The Natural World - Option 8

OPTION 8: CULTURE AND IDENTITY

01 PHYSICAL INDICATORS OF IDENTITY

02 CULTURAL INDICATORS OF IDENTITY

03 NATIONALITY AND THE NATION STATE

04 IDENTITY AS A CONCEPT IN SWITZERLAND

First published 2024

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© Lee O’Donnell, 2024

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In presenting The Natural World, Option 8: Culture and Identity I extend my deepest gratitude to a circle of individuals whose support and belief have been crucial. My partner Aoibheann deserves special mention for her unwavering love and belief in my capabilities. Your encouragement has been fundamental to this journey I am equally indebted to my mother Sinead and my brother Evan, whose support has been a cornerstone in all my endeavours.

I am profoundly grateful to the team at Edco for offering me the platform to express my enthusiasm for teaching and learning. A heartfelt thank you to Declan, whose expertise and guidance were invaluable throughout this project, and to Neil, whose dedication and insight were crucial in bringing the digital dimension of this book to life.

I extend my appreciation to our editors, Emma and Rónán, whose keen eye, constructive criticism, and meticulous approach were instrumental in refining every detail of this book

Lastly, my colleagues and students at Woodbrook College deserve my deepest thanks. Your daily inspiration and motivation have been a source of continuous encouragement, greatly contributing to the creation of this work.

Lee O’Donnell

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OPTION 8: CULTURE AND IDENTITY

01 PHYSICAL INDICATORS OF IDENTITY

02 CULTURAL INDICATORS OF IDENTITY

03 NATIONALITY AND THE NATION STATE

04 IDENTITY AS A CONCEPT IN SWITZERLAND

PHYSICAL INDICATORS OF IDENTITY

CHAPTER 01

SYLLABUS LINK

8.1 POPULATIONS CAN BE EXAMINED ACCORDING TO PHYSICAL AND CULTURAL INDICATORS. CULTURE AND IDENTITY ARE TIED TO IDEAS OF ETHNICITY, WHICH INCLUDE RACE, LANGUAGE, RELIGION, AND NATIONALITY

KNOWLEDGE RETRIEVAL

Retrieval Quiz

1. State the population of Brazil.

2. Where is the population of Brazil concentrated?

3. What percentage of Brazil’s population lives in urban areas?

4. State the population density of São Paulo.

5. Discuss the factors that contributed to the uneven population distribution in Brazil.

LEARNING INTENTIONS

1. Outline and define race as a geographical concept.

2. Explain the impact of colonialism and migration on global racial patterns.

3. Describe the challenges of multiculturalism with reference to examples from Ireland.

4. Analyse the development of racial conflict in society in the United States.

KEYWORDS

Race Social construct

Biological realityShared genetic make-up

Caucasian East Asian African

East Asian migration African migration

Global slave trade Migration

Multicultural societies

Impact of colonialism

Cultural assimilation African diasporaCounter migration

Refugee movement Cross-cultural interactions

Indo-European migration

European colonisation

Racial hierarchies

Economic opportunities

Language barriers Xenophobia and racism

Challenges of asylum and immigration Russian invasion of Ukraine War in Syria and Afghanistan

Integration Right-wing politics

Language diversity

Direct Provision system Asylum seekers

TOPIC 1.1: Geographical Writing for Culture and Identity

The Culture and Identity section of the Leaving Certificate Geography syllabus has a different marking scheme from the rest of the written paper. It is the only part of the written paper that takes into consideration overall coherence as part of the marking scheme. This means that your answer must be written with a logical structure and must contain a consistent flow.

In order to ensure your answer is constructed with a logical structure and consistent flow, it is best to organise your answer into different aspects you are going to discuss. An aspect can be defined as an area of discussion that is relevant to the question being asked.

In each Culture and Identity answer, you will structure your answer into either three or four aspects:

• If you are writing about three aspects, you must write a minimum of 8 SRPs per aspect.

• If you are writing about four aspects, you must write a minimum of 6 SRPs per aspect.

MARKING SCHEME

MARKING SCHEME: 3 ASPECTSMARKING SCHEME: 4 ASPECTS

Name aspect = 4 marksName aspect = 3 marks

Discuss for 8 SRPs = 16 marksDiscuss for 6 SRPs = 12 marks

Overall coherence = 20 marksOverall coherence = 20 marks

A1 (20m) + A2 (20m) + A3 (20m) + OC (20m) = 80 marks A1 (15m) + A2 (15m) + A3 (15m) + A4 (15m) + OC (20m) = 80 marks

TOPIC 1.2: Race as a Geographical Concept

RACE

In geography, race refers to a concept that is related to human diversity, focusing on physical characteristics that people inherit from their ancestors. It’s important to note that race is a social construct, not a biological reality. This means that it was created by societies to classify and group people based on certain physical traits, such as skin colour, hair type/colour, facial features and body type/structure.

Understanding race begins with recognising that humans, regardless of their physical differences, belong to one species – Homo sapiens. Our shared genetic make-up is remarkably similar, with around 99.9 per cent of our DNA being identical. However, even though we share so much genetic material, small variations in certain genes can lead to observable physical differences, giving rise to the concept of race

Papua NewGuineans, Ethiopians, Hadza, and Tanzanians

Africans (except the San), South Asians, and Australo-Melanesians

East Africans, Hadza, San, South Asians, and Australo-Melanesians

Africans and East Asians

years ago

years ago

Europeans and South Asians

Europeans, East Asians, Indians, and Native Americans

Europeans, San, East Asians, and Africans Europeans, San, and East Asians

Figure 1.1

Concept map showing how different races have developed due to variations in gene combinations that affect the colour of skin

For example, let’s consider skin colour. In Ireland, where we are, most people have light skin because of historical factors and the impact of latitude on sunlight exposure. However, it’s important to remember that skin colour can vary widely among individuals, even within Ireland or any other ‘racial’ group. Skin colour is mainly influenced by the amount of melanin in our skin, which helps protect us from harmful UV (ultraviolet) radiation from the sun.

RACIAL GROUPS

Most racial groups in the world are rooted in three different races:

• Caucasian

• East Asian

• African.

Throughout history, the movement and dispersal of racial groups has been influenced by a combination of geographic factors, including climate, geography, and human migration patterns. This topic will discuss how each of the three racial groups began to spread throughout the world.

Gene variants associated with dark pigmentation

Gene variants associated with light pigmentation

SLC24A5

Sub-Saharan

DDB1

HERC2

CAUCASIAN

The Caucasian racial group has its origins in the region surrounding the Caucasus Mountains, which spans the border between Europe and Asia. Over thousands of years, various groups from this region migrated and spread to different parts of the world.

One notable migration was the Indo-European migration, around 4000 to 2500 BCE. Indo-European-speaking peoples, believed to be ancestors of modern-day Europeans, moved westward and eastward, eventually settling across Europe, Southwest Asia, and the Indian subcontinent.

EAST ASIAN

The East Asian racial group has its roots in East Asia, which includes countries such as China, Japan and South Korea. The movement and dispersal of East Asian populations has been shaped by factors such as the vast Pacific Ocean, mountain ranges, and the climate.

The peopling of the Japanese archipelago is a significant example of East Asian migration. The first inhabitants are believed to have migrated from mainland Asia over 30,000 years ago, crossing land bridges during periods of lower sea levels during ice ages.

AFRICAN

The African racial group has the most ancient origins. Africa is the birthplace of humankind. The movement of African populations across the continent and beyond has been influenced by factors such as the Sahara Desert, river systems, and the availability of resources.

The ‘Out of Africa’ theory suggests that Homo sapiens originated in Africa and gradually migrated to other parts of the world around 70,000 to 100,000 years ago. These early human migrations led to the colonisation of Asia, Europe and eventually other continents.

Geography plays a crucial role in shaping the distribution and movement of human populations. Understanding these historical movements helps us appreciate the interconnectedness of different cultures and societies. Embracing diversity and respecting one another’s heritage are essential steps towards building a more inclusive and understanding global community.

Figure 1.2

There is more diversity in Africa than on the rest of the continents combined because modern humans originate from there and lived there the longest

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Basic Knowledge

1. What does the term ‘race’ refer to in geography?

2. Is race a biological reality or a social construct? Explain your answer.

3. What are some physical characteristics that are used to classify and group people based on race?

Developed Knowledge

1. Describe the genetic make-up of humans and the percentage of DNA that is shared among individuals.

2. Explain how small variations in certain genes can lead to observable physical differences, giving rise to the concept of race

3. Discuss the cause of skin colour and how it can vary among individuals within the same racial group.

Advanced Knowledge

1. Compare and contrast the origins and dispersal patterns of the Caucasian, East Asian, and African racial groups.

2. Investigate the impact of geography, climate, and human migration patterns on the movement and dispersal of racial groups throughout history.

TOPIC 1.3: The Impact of Colonialism and Migration on Racial Patterns

INTRODUCTION

Before the period of European colonisation, multicultural societies did not exist However, as a result of intensive colonisation, the development of a global slave trade and increased levels of migration, racial patterns across the globe have been transformed. This topic will investigate the impact of colonisation, the slave trade and migration on racial patterns.

IMPACT OF COLONIALISM

Colonialism refers to the historical practice of powerful countries establishing control over other territories, exploiting their resources, and exerting dominance over the local populations. The era of colonialism, which lasted from the fifteenth to the twentieth century, has had a profound impact on global racial patterns. The period of colonialism resulted in people from different racial backgrounds coming into contact, which in turn led to cultural and genetic mixing.

Spanish explorers, such as Francisco Pizarro, arrived in the Americas in the late fifteenth century, claiming vast territories for Spain. The Spanish brought with them European diseases, which decimated indigenous populations. The colonisers also established the encomienda system, which exploited native labour and further entrenched racial inequalities. The intermixing of Spanish and indigenous populations gave rise to a new racial group known as mestizos.

When the British East India Company arrived in India in the seventeenth century, it gradually gained control over various regions through economic and military dominance. British colonial rule in India lasted until 1947. During this time, the British imposed their language, culture and administrative systems, which led to the formation of new racial identities. The British considered themselves superior and viewed the native Indian people as inferior, which led to social hierarchies and racial discrimination.

In the late nineteenth century, Belgium colonised the Congo in Central Africa under King Leopold II’s rule. The Belgian colonial administration exploited the Congolese people, subjecting them to forced labour and extreme brutality This horrific chapter of colonialism resulted in the loss of millions of Congolese lives. The Belgian authorities implemented policies that favoured the lighterskinned Congolese, further exacerbating racial divisions.

Colonies after the Berlin Conference of 1884

IMPACT ON GLOBAL RACIAL HIERARCHIES

Colonialism contributed to the establishment of global racial hierarchies, with Europeans often considering themselves superior to the indigenous populations of colonised regions. This idea of racial superiority led to widespread discrimination, exploitation and marginalisation of native populations. It also fostered the notion of ‘whiteness’ as a standard of beauty and intelligence, reinforcing harmful stereotypes.

CULTURAL AND SOCIAL ASSIMILATION

Colonial powers sought to assimilate the native populations into their own cultural norms and traditions. Indigenous languages, beliefs and practices were often suppressed, which eroded local identities and cultural diversity This assimilation process further influenced global racial patterns as it created a homogenising effect on diverse populations.

Figure 1.3

Map of Africa outlining the former colonisers of the continent

LINGERING EFFECTS TODAY

The legacy of colonialism is still evident today, as many post-colonial societies continue to grapple with the social, economic and political consequences of their colonial past. Racial inequalities, discrimination and ethnic tensions persist in various regions that were once colonised. Understanding the impact of colonialism on global racial patterns helps us recognise historical injustices and work towards a more just and inclusive world. As geographers, exploring this complex history can foster empathy and appreciation for diverse cultures and advance efforts to dismantle racial inequalities and promote social justice.

CASE STUDY: Impact of colonialism on Brazil’s racial patterns

The colonisation of Brazil is a significant historical event that shaped the country’s culture, society and geography. The colonisation of Brazil began in 1500 when Portuguese explorers landed on the north-eastern coast of present-day Brazil. The Portuguese claimed the territory for their empire, starting a process that would last for centuries. In the early years of colonisation, the Portuguese focused on extracting valuable natural resources, particularly Brazilwood (pau-brasil), which was highly sought after for its red dye. This exploitation led to the establishment of small trading posts along the coast.

Maranhão

Ceará

Rio Grande

Paraíba

Itamaracá

Pernambuco

Bahia de Todos os Santos Ilhéus

Porto Seguro

Espírito Santo

São Tomé

São Vicente

Rio de Janeiro

Santo Amaro

São Vicente

Santana

Figure 1.4

How the east coast of Brazil was divided into colonies in 1543

During the sixteenth century, the cultivation of sugarcane became a booming industry in Brazil. The Portuguese established large-scale sugar plantations and brought enslaved Africans to work on them. The transatlantic slave trade had a profound and lasting impact on Brazil’s demographic and racial make-up.

After centuries of Portuguese rule, Brazil declared its independence from Portugal in 1822. The legacy of colonisation can be seen in Brazil’s culture, language (Portuguese) and racial diversity. The mixing of indigenous, European and African populations during the colonial period has contributed to Brazil’s vibrant and diverse society

The period of colonialism had a significant impact on racial mixing in Brazil. Racial mixing can be defined as when people of different races have children together. Before Portuguese colonists arrived in the 1500s, Brazil was mostly populated by nomadic tribes As Portuguese colonists began to settle in the region, slaves were brought into the country from West Africa and forced to work harvesting natural resources such as sugar and coffee. As a result of the large number of Europeans and African slaves who settled in Brazil due to colonialism, many people in the country have mixed ancestry The two main ethnicities in Brazil are defined as white and Afro-Brazilian, with 47 per cent of the population describing themselves as white and 43 per cent describing themselves as Afro-Brazilian.

Conversely, 500 years ago in Brazil the native population

Figure 1.5

The Brazilian diaspora today

was estimated at between 3 million and 6 million people. However, only 200,000 of those remain due to the impact of colonialism. The depopulation of native Brazilians can be attributed to the spread of European diseases and the violent treatment by European settlers Some historians have referred to this process as genocide because over 80 Brazilian tribes were decimated, and the native population declined by over 80 per cent In addition, there is a growing Brazilian diaspora around the world, as a culture of emigration has developed in the country since the start of the 2000s. Large Brazilian populations reside in the United States, Paraguay, Japan, England, Spain and France. On average, about 100,000 Brazilians have emigrated per year since 2000. It is estimated that 4.2 million Brazilians are currently living abroad, with 1.9 million of those in the United States. Eurostat currently estimates that there are 70,000 Brazilians living in Ireland, which is a threefold increase since 2006. Around 64 per cent of those Brazilians are based in County Dublin.

IMPACT OF THE TRANS-ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE

The trans-Atlantic slave trade was a tragic and inhumane historical event that profoundly shaped global racial patterns. Between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries, millions of Africans were forcibly captured, enslaved and transported across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas, particularly to regions such as North America, the Caribbean and South America. The Middle Passage, the journey across the Atlantic, was marked by unimaginable suffering, with countless lives lost.

TRIANGULAR TRADE

Figure 1.6

Trans-Atlantic slave trade

The slave trade caused a significant demographic impact on Africa, as large numbers of young and able-bodied individuals were taken away from their communities. This disrupted traditional societies and economies, leaving lasting scars on the continent. The trans-Atlantic slave trade is estimated to have forcibly transported around 12.5 million Africans to the Americas

The trans-Atlantic slave trade perpetuated the idea of racial superiority, with European slaveowners considering themselves to be superior to Africans. This notion of white supremacy led to the dehumanisation of enslaved Africans and entrenched racial hierarchies, which continue to have far-reaching consequences.

CREATION OF THE AFRICAN DIASPORA

Enslaved Africans brought to the Americas were subjected to unimaginable hardships and forced labour on plantations. The descendants of these Africans, known as the African diaspora, now form significant populations in countries and regions such as the United States, Brazil and the Caribbean

The forced migration of Africans led to cultural and genetic mixing with indigenous populations and European colonisers. This blending of diverse cultures gave rise to new societies with unique cultural expressions which we can observe in music, art and language.

The legacy of the trans-Atlantic slave trade is still evident today. The African diaspora continues to face challenges, including systemic racism, socio-economic disparities, and cultural identity issues The impact of this historical injustice is felt not only in the Americas but also in Africa and beyond.

IMPACT OF COUNTER MIGRATION ON RACIAL PATTERNS

The period after World War II witnessed significant counter migration, where people moved back to their countries of origin or sought new opportunities in different regions. This movement had profound effects on racial patterns across the world, shaping societies, cultures, and economies.

After World War II, many colonised nations gained independence. This meant the return of European settlers to their home countries. For instance, the end of British colonial rule in India in 1947 resulted in the repatriation of British colonial administrators and settlers back to the United Kingdom. This return migration influenced racial dynamics in both the colonised nations and the home countries of the colonisers.

The EmpireWindrusharrives in England in 1948, carrying migrants to the UK to fill labour shortages after World War II.

Additionally, the post-war period saw significant migration from the Caribbean to the United Kingdom In the 1950s and 1960s, the British government encouraged workers from the Caribbean to move to the UK to fill labour shortages The Windrush Generation (named after the ship that carried the first group of migrants) contributed to the racial diversity of the UK. However, this migration also led to racial tensions and challenges, particularly in terms of housing and employment discrimination.

Post-war counter migration was often driven by economic opportunities and advancements in transportation. Skilled professionals, such as engineers, doctors, and scientists, sought work in developed countries, contributing to the phenomenon of brain drain in their home countries. For example, Indian professionals migrated to the United States, the UK and other countries, becoming an integral part of the workforce of their host countries This legacy of skilled Indian migrants can still be seen today. In 2022, 49 per cent of Indian immigrant adults moving to the US held a graduate or professional degree

The aftermath of World War II witnessed the displacement of millions due to conflicts and persecution. Many sought refuge in other countries, leading to the growth of refugee and asylumseeking populations. For example, the aftermath of the Vietnam War saw a significant number of Vietnamese refugees settling in the United States, Australia and other countries. These refugee movements influenced racial demographics and cultural landscapes in host nations.

