Durham MA in Archaeology Posters 2021

Department of Archaeology

Durham University Academic Poster

Exhibition Each year the students on our MA in Archaeology create academic posters as an assignment for their core study skills module.

To complement our digital teaching delivery and further the research of our students' work, we mount an online exhibition of their posters.

We hope you enjoy the display

Analysis & Conclusion Background This poster presents data and results of the author's undergraduate dissertation.

This research uses ceramic sherds in the Williamson Collection that are determined to be manufactured in the Longquan province in China to analyse changes of Chinese Longquan celadons wares in southern Iran between the 13th and 16th centuries.

Map. 1 The trading regions map with simlified trading routes, Chaudhuri 1985: 35 altered by Poppy Li Fig.1 A Longquan celadon pot in the Williamson Collection, photographed by Poppy Li Fig.2 The external surface of the pot in Fig.1, photographed by Poppy Li

Methodology To achieve aims, a criteria list for dating and evaluaiting the quality of Longquan wares is established with information from excavation reports and other academic references of Longquan wares excavated both in China and overseas.

Mengxiru (Poppy) Li Email: mengxiru.li@durham.ac.uk

Fig.3 Ceramic components instructions, Li 2019: 23

Table.1 The criteria list resulting from the dissertationn, Li 2019: 23-25

Alex Rome Griffin University of Durham Department of Archaeology ARCH42215 Email: alexander.p.rome-griffin@durham.ac.uk

The Role of Plated Coins at Romano-Celtic Temples

What are plated coins?

Plated coins have a base metal core plated with a precious metal; they are often considered to have been forgeries.1 If a coin was found to be plated, it was considered to have no pecuniary value. Whilst they may be found as stray finds or as parts of larger hoards, they are especially prevalent in ritual contexts.1 2 3 4 6

What can they tell us?

Cheating the Gods?

• Ritual Values.

• Differing roles of coins in temple contexts.

• Lens to view ritual mutilation.

Were plated coins preferred for deposition because, once deposited, they were unlikely to be detected?2 Plated coins may have allowed people to ‘short change’ their payments to deities.

Case Study – Hayling Island Temple On the South Coast of Britain, demonstrates a high frequency of plated coins (see diagram). Analysis of the assembly shows that 46% of silver coins and 78% of gold coins are plated.6 Plated coins were used for deposition, but genuine coinage was conserved, possibly to pay for temple expenditure.3 Coin Figures – Courtesy of the British Museum The three coins shown are all examples of Iron Age and Roman plated coins. In all instances, the plating has been damaged and the base metal core revealed; either deliberately through perforation or cutting, or natural degradation.

Romano-Celtic Temple Reconstruction Lewis, M.J.T., 1966. Temples in Roman Britain. Cambridge, UP. Diagram of Coin Distribution Diagram King, A.C., 2008. Coins and coin hoards from Romano-Celtic temples in Britain. Continuity and Innovation in Religion in the Roman West, 2, pp.25-42.

References 1.

Cottam, G.L., 2001. Plated Iron Age coins: Official issues or contemporary forgeries. Oxford Journal of Archaeology, 20(4), pp.377-390.

2.

Kiernan, P., 2001. The ritual mutilation of coins on Romano-British sites. British Numismatic Journal, 71, pp.18-33.

3.

King, A.C., 2008. Coins and coin hoards from Romano-Celtic temples in Britain. Continuity and Innovation in Religion in the Roman West, 2, pp.25-42.

4.

Briggs, D., Haselgrove, C. and King, C.E., 1993. Iron Age and Roman coins from Hayling Island temple.

5.

Lewis, M.J.T., 1966. Temples in Roman Britain. Cambridge, UP. 6.

King, A. and Soffe, G., 1998. Internal organisation and deposition at the Iron Age temple on Hayling Island. Hampshire Studies, 53, pp.35-47.

People were not attempting to hide plated coins in votive deposits, but rather they were considered legitimate offerings.1 2 Since plated coins were monetarily worthless, they were likely used as sacrificial tokens. From this we can explore the values attached to coins at temple sites; the physical value of the coin being deposited was of little concern, with the act of sacrifice itself considered more important.1 2 The evidence from Hayling Island also shows that there was a practical element to this, with higher value coins kept accessible elsewhere in the temple.3 4

What does this damage mean?

Or More Honest Intentions?

The assumption above supposes that votive deposits were inviolable, but this may not be the case. Springhead Temple evidences a hoard capped with a large flint, possibly designed to make it easier to recover in soft ground and the classical author Poseidonius details an Iron Age hunting ritual, whereby deposited coins were recovered and used to purchase a sacrificial animal.3

Tokenistic Sacrifice?

A diagram showing the coin distribution of the Hayling Island Romano- Celtic temple.3 Coins have primarily been found in the S-W corner of the temple (shaded).

