8. Future outlooks and conclusion
Section IV. Fermented plant-based beverages and foods
Chapter 12. Fermented plant-based beverage: kombucha
12.1. Introduction
12.2. Kombucha and its properties
12.3. Microbiology of kombucha
12.4. Kombucha processing
12.5. Functionality of kombucha
12.6. Summary and future direction
Chapter 13. Fermented plant-based foods (e.g., tofu, sauerkraut, sourdough)
13.1. Introduction
13.2. Plant-based fermented foods currently available
13.3. Processing methods employed to manufacture the fermented foods
13.4. Physicochemical and sensory characteristics of plantbased fermented foods
13.5. Bioavailable components from plant-based fermented foods
13.6. Applications associated with the plant-based fermented foods
13.7. Summary and future perspectives
Section V. Plant-based functional components
Chapter 14. Polyphenols, phytosterols, aromatics, and essential oils
14.1. Introduction
14.2. Functional components and their health benefits
14.3. Methods employed to extract the functional components
14.4. Enhancement of bioavailability of the extracted functional components
14.5. Summary and future direction
Chapter 15. Food processing interventions to improve the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of plant food nutrients
15.1. Introduction
15.2. Effects of food processing on bioaccessibility and bioavailability of bioactive compounds
15.3. Effects of food preservation on the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of bioactive compounds
15.4. Summary and future perspectives
Section VI. Plant-based food — future outlook
Chapter 16. 3D printing of plant-based foods
16.1. Introduction
16.2. Extrusion-based 3D printing
16.3. Essential plant-based constituents and their feasibility for 3D printing
16 4 Infill percentage and pattern: texture design and encapsulation of micronutrients
16.5. 4D printing
16.6. Summary and future directions
Chapter 17. Plant-based foods future outlook
17.1. Introduction
17 2 Clean-label issues in plant-based foods
17.3. 3D printed plant-based foods
17.4. 3D printing technologies for plant-based foods
17 5 Extrusion-based printing
17.6. Selective sintering-based printing
17.7. Binder jetting
17 8 Bioprinting
17.9. Ingredients for plant-based food inks
17.10. Starch and plant origin polysaccharides
17 11 Vegetable and fruit preparations
17.12. Plant proteins
17.13. Living plant cells
17.14. Microalgal biomass
17.15. Consumers attitude toward 3D plant-based food
17.16. Targeting potential markets and consumers (children, adults, and elderly)
17.17. 3D food printing for adults and elderly nutrition plan customization
17.18. Dietary concepts for children
17.19. Space mission food
17.20. Summary and future directions
Index
Copyright
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List of contributors
Ane Aldalur
Dairy Innovation Hub, Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
Mihaela Andrei, Coventry University, Coventry, United Kingdom
Nandika Bandara
Department of Food and Human Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
Richardson Centre for Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
Vasudha Bansal, Department of Food and Nutrition, Government Home Science College, Chandigarh, India
Bhesh R. Bhandari, School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
Muhammad Faiz Bin Muhd Faizal Abdullah Tan, School of Chemical & Life Sciences, Singapore Polytechnic, Singapore
Roman Buckow, The University of Sydney, Centre for Advanced Food Engineering, School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Darlington, NSW, Australia
Lankatillake C., STEM School of Science, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Dias D., STEM School of Science, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Sujit Das, Department of Rural Development and Agricultural Production, North-Eastern Hill University, Tura Campus, Shillong, Meghalaya, India
Nirali Dedhia, Centre for Technology Alternatives for Rural Areas, IIT Bombay, Mumbai, India
Bhanu Devnani
Dairy Innovation Hub, Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
Pedro Elez-Martínez, Department of Food Technology, Agrotecnio Center, University of Lleida, Lleida, Spain
Gbemisola J. Fadimu, School of Science, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Zhongxiang Fang, School of Agriculture and Food, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
Claire Gaiani, Laboratoire d'Ingénierie des Biomolécules (LIBio), Université de Lorraine, Nancy, France
Kunal Gawai, Dairy Microbiology Department, SMC College of Dairy Science, Anand Agricultural University, Anand, Gujarat, India