IMPACT ON RACIAL AND ETHNIC RELATIONS

Post-war counter migration affected racial and ethnic relations in both the origin countries and the destination countries The arrival of diverse populations challenged existing racial hierarchies and fostered cultural exchanges However, it also led to social tensions and debates about national identity and assimilation. For instance, the influx of immigrants from former colonies into European countries has sparked discussions about multiculturalism and integration.

GLOBALISATION AND CROSS-CULTURAL INTERACTIONS

Counter migration played a vital role in facilitating cross-cultural interactions and fostering a more interconnected world The movement of people across borders led to the exchange of ideas, customs and traditions, contributing to the globalisation of cultures This global exchange has had lasting impacts on art, music, cuisine, and other aspects of everyday life.

Figure 1.7

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Basic Knowledge

1. What is colonialism, and how did it impact global racial patterns?

2. Name three colonial powers mentioned in the text, and identify regions they colonised.

3. How did the trans-Atlantic slave trade contribute to the creation of the African diaspora?

Developed Knowledge

1. Describe the impact of colonialism on Brazil’s culture, society and racial diversity.

2. Discuss the demographic consequences of the trans-Atlantic slave trade on Africa and the Americas.

3. Outline the reasons behind post-World War II counter migration and its effects on racial and ethnic relations.

Advanced Knowledge

1. Analyse the long-term effects of colonialism on racial hierarchies and discrimination in post-colonial societies.

2. Compare and contrast the racial patterns resulting from colonialism in Brazil and the Americas with those in Africa and other colonised regions.

TOPIC

1.4: Multiracial Societies

MULTICULTURAL SOCIETIES

A multicultural society is a community or nation where people from diverse cultural backgrounds coexist, interact and contribute to the social fabric In such societies, individuals embrace and celebrate their unique customs, traditions, languages and beliefs. The richness of cultural diversity fosters an environment of tolerance, understanding and mutual respect among different ethnic groups

However, as the world has become interconnected and diverse, a number of challenges have arisen that are associated with multicultural societies.

Figure 1.8

As a result of persecution, conflict, violence, human rights violations, or events seriously disturbing public order, there has been a sharp increase in the number of people forcibly displaced from their homes in recent decades.

1. ASYLUM AND IMMIGRATION

Multicultural societies often encounter challenges related to asylum and immigration. Asylum seekers fleeing conflicts and persecution may face difficulties in integrating into their host communities due to language barriers, cultural differences and limited access to resources. This challenge has been exacerbated in recent years with the Russian invasion of Ukraine and the wars in Syria and Afghanistan For example, in 2023 the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees reported that there were 108.4 million forcibly displaced people worldwide with over 53 per cent of those people coming from the three countries mentioned above.

2. LANGUAGE BARRIERS

Language diversity can be a challenge in multicultural societies. With people speaking different languages, effective communication becomes crucial for social cohesion and economic integration. Language barriers can hinder access to education, healthcare, and employment opportunities. In Belgium, where there are three official languages (Dutch, French and German), language differences have been an ongoing challenge for national unity.

3. XENOPHOBIA AND RACISM

Xenophobia and racism can arise in multicultural societies, driven by fear or prejudice against people from different cultural backgrounds. These attitudes can lead to discrimination, social exclusion, and even violence. To address these issues as a society, we need to promote diversity in education, foster intercultural understanding, and implement policies that combat discrimination. In 2022 the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights reported that 31 per cent of people surveyed in the EU experienced discrimination based on their ethnic or immigrant background.

CASE STUDY: Challenges of Multiculturalism and Integration in Ireland

Since Ireland became a member of the EU in 1973, Ireland has quickly become one of the most rapidly growing, multicultural societies in Europe. Since 2000, Ireland has the joint fastest growing population in Europe, as the country has seen a 32 per cent increase in population.

The 2022 census in Ireland indicated that there are 631,785 non-Irish nationals living in Ireland who originate from over 200 countries This number represents an increase from the 2016 census and accounts for 12 per cent of the population. The biggest non-Irish groups were Polish and UK citizens, followed by Indian, Romanian and Lithuanian. Brazilian, Italian, Latvian and Spanish citizens were also among the larger non-Irish groups

Figure 1.9 Europe’s population change 2000–2021. Notice that Ireland has one of the fastest growing populations.

While the levels of immigration and integration and multiculturalism in Ireland have increased dramatically as a result of EU enlargement and increased economic development in Ireland, there

are still concerns in Irish society regarding the acceptance of multiculturalism. According to the European Commission against Racism and Intolerance Report on Ireland in 2022, the country has made some progress towards tackling racism in Irish society However, there are areas in which further improvements are needed. The report specifically outlines the damage caused by hate speech, hate crimes and ethnic profiling. The report also states that supporting the needs of asylum seekers would facilitate the integration process in Ireland.

The integration of non-Irish nationals into Irish society faces a complex set of challenges that must be addressed to ensure the success of Irish growth and the development of an inclusive multicultural society.

1. RACIAL DISCRIMINATION

Racial discrimination can hinder the integration of non-Irish nationals, leading to social exclusion and unequal treatment. Discrimination based on ethnicity, nationality or race prevents individuals from fully participating in society and accessing equal opportunities. Findings from research published in 2023 state that almost two-thirds (63 per cent) of international students in Ireland have experienced and/or witnessed racism The most common form of racism experienced or witnessed was verbal (42 per cent). This was followed by ‘indirect’ racism (39 per cent), e.g. by being treated differently or unfairly due to their race, particularly in the workplace. Following this was physical racism (12 per cent), including physical assaults. Additionally, only 10 per cent of international students who experienced an incident of racism reported it to the authorities. Of those who did report an incident, 67 per cent were dissatisfied with the response they received. While the levels of multiculturalism and integration have increased in Ireland, results from this survey suggest that racism and xenophobia are still prevalent issues in society

2. LANGUAGE BARRIERS

Language barriers can impede effective communication and social interaction, making it challenging for non-Irish nationals to integrate fully. Access to language courses and support services is vital to help immigrants improve their language skills, and enhance their ability to engage with the broader community.

3. APPLICATION PROCESS

Navigating the immigration and residency application process can be complex and timeconsuming. Lengthy waiting periods and paperwork can cause frustration and uncertainty for non-Irish nationals seeking to establish themselves in Ireland. For example, in 2022 the average time for asylum seeker cases to be processed to completion was 18 months. Streamlining and simplifying the application process would contribute to smoother integration.

4. LACK OF DOCUMENTATION

Some non-Irish nationals may arrive in Ireland without proper documentation, often because they are seeking asylum or escaping conflict. Lack of documentation can lead to difficulties in accessing essential services, employment and housing. Addressing the needs of undocumented migrants is a significant challenge that requires compassionate and comprehensive solutions.

Figure 1.10

Non-Irish population percentages, 2022 census

5. RISE OF RIGHT-WING POLITICS

The rise of right-wing politics in Europe, including Ireland, has significant implications for the integration of non-Irish nationals into the country. Right-wing political ideologies often promote nationalist sentiments, anti-immigrant attitudes, and a focus on preserving traditional national identity. Right-wing politics may fuel xenophobia and discrimination against non-Irish nationals, particularly those from diverse cultural backgrounds. This hostile environment can lead to social exclusion, hinder opportunities for cultural exchange, and create barriers to acceptance and belonging.

Furthermore, right-wing political parties tend to advocate for restrictive immigration policies and stronger border controls. These policies can make it more challenging for non-Irish nationals to enter the country legally and obtain residency or citizenship. The potential tightening of immigration rules can create uncertainty and anxiety for immigrants seeking to integrate into Irish society. This can cause negative narratives and stereotypes to emerge, which leads to reduced support for social services and integration programmes. This lack of support can hinder immigrants in accessing essential resources and services, making their integration more challenging.

Consequently, an ‘us versus them’ mentality is created in society. This polarisation can hinder efforts to foster a sense of unity and inclusivity, making it more challenging for non-Irish nationals to feel welcomed and accepted. Asylum seekers and refugees, who are among the most vulnerable groups of non-Irish nationals, can be particularly affected by the rise of right-wing politics. Antiimmigrant sentiments can lead to stigmatisation and increased challenges in accessing asylum processes and support services.

In several European countries, right-wing political parties have gained popularity in recent years, leading to changes in immigration policies and public debates about integration. For example, Hungary introduced a law that made it illegal to provide support for asylum seekers seeking refuge in the country. This is a breach of EU law and international law.

DIRECT PROVISION

Direct Provision is a system in Ireland that provides accommodation and basic needs for asylum seekers while their application for refugee status is being processed. While designed as a temporary solution, this system has faced criticism for its adverse effects on the integration of non-Irish nationals into Irish society

Figure 1.11

Direct Provision centre in Ireland

Asylum seekers in Direct Provision often experience prolonged stays while awaiting the outcome of their application. According to the Irish Refugee Council, the average length of stay in Direct Provision centres in 2020 was 26 months, with some individuals residing in the system for several years. Such lengthy stays create uncertainty and anxiety, hindering the ability to plan for the future and integrate effectively.

The quality of accommodation and services in Direct Provision centres has been a subject of concern. The Ombudsman’s office highlighted issues with overcrowding, lack of privacy, and insufficient cooking facilities, which can negatively impact the physical and mental wellbeing of residents. These conditions make it difficult for non-Irish nationals to maintain their dignity and sense of self-worth while striving to integrate into Irish society.

Asylum seekers in Direct Provision face barriers to accessing education and employment opportunities. While there have been improvements in allowing access to primary and secondary education, the right to work is restricted until asylum seekers have been in the system for at least nine months. This restriction limits their ability to contribute to society and gain valuable skills for integration.

Living in Direct Provision centres can lead to social isolation for residents. Limited opportunities for social interaction with the wider community hinder the development of meaningful relationships and cultural exchange. According to a report by the Economic and Social Research Institute, residents in Direct Provision highlighted feelings of isolation and a lack of belonging in Irish society

In 2021, Ireland announced plans to end the Direct Provision system and replace it with a new model of accommodation for asylum seekers. The government announced plans to ensure the system of Direct Provision was ended by 2024. However, in 2023 a total of 20,140 people resided in Direct Provision centres in Ireland. This highlights the significant number of asylum seekers experiencing this challenging system and the need to ensure that the system is changed.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Basic Knowledge

1. Define a multicultural society and explain how people from diverse cultural backgrounds coexist in such societies.

2. List three challenges associated with multicultural societies, as mentioned in the topic.

3. How does the rise of right-wing politics impact the integration of non-Irish nationals into Irish society?

Developed Knowledge

1. Describe the impact of language barriers on social cohesion and economic integration in multicultural societies.

2. Discuss the role of xenophobia and racism in hindering social inclusion and promoting discrimination in multicultural societies.

3. Outline the challenges faced by non-Irish nationals in the integration process in Ireland, including issues related to documentation, application processes, and direct provision.

Advanced Knowledge

1. Analyse the factors that contribute to the challenges faced by asylum seekers and refugees in integrating into multicultural societies.

2. Investigate the complexities and potential solutions in transforming the Direct Provision system in Ireland to promote effective integration and improve conditions for asylum seekers.

TOPIC 1.5: Racial Conflict

RACIAL CONFLICT

Racial conflict in geography refers to the tension, discrimination and violence that arise between different racial or ethnic groups within a specific geographic context. In this topic, we will explore the development of racial conflict in the United States of America.

CASE STUDY: Racial Conflict in the US

The history of racial conflict in the United States is deeply intertwined with the arrival of European settlers, the brutal slave trade, the emancipation of slaves, the abolition of slavery after the Civil War, and the implementation of the Jim Crow laws. This sequence of events has left a lasting impact on the social and cultural fabric of the nation.

The roots of racial conflict can be traced back to the early seventeenth century when European settlers arrived in North America. They encountered indigenous Native American populations, leading to clashes over land and resources. The forced removal and displacement of Native Americans resulted in widespread suffering and dispossession.

Figure 1.12

An African American man drinks from a water fountain marked ‘Colored’ at a streetcar terminal in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma in 1939

The demand for cheap labour in the American colonies led to the trans-Atlantic slave trade. From the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries, millions of Africans were forcibly brought to America as slaves. They were subjected to inhumane treatment, exploitation and dehumanisation, perpetuating a system of racial inequality that would shape the nation’s history

The mid-nineteenth century saw growing tensions between the Northern and Southern states over the issue of slavery In 1863 President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which declared the freedom of all enslaved people in Confederate-held territory While this was a significant step towards ending slavery, racial discrimination and segregation persisted.

The end of the Civil War in 1865 led to the passage of the 13th Amendment, officially abolishing slavery in the United States. However, the process of reconstruction was fraught with challenges, as Southern states implemented Black Codes and other discriminatory practices, limiting the rights and opportunities of newly freed African Americans.

THE JIM CROW LAWS

The Jim Crow laws were a series of state and local laws enacted in the Southern states of the United States between the late nineteenth and mid-twentieth centuries. These laws enforced racial segregation and institutionalised white supremacy, effectively separating African Americans from white Americans in all aspects of public life.

1. Segregation of public facilities: Jim Crow laws mandated separate public facilities for African Americans and white Americans. This included segregated schools, public transportation, restrooms, parks and restaurants. For instance, in some states, African Americans were forced to sit at the back of buses or use separate drinking fountains and entrances.

2. Voting restrictions: Jim Crow laws sought to suppress the political power of African Americans. Poll taxes, literacy tests and other discriminatory measures were used to prevent them from exercising their right to vote. These practices effectively disenfranchised many African American citizens.

3. Miscegenation laws: Some states had laws prohibiting interracial marriages, known as miscegenation laws These laws aimed to maintain racial ‘purity’ and further perpetuated racial segregation.

4. Restrictions on employment and housing: African Americans faced limited job opportunities and housing options because of the Jim Crow laws. Discrimination in hiring practices and restrictive covenants in housing contracts were common. This created segregated neighbourhoods and limited economic mobility.

5. Education disparities: Schools for African American children were underfunded and lacked resources compared to white schools. These disparities in education perpetuated racial inequality and hindered social mobility for African American communities.

The Jim Crow laws during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries had a devastating impact on African American communities, perpetuating racial discrimination, segregation and social inequities. African Americans faced widespread poverty, limited access to education and

Figure 1.13

Segregated school in a Southern state of the USA

healthcare, and constant threats of violence from white supremacist groups such as the Ku Klux Klan. Additionally, the Jim Crow laws provide a poignant example of the conflict that can occur between political and cultural groups. These laws enforced racial segregation and discrimination, leading to significant social, political and cultural tensions.

THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT

The civil rights movement was a transformative social and political movement that took place in the United States during the mid-twentieth century. It aimed to challenge racial segregation, discrimination and systemic racism faced by African Americans, advocating for equal rights and social justice. The movement had a profound impact on American society, leading to significant legal changes and inspiring a broader understanding of the importance of civil rights.

The civil rights movement gained momentum in the 1950s and 1960s as a response to the entrenched racial segregation and discrimination faced by African Americans. Influential leaders such as Martin Luther King Jr, Rosa Parks and Malcolm X led peaceful protests, sit-ins and other non-violent actions to demand equal rights and an end to racial segregation.

The civil rights movement achieved significant milestones that transformed American society. The Civil Rights Act of 1964, signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson, outlawed racial segregation in public places and employment discrimination based on race, colour, religion, sex or national origin. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 further protected the voting rights of African Americans, ending discriminatory practices that had suppressed their voting rights.

The civil rights movement brought attention to the systemic racism and social injustices faced by African Americans, sparking a national conversation about racial equality It led to the dismantling of many Jim Crow laws, which had been used to enforce racial segregation in the South.

In summary, the civil rights movement serves as a vivid illustration of the conflict between political structures seeking to maintain the status quo, and cultural groups advocating for justice and equality. This pivotal period in US history had profound geographic and societal consequences, shaping the nation’s future trajectory.

Figure 1.14

Martin Luther King at the scene of his famous ‘I Have a Dream’ speech

BLACK LIVES MATTER MOVEMENT

The Black Lives Matter (BLM) movement is a response to racial conflict and systemic racism, particularly in relation to racially motivated police brutality in the United States. It gained prominence in 2013 after the acquittal of George Zimmerman, a neighbourhood watch volunteer who fatally shot Trayvon Martin, an unarmed black teenager, in Florida.

Racially motivated police brutality refers to instances where law enforcement officers use excessive force against individuals from racial minority groups, particularly African Americans. These incidents often result in severe injuries or even death, leading to heightened tensions and protests against discriminatory policing practices.

George Zimmerman’s acquittal in the Trayvon Martin case brought the issue of racial profiling and unjust treatment of black individuals to national attention. It highlighted the broader problem of racial bias within the US criminal justice system.

Furthermore, in May 2020, the murder of George Floyd, an unarmed black man, by a white police officer in Minneapolis, further ignited the BLM movement. A viral video showing Floyd’s agonising final moments sparked outrage and mass protests across the US, as people demanded an end to police violence and systemic racism.

The murder of George Floyd led to an unprecedented wave of protests across the US and around the world. Demonstrators took to the streets to demand justice for Floyd and other victims of police brutality, as well as structural reforms to combat racial inequality.

The BLM movement has had a significant impact on public awareness and policy discussions. It has spurred discussions on racial inequality, police accountability, and the need for systemic change. The movement has also influenced some policy reforms in certain states and cities, focusing on issues such as police training, transparency and community engagement.

Despite progress, the struggle for racial justice and police reform continues. The BLM movement seeks to challenge entrenched racism and advocate for lasting change in policies, practices and attitudes to ensure that all citizens are treated with fairness and respect, regardless of their race or ethnicity.

In conclusion, the Black Lives Matter movement is a modern-day example of the conflict between political structures and cultural groups. Its efforts have led to significant political and social changes, sparking geographic discussions about racial disparities and inequalities across the United States and beyond.