This clear zonation shows that they were being used as votive offerings and their 5 A reconstruction of a Romano-Celtic Temple. deposition adhered to strict conventions.3

Conclusion Plated Coins allows us…

• A unique insight into how coins were treated in ritual contexts.

• To explore the values attached to coins.

• Asses the different roles coins undertook at temples.

• Explore the hypotheses surrounding damaged coins in ritual contexts.

Test-Cutting: The process of incising a coin to check if it is plated.2 Political Protest: Defacing the mint-issuers likeness.2 Ritual Mutilation: Removing the function of coins and consigning them to the world of the gods.2 The nature of this damage can be confusing. However, test-cutting left marks distinct from ritual mutilation. Political protest may have doubled up as ritual mutilation, as the political power of the coin was removed and it was rededicated to the gods. Whilst ritual and political damage likely shared similar processes and purposes, test cutting may present differently in the archaeological record.4

Interpretation of Henges: Long Meg and her Daughters

©Google Images

Introduction

Henge monuments are circular enclosures which date from the Neolithic and Bronze Age. The exact function of their use is uncertain, however evidence from the sites supports several interpretations. These include as astronomical calendars, centres for ritual, and places of burial. Long Meg and her Daughters helps our understanding of their function.

Long Meg and her Daughters Located in Cumbria above the bank of the River Eden, Long Meg and her Daughters consists of 70 boulders and is the 3rd largest stone circle in the British Isles (see figure 1). Folklore of the site includes the tale of a witch named Meg, who along with her coven, were turned into stones by a wizard. The number of stones are said to be uncountable, but if the same number can be counted twice, the spell will be broken. The real function of the site remains uncertain however evidence suggests that it probably had a cosmological or ritual function.

Figure 1- Birdseye aerial view of Long Meg and Her Daughters. © Google Images

Cosmology

Specific positions of the stones suggests the site has cosmological associations, as an astronomical calendar (see figure 2). Evidence for this includes the relationship between the positioning of the rocks with alignments of the Sun and Moon, marking certain calendrical events such as sunsets and solstices.

Figure 2- Plan of Long Meg and her Daughters showing relationship with cosmology. © Google Images

Ritual interpretation The ritual interpretation of the site is supported by several features along with the location itself. For example, cup and ring marks are present on the north western face of Long Meg (see figure 4). The rock types used at the site indicates Figure 3- Map created on StepMap showing relationship between stone circles in Cumbria the ritual association, as the central rock is made from a red with rivers and lakes. © StepMap sandstone, which may represent blood and bodily fluids, relating to ritual aspects of the site. The location itself indicates a ritual function as the site is located near to the River Eden. The majority of henges are located near to rivers and lakes suggesting an association with flowing water (see figure 3). The positioning of Long Meg and her Daughters along with other examples of henges with water may be ritually significant as a symbol of the passing from life to death.

Conclusion The exact function of henges is difficult to interpret, however there is significant evidence supporting their role as places of ritual as well as their cosmological associations.

Sources -Bong Wun. C. 2008. The Gods machines: From Stonehenge to Crop Circles.

Frog Books. Berkeley -Barrowclough. D.A. 2010. Prehistoric Cumbria. Stoud: History press -Hutchinson. G.E. 1972. Long Meg Reconsidered. JSTOR. -https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1007866

Figure 4- Cup and Ring marks on north western face of Long Meg. ©Google Images.

Early Christian wares and trade in the 4 and 5 centuries CE in South of France th

th

The case of Sigilatta derivatives at Las Cravieros potters’ workshop (Fanjeaux) Introduction

Bottom levels: mostly clay, with almost-intact ceramics

Rigoir (1987) defined the DSP as a fine ware produced in Southern France between the 4th and 6th centuries CE but its tradition takes root in the Gaulish Terra Sigilatta. Fabric is mostly grey or orange, often but not systematically with slip.

The repertory of forms includes plates, bowls, mortars and cups of various sizes.

●

Since 2017, sherds found during excavation are cleaned and recorded during the summer campaigns, while studies are undergone during the year by ceramists and students. Material is stored in Bram archaeological warehouse. In total, c. 20 000 sherds have been collected during the two first campaigns.

c. 150 punchmarks have been identified (Favennec 2018) and divided into geometrical categories (wheel cross, palmette, non-circular, hoop, small column).

One DSP (Fig. 1) also bears a unique figurative punchmark, representing a helmeted warrior.