Fernanda C. Godoi, Tessenderlo Innovation Center, Tessenderlo Group, Tessenderlo, Belgium
Sally L. Gras
Dairy Innovation Hub, Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
Subrota Hati, Dairy Microbiology Department, SMC College of Dairy Science, Anand Agricultural University, Anand, Gujarat, India
Mital R. Kathiriya, Dairy Microbiology Department, SMC College of Dairy Science, Anand Agricultural University, Anand, Gujarat, India
Lita Katopo, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Agriculture and Food, Werribee, VIC, Australia
Woojeong Kim, School of Chemical Engineering, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
William Leonard, School of Agriculture and Food, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
Gloria López-Gámez, Department of Food Technology, Agrotecnio Center, University of Lleida, Lleida, Spain
Claire D. Munialo, Coventry University, Coventry, United Kingdom
Rishi Ravindra Naik, School of Chemical Engineering, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
Malik Adil Nawaz, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Agriculture and Food, Werribee, VIC, Australia
Dian Widya Ningtyas, The University of Queensland, School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, Brisbane, Australia, Brawijaya University, Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Department of Food Science and Technology, Malang, Indonesia
Oladipupo Odunayo Olatunde
Department of Food and Human Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
Richardson Centre for Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
Lydia Ong
Dairy Innovation Hub, Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
Sangeeta Prakash, School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
Jatindra K. Sahu, Food Customization Research Lab, Centre for Rural Development and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India
Cordelia Selomulya, School of Chemical Engineering, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
Narendra Shah, Centre for Technology Alternatives for Rural Areas, IIT Bombay, Mumbai, India
Nitya Sharma, Food Customization Research Lab, Centre for Rural Development and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India
Robert Soliva-Fortuny, Department of Food Technology, Agrotecnio Center, University of Lleida, Lleida, Spain
Christos Soukoulis, Environmental Research and Innovation (ERIN) Department, Luxembourg Institute of Science and Technology, Esch-sur-Alze e, Luxembourg
Ignatius Srianta, Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Widya Mandala Catholic University Surabaya, Surabaya, Indonesia
Regine Stockmann, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Agriculture and Food, Werribee, VIC, Australia
Huynh T., STEM School of Science, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Jun Kiat Kovis Tay, School of Chemical & Life Sciences, Singapore Polytechnic, Singapore
Ihab Tewfik, School of Life Sciences, University of Westminster, London, United Kingdom
Tuyen Truong, School of Science, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Yong Wang, School of Chemical Engineering, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
Oni Yuliarti, School of Chemical & Life Sciences, Singapore Polytechnic, Singapore
Elok Zubaidah, Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Brawijaya University, Jawa Timur, Indonesia
Preface
The last few centuries have seen an increase in food production through modern agricultural technologies and techniques with a significant effect on the quality and quantity of food produced globally but at the same time has harmed the environment. The current food system, including production and postfarm operations such as processing and distribution, accounts for over a quarter (26%) of global greenhouse gas emissions, which pose a challenge for the coming decades. People across the globe are becoming increasingly concerned about the negative impact of global greenhouse gas emissions and are realizing that it is a result of their food choices. It is clear that eating less meat and dairy products will have a much more significant impact on carbon footprint than eating plant-based foods. Therefore, an increased understanding of the environmental impacts of food production and a growing preference for healthier vegetarian foods are driving the urgency to develop sustainable food systems. Plant-based food systems offer a practical solution to this sustainable goal, resulting in an increased global demand for plant-based meat and dairy alternatives. This book, Engineering Plant-Based Food Systems, provides a broad understanding of the various plant-based foods and the technologies used to create them.