Figure 1.15

Black Lives Matter protests in the United States have gained momentum in response to the increased use of violence by police officers against African Americans.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Basic Knowledge

1. What is racial conflict in geography, and how is it defined in the context of the United States?

2. Name two historical events that contributed to the development of racial conflict in the US

3. Explain the significance and impact of the Jim Crow laws on African American communities. Developed Knowledge

1. Describe the key features of the Jim Crow laws and their effects on the daily lives of African Americans.

2. Discuss the goals and achievements of the civil rights movement in the United States.

3. How did the Black Lives Matter (BLM) movement gain prominence, and what are its primary objectives?

Advanced Knowledge

1. Analyse the factors that led to the rise of racial tension between European settlers and native American populations in the early seventeenth century.

2. Investigate the ongoing challenges faced by the Black Lives Matter movement and the progress it has made in addressing systemic racism and police brutality.

WRITE LIKE A GEOGRAPHER

1. Examine how conflict can arise between political structures and cultural groups. Success criteria:

Your answer must:

• Clearly define the term ‘racial conflict’ and its relation to the geographic context of the United States.

• Provide a brief overview of the history of racial conflict in the United States, including key events such as emancipation, the abolition of slavery, and the implementation of the Jim Crow laws.

• Mention the significance of the civil rights movement in challenging racial segregation and discrimination faced by African Americans

Your answer should:

• Discuss the key aspects of the Jim Crow laws, including their impact on segregation, voting rights, and education disparities for African Americans.

• Explain the rise of the Black Lives Matter movement, its relation to racially motivated police brutality, and its significance in addressing racial bias within the criminal justice system.

Your answer could:

• Analyse the long-term societal impact of the civil rights movement, especially in terms of the dismantling of Jim Crow laws and the broader national conversation about racial equality.

• Evaluate the effectiveness of the BLM movement in changing policy reforms at state and city levels. Your answer should highlight the challenges for long-term change.

PAST EXAM PAPER QUESTIONS

HIGHER LEVEL

2021

Explain how conflict can arise between political structures and cultural groups. (80 marks)

2019

Examine the impact of the movement of people on racial patterns (80 marks)

2015

Examine the impact of colonialism and migration on ethnic/racial patterns (80 marks)

CULTURAL INDICATORS OF IDENTITY

CHAPTER 02

SYLLABUS LINK

8.1 POPULATIONS CAN BE EXAMINED ACCORDING TO PHYSICAL AND CULTURAL INDICATORS. CULTURE AND IDENTITY ARE TIED TO IDEAS OF ETHNICITY, WHICH INCLUDE RACE, LANGUAGE, RELIGION, AND NATIONALITY.

KNOWLEDGE RETRIEVAL

Retrieval Quiz

1. Describe the impact of colonialism on Brazil’s culture, society and racial diversity.

2. Outline the demographic consequences of the trans-Atlantic slave trade on Africa and the Americas.

3. List three challenges associated with multicultural societies mentioned in the topic.

4. How does the rise of right-wing politics impact the integration of non-Irish nationals into Irish society?

5. How did the Black Lives Matter (BLM) movement gain prominence, and what are its primary objectives?

LEARNING INTENTIONS

1. Outline how language serves as a cultural indicator of identity with reference to the Polish and Hebrew languages.

2. Explain how the media has influenced the development of European languages.

3. Compare how the Irish and Welsh governments have implemented policies to support the survival of minority languages in their respective countries.

4. Discuss how religion serves as a cultural indicator of identity with reference to the development of church–state relations in Ireland.

5. Analyse the causes and impacts of religious conflict in Northern Ireland.

6. Describe expressions of cultural identity in Ireland under the headings of sport, music, food and religion.

KEYWORDS

LanguageCultural identityIndigenous languages Linguistic diversity

Hebrew languageMass media Language evolution English

Globalisation Internet influenceMinority languages Cultural significance

Language decline Irish (Gaeilge) Welsh language revival Religion as cultural indicator

Religious festivals Church–state relations Church’s continuing presenceReligious conflict

Northern Ireland Ulster Plantation Partition of Ireland Segregation

TOPIC 2.1: Language as a Cultural Indicator of Identity

Language, a fundamental aspect of human communication, transcends its basic function to become a powerful indicator of cultural identity Across the world, diverse linguistic patterns have evolved, shaping unique cultural landscapes.

Figure 2.1

World map outlining the geographic location of various language groups

Language profoundly influences the sense of belonging within a community. For indigenous peoples worldwide, language is intertwined with cultural heritage In Australia, the loss of many indigenous languages has led to a disconnection from ancestral roots. According to the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies, about 120 indigenous languages are still spoken today, down from an estimated 250 before European colonisation

The global significance of linguistic identity cannot be overestimated. It is recorded that over 7,000 languages are spoken globally. However, nearly 40 per cent of these languages are at risk

of extinction. As globalisation accelerates, linguistic homogenisation (the phenomenon whereby languages mix together as one) threatens this rich cultural diversity

WORLD LANGUAGE GROUPS

Language groups consist of languages that share common ancestral origins, often displaying similarities in grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation. These groups can be further classified into language families, which encompass multiple related languages. For instance, the Indo-European language family includes languages such as English, Spanish, Hindi and Russian, with shared roots dating back thousands of years.

MAJOR LANGUAGE GROUPS AND EXAMPLES

1. Indo-European: This is the largest language family, spoken by billions around the world. It includes English, French, Spanish, German and many more.

2. Sino-Tibetan: Dominant in East Asia, this group includes Chinese, Tibetan and Burmese. Mandarin Chinese alone has over a billion speakers.

3. Afro-Asiatic: Encompassing languages spoken in Africa and the Middle East, it includes Arabic, Hebrew and Amharic.

4. Niger-Congo: Predominant in Sub-Saharan Africa, this group includes Swahili, Yoruba and Zulu. Swahili is spoken by over 100 million people.

African Languages

Tamazight Arabic Tachelhit

Arabic

Pullar Fulfulde

Serere-Sine Wolof Wolof Mandinka Fulfulde

Crioulo

Fulfulde Balanta

Arabic Chaouia Kabyle

Hassaniya Arabic Pulaar Fulfulde Soninke Bambara Fulfulde Soninke

Jula Fulfulde Moore Jula Senoufo Baule Fante Ewe AsanteTwi

Maninka Futa Jalon Susu Mende Themnee Krio Kpelle Bassa Dan

Arabic Jerba

Figure 2.2

Language Families

Afro-Asiatic Nilo-Saharan Khoisan Niger-Congo Creole Austronesian Indo-European

Kabiye Waci-Gbe Ewe

Aja-Gbe Fon-Gbe Yoruba

Hausa Zarma Fulfulde Chadian Arabic Ngambay Daza

Hausa Yoruba Igbo Bulu Beti Pidgin Banda Gbaya Sango

Bube Fang Seki Crioulo

Fang Myene Mbere Kongo Teke Munukutuba

Umbundu Kongo Mbundu

Arabic Jabal-Nafusah Zuara Tswana Kalanga Kgalagadi

Arabic KenuziDongold Nobiin

Tigre Tigrinya Afar

Arabic Somali Afar

Sudanese Arabic Bedawi Dinka Tigrinya Amharic Oromo Maay

Lingala Swahili Luba

Rundi Hima Swahili

Ganda Chiga Nyakore Swahili Gkuyu Luo

Swahili Gogo Sukuma

Nama Herero Kwambi Bemba Nyanja Tonga Shona Ndebele Ndau

Lomwe Nyanja Yao

Somali Garre

Kinyarwanda Hima Swahili

Makhuwa Lorrwe Tsonga Zulu Xhosa Sotho Afrikaans Swati Sotho Comorian Malagasy

Map outlining the variety of different languages officially registered in Africa

CASE STUDY: The Polish Language as an Indicator of Identity

The Polish language serves as a powerful indicator of identity, bearing witness to Poland’s tumultuous history and its enduring spirit of resilience. This case study delves into how the Polish language evolved as a symbol of national pride and identity, despite centuries of foreign rule and oppression.

Poland

+ 10,000,000 + 1,000,000 + 100,000 + 10,000

Figure 2.3

World map of Polish diaspora

CENTURIES OF FOREIGN OCCUPATION

Poland, situated between a number of neighbouring countries, including Germany, Austria and Russia, endured a turbulent past marked by foreign occupation Under foreign rule, particularly during the partitions of Poland in the eighteenth century, schools were prohibited from teaching the Polish language, and its use in official matters was forbidden. Instead, schools were often forced to teach in languages such as Russian, German or Austrian, limiting the use and promotion of Polish. Although historical data was not accurately recorded during this period, it is clear that there was a decline in the availability of education in the Polish language during this time. As a result, literacy rates among the Polish population suffered, which hampered cultural development

Despite these restrictions, the Polish language remained an essential cultural treasure, preserved in clandestine schools and through oral traditions, reflecting a deep-rooted sense of identity These secret educational institutions played a vital role in passing down the Polish language and culture to younger generations. During this period, oral traditions and folklore, including storytelling, songs, and poetry, became important means of preserving the Polish language and identity These traditions thrived despite official restrictions in the country.

NAZI CRUELTY AND THE POLISH LANGUAGE

During World War II, the Nazis embarked on a brutal campaign to replace the Polish language with German. This oppressive regime involved the closure of Polish schools and severe punishment for Polish people speaking their native language. Statistical data provides insights into the extent of this linguistic suppression.

Historical records indicate that the Nazis closed over 93 per cent of Polish schools in the occupied territories, effectively dismantling the Polish education system. This disrupted access to education through their native language for generations of Polish students. Records also reveal the harsh consequences faced by those found speaking Polish. Punishments included imprisonment, forced labour, and even execution in extreme cases These measures aimed to erase Polish identity and culture The Nazi Party’s attitude to cultural destruction is summarised by a quote by Joseph Goebbels, a high-ranking member of the Nazi Party at the time: ‘The Polish nation is not worthy to be called a cultured nation.’

2.4

During the German occupation of Poland in World War II, Warsaw residents were forced to bury their dead in parks and streets, after mass killings and bombardment.

Furthermore, the cruelty of the Nazi regime led to the deaths of around 6 million Polish citizens, devastating families and communities. World War II also caused significant material losses, as around 85 per cent of Warsaw was destroyed. Following the war, Poland fell under Soviet influence, enduring communist rule until 1989 The Soviet occupation stifled cultural expression and limited political autonomy, indirectly affecting the Polish language. However, despite these hardships, the Polish language prevailed as a symbol of resistance and unity.

RESTORED INDEPENDENCE AND EUROPEAN UNION MEMBERSHIP

Today, Poland’s restored independence and membership in the European Union signify its place on the global stage. As of 2022, Poland stands as the sixth most populous EU member state, with over 38 million citizens. Its EU affiliation, acquired in 2004, underscores its integration into a unified Europe, enhancing economic cooperation and cultural exchange. Additionally, the Polish language, recognised as an official language of the EU, symbolises not only Poland’s identity but also its contributions to the world’s cultural fabric. With a thriving literature and a secure future, the Polish language continues to shine as a beacon of cultural significance, reinforcing the lesson that language is not just a means of communication, but an essential thread in the fabric of a nation’s identity.

Figure

CONTEMPORARY SIGNIFICANCE

The Polish language continues to play a significant role in Poland’s identity, both nationally and internationally.

• Official language: Polish is the official language of Poland, which reflects the enduring importance of the language.

• Preservation of identity: Despite globalisation and the dominance of English, Polish people continue to prioritise the preservation of their language and culture.

• Global diaspora: The Polish diaspora also maintain the language, connecting with their heritage and contributing to a global Polish identity.

Figure 2.5

Approximately 91 per cent of Polish people support Poland’s membership of the EU.

The Polish language stands as a remarkable indicator of identity, tracing a path through Poland’s tumultuous history. It has survived centuries of foreign dominance, Nazi oppression, and emerged stronger with the restoration of independence and EU membership Today, the Polish language is more than a means of communication; it symbolises the unwavering spirit of a nation that has refused to let go of its linguistic and cultural heritage, and that has reaffirmed its identity on the world stage.

CASE STUDY: The Hebrew Language as a Cultural Indicator

In the late 1800s a movement called Zionism emerged among the Jewish people. It aimed to establish a national homeland in Palestine, the ancestral land of the Jewish people. This aspiration was challenged by the linguistic diversity within the Jewish communities, hindering effective communication and unity.

The diversity of languages spoken among Jewish communities posed a significant challenge to their goal of establishing a singular identity. In response, Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, an educator and editor, took upon himself the task of reviving Hebrew as a common language. Hebrew, once confined to ancient texts, became the linchpin for Jewish unification because of its historical and cultural significance.

Having lain dormant for over two hundred years, Hebrew faced vocabulary limitations that rendered it unsuitable for modern discourse. Ben-Yehuda diligently expanded the language by inventing thousands of words, integrating them into daily usage through his newspaper.

He drew inspiration from the roots of existing Hebrew words, cultivating a language that bridged the gap between the past and the present.

As Jewish settlers established themselves in Palestine, learning Hebrew became pivotal in fostering a distinct cultural identity. In predominantly Muslim surroundings, the Hebrew language united the settlers, underscoring their connection to their historical roots and fostering a sense of belonging.

In 1948 the United Nations recognised Israel as a sovereign nation, validating the Jewish people’s long-cherished dream. Israel officially embraced Hebrew, along with Arabic, as its languages, solidifying its cultural significance. A staggering 80.9 per cent of native-born Jews in Palestine had adopted Hebrew as their sole language by this time, reinforced by the works of modern Jewish writers who enriched its expressive potential.

Presently, nearly all 8.8 million Israeli residents converse in Hebrew, although it serves as the primary language for less than half due to diverse waves of Jewish immigration. Beyond Israel’s borders, approximately one million individuals possess Hebrew-speaking skills. Hebrew is acknowledged as a minority language in Poland, for instance.

Hebrew’s revival stands as a remarkable achievement, as it remains a singular instance of a ‘dead’ language being fully resuscitated. It owes its success to the support garnered from the Jewish diaspora spread throughout Europe, along with the robust endorsement of the Israeli government.

Hebrew’s transformation from ancient scriptures to a vibrant spoken language embodies the potent role language plays in shaping cultural identity. The journey of its revival underscores how linguistic unification can transcend time, connecting generations and nurturing a sense of belonging. As Hebrew continues to thrive, it stands as a testament to the enduring power of language in preserving and redefining cultural heritage.

Figure 2.6 Hebrew is an important indicator of identity for people living in Israel.

Figure 2.7

Road signs in Israel in Hebrew, Arabic and English

IMPACT OF JEWISH SETTLEMENTS ON PALESTINIAN CULTURAL IDENTITY

The presence of Jewish settlements in Palestine has significantly impacted the cultural identity of the Palestinian population, causing concerns about the erosion and shrinking of their cultural heritage and traditions.

The establishment of Jewish settlements often involves the confiscation of Palestinian land, altering the physical landscape and disrupting historical connections to the territory As of 2023, there are over 130 official Israeli settlements in the West Bank, with an additional 97 outposts This expansion has resulted in the appropriation of thousands of acres of Palestinian land.

According to the United Nations, over 45,000 acres of Palestinian land has been confiscated for settlements since the Oslo Accords in 1993. This process contributes to the displacement of Palestinian communities and the alteration of traditional land use practices.

The expansion of settlements and neighbourhoods by the Israeli people, and the displacement of Palestinian communities, has caused fragmentation of traditional neighbourhoods, and has disrupted social cohesion.

The encroachment of settlements can lead to the appropriation of cultural sites, limiting Palestinian access to places of historical and religious significance.

New prefabricated homes under construction in the West Bank The construction of these homes for Israel settlers on Palestinian land is illegal.

Settlements often receive more resources and more investment in infrastructure. This leads to economic and social disparities between Israeli settlers and Palestinian residents. Israeli settlements receive more public funding per capita compared to Palestinian communities in the West Bank. The Israeli government has allocated significantly larger budgets for settlements, contributing to disparities in infrastructure, education and services. Reports show that settlements have better access to water, electricity and transportation networks. In contrast, Palestinian communities face limited infrastructure development due to restrictions on movement and the allocation of resources.

The domination of Israeli culture and language in settlements can undermine the preservation of Palestinian language, heritage and traditional practices.

LEBANON

SYRIA Golan Heights

West Bank

Tel Aviv Jerusalem ISRAEL PALESTINIAN TERRITORIES

EGYPT

Gaza Strip

Mediterranean Sea

Dead Sea

JORDAN

Figure 2.8

The settlement of Jewish settlers in Palestine has also impacted Palestinian cultural identity.

Figure 2.9

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Basic Knowledge

1. What is the relationship between language and cultural identity?

2. Name two major language groups and provide examples of languages from each group.

3. Why is linguistic homogenisation a concern for cultural diversity? Developed Knowledge

1. Describe the role of language in influencing a sense of belonging within a community. Provide one example from the topic.

2. Explain the significance of the Polish language in preserving Polish identity throughout history.

3. Discuss the challenges faced by the Jewish people in establishing a unified cultural identity due to linguistic diversity Advanced Knowledge

1. Analyse the impact of linguistic diversity on the preservation of cultural heritage.

2. Consider the broader implications of language revival for cultural identity and global understanding. How might the successful revival of a ‘dead’ language such as Hebrew inspire other efforts for linguistic and cultural revitalisation?

WRITE LIKE A GEOGRAPHER

1. Examine the importance of language for cultural identity. Success criteria:

Your answer must:

• Define language as a cultural indicator and establish its importance in shaping identity.

• Use evidence from the text, such as key events and statistics, to support the importance of language as a cultural indicator.

• Address the core elements of the question by drawing on examples from the provided text, such as the role of the Polish language and Hebrew in preserving cultural identity.

Your answer should:

• Provide a detailed analysis of how the Polish and Hebrew languages have acted as powerful tools in preserving and shaping cultural identity in the face of adversity.

• Explore the challenges faced by Poland and the Jewish community and how language played a pivotal role in uniting and defining these communities.

• Discuss the broader implications of language as a cultural indicator, linking it to the themes of resilience, resistance and unity highlighted in the text.