Department of Archaeology

Intermediary levels: discarded ceramics, kiln fragments and soil unfit for production

1. Dérivées de Sigillées Paléo-chrétiennes (DSP)

2. DSP corpus of Fanjeaux The ceramic collection of Fanjeaux (Table 1) has been constituted in two times: ● Between the 1970’s and the early 2000, Sister Lamache, from the nearby convent, has collected c. 12 000 sherds as surface finds, but without any recording or archaeological expertise. The collection was discovered at her death and has been partially studied since by B. Favennec and M. Passelac (2014).

chloe.b.vandewalle@durham.ac.uk

Surface levels: mostly ceramic scrap

First defined in 1968 by J. Rigoir, the DSP is one of the last fine ware in Roman Gallia. Mostly diffused in southern France, this type is nowadays used to assess trade dynamism at the turn of Antiquity and Middle Age. However well-attested on sites, it usually lacks identification of the production centre, while a more precise chronology and a comprehensive catalogue are still needed. The study of Las Cravieros (near Fanjeaux, France) partly aims to fulfil these objectives.

Nowadays, the palaeochristian attribute is questioned as very few motifs are inspired by Christianity. Chronology itself is loose because sherds most-often appear in stratigraphic levels dated to between Antiquity and Middle Ages, often discarded by archaeologists because of high disturbance due to new foundation walls.

Chloé Vandewalle

Fig. 2: stratigraphic section of the clay pit FS122

3. Fanjeaux (Aude department, France) Map 1: Distribution of sites where DSP were recovered

The site of Las Cravieros/Fanjeaux is located in Southern France, nearby the Via Aquitania that linked Narbo Marius with Tolosa in Gallia Narbonensis region. The site is excavated since 2017 by B. Favennec.

Equivalent punchmark at Las CRAV.:

Equivalent punchmark at Las CRAV.:

Courtieu et al (1980), fig. 17, Reproduced in Favennec (2018) Equivalent punchmark at Las CRAV.:

Massal & Rigoir (1979), fig. 11, fig. 23 Rigoir (1991), pl. XI.II, reproduced in Favennec (2018)

Excavations have revealed a vast potter workshop, defined from the first year onwards as the most important workshop of the region. This assertion is sustained by : ● The number of conserved kilns (at least 12) and occupation area (750 km²) on site (Favennec 2019: 25, 83) ● The stamp decoration linked to this production, allowing to define area of distribution ● The area of diffusion of its production up to 130 km from the site, probably related to its geographical position nearby major antique routes (Map 1), when the mean diffusion of likewise workshop varied between 10 and 40 km. ● The preservation and stratigraphic study of the FS122 (Fig. 2), a ca.

1.35m deep clay pit turned into a dump for discarded ceramics and kiln architectural parts (Favennec 2019: 109-15). This dump allowed to refine relative chronology for on-site production to the end of the 4th century onwards (Favennec 2019: 125).

What is left to do?

Fig. 1: figurative punchmark on ceramic (left) and digitalized version (right)

On site, further excavation of FS122 will help to determine the most ancient levels of the pit, while precise data collection, ceramologist studies and anthracological analysis would in fine allow for a precise chronology of its production, both in form and decoration. Stamps studies in the FS122 may also allow for highlighting decorative trends. Eventually, the redaction of a comprehensive DSP corpus would help to better understand regional contexts and interregional links.

Credits: if not otherwise indicated, all pictures and graphs are curtsey of B. Favennec. The map was realized with QGIS based on DARMC data.

Selected bibliography: Favennec B., Passelac M. 2014: “L’atelier de Las Cravieros, Fanjeaux (Aude) SFEGAC, actes du congrès de Chartres: 503-36.

Favennec B. 2018: Las Cravieros (Fanjeaux). Rapport de Fouille Programmée 2018.

Favennec B. 2019: Las Cravieros (Fanjeaux). Rapport de Fouille Programmée Triennale 2019.

Rigoir Y., Rigoir J. 1987: “Des Dérivées-des-Sigillées Paléochrétiennes” Collection de l’Institut des Sciences et Techniques de l’Antiquité 331: 329-38.

Sold to the Highest Bidder:

Is the antiquities trade preventing the study of Tell el-Yahudiya?

By Daniel Elcoat | daniel.m.elcoat@durham.ac.uk | Department of Archaeology

1. Introduction The site of Tell el-Yahudiya in northern Egypt includes defences dated to c.1650-1550BC, and a palace of Ramesses III; a pharaoh who ruled Egypt between 1184 and 1153BC (Map [B]) (Petrie 1906, 1-9; Shaw 2000, 484-485).

The discovery of ancient tiles at the site (image [A]) contributed to its destruction during the 1900’s (Naville 1890, 5-6; Maspero 1914, 305). Consequently, several tiles have reached museums lacking information about their origins (e.g. MFAB 2021; MET 2021). While excavated over a century ago, similar examples continue to be sold, preventing guaranteed access to objects for study. This highlights an ongoing issue involving artefacts which fall outside international legal protection.

3. The Debate - Sell or Study?

Sell ▪ ▪ ▪

[A]: Rosette tile from Yahudiya.

Adapted courtesy of the Petrie Museum © 2019 UCL. CC BY-NC-SA license. (Petrie Museum 2019)

Study

If decontextualised, the damage is irreversible and the information such objects may hold would always be speculated.

Museums/Universities need to purchase such objects for teaching collections.