The book introduces what plant-based food means, the current trends, and its potential as a sustainable food source for the future (Chapter 1), followed by consumer expectations, sensory perception, and a itude toward plant-based foods (Chapter 2). The general health and nutrition of plant-based foods and ingredients, including the antinutritional aspect of plant-based foods and their impact on
human health, are also discussed. The book also includes sustainable plant protein sources and their extraction techniques (Chapter 3), the thermal and nonthermal processing techniques used to reduce food allergies caused by plant proteins (Chapter 4), and their functionality, including color, flavor, texture, we ability, dispersibility, solubility, rheological properties, emulsifying properties, and foaming properties (Chapter 5). The subsequent chapters in the book include popular commercially available plantbased foods such as plant-based beverages (Chapter 6), plant-based gels (Chapter 7), plant-based bu er-like spreads (Chapter 8), plantbased meat analog (Chapter 9), plant-based imitated fish (Chapter 10), plant-based imitated seafood (Chapter 11), fermented plantbased beverage: Kombucha (Chapter 12), and fermented plant-based food (Chapter 13), the plant materials used to manufacture them using different processing techniques, and their sensory properties. The following two chapters discuss the various functional components obtained from plants and their extraction and incorporation in plant-based food (Chapter 14) and the processing techniques to improve their bioavailability and bioaccessibility (Chapter 15). The recent developments in 3D-printed plant-based foods using plant-based ingredients are reviewed in Chapter 16, followed by a concluding Chapter 17 discussing the future of plantbased foods.
Sangeeta Prakash
Chapter 1: Plant-based food as a sustainable source of food for the future
Sangeeta Prakash 1 , Claire Gaiani 2 , and Bhesh R. Bhandari 1 1 School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of
Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
2 Laboratoire d'Ingénierie des Biomolécules (LIBio), Université de Lorraine, Nancy, France
Abstract
The growing global population demands increased food production, and the demand for plant- and animal-based foods is rising. The modern food and agricultural industries globally contribute about 17.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide per year, 57% of which is from animal-based and 29% from plantbased food production. Thus, the animal-based food we consume significantly contributes to greenhouse gas emissions that have far-ranging environmental and health impacts. This has led to a big drive worldwide toward sustainable food sources, which can meet the growing demands for food in future reducing animal-based food consumption. Plant-based foods that use markedly fewer natural resources and are less demanding on the environment than animal-based foods are considered excellent sustainable food source. This chapter discusses the current trend of plant-based foods, the nutrients and health benefits obtained from plant-based food, and their potential as a sustainable food source for the future.
Keywords
Animal-based foods; Environment; Greenhouse gas; Health; Natural resources; Plant-based foods; Sustainability
1.1. Introduction
Globally, sustainability is now a part of the everyday vocabulary, be it food, technology, workplace, or home. The Oxford English Dictionary defines sustainability as “the degree to which a process or enterprise can be maintained or continued while avoiding the long-term depletion of natural resources” Sustainability comprises the environment, economics, health, food, nutrition, and other related dimensions. Thus, the definition of “sustainability” can mean different things based on the context in which it is discussed. According to a United Nations report, the projected rise in the global population is estimated to reach 8.6 billion in 2030, 9.8 billion in 2050, and 11.2 billion in 2100. When considering sustainable food sources, the objective is to ensure a future when this expanded population has both enough food available to eat and access to highquality nutritious foods.