Your answer could:

• Make comparisons between the Polish and Hebrew languages, identifying similarities and differences in their historical journeys and roles as cultural indicators

• Examine the potential threats to cultural identity by referencing the impact of Jewish settlements on Palestinian cultural identity, providing a perspective on the intricate relationship between language, land and identity.

TOPIC 2.2: The Influence of Media on European Languages

Mass media encompasses various communication platforms such as television, radio, print and the internet. It holds a significant sway over the development and evolution of languages across the European continent. It has played a pivotal role in shaping linguistic trends, altering vocabulary, and even facilitating the spread of certain languages, especially English.

2.10 Simplified map of languages in Europe

Mass media refers to a wide range of communication channels that reach a large audience simultaneously These channels include television, radio, newspapers, magazines and the internet They serve as vehicles for disseminating information, entertainment, and cultural content on a grand scale.

IMPACT OF MASS MEDIA ON ENGLISH SPEAKERS

Mass media profoundly affects people who speak English, particularly due to its widespread use in global media. English is often chosen as the ‘official language’ in multinational media productions, making it accessible to a global audience. As a result, English-speaking individuals are exposed to a broad range of content, from movies and TV shows to news and social media platforms.

Figure

THE ROLE OF GLOBALISATION IN SPREADING ENGLISH

The process of globalisation has facilitated the spread of English. In the fields of multinational corporations, diplomacy, and international communication, English is commonly deployed as the common language. This global reach amplifies the influence of English media, contributing to its pervasive presence and impact. Approximately 1.5 billion people worldwide speak English, and it is the official or second language in over 70 countries. This linguistic domination encourages multinational corporations to employ English as the lingua franca for business transactions and negotiations, fostering smoother cross-border operations.

Furthermore, the pivotal role of English in international diplomacy is underscored by the fact that it is the primary language of major global organisations such as the United Nations, where it facilitates effective dialogue between nations This linguistic unity enhances collaboration and understanding in addressing global challenges.

THE INFLUENCE OF THE INTERNET

The internet has emerged as a transformative medium in the dissemination of languages, especially English. Online platforms, social media, and websites host a vast array of content in English, from news articles to videos and podcasts. This immense digital presence exponentially magnifies the impact of English on users and transcends geographical boundaries. For example, when South Sudan gained independence in 2011, it made English the official language of the country, despite the fact that not many people could speak it or teach it.

CELEBRITIES AND INFLUENCERS AS LANGUAGE AMBASSADORS

Celebrities and social media influencers wield substantial influence over language trends. Their widespread reach allows them to introduce and popularise new words, phrases or idioms. For example, internet memes and viral challenges often incorporate English slang or phrases, causing them to gain traction and become part of everyday communication. Over 25 per cent of internet users consume content in English. Consequently, the English language has become a potent tool for disseminating ideas and shaping public discourse on a global scale. This dynamic interplay between language and social media underscores the far-reaching impact of English in our interconnected world.

Figure 2.11

English is seen as the language of social media and influencers

ENGLISH AS A COMMONLY STUDIED FOREIGN LANGUAGE

The prominence of English in mass media is further accentuated by its status as a commonly studied foreign language in most EU states. The European Commission’s 2022 Eurobarometer survey revealed that English is the most widely used language in the EU. Approximately 51 per cent of people in the EU speak English either as a mother tongue or as a foreign language.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Basic Knowledge

1. What is mass media and how does it impact languages in Europe?

2. Name two types of mass media platforms mentioned in the topic.

3. Why is English considered a significant language in the context of mass media and global communication?

Developed Knowledge

1. Discuss how the widespread use of English affects content accessibility on a global level.

2. Explain the role of globalisation in spreading the influence of English through mass media. Provide examples from the topic.

3. Discuss the impact of the internet on the dissemination of languages, particularly focusing on how English is amplified as a result.

Advanced Knowledge

1. Analyse the relationship between the dominance of English in mass media and its role in international diplomacy and business transactions.

2. Investigate the role of celebrities and influencers in shaping language trends through mass media, specifically focusing on their impact on the adoption of English slang and phrases.

3. English is the most widely studied foreign language in the EU. Consider the implications of this.

TOPIC 2.3: Policies for Survival: Minority Languages

A minority language is a language spoken by a smaller portion of a population within a specific region or country. Minority languages often possess unique cultural and historical significance to specific communities. They contribute to the diversity of a region’s linguistic landscape, reflecting the heritage and identity of certain groups. However, due to various factors such as migration, urbanisation and the influence of dominant languages, many minority languages face the risk of decline or extinction. This topic will explore the policies for language survival implemented for:

• Gaeilge

• Welsh.

CASE STUDY: Policies for the Survival

of Gaeilge in Ireland

THE HISTORIC DECLINE OF GAEILGE IN IRELAND

Gaeilge (or Irish) was brought to the island of Ireland by the Celts, who migrated from central Europe around 500 BCE. It served as the native language of Ireland until Britain’s policy of plantations during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. During this period, English and Scottish settlers were given plots of land and power in Ireland in exchange for moving to parts of Ulster and Munster. This policy of plantations changed the demographic landscape of the country by creating a British and Protestant identity on the island. Consequently, people began to speak English as the main language in cities such as Belfast and Dublin. In 1832, Irish census records state that approximately 4 million people (50 per cent of the population) on the island spoke Irish as their first language

1800

1850 (Great Famine)

1900

The Gaeltachts today

Gaeltacht region

Figure 2.12

Decline of Gaeilge speakers in Ireland

However, during the period 1846–1852 the use of Irish as the dominant language in Ireland spiralled into mass decline due to the impact of the Famine. During these years, the Irish people experienced mass starvation and emigration, which was heavily concentrated in the west of Ireland. It is estimated that one million people died, and another one million people emigrated during this period. A high percentage of those people came from the worst-affected area of Ireland, the West, where most people spoke Irish as their first language. Additionally, people mostly migrated to English-speaking countries such as the United States and Britain As a result of this, people began to prioritise the use of English in Ireland, as this was the language they would need if they were to find work when they emigrated.

The 1851 Irish census shows that 1.8 million people (28 per cent of the population) could speak Irish. However, the full impact of the Famine had not been experienced then. The 1861 census shows that only 19 per cent of the population could speak Irish at that point in history. By 1871 the census shows that only 15 per cent of the population could speak Irish. These figures show more accurately the impact of the Famine on the use of the Irish language. Consequently, one can conclude that from 1841 to 1851, 1.5 million native Irish speakers either died or emigrated

INTERVENTIONS BY THE IRISH GOVERNMENT

In 1926, the Irish government tried to prioritise a Gaelic Revival policy that divided areas into Gaeltacht regions. They divided areas where at least 80 per cent of the population spoke Irish into ‘Fior-Ghaeltacht regions’, while areas where at least 25 per cent of the population spoke Irish were defined as ‘Breac-Ghaeltacht regions’.

Today, statistics demonstrate that in the seven Gaeltacht areas of Cork, Donegal, Galway, Kerry, Meath, Mayo and Waterford, 63,664 people say they speak the Irish language every day. This figure represents 66 per cent of the population of Gaeltacht areas. Language survival specialists estimate that when less than 70 per cent of an area uses a language every day, that language is at risk of extinction. The rate of decline is further exacerbated as Fior-Ghaeltacht areas experience emigration of young adults Since 2011, Fior-Ghaeltacht areas have experienced an 11 per cent decline in the number of people using the Irish language every day.

The loss of the Irish language in these Gaeltacht regions is causing the boundaries of those areas to shrink. This has significant impacts for the cultural groups who live there The inhabitants of Gaeltacht regions are experiencing a loss of language and culture and a declining standard of living. The shrinking boundaries in these areas can be linked to the:

• Emigration of young adults

• Lack of proper investment in services

• Influx of non-Irish speakers

• Lack of access to appropriate housing.

EMIGRATION OF YOUNG ADULTS

First, Gaeltacht regions in Ireland have experienced a mass depopulation of young people, as many move to more urbanised areas in search of education/employment opportunities and a higher standard of living. Between 2011 and 2016, Gaeltacht regions experienced a 2,500 decrease in the number of people living there.

LACK OF INVESTMENT IN SERVICES

Second, a lack of proper investment in services is negatively impacting the people of Gaeltacht areas. These regions are suffering from a lack of access to services that safeguard the communities. Declining access to tourism and amenity services, efficient road and transport infrastructure and appropriate access to emergency departments has caused a further deterioration of Gaeltacht regions in Ireland. This is most evident in the south Kerry Gaeltacht region, whose towns have been abandoned due to lack of services.

INFLUX OF NON-IRISH SPEAKERS AND LACK OF APPROPRIATE HOUSING

Third, advocacy groups in Gaeltacht regions state that, although Irish government policy is aimed at safeguarding Gaeltacht regions, some planning permission policies are having a significantly negative impact on native Irish speakers. They say that, for example, local councils make it extremely difficult for people to receive planning permission for the construction of houses in Gaeltacht regions. This has a negative impact on the people who live in the regions, as Irishspeaking families are being forced to move into bigger towns because they cannot get permission to build more houses in their region. Additionally, local county councils have permitted the development of larger housing estates in Gaeltacht regions. This is causing problems for native Irish speakers, as the types of houses being constructed are not always affordable for the locals. These houses are attracting an influx of non-Irish speakers to protected areas, which is causing a further dilution of the Irish language. Some politicians have referred to the housing needs of Gaeltacht regions as an isolated ‘housing crisis’ that is causing deep frustration, anxiety and harm to Irish-speaking families who wish to live there.

MACRO GOVERNMENT POLICIES

The protection of these Gaeltacht areas and the Irish language has been recognised by successive Irish governments and they have tried to introduce legislation, structures, and funding to maintain these declining communities. Organisations such as Údarás na Gaeltachta have been established with the primary aim of strengthening Irish as the predominant language used in Gaeltacht areas. In Ireland’s 2022 budget, the government announced a powerful programme of supports for Gaeltacht areas. The budget outlined over €85.6 million in funding for the Gaeltacht and the Irish-language sector. This represented an increase of €7 million on the 2021 allocation. The government also announced an additional €1.5 million for Údarás na Gaeltachta, which brought its total funding allocation to €33.3 million. TG4 and Radio na Gaeltachta were established to promote the use of the Irish language. In the 2022 budget, the Irish government announced a further €4.2 million worth of funding to TG4, which brings its total funding up to €44.9 million TG4 has had resounding success in recent years and 2019 was a record year for the company. In 2019, TG4 was the sixth most watched channel in Ireland, its highest ever audience ranking since it was launched in 1996.

MICRO GOVERNMENT POLICIES: THE KERRY GAELTACHT AREA

FAILURE OF POLICIES

The Kerry Gaeltacht area has experienced significant decline over the last 100 years since it was defined as a Fior-Ghaeltacht region. Today, the region is divided into two areas: the Dingle Peninsula in the west and Uíbh Ráthach in the south. The Uíbh Ráthach Gaeltacht area has a population of 8,700, with only 6,100 defined as Irish speakers. The area encompasses 642 km2 . It has suffered intense decline, as almost 33 per cent of the 90 townlands in the area are now uninhabited. A key factor in the mass depopulation of the Gaeltacht area is a lack of access to basic services.

2.13

Rural Gaeltacht households in Kerry with large amounts of land are being denied planning permission for the construction of houses for family members.

POLICIES FOR THE FUTURE

To safeguard the future of the area and reduce the impact on the people of the region, a new threeyear plan has been introduced. First, 20 new houses are to be made available to purchase for a longterm lease at a reasonable price. The aim is to attract new families to the area.

Second, 145 jobs are to be created, as the area is being targeted as an innovation and digital hub to support the restoration of services that have been lost. The movement of new industries to the area is supported by improvements in basic services such as public transport infrastructure, a 24-hour Garda presence and a 24-hour helicopter emergency transfer service for the people in the isolated south Kerry Gaeltacht region. In total, €1.7 million worth of investments are set to be introduced to the area to reduce the impact of shrinking boundaries on the inhabitants of the Gaeltacht region.

Figure

CASE STUDY: Policies for Survival of Welsh in Wales

INTRODUCTION

The Welsh language, once widespread across Wales, has experienced a historic decline over the centuries. This decline is rooted in a series of historical, social and economic factors that have shaped the language landscape of the region.

During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Welsh experienced suppression and marginalisation. The dominance of English in governance, education and religion led to policies that undermined the use of Welsh. For example, the ‘Welsh Not’ was a token used by some teachers in some schools in Wales in the nineteenth century to punish students who spoke Welsh. Varying accounts suggest different natures of punishment. However, the most common form was when a piece of wood was suspended on a string and placed around a child’s neck as punishment for speaking Welsh.

Figure 2.14

Bilingual road sign in Wales

Industrialisation brought an influx of non-Welsh-speaking workers to areas such as the South Wales valleys This migration, coupled with urbanisation, shifted the linguistic balance. English became the language of commerce and opportunity.

Historically, education played a pivotal role in language transmission. English-medium education became the norm, which limited the use and transmission of Welsh. Pupils were discouraged from using Welsh, and this led to generational language loss.

GOVERNMENT POLICIES FOR SURVIVAL

To ensure the preservation and vitality of the Welsh language, the Welsh government has implemented strategic policies and measures that have significantly contributed to its continuation.

WELSH LANGUAGE ACTS: EMPOWERING RECOGNITION

In 1967 the Welsh Language Acts marked a pivotal step towards the recognition and protection of Welsh. These acts ensured that Welsh could be used in the civil service, granting it equal status with English. Public services, including courts and education, began incorporating Welsh, laying the foundation for its rejuvenation. The Welsh government recognised the importance of providing linguistic accessibility in vital domains, enhancing the inclusivity of society.

THE WELSH LANGUAGE MEASURE: ELEVATING OFFICIAL STATUS

The Welsh Language Measure of 2011 elevated Welsh to the status of an official language within the country. This landmark move mandated the use of Welsh in official documents, a testament to its enduring significance. The commitment to this recognition has spurred its integration into diverse spheres of Welsh life, from administration to media, fostering a deeper sense of cultural identity.

CYMRAEG 2050: A VISION FOR THE FUTURE

The Welsh government’s Cymraeg 2050 strategy, launched in 2018, sets forth a visionary goal of nurturing one million Welsh speakers by 2050. This multifaceted strategy operates under three pivotal themes, each designed to cultivate the Welsh language within various contexts.

Theme 1: Educational empowerment

Number (3 years and over) able to speak Welsh

More than 3,000 1,500 300

Fewer than 300

Local Authority Boundary

Source: 2011 census

The first theme centres on bolstering Welshspeaking capabilities through educational support. To achieve this, the government intends to increase the number of Welshlanguage nurseries by 150 over the next decade. Furthermore, it aims to refine teaching methods to ensure that at least 70 per cent of students can proficiently converse in Welsh upon leaving school. By offering robust opportunities for language development, the government is laying the groundwork for future linguistic fluency.

Figure 2.15

The number of people able to speak Welsh regionally in Wales

Theme 2: Societal and occupational integration

The second theme focuses on expanding social and workplace use of the Welsh language. To enable this, the government is advancing the creation of Welsh-language digital technologies, augmenting online resources for learners. It aims to augment the number of primary teachers proficient in Welsh from 2,900 to 5,200 by 2050. This will ensure a growing pool of educators who can teach the language.

Theme 3: Infrastructure and language planning

The third theme involves creating conducive conditions for Welsh usage through infrastructure development and language planning. The government commits to promoting Welsh within its own departments, fostering a culture of linguistic diversity. The growth of media and digital technology in Welsh contributes to the language’s wider presence, enriching its role in contemporary communication.

Figure 2.16

The number of people aged three and over able to speak Welsh, according to the 1911–2011 censuses, together with the ambitions for 2050

SUCCESS OF GOVERNMENT POLICIES

Welsh language preservation is at the forefront of the Welsh government’s policies, contributing to a noticeable increase in Welsh speakers across the country. By the end of 2022, approximately 900,600 people aged three or older were able to speak Welsh. This increase in the number of Welsh speakers is supported by statistics from various aspects of society in Wales.

1. Mandatory education in Welsh: Compulsory Welsh language education up to the age of 16 has led to a significant rise in bilingualism. In 2022, over 80 per cent of primary school students received their education in Welsh, fostering language skills from a young age.

2. Bilingual services: Government-backed initiatives promoting bilingual services in public sectors have borne fruit. By 2022, around 95 per cent of government websites were available in Welsh, ensuring accessibility and language integration.

3. Language awareness campaigns: Energetic language awareness campaigns have increased the value and pride associated with Welsh. These campaigns have drawn widespread attention, with around 90 per cent of Welsh citizens recognising the importance of preserving their linguistic heritage, according to a survey taken in 2022.

4. Community engagement: Localised efforts have also played a pivotal role. In 2022, community-based programmes promoting Welsh conversations and events witnessed an upsurge in participation by over 40 per cent compared to 2018. This reflects the growing interest in using Welsh outside formal settings.

3

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Basic Knowledge

1. What is a minority language, and why are minority languages important to specific communities?

2. Name two factors that can lead to the decline or extinction of minority languages.

3. Why did the use of Irish as the dominant language in Ireland decline during the nineteenth century?

Developed Knowledge

1. Describe the impact of the Famine on the use of the Irish language in Ireland.

2. Explain the interventions by the Irish government to promote the survival of the Irish language.

3. Discuss the challenges faced by Gaeltacht regions, specifically in the context of emigration, lack of investment in services, influx of non-Irish speakers, and housing issues.

Advanced Knowledge

1. Investigate the effectiveness of the Welsh government’s policies for language survival.

2. Consider the implications of the Cymraeg 2050 strategy for the preservation of the Welsh language. How does this strategy address the challenges of societal integration, education and infrastructure?