One excavator recovered over 3,600 tile disks from Yahudiya; keeping duplicates is impractical and unnecessary, even if legitimately excavated.

(Naville 1890, 6; Eisenberg 1995, 220; Bator 1982, 325; Lord, Lord & Nicks 1989 cited in O’Keefe 1997, 74; O’Keefe 1997, 8, 74; German 2012, 57)

▪ ▪ ▪

Private ownership restricts access and use of the past – restricting knowledge.

Some “duplicates” may still be unique, and collections should be maintained as research archives.

Objects can yield new information even after initial study; they should not be deaccessioned by museums for sale.

▪ ▪ ▪ ▪

5. Results & Graph

The quantity of rosettes passing through the art market has been inconsistent since 2000.

5 rosettes may have re-entered the market after initial sale, only to be resold.

Multiple examples sold as recently as 2020-2021 suggest that they continue to be treated as economic resources.

The large quantity sold in 2000-2001 alone suggests profound loss of material to private owners.

(Seigman 1996 in O’Keefe 1997, 70; O’Keefe 1997, 69-70, 73; Barker & Lazrus 2012, 2)

Tell el-Yahudiya

For data references see [E]. For rosette images [Adapted from Metropolitan Museum of Art 35.1.136 & Petrie Museum UC29551; 29640] see references and copyright under [C]

[B]: After, Petrie 1906, 1-9, pl.II; UCL 2002; Spalinger 2005, Map 1, XVIII and GeoHack.

2. Background Though Egyptian antiquities trading has a long history (summarised in Hagen & Ryholt 2016), Egypt has responded admirably in legally taking possession of its heritage and prosecuting heritage crimes (SCA 2010, 22, 32-34). The landmark 1970 UNESCO Convention also protects heritage from illicit trade (O’Keefe 1997, 22-23; 2007, X). However, because the convention cannot be retroactively applied beyond 1970, it does not cover the Yahudiya tiles, whether they were removed with or without permission, allowing for their sale (O’Keefe 2007, 9; Williams 2001 in Shelley 2018, 40).

Image created by author with pictures of Ramesside tiles [89.2.272; 89.2.279; 89.2.270] (Right) courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. (Public Domain). See [D] for references

This is just a taste of a complex debate. There are arguments for collecting by museums/universities which would allow access to the material. However, antiquities could be purchased by private collectors, in which case access could not be guaranteed.

4. Method & Data To judge the level of trade in Yahudiya material, original data was gathered from 6 organisations on the sale of 19/20th Dynasty rosette tiles which appear frequently at auction (see [A] and bottom left [C]). This is because when provenance is absent, they are typically attributed to Yahudiya (Webb 2017, 5). I chose to consider sales from the last 20 years as records for these were more accessible. The results of my original data collection are reflected in the following graph (See Section 5).

[C]: Corner rosettes adapted by author from [UC29551; 29564; 29640; 29641] courtesy of the Petrie Museum [© 2019 UCL. CC BY-NC-SA license] and from [35.1.133; 35.1.136] The Metropolitan Museum of Art (Public Domain) . See [C] for full references.

Image/Graph Data References: [A]: Image/Info adapted from [Petrie Museum] Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, 2019, ‘Rosettes (sculpture) – UC29551’, University College London (Museums & Collections – Petrie Museum Catalogue), Available at https://petriecat.museums.ucl.ac.uk/detail.aspx?parentpriref=#, (Accessed: 25 January 2021) - © 2019 UCL. CC BY-NC-SA license.

[C]