Growth and expansion of agricultural land since the 1960s were successful in boosting food production, but they also caused many adverse environmental impacts (Foley et al., 2005). Our current food system has contributed to climate change, deforestation, soil loss, and soil pollution, alongside a considerable demand on water supply, pollution, and exploitation of certain species such as fish and seafood, to name a few. The way we choose to shop and eat has put much stress on our planet and the environment. The need of the hour is to ensure a sustainable environment for the future that is currently under threat of food insecurity. Understanding food and environmental sustainability and what we need to do will help to ensure food security for us and our future generations. Raising livestock for food usually leads to more pollution, as well as greater greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, water use, land use, and loss of biodiversity than growing plants directly for consumption (Wille et al., 2019). In 2018, Poore and Nemecek (2018) reported that the food production accounts for 26% of global GHG emissions, which
are broadly from four sources livestock and fisheries raised for meat, dairy, eggs, fish, and seafood (31%), crop production (27%) for direct human consumption (21%) and animal feed (6%), land use (24%) for livestock (16%) and growing crops for human consumption (8%), and finally supply chains (18%) that includes retail (3%), packaging (5%), transport (6%), and food processing (4%). Fig. 1.1 summarizes the key contributors to global GHG emissions from food production. However, a recent study at the University of Illinois that collected and quantified the emission data explicitly from plant-based production and animal-based production from more than 190 countries estimated the food production to make up about 37% of global GHG emissions (Xu et al., 2021). As per their estimates, global food production contributes about 17.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent per year, of these emissions, 57% were related to the production of animal-based foods, and plant-based food production accounted for 29%. Thus, food production, especially the food type, significantly impacts GHG emissions Fig. 1.1.
According to Ritchie and Roser (2020), reducing emissions from food production while ensuring sustainable food sources for the rising global population will be one of the most significant challenges in the coming decades (Ritchie & Roser, 2020). Unlike many aspects of energy production where viable opportunities for upscaling low-carbon energy such as renewable or nuclear energy are available, ways to decarbonize agriculture are less clear. Hence, the emphasis should be on changing diets; reducing food waste; improving agricultural efficiency; and technologies that make lowcarbon food alternatives scalable and affordable. For a sustainable food future, the role of diet shift has been significantly emphasized by Ranganathan et al. (2016, p. 90), proposing shifting the diets of populations who consume high amounts of calories, protein, and animal-based foods to (1) reduce overconsumption of calories, (2) reduce overconsumption of protein by reducing consumption of animal-based foods, and (3) reduce beef consumption with an increased emphasis on plant-based foods (Ranganathan et al., 2016). Lowering meat consumption to 52 calories per person per day by
g p p p p y y 2050 would reduce the GHG mitigation gap by half (Searchinger et al., 2019). Hence, there is a growing interest in plant-based foods.
Main contributors to global greenhouse emission from food production.
FIGURE 1.1
1.2. Plant-based foods and current market trends
Plant-based foods use plant-based sources, including vegetables, grains, nuts, seeds, legumes, and fruits, with no animal-source foods. “Plant-based” is a recent consumer trend of avoiding animal-based products and choosing plant-based alternatives instead, reducing the number of animal-based foods in diets overall or following dietary regimes with a sole focus on plant-based foods. Although they are very different, a plant-based diet is often referred to as a vegan diet. While a vegan diet eliminates all animal products, including dairy, meat, poultry, fish, eggs, and honey, plant-based diets do not necessarily eliminate animal products but focus on eating mostly plants, such as fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, and whole grains. Globally, consumers are either cu ing down or altogether avoiding the consumption of animal-based food products. This trend can be related to consumers being increasingly concerned for the environment, health and wellness, ethical concerns about confining and slaughtering animals (Leiserowi , 2020; Possidónio et al., 2021), and diversity in protein sourcing that drive the demand and growth of plant-based eating. As the global population grows, the pressure will increase on animal-based foods. More sustainable food sources will be needed, with plant-based foods expected to become an integral part of the human diet.
Consequently, the plant-based food market is booming with an estimated growth of USD 74.2 billion by 2027 (Meticulous Research, 2020) that includes dairy alternatives, meat substitutes, plant-based eggs/egg substitutes, and plant-based confectionery. Plant-based foods are not novel. Off-late has gone from being a niche industry targeting mostly vegetarians and vegans into a mainstream industry targeting everyone, causing it to grow exponentially, combined with the innovation in engineering plant-based foods. The recent coronavirus pandemic (the virus, COVID-19's origin from animal sources) has also driven several consumers to shift toward plantbased foods as they re-examined their dietary habits after the virus exposed the association between food health and immune responses. The food sector is also increasingly turning toward sustainability