TOPIC 2.4: Religion as a Cultural Indicator

Religion serves as a powerful cultural indicator, reflecting the beliefs, values and practices of communities around the world. Its influence shapes traditions, social norms, and even landscapes, making it a crucial aspect of cultural identity

Religion often acts as a cohesive force, binding individuals together through shared beliefs and rituals. It can shape social interactions, influence family structures, and guide ethical frameworks, all of which contribute to a community’s unique cultural fabric

Religious beliefs are frequently mirrored in architectural marvels such as temples, churches and mosques. These structures stand as physical manifestations of cultural identity, preserving traditions and artistic expressions that reflect the significance of religion in a society

Religious festivals and ceremonies showcase cultural diversity. For example, Diwali in India, Christmas in Christian communities, and Ramadan in Muslim societies underscore the integral role of religion in shaping traditions, fostering unity, and maintaining cultural continuity

Religion often inspires art, literature and music, reflecting the spiritual essence of a culture Iconic artworks, hymns and religious texts convey the depth of faith and its impact on shaping creative expressions that resonate through time.

The cultural influence of religion varies globally In India, for instance, the intricate rituals and festivals of Hinduism interweave with daily life. In the Middle East, Islam’s call to prayer punctuates daily routines This highlights the inextricable link between religion and culture

MAJOR WORLD RELIGIONS

The world contains various major religions that shape its cultural landscapes. These religions encompass billions of followers, each contributing to the rich mosaic of human society.

Buddhism

Christianity

Hinduism

Indigenous

Islam

Judaism

No dominant religion

Other

Figure 2.17

World map of major world religions

1. Christianity: With over 2.3 billion adherents, Christianity is the largest religion globally It centres on the teachings of Jesus Christ and is divided into various denominations such as Catholicism, Protestantism and Orthodox Christianity

2. Islam: Islam, founded in the seventh century, boasts around 1.9 billion followers. The religion centres on the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad and is characterised by the Five Pillars of faith, prayer, alms-giving, fasting and pilgrimage.

3. Hinduism: Hinduism is practised by approximately 1.2 billion people, primarily in India. It emphasises karma, dharma and reincarnation. It features diverse traditions, rituals and philosophical beliefs.

4. Buddhism: Originating in India, Buddhism has about 520 million adherents. It centres on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha) and focuses on the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path to enlightenment.

5. Sikhism: Sikhism, originating in the Punjab region of India, has around 30 million adherents. It emphasises the importance of equality, community service and devotion to a single God.

6. Judaism: Judaism, with approximately 14 million adherents, is one of the oldest monotheistic religions. It centres on the Abrahamic covenant and the Torah, containing Jewish laws and teachings.

CHURCH–STATE RELATIONS

Church–state relations refers to the intricate interplay between religious institutions and government entities within a society. This concept explores the dynamic relationship between spiritual beliefs and political governance, with implications for social norms, policies and cultural identity.

The extent of church–state relations can impact policies related to education, healthcare, morality and more. Some countries incorporate religious teachings into their education systems. For example, the Vatican City is an ecclesiastical state, which demonstrates a close intertwining of the Roman Catholic Church and governance. The Pope serves as both the spiritual leader and head of state.

CASE STUDY: Church–State Relationships in Ireland

Since its establishment in 1922, Ireland’s connection with Catholicism has profoundly impacted its social and political landscape. This intertwining of religious and governmental forces has sculpted the nation’s course and continues to influence its trajectory.

1932 EUCHARISTIC CONGRESS: A SHOW OF UNITY

In 1932 the Eucharistic Congress held in Ireland spotlighted the synergy between the church and the state, signifying the unity of faith and governance. The event underscored Ireland’s status as a prominent Catholic nation and demonstrated the state’s endorsement of the church’s role in shaping Irish identity.

Figure 2.18

Eucharistic Congress, Phoenix Park, 1932

THE MOTHER AND CHILD SCHEME 1950: CHURCH’S ASSERTIVE POWER

The Mother and Child Scheme of 1950 epitomised the Catholic Church’s authority Proposed to provide healthcare to mothers and newborns, the scheme was met with staunch opposition from the church due to perceived alignment with communist ideologies and concerns about birth control and abortion. The controversy highlighted the church’s influence, as Minister for Health Noël Browne was compelled to resign, exposing the church’s ability to sway government decisions.

THE USE OF CONTRACEPTIVES IN IRELAND: MORAL DILEMMAS

Figure 2.19 Noël Browne was forced to resign because of the controversy surrounding the Mother and Child Scheme. This highlighted the power the Catholic Church wielded in Irish government.

The church’s grip on Irish society extended to moral matters such as family planning. Up until 1979, the sale of contraceptives was illegal, driven by the church’s stance against artificial contraception. This prohibition reflected the church’s moral doctrine and aimed to safeguard traditional values, and discourage sexual activity outside marriage.

CHURCH–STATE RELATIONS TODAY: CHANGING DYNAMICS

In recent decades, the church’s dominion has diminished, driven by a shifting societal landscape and a series of abuse scandals that tarnished its image. Ireland’s trajectory toward secularism has spurred legislative shifts that challenge the church’s traditional influence.

CHANGING LEGAL LANDSCAPES: KEY MILESTONES

• 1993: Decriminalisation of male homosexuality

• 1995: Introduction of divorce laws following a narrow referendum approval

• 2010: Legalisation of same-sex civil partnerships

• 2015: Recognition of same-sex marriage through a successful constitutional referendum

• 2018: Repeal of the Eighth Amendment, granting women access to abortion within Ireland

These legal milestones reflect Ireland’s gradual departure from its historically entrenched Catholic ethos and its embrace of more diverse and secular perspectives. The repeal of the Eighth Amendment, a notable victory for women’s reproductive rights, illustrates how the church’s grip on policy has waned in favour of a more inclusive and progressive society.

THE CHURCH’S CONTINUING PRESENCE

Despite the church’s declining influence, its legacy endures in various sectors, including education, healthcare and social services. Its imprint is particularly visible in the extensive network of schools and hospitals it established, which remain central to Irish society. As of 2022, about 90 per cent of primary schools in Ireland are under Catholic patronage, which demonstrates the church’s foundational role in education.

CONTROVERSY OVER NEW NATIONAL MATERNITY HOSPITAL

The prospect of constructing a new National Maternity Hospital (NMH) on the grounds of St Vincent’s Hospital in Dublin has stirred a complex debate, igniting concerns about ownership, governance and religious influence. The controversy is rooted in the historical relationship between religious orders and healthcare institutions in Ireland.

Why a new hospital?

The existing NMH in Dublin’s city centre, established in 1894, faces inadequacies because of its outdated structure and limited space. Recognising the need for modern facilities, the idea of co-locating the NMH with tertiary hospitals such as St Vincent’s emerged. The proposed location would help with collaborative care, with the aim of improved outcomes for mothers and infants. However, the new hospital’s location on land owned by the Sisters of Charity raises questions about religious influence and medical practices.

Land dilemma: Ownership and influence

1. Land ownership: The initial site chosen for the NMH, within the St Vincent’s Hospital campus, was owned by the Sisters of Charity. Public outcry ensued, as concerns grew about the extent of religious influence on healthcare decisions within the new hospital.

2. Public outcry and response: Fearing ties to religious groups might compromise medical practices, demands for a fully secular institution grew. In response, the Sisters of Charity relinquished their stake in St Vincent’s, transferring shares to a new not-for-profit entity, St Vincent’s Holdings. Despite this change, questions remained about the potential impact of historical religious ties.

Figure 2.20

Protest in Dublin against church patronage of the new National Maternity Hospital

3. Land usage dilemma: The idea of simply gifting the land to the state was complicated by legal considerations. A solicitor for St Vincent’s Hospital Group (SVHG) explained that charitable organisations cannot simply give away property, emphasising a legal requirement for a thoughtful transfer process.

4. Government’s approach: While consistent requests to purchase or receive the land have been made by successive governments, St Vincent’s has resisted.

Operational concerns

There is also controversy about the potential impacts on medical procedures, and the influence of religion on that.

1. Procedures and religious influence: Fears have been raised that the hospital’s offerings might be constrained by religious influences, hindering certain procedures such as abortions Despite this concern, the government and hospital authorities assure that all legally permissible procedures available at the existing NMH will continue to be offered at the new hospital.

2. ‘Clinically appropriate’ procedures: The constitution of the new hospital uses the term ‘clinically appropriate’ procedures, which has invited some controversy. The hospital asserts that the full range of services available at the current NMH will remain accessible at the new location.

The debate surrounding the NMH underscores the intricacies of balancing healthcare, religious ties and governance. The challenge lies in ensuring that medical services remain comprehensive, independent and secular, while addressing the concerns of the public and respecting historical connections. As Ireland navigates these complexities, the journey towards a new NMH mirrors the nation’s evolution towards a more modern and inclusive healthcare system.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Basic Knowledge

1. In terms of cultural identity, what role does religion serve? How does it reflect the beliefs and values of communities?

2. Name two ways in which religion influences social interactions and family structures.

3. List five key milestones that demonstrate the decline of influence of the Catholic Church on governance in Ireland.

Developed Knowledge

1. Describe the role of religion in shaping traditions and social norms within a community.

2. Explain how religious festivals and ceremonies contribute to the maintenance of cultural continuity.

3. Discuss how the Mother and Child Scheme and the use of contraceptives in Ireland demonstrated the influence of the Catholic Church on governance.

Advanced Knowledge

1. Consider the changing dynamics of church–state relations in Ireland. How has the Catholic Church’s influence on policies and societal norms evolved over time?

2. Analyse the controversy surrounding the New National Maternity Hospital in Ireland.

TOPIC 2.5: Religious Conflict

Religious conflict emerges when differing religious doctrines or interpretations clash. These differences can encompass theological beliefs, rituals, moral codes, and even historical narratives.

EXAMPLES OF RELIGIOUS CONFLICT

1. Northern Ireland: The sectarian conflict between Catholics and Protestants exemplifies a religious divide with deep-seated historical, political and cultural dimensions.

2. Middle East: The Israeli–Palestinian conflict, influenced by religious affiliations, intertwines with political and territorial disputes, leading to ongoing tensions.

3. India: Communal clashes between Hindus and Muslims have historical and socio-political roots, often involving disputes over religious sites and cultural identity

CASE STUDY: Religious Conflict in Northern Ireland

The history of Northern Ireland has been marked by religious conflict that has deeply influenced its culture and identity This division has roots dating back centuries and has had profound implications for the region’s social and political landscape.

HISTORICAL ORIGINS AND PLANTATIONS

Ulster Plantation

The origins of religious conflict can be traced to the Ulster Plantation of 1609, during the reign of King James I. During the plantation, land was confiscated from Catholic natives and given to Protestant settlers from England and Scotland. Over 80,000 Protestant settlers were granted land, solidifying the Protestant presence and British loyalty in Northern Ireland.

Ulster Plantation

English and Scottish

Scottish (privately settled)

Irish (privately settled)

2.21

of settlers who moved to Ulster during the Ulster Plantation

Seeds of division

Prior to the plantation, Ulster chieftains resisted British rule through frequent rebellions. The plantation aimed to quell these rebellions, but it instead fuelled violent clashes between Catholics and Protestants.

Figure

Map

PARTITION AND DISCRIMINATION

Partition of Ireland

In 1921, Ireland was partitioned Northern Ireland was established, with six counties on the island of Ireland under British control. A majority unionist government was formed, establishing a ‘Protestant state for a Protestant people’.

Discrimination

Catholics, a minority in Northern Ireland, faced discrimination. Practices such as gerrymandering skewed electoral boundaries in favour of Protestant unionists, limiting Catholic representation. Discrimination extended to housing and employment, with Catholics often denied access to adequate housing and decent job positions.

Segregation

Consequently, segregated communities based on religious beliefs developed in Northern Ireland. Students attended segregated schools and the two groups had very little contact with one another across these religious divides. The most famous example of these segregated communities is the Shankill Road and the Falls Road in Belfast. The Shankill Road is a Protestant community, while the Falls Road is a Catholic community. These two communities are separated by a ‘peace wall’ that is 8 m high and 800 m long.

Civil activism

During the late 1960s the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (NICRA) emerged to address these inequalities and demand equality for Catholics. The main aim of NICRA was to defend the basic freedoms of all citizens. It fought for equality for all members of society, including Catholics. The development of this peaceful organisation would cause the Northern Ireland and British governments to fight back against the civil rights movement.

Figure 2.23

NICRA organised many peaceful demonstrations during the late 1960s in Northern Ireland.

Figure 2.22

‘Peace walls’ segregate communities in Northern Ireland.

THE TROUBLES AND THE PEACE PROCESS

The Troubles

Strong military suppression of NICRA would lead to a thirty-year struggle between extreme republicans and unionists, known as ‘the Troubles’. Over 3,500 people died in the fighting that took place between the two communities, as the British government took political control of Northern Ireland and used the British Army to suppress the republican movement in the Catholic community.

Good Friday Agreement

Fighting took place between the two communities until an IRA ceasefire in 1994. This ceasefire period allowed talks to develop between all key stakeholders from each community in Northern Ireland. Consequently, the Good Friday Agreement was negotiated and signed in 1998. The Good Friday Agreement was an attempt to secure sustainable peace for Northern Ireland through the idea of power-sharing by all the main political parties.

CHALLENGES POST-AGREEMENT

Segregation

Progress on implementing the terms of the Agreement has been slow because, in many respects, segregated communities still exist in Northern Ireland. Education is still predominantly segregated – only 7 per cent of schools have been integrated. In the last academic year, 91 per cent of Protestant children attended controlled (mainly Protestant) schools and 88 per cent of Catholic pupils were enrolled in Catholic-maintained primaries. ‘Peace walls’ between Catholic and Protestant communities have increased both in height and number since the Good Friday Agreement. In the early 1990s there were 18 peace walls. In 2022, 59 walls stretched over 34 km, mostly located in Belfast.

Brexit

Since the United Kingdom left the EU at the end of January 2020 in the process of Brexit, the Good Friday Agreement and peace in Northern Ireland have been at risk. Brexit has undermined the terms of the Good Friday Agreement for both unionists and nationalists, and the communities are being pulled apart once more. This was evident in July 2021, when a series of riots began in Derry and Belfast, instigated by loyalist (extreme unionist) members of society Roadblocks were established and petrol bomb attacks took place across both areas, as loyalists argued that Brexit has created barriers between Northern Ireland and the rest of the United Kingdom.

Figure 2.24 Belfast riots, 2021

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Basic Knowledge

1. What is religious conflict? What are some aspects of religious differences that can lead to conflict?

2. Name three regions where examples of religious conflict have occurred. Provide a brief description of the conflicts in each region.

3. When did the Ulster Plantation take place, and what was its purpose? Developed Knowledge

1. Describe the historical origins of religious conflict in Northern Ireland.

2. Explain how partition and discrimination affected the Catholic minority in Northern Ireland.

3. Discuss the concept of segregation in Northern Ireland during the period of religious conflict. Advanced Knowledge

1. Analyse the impact of the Good Friday Agreement on the resolution of the Troubles in Northern Ireland.

2. Investigate the challenges that persisted after the Good Friday Agreement. How do issues such as segregation in education and increasing numbers of peace walls affect how the Good Friday Agreement is implemented?

3. Consider the role of Brexit in rekindling tensions in Northern Ireland.

TOPIC 2.6: Expressions of Cultural Identity

Expressions of cultural identity encompass the multifaceted ways in which individuals, communities and societies showcase their unique heritage, values and traditions. These expressions are integral to fostering a sense of belonging and preserving diverse cultural landscapes. In this topic, we will explore how cultural identity is expressed through the mediums of sport, music, food and religion in Ireland.

CASE STUDY: Expressions of Cultural Identity In Ireland

SPORT

Sport in Ireland plays a significant role in shaping and expressing cultural identity. Among the various sports that contribute to this identity, the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) holds a particularly prominent position.

The GAA, established in 1884, is a key institution in Irish sport. It promotes national games such as Gaelic football, hurling, camogie and handball These games are deeply rooted in Irish heritage and are integral to the country’s cultural identity

The GAA’s status as one of the world’s largest amateur sports organisations highlights its grassroots character. Unlike professional sports, where players are paid, the GAA thrives on the dedication of countless volunteers who play the sports, coach the teams and manage the clubs.

Figure 2.25

New York players and staff celebrate their All-Ireland Junior Football Championship final win over Kilkenny at Croke Park in Dublin in 2023.

The GAA is more than just a sporting organisation; it provides a crucial social outlet for individuals. It brings people together, fostering a sense of community pride and belonging. The opportunity to support local teams at both parish and county level strengthens bonds within the community.

The GAA fosters unique territorial rivalries that shape its cultural significance. Players from rival clubs may face local competition, but when they represent their county at a higher level, they unite fans from across the region. This dynamic showcases the balance between local and national identity.

The annual All-Ireland finals are the pinnacle of GAA competition. These finals usually take place at the iconic Croke Park stadium. They draw crowds of up to 82,000 spectators. The scale of these events emphasises the shared enthusiasm for these national sports.

The GAA’s influence extends far beyond Ireland’s shores. Irish emigrants have carried their love for these national games to every corner of the world, making the GAA a global phenomenon.

The increasing influence of the GAA abroad was evident when New York claimed an All-Ireland Junior football title with victory over Kilkenny in 2023. This diasporic spread showcases the enduring power of Irish cultural expression through sport.

MUSIC

Music in Ireland serves as a powerful medium through which cultural identity is expressed and celebrated. Traditional Irish music and dance are central to this expression, embodying the essence of Ireland’s rich heritage.

The core of Irish cultural identity is reflected in its traditional dances and musical instruments. Renowned dances such as jigs, reels and hornpipes are distinctive features of Irish culture. Instruments such as the bodhrán, fiddle and tin whistle add depth and authenticity to the music.

Comhaltas Ceoltóirí Éireann was established in 1951. It is a significant organisation dedicated to safeguarding and promoting traditional Irish music and dance. Its initiatives include competitions and the annual Fleadh Cheoil, a vibrant celebration of Irish culture. Through these efforts, the organisation plays a pivotal role in keeping traditions alive.

Iconic Irish bands such as Planxty and The Chieftains have brought Irish music to global audiences, enhancing Ireland’s cultural reputation. The vibrant rhythms and melodies of traditional music have captivated people far beyond the island’s borders.

Figure 2.26

The Fleadh Cheoil promotes Irish music through a celebration of Irish culture.