| [B]: Adapted from Petrie, W. M. F. 1906, Hyksos and Israelite cities, British School of Archaeology in Egypt, University College (London) & Bernard Quaritch (Piccadilly); Spalinger, A. J. 2005, War in ancient Egypt: The New Kingdom, Blackwell Pub., Malden (MA); With additional information from UCL 2002, ‘Tell el Yahudiyeh, city in the Eastern Delta’, (UCL) Digital Egypt for Universities, Available at: https://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/digitalegypt/tellelyahudiyeh/index.html (Accessed: 14 January 2021); GeoHack, (No Date Specified), ‘GeoHack – Leontopolis (Heliopolis)’, GeoHack, Available at URL: https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Leontopolis_(Heliopolis)&params=30_17_41_N_31_20_8_E_type:landmark, (Accessed: 12 January 2021). | [C]: Adapted by author from [Petrie Museum] Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, 2019, ‘Rosettes (sculpture) – UC29551’, University College London (Museums & Collections – Petrie Museum Catalogue), Available at https://petriecat.museums.ucl.ac.uk/detail.aspx?parentpriref=#, (Accessed: 25 January 2021) | [Petrie Museum] Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, 2019, ‘Rosettes (sculpture) – UC29564’, University College London (Museums & Collections – Petrie Museum Catalogue), Available at: https://petriecat.museums.ucl.ac.uk/detail.aspx, Accessed (12/01/2021) | [Petrie Museum] Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, 2019, ‘UC29640’, University College London (Museums & Collections – Petrie Museum Catalogue), Available at: https://petriecat.museums.ucl.ac.uk/detail.aspx?parentpriref=, Accessed (12/01/2021) | [Petrie Museum] Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, 2019, ‘UC29641’, University College London (Museums & Collections – Petrie Museum Catalogue), Available at: https://petriecat.museums.ucl.ac.uk/detail.aspx, Accessed (12/01/2021) – All © 2019 UCL CC BY-NC-SA license | Also adapted from the Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2021, ‘tiles and ornaments from the palace of Ramesses II’, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Available at URL: https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/550859, Accessed (12/01/2021); Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2021, ‘tiles and ornaments from the palace of Ramesses II’, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Available at URL: https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/560163, Accessed (12/01/2021). | [D]: By author, with images of three 19th/20th Dynasty tiles (Right) from - Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2021, ‘faience inlay, (89.2.272)’, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Available at URL: https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/558446?searchField=All&sortBy=Relevance&ft=Inlay+Ramesses&offset=0&rpp=20&pos=7, Accessed (12/01/2021) | Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2021, ‘faience inlay, (89.2.279)’, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Available at URL: https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/558450?searchField=All&sortBy=Relevance&ft=Inlay+Ramesses&offset=0&rpp=20&pos=2, Accessed (12/01/2021). | Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2021, ‘faience inlay, (89.2.270)’, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Available at URL: https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/549298?searchField=All&sortBy=Relevance&ft=Inlay+Ramesses&offset=0&rpp=20&pos=1, Accessed (12/01/2021). | [E]: Graph data based on 1STDIBS, 2021, ‘Ancient Egyptian faience daisy flower rosettes, 1550 BC’, 1STDIBS, available at URL: 1stdibs.co.uk/furniture/folk-art/antiquities/ancient-egyptian-faience-daisy-flowerrosettes-1550-bc/id-f_6122743/, (Accessed: 2 January 2021) | ArtAncient, 2020, ‘Egyptian faience rosettes, New Kingdom – 1550BC’, ArtAncient, available at URL: www.artancient.com/egyptian-new-kingdom-faience-rosettes-1550-bc-31003.html#, (Accessed: 23 November 2020) | Bonhams, 2008, ‘An Egyptian dark blue glazed composition pectoral plate, an Egyptian glazed composition double kohl vessel, an Egyptian white glazed composition rosette, an Egyptian bright blue glazed composition fragment, two Egyptian udjat eye amulets, an Egyptian eye inlay’, Bonhams, available at URL: bonhams.com/auctions/15940/lot/438, (Accessed: 2 January 2021) | Bonhams, 2008, ‘Two Egyptian glazed composition rosette inlays’, Bonhams, available at URL: bonhams.com/auctions/15941/lot/32, (Accessed: 2 January 2021) | Bonhams, 2008, ‘Two Egyptian glazed composition rosette inlays’, Bonhams, available at URL: bonhams.com/auctions/15940/lot/69, (Accessed: 2 January 2021) | Bonhams, 2010, ‘A group of Egyptian amulets’, Bonhams, available at URL: bonhams.com/auctions/17822/lot/23, (Accessed: 2 January 2021) | Bonhams, 2011, ‘An Egyptian glazed composition rosette inlay’, Bonhams, available at URL: https://www.bonhams.com/auctions/18947/lot/48/, (Accessed: 23 November 2020) | Bonhams, 2013, ‘An Egyptian glazed composition rosette inlay: Sold for £ 600 inc. premium’, Bonhams, available at URL: https://www.bonhams.com/auctions/20667/lot/311/, (Accessed: 23 November 2020) | Christie’s, 2000, ‘A New Kingdom faience rosette’, Christie’s, available at URL: https://www.christies.com/lot/lot-anew-kingdom-faience-rosette-dynasty-xx-1818359/, (Accessed: 2 January 2021) | Christie’s, 2001, ‘Eleven Egyptian faience rosette inlays’, Christie’s, available at URL: https://www.christies.com/lotfinder/lot/eleven-faience-rosette-inlays-new-kingdom-2063380-details.aspx, (Accessed: 23 November 2020) | Christie’s, 2001, ‘Seven Egyptian cream and grey ‘faience’ marguerite roundels’, Christie’s, available at URL: https://www.christies.com/lotfinder/lot/seven-egyptian-cream-and-grey-faience-marguerite-3806943-details.aspx, (Accessed: 23 November 2020) | Christie’s, 2018, ‘Five Egyptian faience rosette inlays’, Christie’s, available at URL: https://www.christies.com/lotfinder/ancient-art-antiquities/five-egyptian-faience-rosette-inlays-new-kingdom-6178720-details.aspx, (Accessed: 23 November 2020) | Lyon & Turnbull, 2020, ‘Ancient Egyptian rosette’, Lyon & Turnbull, available at URL: lyonandturnbull.com/auction/lot/71-ancient-egyptian-rosette/?lot=226701&so=4&st=ancient%20Egyptian%20rosette&sto=0&au=&ef=&et=&ic=False&sd=1&pp=24&pn=1&g=1, (Accessed: 2 January 2021) | Pierre Berge & Associés, 2008, ‘Elément d’incrustation discoidal à motif floral’, Pierre Berge & Associés, available at URL: https://www.pba-auctions.com/lot/1401/422647?refurl=El%C3%A9ment+d%27incrustation+disco%C3%AFdal+%C3%A0+motif+floral.+Terre+siliceuse+%C3%A0+gla%C3%A7ure+blanche%2C+jaune+et+bleut%C3%A9e, (Accessed: 14 January 2021) | Pierre Berge & Associés, 2009, ‘Lot compose d’une grande rosette d’incrustation caractéristique des palais de Ramses III’, Pierre Berge & Associés, available at URL: https://www.pba-auctions.com/lot/4963/1204974?refurl=Lot+compos%C3%A9+d%27une+grande+rosette+d%27incrustation+caract%C3%A9ristique+des+palais+de+Ramses+III%2C+d%27un+pion+, (Accessed: 14 January 2021) | Pierre Berge & Associés, 2015, ‘Quatre rosettes ornementale du palais de Ramsès III’, Pierre Berge & Associés, available at URL: https://www.pbaauctions.com/lot/21852/5018664?refurl=QUATRE+ROSETTES+ORNEMENTALES+DU+PALAIS+DE+RAMS%C3%88S+III.+Lot+compos%C3%A9+de+quatre+%C3%A9l%C3%A9ments+d%27incrustation+, (Accessed: 23 November 2020) | Pierre Berge & Associés, 2015, ‘Rosette ornementale du palais de Ramsès III’, Pierre Berge & Associés, available at URL: https://www.pbaauctions.com/lot/24384/5476216?refurl=ROSETTE+ORNEMENTALE+DU+PALAIS+DE+RAMS%C3%88S+III.%3Cbr%2F%3E%C3%89l%C3%A9ment+d%27incrustation+repr%C3%A9sentant+une+rosette+%C3%A0+h, (Accessed: 23 November 2020).

6. Conclusion Yahudiya’s antiquities continue to be sold, which is problematic because: ▪ It can prevent researchers and the public from accessing this heritage for study.

▪ It divides up the remains of an archaeological site.

The diminishing accessible record is forced to represent the site, with no guarantee that auctioned material would support this conclusion. However, the debate remains difficult to resolve (Merryman 1995, 14), meaning knowledge will continue to be threatened in this way. A possible compromise going forward is to encourage auction houses to create more detailed records of objects for public access, giving people the closest possible substitute for direct access to objects, while not infringing on the privacy of collectors.

References: Barker, A. W. & Lazrus, P. K., 2012, 'All the king's horses: An introduction', in Lazrus, P. K. & Barker, A. W. (eds.), All the king's horses: Essays

on the impact of looting and the illicit antiquities trade on our knowledge of the past, The Society for American Archaeology, Washington D.C., pp.1-8 | Bator, P.M., 1982, 'An essay on the international trade in art', Stanford Law Review, vol.34, issue 2, pp.275–384. | Eisenberg, J. M., 1995, 'ethics and the antiquity trade', in Tubb, K. W. (ed.), antiquities trade or betrayed: Legal, ethical & conservation issues, Archetype Publications Ltd., London, pp.215-221 | German, S. C., 2012, 'Unprovenanced artifacts and the invention of Minoan and Mycenaean religion', in Lazrus, P. K. & Barker, A. W. (eds.), All the king's horses: Essays on the impact of looting and the illicit antiquities trade on our knowledge of the past, The Society for American Archaeology, Washington D.C., pp.55-69 | Hagen, F. & Ryholt, K. S. B., 2016, The antiquities trade in Egypt 1880-1930 : the H.O. Lange papers, Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Copenhagen, Denmark. | Maspero, G, 1914, manual of Egyptian archaeology: Guide to the study of antiquities in Egypt: For the use of students and travellers, 6th English Edition, G. P. Putnam’s Sons (New York), H. Grevel and Co. (London). | Merryman, J. H., 1995, 'a licit international trade in cultural objects', International Journal of Cultural Property, Vol. 4, Issue 1, pp.13-60, available at URL: https://www-cambridge-org.ezphost.dur.ac.uk/core/journals/international-journal-of-culturalproperty/article/licit-international-trade-in-cultural-objects/66F2DFFBBAEACACD3880E3B3FBA7460E, Accessed (11/01/2021) | [MET] Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2021, inlay, rosette, Available at: https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/568062, Accessed (07/01/2021). | [MFAB] Museum of Fine Arts Boston, 2021, rosette inlay, Available at: https://collections.mfa.org/objects/164994/rosette-inlay?ctx=e5d1b93e-f767-4b6d-a595-fe63a11089b5&idx=0, Accessed (07/01/2021). | Naville, E., 1890, the mound of the Jew and the city of Onias: Belbeis, Samanood, Abusir, Turk El Karmus, The Egypt Exploration Society, London. | O'Keefe, P.J., 1997, Trade in antiquities: Reducing destruction and theft, UNESCO Publishing/Archetype Publications, Paris/London | O'Keefe, P.J., 2007, Commentary on the 1970 UNESCO convention, 2nd edition, The Institute of Art and Law, Powys, England. | Petrie, W. M. F. 1906, Hyksos and Israelite cities, British School of Archaeology in Egypt, University College (London) & Bernard Quaritch (Piccadilly) | (SCA) Supreme Council of Antiquities, 2010, Law No.117 of 1983 as amended by Law No.3 of 2010 Promulgating the Antiquities’ Protection Law, Supreme Council of Antiquities, Cairo, Available at URL: http://www.antiquities.gov.eg/DefaultEn/Documents/LAW/LAW%20ENGLISH6.pdf, Accessed (11/01/2021). | Shaw, I., 2000, The Oxford history of ancient Egypt, Oxford University Press, Oxford | Shelley, L. I., 2018, Dark commerce: How a new illicit economy is threatening our future, Princeton University Press, Princeton (NJ) | Webb, V., 2017, ‘three faience rosette discs in the Museo Egizio in Turin: The Early Ramesside pharaohs in the Eastern Delta, and their glittering palaces’, Revista del Museo Egizio 1, DOI: 10.29353/rime.2017.1208, Accessed (07/01/2020).