The influence of Irish music resonates worldwide, with Irish music and dance festivals taking place in locations such as Boston and Montreal. These festivals become spaces where people from diverse backgrounds engage with and appreciate the allure of Irish culture

The techniques of playing musical instruments and dancing are transferred across generations, creating a continuous link between the past and the present. This intergenerational transmission preserves the authenticity and soul of Irish music.

TG4, a prominent Irish broadcaster, regularly airs recordings of Irish music and dance from various parts of the country By doing so, the channel ensures that these cultural expressions reach a wide audience across the nation.

FOOD

Food in Ireland carries a profound significance as an embodiment of the country’s cultural identity. The historical context and agricultural landscape have shaped traditional Irish cuisine, reflecting the values and practices of its people.

Ireland’s development was influenced by its relatively restricted agricultural land and temperate climate. These factors contributed to a focus on locally produced food, as the country’s selfsufficiency was essential. Additionally, until the mid-twentieth century, most of Ireland’s population lived in rural areas on family farms that were largely self-sufficient. These farms played a pivotal role in shaping traditional Irish food practices.

Key elements of traditional Irish foods

1. Dairy from cows: Cows held immense value in Irish farms, providing fresh milk and cream, which were used to make butter. Dairy products were staples of Irish households, reflecting the pastoral heritage.

2. Preservation of meat: Pigs were central to Irish food culture, with all parts of the pig being eaten. Bacon was salted and smoked, while blood from the pig was used to create black pudding. Sharing valuable cuts of pork with neighbours fostered community bonds.

3. Occasional poultry: Fowl, such as geese and turkeys, were reserved for special occasions, especially Christmas. Eggs from hens and ducks were an important part of farm diets.

4. Mutton and stews: Mutton, derived from sheep, played a significant role in traditional Irish stews. Hearty and comforting stews were preferred during colder months. For example, coddle is a famous Irish dish which is often made to use up leftovers. Most recipes contain roughly chopped pork sausages and rashers with chunky potatoes, sliced onion, salt, pepper and herbs. Coddle is particularly associated with Dublin.

5. Bread and oats: Bread, including soda and griddle breads, was a household staple. Often, it was made with locally sourced flour. Oats were used to make porridge, a popular breakfast choice.

Figure 2.27

Dublin coddle – a Irish dish originally made from leftover ingredients that were available to households

TRANSITION TO MODERN TIMES

1. EU membership and economic growth: Ireland’s entry into the EU marked an era of economic development. The availability of processed and international foods increased as the country opened up to global influences.

2. Impact on traditional foods: The influx of diverse foods led to a decline in traditional Irish cuisine, particularly in urban areas. Modern food chains and supermarkets introduced greater variety to the dining scene.

RESILIENCE AND CULTURAL PRESERVATION

1. Staple in Irish households: Despite evolving tastes, traditional Irish foods remain an integral part of many households, a testament to their enduring significance.

2. Tourism and cultural connection: Traditional Irish cuisine has not only maintained its place among locals but also garnered popularity among tourists seeking an authentic experience. Over 70 per cent of international visitors actively seek out traditional Irish dishes during their stay in the country The immersive connection between food and culture is evident in the growing number of culinary tours and experiences offered across the country Approximately 85 per cent of Irish residents stated in a survey that they continue to enjoy traditional dishes regularly, demonstrating a strong cultural connection to their culinary heritage.

RELIGION

The dominant Catholic faith has left an indelible mark on Ireland’s journey as a nation, influencing not only spirituality but also politics and community bonds.

Today, most Irish children are still baptised as Catholics, as this is a precondition for enrolling in a Catholic school. This illustrates the deep-rooted presence of Catholicism in Ireland’s cultural landscape. Historical struggles against British rule saw Catholicism emerging as a symbol of resistance. Young Irish men trained as priests in European countries, using their religious status to counter British influence.

The Marian Shrine in Knock is a world-famous site of pilgrimage.

During periods when attending mass was banned, ingenious solutions such as mass rocks were devised. These remote altars, hidden in mountainous terrain, served as havens where Catholics could gather discreetly, fostering a sense of unity and defiance against British rule.

The enduring strength of Catholicism is evident in major events such as the Eucharistic Congress of 1932 and Pope John Paul II’s visit in 1979, where over a million people gathered to celebrate their faith.

Religious pilgrimages to revered sites such as the Marian Shrine in Knock, Croagh Patrick and Lough Derg continue to draw thousands of devoted Catholics annually, showing their unwavering commitment to traditional spiritual practices.

Figure 2.28

Catholic culture, once deeply ingrained in daily life, has witnessed changes due to the aftermath of abuse scandals and the Church’s subsequent responses. This shift reflects the evolving nature of Irish society

Despite Ireland’s secularisation, churches remain significant landmarks for both religious and social events. Crowds still flock to churches during key occasions such as Christmas and Easter, reflecting the endurance of tradition The influence of Catholicism on Irish cultural identity, while transforming over time, continues to intertwine with the nation’s values, traditions and sense of belonging.

3

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Basic Knowledge

1. What is the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA), and what are some of the national games it promotes?

2. Name one iconic Irish band that has contributed to the global popularity of Irish music.

3. Why did traditional Irish cuisine emphasise locally produced food? Developed Knowledge

1. Describe the role of Comhaltas Ceoltóirí Éireann in preserving and promoting traditional Irish music and dance.

2. Explain the historical significance of cows and pigs in traditional Irish food culture.

3. Discuss the impact of Ireland’s entry into the EU on the nation’s traditional cuisine. Advanced Knowledge

1. Analyse how the GAA fosters a balance between local and national identity through its sports.

2. Investigate the resilience of traditional Irish cuisine in the face of modernisation and globalisation.

3. Consider the evolution of the influence of Catholicism on Irish cultural identity.

PAST EXAM PAPER QUESTIONS

HIGHER LEVEL

2023

Examine the strategies that have been or could be implemented to aid the survival of minority languages

(80 marks)

2022

Examine the importance of religion as a cultural indicator.

2021

Examine the importance of language as a cultural indicator.

2021

(80 marks)

(80 marks)

Examine how people express their culture and identity in everyday life, with reference to Irish examples you have studied.

(80 marks)

NATIONALITY AND THE NATION STATE

CHAPTER 03

SYLLABUS LINK

8.2 NATIONALITY AND THE NATION STATE ARE POLITICAL ENTITIES PLACED ON THE PHYSICAL AND CULTURAL LANDSCAPE.

KNOWLEDGE RETRIEVAL

Retrieval Quiz

1. What is a minority language, and why are minority languages important to specific communities?

2. List three interventions by the Irish government to support the survival of the Irish language.

3. List five key milestones that demonstrate the decline of influence of the Catholic Church on governance in Ireland.

4. How did the Mother and Child Scheme and the use of contraceptives in Ireland demonstrate the influence of the Catholic Church on governance?

5. Name three regions where examples of religious conflict have occurred.

LEARNING INTENTIONS

1. Discuss how physical and political boundaries impact identity with reference to the Himalayas and the 38th Parallel between North and South Korea.

2. Describe why the Basque Country could be defined as a nation without a boundary state.

3. Explain why the Kurdish people can be defined as a cultural group without a nation state.

4. Analyse how conflicts can develop between political structures and cultural groups with reference to Northern Ireland.

KEYWORDS

Boundaries Geographical area Physical boundaries Political boundaries

Cultural identityNation StatePolitical geography

Common cultural attributes Geographical boundaries SovereigntyComplexities

Cultural groups Conflict Basque CountryTraditions

NationalitySovereign nation-stateLanguageAutonomy

HeritageStatelessCitizenship Aspirations

Kurdish people Conflicts Political structures Northern Ireland

Identities

TOPIC 3.1: Physical and Political Boundaries BOUNDARIES

Boundaries in geography are demarcations that separate one geographical area from another. These boundaries can be classified into physical and political categories, each with distinct characteristics and implications.

PHYSICAL

BOUNDARIES: NATURE’S DIVISIONS

Physical boundaries are formed by natural features such as rivers, mountains, oceans and deserts. These geographical features serve as tangible dividers between different regions, often influencing migration patterns and ecological dynamics. The Himalayas serve as a natural boundary between India and Nepal, impacting the movement of people and wildlife.

POLITICAL BOUNDARIES: GOVERNANCE AND IDENTITY

Political boundaries are artificially created lines that separate nations, states or administrative units. These boundaries are established through treaties, agreements or historical events, and they play a crucial role in governing territories. For example, the boundary between the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland is defined by treaties and agreements, shaping diplomatic relations and trade.

3.1

The political boundary between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland continues to be shaped and influenced by agreements and diplomatic relations.

Northern Ireland (United Kingdom)

Republic of Ireland (European Union)

Belfast IRISH SEA

Dublin

Figure

IMPLICATIONS

1. Cultural identity: Political boundaries often define cultural and linguistic affiliations, impacting people’s sense of belonging.

2. Sovereignty and governance: Political boundaries determine the jurisdiction of governments, influencing laws, regulations and international relations.

This topic will explore how the Himalayas has impacted geopolitics and identity in India/China and how the 38th Parallel has impacted identity in North and South Korea.

CASE STUDY: Physical Boundaries: Impact of the Himalayas on Geopolitics and Identity

The Himalayan mountain range, often referred to as the ‘Abode of Snow’, is not only a remarkable geographic feature but also a region with profound geopolitical and cultural significance. This towering range, stretching across several countries, has left an indelible mark on both the political landscape and the identities of the people inhabiting the region.

AFGHANISTANPAKISTAN

Figure 3.2

The Himalayas as a physical boundary

GEOPOLITICAL SIGNIFICANCE

Border disputes

The Himalayas serve as natural boundaries for countries such as India, Nepal, Bhutan and Tibet However, the determination of precise borders has led to long-standing disputes. The most notable of these conflicts is the Sino-Indian border dispute in the Aksai Chin region. Aksai Chin, covering approximately 37,244 square kilometres, is at the heart of the Sino-Indian border dispute. This region, located in the Himalayas, has been claimed by both India and China. The dispute dates back to the 1950s when China occupied Aksai Chin. Tensions escalated into a brief war in 1962, leading to territorial changes and an unsettled border.

Strategic position

3.3

Indian and Chinese forces have a history of clashing over their shared border

The Himalayas hold immense strategic importance. They act as a buffer between India and China, two of the world’s most populous and powerful nations. Control over high-altitude regions within the Himalayas can provide a strategic advantage. It influences territorial boundaries, access to resources, and the ability to project military power.

Water resources

The Himalayas, besides their strategic importance, are the birthplace of major rivers such as the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Indus. This region highlights the critical role of these rivers in providing essential water resources to millions of people in South Asia, necessitating water-sharing agreements for regional stability.

The Himalayas span five countries. They are also the source of several major rivers: the Ganges flows through India and Bangladesh; the Brahmaputra traverses India, Bangladesh, and China; and the Indus passes through India and Pakistan Over a billion people in South Asia depend on these rivers for their daily water needs, agriculture and livelihoods.

Consequently, water-sharing agreements between countries sharing these rivers have been crucial for managing water resources and preventing conflicts over access and use. The Indus Waters Treaty of 1960, for instance, allocates river waters between India and Pakistan, aiming to reduce potential conflicts.

Such agreements foster cooperation in managing shared rivers, ensuring equitable access and mitigating downstream impacts. The 1996 Mahakali Treaty between Nepal and India and the Sino-Nepal Agreement of 2020 highlight collaborative efforts to harness the region’s water resources sustainably

In essence, these water-sharing pacts show how nations around the Himalayas recognise the need to cooperate to preserve water resources and prevent disputes. This sets a constructive example for regional harmony and management of resources.

CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE

Spiritual and religious heritage

The Himalayas are central to the spiritual and religious identity of many communities. Mount Kailash in Tibet is revered in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Bon. The region is dotted with monasteries, temples and sacred sites.

Languages and diversity

Linguistically, the Himalayan region is incredibly diverse, with numerous languages and dialects spoken. Each community has its unique cultural identity, often closely tied to the landscape. The Himalayas host over 800 languages, showcasing the rich tapestry of linguistic diversity.

Figure

This diversity is shaped by the isolation imposed by rugged terrain and historical migrations. Communities often develop distinct languages to communicate within their unique landscapes, reflecting their relationship with the environment.

For instance, the Sherpa people of the Everest region have developed a unique language, Sherpa, which incorporates words related to their mountainous homeland and mountaineering culture. The linguistic diversity of the Himalayas is a testament to the close bond between culture, environment and language. It illustrates how landscapes influence the identities of the diverse communities that inhabit this awe-inspiring region.

CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES

Environmental concerns

The fragile Himalayan ecosystem is vulnerable to climate change Melting glaciers, changing weather patterns, and increased natural disasters threaten the livelihoods of millions. As of 2023, the Himalayas are experiencing rapid glacial melt, with some estimates suggesting a loss of up to 8 billion tonnes of ice annually. This melting contributes to rising sea levels and affects the water supply of millions of people who depend on Himalayan rivers. Additionally, changing weather patterns, including unpredictable rainfall and increased temperatures, disrupt agriculture and livelihoods. The region is experiencing an increasing number of natural disasters such as floods, landslides and avalanches, which further endanger communities.

3.4

India’s Uttarakhand state has seen devastating flooding multiple times over the last decade as the region experiences the first-hand effects of severe weather events brought about by climate change.

For example, in 2021, flash floods in India’s Uttarakhand state resulted in 200 casualties and widespread economic destruction, highlighting the precarious situation. The Himalayan ecosystem’s vulnerability to climate change poses a grave risk to the livelihoods of millions, making it a critical area for climate action and adaptation.

Tourism and economic development

The Himalayas attract tourists and adventure enthusiasts from around the world, contributing significantly to the economies of countries such as Nepal and Bhutan. In 2022, Nepal welcomed over 1.2 million tourists, and Bhutan recorded approximately 274,000 arrivals Consequently, tourism plays a vital role in the economies of countries in this region. In Nepal, tourism contributes around 7.9 per cent to GDP. In Bhutan, it accounts for approximately 6.5 per cent of GDP

Figure

Cross-border cooperation

The region has seen growing cooperation through initiatives such as the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) and the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO). These forums aim to address regional challenges and promote peace.

The Himalayas, with their towering peaks, diverse cultures, and complex geopolitics, stand as a testament to the intertwined relationship between geography and identity. As a geographic barrier and a cultural hub, the Himalayan region continues to shape the lives of those who call it home and influence the dynamics of a rapidly changing world. Understanding the multifaceted impact of the Himalayas is essential for comprehending the challenges and opportunities in this unique part of the globe.

CASE STUDY: Political Boundaries: Impact of the 38th Parallel on Identity in North and South Korea

The 38th Parallel is a geographical boundary that separates North Korea and South Korea. This boundary has profoundly shaped the identity of the two nations. Established at the end of World War II, the 38th Parallel has resulted in distinct political, economic and cultural trajectories for North and South Korea.

China

North Korea

Pyongyang

Seoul

South Korea

38th Parallel

Figure 3.5

Division of North and South Korea along the 38th Parallel

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND: DIVISION AND IDEOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES

After World War II, the Korean Peninsula was divided into two separate zones of influence: the Soviet-backed North and the US-supported South The ideological differences between communism in the North and democracy in the South laid the foundation for contrasting paths of development.

POLITICAL IDENTITY

• North Korea: The 38th Parallel has contributed to the creation of a distinct political identity in North Korea. Under the leadership of the Kim dynasty, the country’s government has adopted an authoritarian regime centred on a cult of personality. The cult of personality in North Korea is a distinctive and pervasive phenomenon that revolves around the glorification of its leaders, particularly the Kim family. It serves to maintain the regime’s control, but its pervasive nature also isolates North Koreans from the external world and reinforces the totalitarian system in place

• South Korea: South Korea’s political identity emerged as a democracy with open-market policies Its governance has been characterised by multiple peaceful transitions of power and a focus on economic development.

CULTURAL IDENTITY

• North Korea: The division has led to a unique cultural identity in North Korea, which is heavily influenced by state-controlled propaganda and isolationism The regime’s efforts to shape national identity have resulted in limited exposure to external cultural influences. The North Korean regime exercises tight control over media and suppresses external influences. The majority of North Koreans have minimal exposure to international content, which strengthens the state’s narrative. This isolation is reflected in the lack of internet connectivity, with only a small elite of the population having restricted access. Additionally, the regime’s efforts to forge a national identity are seen in monumental displays of loyalty, such as the Arirang Mass Games. These events showcase uniformity and devotion to the state ideology. In essence, North Korea’s unique cultural identity emerges from a blend of state-driven narratives and limited exposure to external influences – a landscape where isolation has fostered a distinct societal tapestry

Figure 3.6

Arirang Mass Games

• South Korea: The cultural identity of South Korea, on the other hand, has been more open to global influences. This has led to the spread of K-pop, Korean dramas and other modern cultural exports. In contrast to its northern counterpart, South Korea has cultivated a cultural identity that resonates worldwide. K-pop has become a global sensation, with groups such as BTS topping international charts. The genre’s fusion of Korean and Western elements bridges cultural divides and captivates diverse audiences. Furthermore, Korean dramas (known as ‘K-dramas’) enjoy a vast international viewership. The South Korean government recognises this ‘soft power’ potential and has supported cultural exports through initiatives like the ‘K-culture’ promotion. The launch of the ‘Korean Wave Index’, which tracks the global popularity of South Korea’s cultural economy, further emphasises the country’s cultural reach.

ECONOMIC IDENTITY

• North Korea: The division has resulted in economic isolation and limited trade for North Korea. Its economy relies heavily on state-controlled industries, with limited international interaction. This is evident as North Korea’s trade volume remains remarkably low. In 2022, its total trade accounted for a mere 2.1 per cent of its GDP, underscoring its minimal economic integration with the global market. Additionally, over 85 per cent of North Korea’s industrial output is attributed to state-controlled industries, with heavy reliance on sectors such as mining, manufacturing and agriculture. This centralised economic structure diminishes diversification and innovation.