Harewood House:

Fionnuala Marron Long Department of Archaeology srkj49@durham.ac.uk

Investigating the narratives explored and underexplored Introduction

Methods and materials

Historic houses are a pivotal heritage institution in the UK, however as Smith (2006, 2) maintains, they can be exclusionary. This is a debate which has underpinned scholarship and an underlying question remains whether this viewpoint connects with the histories explored by heritage organisations and engaged with by visitors?

Why Harewood House?

Harewood House described as one of the ‘Treasure Houses’ (Beesley and Gibbons 1989) is an 18th century country house and one of the most popularly visited historic houses in England.

It is often noted for being designed by leading architects John Carr and Robert Adam (Figure 1). Conversely, it was built for the affluent slave owner and MP Edwin Lascelles (1713-1795) whose family still own the property.

This raises issues as it arguably perpetrates ideas of classism and imperialism.

Figure 2:Harewood House and gardens .

Analysis(continued)

Aim: to investigate how the public engage with the narratives at Harewood House.

In order to asses this; firstly this project requires a literature review assessing the approaches taken in the historic house discourse, focusing on this case study. For instance from Gore and Gore (1991,176) discussing Harewood’s furniture to Smith (2006) discussing heritage.. This will enable us to place the house into its wider context and understand the narratives explored in literature and heritage.

A final method will be to utilise social media analysis through visitor reviews and comments from TripAdvisor. This will entail looking at quantitative analysis to determine patterns regarding specific key words and how that relates to the aims of this project.

Analysis TripAdvisor comments 0% 1% 7%

servants

2% 14%

maids slavery Robert Adams Garden state rooms

76%

Figure 1:Robert Adam portrait.

Figure 3:Pie chart showing percentage of comments relating to ‘key words’.

In terms of analysing social media responses, key terms taken from the literature and Harewood House Trust have been employed, as shown in figure A significant result is that ‘Edwin Lascelles’ received no comments (thus was not included) and that ‘slavery’ was only mentioned in 7% of comments spanning 12 years. In comparison, 76% mentioned gardens, indicating that this is the feature people feel most strongly engaged by.

Conclusions and ideas for the future The purpose of this study should facilitate a more in depth understanding of the narratives explored in the literature and heritage at Harewood House. By analysing this and employing online visitor responses it aims to understand which narratives the public are engaging with and where there are gaps in engagement. Figure 3 suggests a lack of engagement with Harewood’s link to the trans-Atlantic slave trade and a focus on the architect Robert and Adam and gardens. In contrary to this, there is an abundance of literature emphasising how the Lascelles’s family have profited from slavery and there long involvement with the slave trade (Smith 2006, 89).

Going forward it appears there needs to be a more integrated approach to avoid discrepancies between the literature, heritage body and public.

It should be noted that these comments come from prior to December 2020 and in August 2020 the Harewood House Trust provided a digital guide discussing Edwin Lascelles in the building of Harewood House, therefore perhaps this is a feature that they will further explore when the house opens again.