• South Korea: South Korea’s economy has flourished, becoming one of the world’s leading economies. It has embraced technology, innovation and global trade, which have all contributed to its economic prosperity. South Korea’s global trade engagement has flourished. In 2022 its exports reached nearly $233 billion, making it the world’s 9th largest exporter. Free trade agreements, including one with the EU, have expanded its market reach.

(Unit: Million Views)

Number of YouTube Views of K-pop Stars by Country

Figure 3.7

Number of K-pop views per country

$40,000

$35,000

$30,000

$25,000

$20,000

$15,000

$10,000 LG Electronics founded

$5,000

$0

Figure 3.8

Source: Maddison Historical Statistics Project, U.S. Global Inventors

Economic performance of North and South Korea over the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries

HUMANITARIAN AND GEOPOLITICAL IMPACTS

The 38th Parallel has also resulted in complex humanitarian and geopolitical challenges. The Korean War of the early 1950s originated from tensions along this boundary The war brought immense suffering and loss of life. Additionally, the division has led to diplomatic tensions and an ongoing quest for reunification.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Basic Knowledge

1. What are physical boundaries in geography, and how are they formed?

2. Define ‘political boundaries’ and explain how they are established.

3. How do physical boundaries impact cultural identity? Provide an example of how a physical feature contributes to the cultural identity of a specific region.

Developed Knowledge

1. Describe the role of physical boundaries in shaping migration patterns.

2. Explain the implications of political boundaries for cultural identity.

3. Discuss the significance of the Himalayas, in geopolitical terms, for India and China.

Advanced Knowledge

1. Investigate the complex geopolitical implications of the 38th Parallel between North and South Korea. How has this boundary shaped the political, economic and cultural trajectories of these two nations?

2. Consider the role of political and physical boundaries in shaping diplomatic relations and global geopolitics.

WRITE LIKE A GEOGRAPHER

1. Examine how physical and political boundaries can impact cultural identity

Success criteria:

Your answer must:

• Define both physical and political boundaries, including their characteristics and implications.

• Describe how physical boundaries (using the Himalayas as an example) influence cultural identity

• Detail how political boundaries (using the 38th Parallel as an example) shape the identity of different regions.

Your answer should:

• Incorporate the importance of the Himalayas in the historical context, such as their role in protecting India from invasions and regulating its weather patterns.

• Discuss the cultural significance of the Himalayas, such as their role as a melting pot of traditions and their spiritual significance.

• Examine the contrasting political, cultural and economic identities of North and South Korea due to the establishment of the 38th Parallel.

Your answer could:

• Delve into the complex geopolitics and strategic significance of the Himalayas, citing examples such as India and China’s military presence and the impact of initiatives like China’s Belt and Road.

• Illustrate the broader implications of political boundaries, as seen in North and South Korea, such as their economic distinctions, global cultural influences, and the ongoing diplomatic tensions.

TOPIC

3.2: Cultural Groups within Nation States

THE CONCEPTS ‘NATION’ AND ‘STATE’

The concepts of nation and of state are foundational in political geography, representing distinct yet interconnected entities with their own characteristics and roles in shaping global landscapes.

A nation refers to a group of people who share common cultural attributes such as language, history, traditions and values. Nations often share a collective sense of belonging and identity. For example, the Kurdish people are spread across multiple countries. They share a common language and heritage, yet lack a sovereign state.

A state, on the other hand, is a political entity with defined geographical boundaries, a governing system, and sovereignty over its territory and population. For example, France is a state with a well-defined territory, government and legal system

While the ideal scenario is a one-to-one correspondence between nations and states, complexities arise because of diverse cultural groups within states – or nations divided across multiple states. You studied an example of this in The Natural World Book 1 as Belgium houses both Flemish and Walloon cultural groups within a single state.

In this topic, you will explore conflict in the Basque Country, a nation without a boundary state.

CASE STUDY: The Basque Country – a Nation Without a Boundary State

The Basque Country, nestled in the Pyrenees between Spain and France, has a tumultuous history marked by conflict and struggle. Despite not having its own state, the Basque people have long fought for their identity, autonomy and independence This narrative unfolds through a series of historical events that have shaped the region’s cultural, political and social dynamics.

FRANCE

ANDORRA

SPAIN

BASQUE COUNTRY

PORTUGAL

MOROCCO

ALGERIA

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Bay of Biscay

Figure 3.9

Map of the Basque Country

SPANISH CIVIL WAR AND REPRESSION

1. Autonomy and conflict: Prior to the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), the Basque people enjoyed a certain degree of autonomy, allowing them to manage local affairs independently. This autonomy, however, was perceived as a threat to the unity of the Spanish state, leading to tension and eventual conflict.

2. Franco’s oppression: During the Spanish Civil War, dictator General Franco sought to crush any resistance to his regime, resulting in brutal repression The Basque town of Guernica became a symbol of this oppression, as it was bombed by the Luftwaffe under Franco’s orders. The attack resulted in the deaths of an estimated 1,600 people The bombing of Guernica highlighted the indiscriminate targeting of civilians Around 70 per cent of the town was destroyed, and countless lives were shattered.

Figure 3.10

The Basque town of Guernica was bombed by the Luftwaffe during the Spanish Civil War, under General Franco’s orders.

RISE OF BASQUE EXTREMISM: ETA

1. Emergence of ETA: The oppression and suppression of Basque identity by Franco’s regime fuelled the emergence of ETA (Euskadi Ta Askatasuna), an extremist group advocating for Basque independence through violent means. ETA believed that violence was necessary to achieve its goal of self-determination.

2. Violence and conflict: The activities of ETA were marked by acts of violence and terrorism, with many attacks taking place in the heart of Spain, including Madrid. ETA carried out over 2,600 attacks, resulting in around 850 deaths. Notable incidents include the 2004 Madrid train bombings. This violent phase of Basque struggle further strained relations between the Basque people and the Spanish government.

TRANSITION TO AUTONOMY AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION

1. Transition to democracy: Franco’s death in 1975 marked a turning point in Spanish history, ushering in a transition to democracy. King Juan Carlos I’s reign saw the release of Basque political prisoners, and greater autonomy was granted to the Basque people.

2. ETA’s decline: Despite the transition to democracy, ETA continued its violent campaign, resulting in the deaths of hundreds. However, dwindling support and cross-border cooperation between French and Spanish authorities contributed to the group’s eventual decline.

3. Dissolution of ETA: In 2011, ETA declared a ‘definitive end to armed activity’, officially renouncing violence after six decades of conflict. In May 2018, ETA announced the complete dissolution of its political structures, signalling a historic step towards conflict resolution.

PATH TO AUTONOMY AND DEVELOPMENT

1. Political autonomy: The Basque people now elect their own president and parliament, and the Basque regional government holds substantial power within the region. This political autonomy has allowed the Basque Country to shape its own destiny to a greater extent

2. Economic progress: With the cessation of violence and a focus on development, the Basque Country’s economy has flourished. It boasts one of the lowest unemployment rates in Spain, which shows the positive impact of a more stable environment.

SHIFTING ATTITUDES AND POLITICAL LANDSCAPE

1. Changing sentiments: A 2018 poll revealed that only 14 per cent of the Basque population now supports independence from Spain This shift in sentiment can be attributed to a desire to avoid returning to the violence of the past, and the recognition that economic stability often depends on cooperative relations with the Spanish government.

Figure 3.11

Extremist group ETA handed over their arms in 2017 and transitioned to a period of peace.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Basic Knowledge

1. Define the concepts of ‘nation’ and ‘state’ in political geography.

2. Name an example of a nation that lacks a sovereign state.

Developed Knowledge

1. Describe the relationship between a nation and a state.

2. Explain the complexities that can arise when there is not a one-to-one correspondence between nations and states.

3. Discuss the significance of a nation without a sovereign state, using the Basque Country as an example.

Advanced Knowledge

1. Analyse the impact of historical events on the identity and aspirations of the Basque people.

2. Investigate the role of violence and terrorism in the Basque struggle for independence.

3. Consider the evolving attitudes of the Basque population towards independence. What factors have influenced the changing sentiments, and how have historical events and economic stability played a role in shaping these attitudes?

TOPIC 3.3: Cultural Groups Without a Nationality

CULTURAL GROUPS WITHOUT A NATIONALITY

A cultural group without a nationality is a community sharing common cultural traits yet lacking official recognition as a sovereign nation state. These groups navigate complex identity dynamics in a globalised world. They are bound by shared language, traditions and heritage, but they often lack a defined territory and political entity to call their own. Being stateless can deprive individuals of basic rights, such as citizenship, access to education, healthcare, and legal protection. In this topic, you will explore how the Kurdish people experience conflict as a cultural group without a nation state.

CASE STUDY: The Kurdish People: A Cultural Group Without a Nation State

The Kurds, a distinct cultural group, have faced numerous challenges in asserting their identity and gaining autonomy due to their lack of a state. Despite their dispersed population across Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Armenia and Syria, the Kurds share a common culture and heritage that are expressed through various elements, including their language. As is the case with Hebrew for the Jewish people, the case of the Kurds highlights how language can serve as a potent cultural indicator that shapes a cultural group’s struggle for recognition and autonomy.

Kurdish majority

3.12

Distribution of Kurdish people throughout Middle Eastern countries

KURDISH IDENTITY AND NATIONALISM

1. Absence of statehood: The Kurds, despite their significant population of 40 million, have not been granted a state of their own. Their aspiration for an independent nation was dashed after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, leading to the partition of Kurdish communities across different modern states.

2. Kurdish language: The Kurdish language stands as a fundamental pillar of Kurdish identity. In the same way that Hebrew is central to Jewish identity, the Kurdish language is a vehicle for preserving cultural heritage and distinguishing Kurdish people as a unique ethnic group. However, the Kurdish language has been suppressed in various regions such as Turkey. Since 2015, scores of Kurdish media organisations, associations, language schools and cultural institutions have been shut down in the country. Despite this, the Kurdish language remains a resilient symbol of unity for Kurds across national boundaries. Efforts to revitalise the language are evident in cultural programmes and language courses. Additionally, Kurdish literature, music and media further showcase the pivotal role of the language. These cultural expressions use Kurdish to narrate stories, convey emotions, and preserve the oral traditions that bind Kurdish communities.

Figure

Figure 3.13

A Kurdish city in Turkey is attacked and destroyed, 2016

OPPRESSION AND CULTURAL SUPPRESSION

1. Turkish repression: In Turkey, the largest Kurdish population faces severe repression The Turkish government has suppressed the Kurdish language and traditional clothing, denying Kurdish cultural expression. This suppression mirrors historical attempts to suppress Hebrew and Jewish culture.

2. Kurdish resistance: In response to oppression, the Kurdish Workers Party (PKK) employed violence against the Turkish government. This echoes historical instances where oppressed groups, such as Jewish communities, have resorted to resistance to assert their identity and demand recognition.

KURDISH AUTONOMY AND STRUGGLES FOR RIGHTS

1. Demand for autonomy: The Democratic Regions Party and its representation through the People’s Democratic Party (HDP) have sought greater autonomy for Kurds within Turkey. This demand for autonomy parallels the Jewish longing for an autonomous homeland, which eventually led to the establishment of Israel.

2. Language and education: Similar to the preservation of Hebrew as a cultural marker, the education of children through their own language is a key aspiration for the Kurdish people. This represents a fundamental right to maintain and transmit their cultural heritage.

3. Resolution and cooperation: While Turkey’s stance toward Kurds has softened somewhat due to international pressures, unresolved issues persist. The Kurdish fight for rights and autonomy in Turkey reflects a broader theme of oppressed groups advocating for their cultural recognition.

KURDISH STRUGGLE AGAINST ISIS

1. Kurdish fight against ISIS: The role of the Kurds in fighting ISIS underscores their resilience and determination to protect their communities. Kurdish forces played a pivotal role in countering ISIS, notably in Syria. Their courage in protecting their homes mirrors the Jewish struggles for survival throughout history. Both groups have faced persecution, displacement and threats to their existence.

Figure 3.14

A Kurdish rally for independence in Iraq in 2017

2. Quest for independence: The Kurdish referendum for independence in 2017 reflects the deep desire for self-determination and a state of their own. The referendum saw an overwhelming 92.7 per cent vote in favour of independence This fervent desire for self-governance echoes the early Zionist movement’s quest for a homeland. However, similar to Zionism, the Kurdish aspiration for statehood encounters geopolitical constraints. Despite the referendum’s outcome, many nations expressed concerns over potential regional instability and border changes. International support for an independent Kurdistan remained limited due to regional complexities and existing national boundaries.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Basic Knowledge

1. What does the term ‘cultural group without a nationality’ mean?

2. Name a cultural group that lacks official recognition as a sovereign nation state.

3. Why can being stateless have negative implications for individuals belonging to cultural groups without a nationality?

Developed Knowledge

1. Explain the significance of language in the struggle for recognition and autonomy of cultural groups such as the Kurds.

2. Discuss the historical context that led to the dispersion of the Kurdish population across different modern states.

Advanced Knowledge

1. Analyse the parallels between the struggles of the Kurds and another historically oppressed cultural or ethnic group.

2. Investigate the geopolitical complexities that limit international support for an independent Kurdistan.

3. Consider the broader implications of the struggle for autonomy and recognition by cultural groups without a nationality. How can such struggles contribute to reshaping international perceptions and policies regarding stateless communities?

TOPIC 3.4: Conflicts Between Political Structures and Cultural Groups INTRODUCTION

Conflicts between political structures and cultural groups arise when the interests, identities and aspirations of different cultural communities clash with the governing frameworks of nation states. These conflicts highlight the complexities of maintaining unity within diverse societies. This topic will explore how conflict has developed in Northern Ireland due to clashes between the identities and aspirations of different cultural groups with the governance of Northern Ireland.

CASE STUDY: Conflict in Northern Ireland

As you learned in the previous chapter, the history of Northern Ireland is marked by a complex web of conflicts primarily rooted in religious and cultural differences This case study aims to delve into how these divisions have evolved over time and how they have shaped the region’s social and political landscape.

THE POLITICAL BORDER AND ITS INTENTIONS

1. Partition and formation of the border: The Government of Ireland Act in 1920 established a political border separating Northern Ireland from the Irish Free State, intended to safeguard unionists from becoming a minority in a nationalist-led Ireland.

2. Exclusion of nationalists: While this division sought to preserve unionist interests, it resulted in difficulties for Irish nationalists. They identified with the Irish Free State’s culture but found themselves within Northern Ireland’s boundaries, despite their desire for an independent republic.

0% to 20%

20% to 35%

35% to 50%

50% to 65%

65% to 80%

>80%

3.15

Map of Ireland from 1971, showing the proportion of Catholics

MINORITY STATUS AND MISTRUST

1. Cultural identification: Nationalists, akin to cultural groups with shared values, felt culturally aligned with the Irish Free State However, the majority Protestant unionists, loyal to the British Crown, controlled Northern Ireland’s government and policies.

2. Unionist dominance and gerrymandering: In an attempt to maintain power, unionists employed gerrymandering tactics to influence electoral boundaries and suppress representation for nationalists. This manipulation silenced nationalists who were calling for equal representation.

Figure

>60% more Protestant than Catholic

30% to 60% more Protestant than Catholic

0% to 30% more Protestant than Catholic

0% to 30% more Catholic than Protestant

30% to 60% more Catholic than Protestant

>60% more Catholic than Protestant

Figure 3.16

Electoral boundaries were drawn in Northern Ireland to ensure that unionists had a majority in government, even in areas where the predominant majority of people were nationalists.

CIVIL RIGHTS AND ITS SUPPRESSION

1. Discrimination and civil rights movements: The control of unionists led to discrimination against nationalists in areas such as housing, education and employment. The oppression experienced by nationalists in Northern Ireland mirrors the oppression of many other marginalised cultural groups. This ignited civil rights marches and inspired many different collective movements for justice.

2. Violence and resistance: As tensions escalated, the British Army suppressed civil rights marches, paralleling instances where oppressed cultural groups faced violence in their fight for rights. This period culminated in a prolonged period of guerrilla warfare known as ‘the Troubles.’

SECTARIAN VIOLENCE AND STRUGGLE FOR PEACE

1. ‘The Troubles’ and acts of violence: As with other conflicts between cultural groups, where violence escalated, ‘the Troubles’ brought acts of violence from both nationalist and unionist sides. This had profound impacts on communities and individuals. Over 3,500 people died in the fighting that took place between the two communities as the British government took political control of Northern Ireland and used the British Army to suppress the republican movement in the Catholic community.

Mural of Catholic priest Edward Daly waving a bloodstained white handkerchief while trying to escort Jackie Duddy to safety. Jackie Duddy was shot dead by British soldiers on Bloody Sunday 1972 During their peaceful demonstration that day, thirteen nationalists were killed by British soldiers.

2. Ineffectual government and direct rule: The inability of the unionist government to address mounting violence led to direct rule by Britain. This shows how conflicts sometimes need external intervention to mitigate the tensions.

Figure 3.17

Figure 3.18

Aerial view of a ‘peace wall’ in Belfast

THE ROAD TO PEACE AND CURRENT CHALLENGES

1. Good Friday Agreement: Mirroring efforts for peace and reconciliation among divided cultural groups, the Good Friday Agreement in 1998 ushered in a new era. Powersharing arrangements bridged political divides. This is an example of how negotiation and understanding are required to resolve conflicts.

2. Segregation: Progress on implementing the terms of the Agreement has been slow because, in many respects, segregated communities still exist in Northern Ireland. Education is still predominantly segregated and only 7 per cent of schools have been integrated. In the last academic year 91 per cent of Protestant children attended controlled (mainly Protestant) schools and 88 per cent of Catholic pupils were enrolled in Catholic-maintained primaries. ‘Peace walls’ between Catholic and Protestant communities have increased both in height and number since the Good Friday Agreement. In the early 1990s there were eighteen peace walls. However, in 2022 fifty-nine stretched over 34 km, mostly located in Belfast.

3. Brexit uncertainties: While peace has endured, current challenges such as Brexit demonstrate how geopolitical changes can affect even settled conflicts. Brexit has undermined the terms of the Good Friday Agreement for both unionists and nationalists and the communities are being pulled apart once more. This was evident in July 2021, when a series of riots began in Derry and Belfast, instigated by loyalist (extreme unionist) members of society Roadblocks were established and petrol bomb attacks took place across both areas, as loyalists argued that Brexit has created barriers between Northern Ireland and the rest of the United Kingdom. The example of Northern Ireland underscores how fragile reconciliation can be in complex conflicts around the world.

Figure 3.19

A bus burns on the Shankill road in West Belfast during loyalist riots in 2021.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Basic Knowledge

1. What are conflicts between political structures and cultural groups?

2. State the name of an example that you have studied of conflict between political structures and cultural groups.

3. Why are conflicts between identities and governance particularly complex in diverse societies?

Developed Knowledge

1. Describe the intention behind the political border established in Northern Ireland in 1920. How did this division affect the nationalist community?

2. Explain how unionists sought to maintain dominance within Northern Ireland’s government.

3. Discuss the parallels between civil rights movements in Northern Ireland and struggles for justice by marginalised cultural groups

Advanced Knowledge

1. Analyse the impact of ‘the Troubles’ on Northern Ireland’s communities.

2. Investigate the factors that have hindered progress on implementing the terms of the Good Friday Agreement.

3. Consider the complexities of the effect of Brexit on Northern Ireland. How does this example highlight the potential for geopolitical changes to disrupt settled conflicts?

PAST EXAM PAPER QUESTIONS

HIGHER LEVEL

2022

Examine the effects of political and/or physical boundaries on cultural groups (80 marks)

2021

Examine how conflict can arise between political structures and cultural groups. (80 marks)

2020

Many states have different cultural groups within their borders. Discuss. (80 marks)

2021

Examine how people express their culture and identity in everyday life with reference to Irish examples that you have studied. (80 marks)

IDENTITY AS A CONCEPT IN SWITZERLAND

CHAPTER 04

SYLLABUS LINK

8.3 IDENTITY AS A CONCEPT ENTAILS A VARIETY OF CULTURAL FACTORS INCLUDING NATIONALITY, LANGUAGE, RACE AND RELIGION.

KNOWLEDGE RETRIEVAL

Retrieval Quiz

1. What is the role of physical boundaries in shaping migration patterns?

2. List some of the implications of political boundaries for cultural identity.

3. What is the significance of the Himalayas, in geopolitical terms, for India and China?

4. State three impacts of ‘the Troubles’ on communities in Northern Ireland.

5. Recall three factors that have hindered progress on implementing the terms of the Good Friday Agreement in Northern Ireland.

LEARNING INTENTIONS

1. Explain the impact of physical and political boundaries on national identity in Switzerland.

2. Examine how national identity is shaped by ethnicity and race in Switzerland.

3. Discuss how cultural indicators such as language and cultural activities such as music, art and festivals have impacted national identity in Switzerland.

4. Analyse the role of migration on shaping national identity in Switzerland.

KEYWORDS

IdentityCultural factors Switzerland

Physical and political boundaries

Race Religion Urbanisation Historical origins

Natural borders Population concentration Local governanceCultural progression

Federal political system Cantons Languages Linguistic diversity

Cultural indicators Cultural activities Winter sports Athletes

Bilingual Refugees Cultural diversityNational identity

Inward migration Swiss People’s PartyReferendums Cross-border cooperation

Political discourse NationalityLanguage

TOPIC 4.1: Impact of Physical and Political Boundaries on National Identity INTRODUCTION

Identity is a complex and multifaceted concept that encompasses various cultural factors, forming the core of an individual’s sense of self and belonging. These factors include nationality, language, race and religion, which all contribute to the rich diversity of human experience. In this topic, you will explore Switzerland as a European case study, examining how nationality, language, race and religion contribute to a sense of national identity in the country.

CASE STUDY: Physical and Political Boundaries

Impacting National Identity in Switzerland

Switzerland’s rich cultural diversity is embedded in a strong national identity. This sense of unity has evolved from a combination of factors, including the country’s distinct physical and political boundaries.

PHYSICAL BOUNDARIES AS DEFENDERS OF IDENTITY

Nestled in central Europe, Switzerland is framed by formidable natural borders. The Jura Mountains, Lake Geneva, the River Rhine, Lake Constance, and the Alps surround the country, nurturing a sense of cohesion and protection. These natural boundaries contribute to Switzerland’s historical neutrality. The country remained unscathed by the two World Wars due to its strategically secured borders. This reinforced Switzerland’s unique cultural identity

POPULATION CONCENTRATION AND URBANISATION

The challenging Alpine landscape has resulted in a concentrated population in the central and northern regions This demographic pattern has spurred urbanisation, with most Swiss citizens dwelling in cities such as Zurich and Bern. The isolation caused by the landscape has cultivated a distinctive culture and identity. This isolation has contributed to Switzerland’s decision not to join the European Union, maintaining its individuality on the global stage.

HISTORICAL AND POLITICAL ORIGINS

Switzerland’s sense of shared identity traces back to the 1291 formation of the Swiss Confederation by three cantons. This collaborative spirit evolved over centuries as more cantons joined the confederation, which solidified unity. The country’s unification in 1848 under a single government transformed a fragmented land into the Switzerland we know today. The celebration of the confederation’s 600th anniversary in 1891 was a turning point that galvanised a sense of a unified nation.

FEDERAL POLITICAL SYSTEM AND CULTURAL ACCOMMODATION

Switzerland’s federal political system divides power between the national and local governments. The federal government oversees money, the military, foreign relations, and other national concerns. Additionally, the policy of armed neutrality and universal male military service fosters bonds among Swiss citizens. The country’s neutral status also attracts international organisations, promoting its identity as a secure and peaceful host.

CANTONS AND LOCAL GOVERNANCE

Cantons, similar to Irish county councils, maintain local governance. Each canton has its own constitution, parliament, courts and education system. This unique structure accommodates the diverse cultural needs within the country. Swiss people exhibit strong loyalty to their cantons, mirroring the connection Irish individuals have with their counties. This decentralised power allows cantons to influence laws, even if they differ from national decisions.

CULTURAL PROGRESSION AND EQUALITY

Swiss referendums have paved the way for cultural evolution. For instance, the 1959 local-level referendum granted women voting rights – and this was later followed by a 1971 national-level vote In the 1971 national-level referendum, 66.9 per cent of Swiss voters supported granting women the right to vote. This underscored a societal shift towards greater inclusivity and representation. Swiss referendums have served as agents of cultural transformation, most notably in championing women’s rights. The decisive outcomes of these referendums reflect Switzerland’s commitment to progressive values and its responsiveness to changing societal dynamics.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Basic Knowledge

1. List the aspects of Switzerland’s identity that were focused on in this case study.

2. Why is Switzerland’s cultural diversity considered to be embedded in a strong national identity?

Developed Knowledge

1. Describe how Switzerland’s natural boundaries have contributed to its historical neutrality.

2. Explain the demographic pattern in Switzerland due to its challenging landscape.

3. Discuss the historical origins of Switzerland’s shared identity

Advanced Knowledge

1. Analyse the impact of Switzerland’s federal political system on its national identity.

2. Investigate the significance of Swiss referendums in cultural progression.

3. Consider the role of decentralisation in Switzerland’s identity. Your answer should discuss how the loyalty of Swiss citizens to their cantons mirrors the connection Irish individuals have with their counties.

TOPIC 4.2: Impact of Cultural Indicators on National Identity

CASE STUDY: Cultural Indicators Impacting National Identity in Switzerland

CULTURAL INDICATORS

Switzerland is a land of diverse cultures and languages. It reveals its cultural identity through various elements. One of the most significant indicators of its cultural fabric is the languages spoken within its borders, particularly German, French, Italian and Romansh

Linguistic Diversity

Switzerland hosts four major languages: German (63 per cent), French (23 per cent), Italian (9 per cent) and Romansh (1 per cent).

Figure 4.1 Map of Switzerland

Each language region forms distinct cultural pockets, enriching the country’s identity. For example, Romansh is a language rooted in Latin. It is spoken by a small population in the southeast of Switzerland. Unlike other languages, Romansh struggles to maintain equal status nationally, and its survival is threatened due to dwindling speakers.

While each language region retains its uniqueness, the Swiss people display linguistic versatility. Most individuals are bilingual or trilingual Swiss people are often proficient in German, French and Italian, and this is driven by both cultural and practical considerations. Approximately 64 per cent of Swiss residents are bilingual, proficient in at least two of the national languages – German, French and Italian. Furthermore, about 19 per cent of the population is trilingual, mastering all three languages.

German

French

Italian

Romansh bilingual areas and cities*

*Areas with changing majorities, traditionally strong minorities of other official languages (over 30%) and officially bilingual communities.

Officially bilingual are the cantons of Berne/Bern (German majority) Fribourg/Freiburg (French majority)

Valais/Wallis (French majority)

Officially trilingual is the canton of Graubünden/Grigioni/Grischun (German majority)

De facto bilingual are the cantons of Jura (French majority)

Ticino (Italian majority)

BerneseJura

Bienne / Biel

Berne / Bern

Morat / Murten

Fribourg / Freiburg

Fribourg / Freiburg

4.2

Geographic distribution of languages Switzerland

Official Documents and Cultural Identity

The federal government ensures cultural inclusion by publishing official documents in all four languages This practice reflects Switzerland’s commitment to its diverse populace and promotes unity. To maintain linguistic harmony, the name ‘Switzerland’ (Confoederatio Helvetica or Helvetia) is preserved in Latin on Swiss franc coins and stamps. This approach exemplifies Switzerland’s focus on unity and avoids the complexity of translating its name into multiple languages

Figure 4.3

‘Swiss franc’ is printed in Latin on the Swiss franc.

Jura

Upper Wallis

Bosco/Gurin

Ticino

Val Mesolcina

Surselva

Oberhalbstein

Upper Engadine

Lower Valais

Graubünden / Grigioni / Grischun

Val Müstair

Val Bregaglia Val Poschiavo

Valais / Wallis

Lower Valais

Figure

CULTURAL

ACTIVITIES:

A MIRROR OF IDENTITY

Switzerland’s prowess in winter sports, including skiing, snowboarding and bobsledding, transcends competition

Successful athletes such as Vreni Schneider reinforce national pride and a shared sense of achievement. This is evident through Switzerland’s rivalry with neighbouring countries, particularly Austria. Schneider has the greatest track record in Swiss women’s skiing, with three Olympic gold medals, one silver and one bronze to her name. Competition in winter sports cultivates a spirit of camaraderie and reflects the significance of these activities in the expression of cultural identity.

Switzerland has produced renowned athletes, such as tennis icon Roger Federer and several football stars who contribute to the European Championships and World Cups. Collectively, these sports stars have elevated the nation’s sense of achievement and showcased its sporting prowess on the global stage. Roger Federer, with 20 Grand Slam titles in tennis, ranks as one of the greatest players in history

Several traditional sporting activities also underscore Switzerland’s cultural roots and serve as outlets for national expression. Examples include a long-distance race called Waffenlauf, and Schwingen, a form of wrestling. Festivals such as national holiday celebrations and unique cultural experiences such as cow-fighting events symbolise the fusion of modernity with historical traditions.

INTERNATIONAL CULTURAL EXCHANGE

Switzerland’s hosting of renowned international events such as the Lucerne Festival of Classical Music, the Locarno Film Festival, and the Montreux Jazz Festival signifies its role in fostering cultural exchange and global interconnectedness. The annual Lucerne Festival of Classical Music attracts over 80,000 attendees and features world-class classical music performances.

Figure 4.4

Roger Federer has increased Switzerland’s sense of sporting achievement He was ranked number 1 tennis player in the world for 310 weeks, including a record 237 consecutive weeks.

Figure 4.5

Montreux Jazz Festival

The Locarno Film Festival dates back to 1946, and it continues to draw around 160,000 visitors annually. The Montreux Jazz Festival, renowned for its diverse music line-up, welcomes approximately 200,000 participants every year

Folk art traditions, including alphorn music and yodelling, contribute to the preservation of cultural heritage. Woodcarving and other crafts further reinforce Switzerland’s cultural identity.

INWARD MIGRATION

Inward migration has significantly shaped Switzerland’s national identity, a multifaceted concept that encompasses shared values, traditions and a sense of belonging. The influx of immigrants, primarily guest workers and refugees, has contributed to the evolution of this identity in various ways

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT AND JOB VACANCIES

As Switzerland developed industrially in the twentieth century, it faced job shortages, particularly in low-paying or menial positions. This trend emerged as the nation transitioned towards modernisation and economic progress. To address the job deficits, Switzerland welcomed over two million ‘guest workers’ after World War II. These immigrants primarily came from Mediterranean countries such as Greece and Italy in response to the need for a labour force to support economic expansion in Switzerland.

CULTURAL DIVERSITY AND NATIONAL IDENTITY

Inward migration brought a diverse array of cultures, languages and traditions to Switzerland’s social fabric. This diversity expanded the spectrum of Swiss identities and contributed to a richer national sense of identity. Consequently, interaction with immigrants introduced new perspectives, ideas and customs, and fostered cultural exchange and understanding. This integration has enriched the sense of national identity by incorporating a broader array of cultural elements. Foreign-born citizens make up about 25 per cent of the population of Switzerland. Evidence of this can be seen in Swiss cuisine, which shows culinary influences from all around the world. Some famous Swiss dishes can be linked to very different food cultures. For example, a Chinese influence can be seen in the Swiss tradition of serving a fondue in the centre of the table to be eaten by a large group of people Swiss fondue is linked to a Chinese dish called ‘huo guo’, which literally translates as ‘hot pot’

Figure 4.6 Swiss fondue

REFUGEES AND HUMANITY

Switzerland’s history of accommodating refugees from war-torn regions, such as Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and the Balkans, illustrates the nation’s commitment to humanitarian values. In the aftermath of the Balkan conflicts, over 60,000 Bosnian refugees were granted asylum. Similarly, during the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, Switzerland accommodated nearly 7,000 refugees. Additionally, in 2022 the Swiss government granted a one-year right of residence in Switzerland (renewable), without having to go through the standard asylum procedure, to over 70,000 Ukrainian refugees This generosity resonates in the collective Swiss identity. The acceptance of refugees has prompted Switzerland to adapt and integrate diverse populations. This adaptation showcases the nation’s resilience and capacity for inclusivity, reinforcing a sense of national identity rooted in empathy

Largest Immigrant Groups in Switzerland

4.7

Migrant groups in Switzerland

POLITICAL DISCOURSE AND NATIONAL IDENTITY

Despite Switzerland’s historic tolerance towards various cultures, there is apprehension over the rise of the Swiss People’s Party (SVP), which advocates an anti-immigrant stance The party’s claims that immigration threatens Swiss culture reflect debates on national identity. Switzerland’s response to political challenges demonstrates the intricate relationship between immigration and national identity. The public’s decision to implement ‘fast-track’ measures for asylum applications underscores the nation’s commitment to a cohesive society.

While political movements raise concerns about the impact of immigration on Swiss identity, referendum results have shown the population’s commitment to consolidate diversity within its identity. There is a ‘free movement’ agreement between Switzerland and the EU In September 2020, a referendum was proposed to end this agreement with the EU. However, the Swiss people voted to retain the ‘free movement’ agreement by a majority of 61.7 per cent. The outcome of this referendum shows the Swiss people’s recognition of the benefits of cross-border cooperation and the positive influence of diversity on their society.

Figure

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Basic Knowledge

1. What are some of the major languages spoken in Switzerland?

2. Where can you find the name ‘Switzerland’ preserved in Latin?

3. How do the winter sports athletes of Switzerland contribute to the country’s cultural identity?

Developed Knowledge

1. Describe how Switzerland’s linguistic diversity is reflected in its population’s language skills.

2. Explain the significance of the name ‘Switzerland’ being preserved in Latin on Swiss franc coins and stamps.

3. Discuss the role of traditional activities such as Waffenlauf and Schwingen in Switzerland’s cultural identity.

Advanced Knowledge

1. Analyse the role of international cultural events in Switzerland’s identity.

2. Investigate the impact of inward migration on Switzerland’s national identity.

3. Consider the relationship between political discourse, immigration and national identity in Switzerland. Your answer should refer to how political movements and referendums reflect the country’s approach to maintaining diversity within its identity.

WRITE LIKE A GEOGRAPHER

1. ‘Identity as a concept entails a variety of cultural factors including nationality, language, and religion.’

Examine this statement with reference to a case study of a European region you have studied.

Success criteria:

Your answer must:

• State the main cultural indicators of identity in Switzerland, namely the languages spoken.

• Explain how linguistic diversity plays a role in shaping Switzerland’s national identity.

• Provide information on how Switzerland’s federal government ensures cultural inclusion through official documentation.

Your answer should:

• Discuss the role of cultural activities in Switzerland, such as sports and traditional activities, in expressing and reinforcing cultural identity.

• Highlight the importance of international cultural exchange through events and festivals in Switzerland.

• Describe the influence of inward migration on the Swiss national identity, particularly in terms of industrial development and cultural diversity

Your answer could:

• Delve deeper into how Switzerland’s history of accommodating refugees showcases its commitment to humanitarian values and strengthens national identity.

• Analyse the political discourse in Switzerland and its implications for national identity, referencing specific movements and referendums.

• Draw a connection between the global influences on Swiss cuisine and the broader spectrum of the country’s national identity, using specific examples such as Swiss fondue and its relation to Chinese ‘huo guo.’

PAST EXAM PAPER QUESTIONS

HIGHER LEVEL

2022

‘Cultural identity is defined by many diverse factors.’

Examine this statement with reference to a case study of a European region you have studied. (80 marks)

2019

‘Identity as a concept entails a variety of cultural factors including nationality, language and religion.’

Examine this statement with reference to a European region you have studied.

2021

(80 marks)

Examine the importance of language as a cultural indicator. (80 marks)

2021

Examine how people express their culture and identity in everyday life with reference to Irish examples that you have studied. (80 marks)