References :Beesley, E and Gibbons, G (1989) The Treasure Houses of England: A view of eight great country houses. London: Viking., Gore, A and Gore, G (1991) The History of English Interiors. London: Phaidon Press, Smith, L (2006) Uses of heritage. London: Tayor and Francie List of Figures: Figure1:https://artuk.org/discover/artworks/robert-adam-107672, Figure 2https://harewood.org/visit/groups/, Figure 3-Pie chart- information fromhttps://www.tripadvisor.co.uk/Attraction_Review-g186411-d211811-ReviewsHarewood_House-Leeds_West_Yorkshire_England.html

Staring death in the face

Jen Scott, MA Archaeology jennifer.scott@durham.ac.uk

Creating an object biography for an undated memento mori Introduction “Not much is known about this model, but it is thought that it is a memento mori.” - Wellcome Collection, n.d.

The museum description for this palm-sized ivory sculpture (fig. 1) tells us it’s French, but the object is undated and its meaning uncertain. Memento mori, meaning ‘remember [that you are] to die’, was a classical theme popular in late medieval and early modern northern European art. Warning of the immediacy of death, memento mori provoked humility to encourage a sin free life before Judgement Day. Can this object be dated? What meaning did it have for the owner? Is this even a memento mori?

Decoding the object

Fig. 1: Three views of an ivory memento mori. French, no date.

5cm

The inscription

Translated from vernacular French, the inscription reads TODAY OR TOMORROW | SO WE SHALL BE. It provokes the viewer to consider the inevitability of their own death and the decay of their bodily vanity.

Either side can be read first: the message is cyclical and meditative.

Iconography: the double face of death

Memento mori objects often depict a corpse alongside a living person to emphasise the futility of vanity. This object has two faces of death: a skull and a shrouded corpse. The artist may have wanted to stress the process of decomposition instead, or they simply wanted a more shocking design.

Iconography: frogs, lizards, worms and snakes

These creatures represent physical decay; they were thought to be made inside the body due to a corrupt imbalance in fluids. The vermin are also a late medieval symbol for sin and evil. Here, sin emerges from the nose, ears and eyes as a visceral reminder that sin is festering in the body.

Artisan identified?

Stylistic and iconographic clusters can identify the creators of ivory memento mori (Perkinson, 2017). Similar models (fig. 2), featuring the cluster decoded on the left, have been attributed to Parisian artisan Chicart Bailly who died in 1533 (Perkinson, 2017). His workshop stockroom, known as the ‘room of ivory teeth’, contained over 2 tonnes of unworked ivory!

Fig. 2: Ivory sculpture attributed to Chicart Bailly.

Contemporary design influences

Transi tombs

Rosary beads

Object biography

Literature

Transi tombs of the 14th–17th centuries depicted the corpse of the deceased (Cohen, 1973). In the above example, frogs crawl on the deceased’s face, and worms or snakes emerge from the arms.

Macabre rosary beads put meditations about mortality into the context of personal devotion. Some show wear caused by rubbing (Perkinson, 2017); these were not meant for static display.

Bestselling moralistic books, like The Art of Dying Well (c.

1400), popularised thoughts about the soul’s fate (Binski, 1996). Book illustrations often inspired ivory model designs (Perkinson, 2017).

Fig. 3: Transi tomb of Francois de la Sarra. Switzerland, c. 1490.

Fig. 4: Bifurcated skull from a rosary bead. Germany, c. 1520–1525.

Fig. 5: Illustration from a Carthusian miscellany. England, c. 1460–1500.

Conclusion Based on the stylistic cluster that identified Chicart Bailly as the creator, the object can be dated to c. 1500–1533. The object may, however, be a copy made in his style after his death. Comparative analysis needs to be undertaken with other museum examples, but Parisian ivory carving during this period has so far received little attention from scholars (Perkinson, 2017). Judging by the object’s symbolism and its contemporary influences, it is a memento mori. Yet the biography helps show the object in a more impious and fashionable context. The early 1500s were a period of religious and social change in Europe at the start of the Renaissance and Reformation. The tensions at this time between modernity, fear of death, and traditional religious ideals are all encapsulated in this object.

The object was born from the death of an elephant; this ‘ivory tooth’ was then traded as a commodity from North Africa to a Parisian workshop, likely over a route established by Portuguese explorers (Chaiklin, 2010). A skilled artisan shaped the raw material into an image of death. Profit and artistic endeavour drove its creation, not humility. The object was meant for display, first in a shop and then, once sold, it lived in a cabinet with other curiosities. As a luxury item, the object’s performance of mortal humility is ironic. The owner may have felt humbled, but the object could also have been used to prompt intellectual debates with house guests or show off cultural sophistication.

Now living in a museum drawer, the ivory is undergoing literal decay, whilst its image provides new meaning for audiences on the internet.

Sources: Binski, P. (1996) Medieval Death: Ritual and Representation. Cornell University Press.

Chaiklin, M. (2010) ‘Ivory in World History – Early Modern Trade in Context’, History Compass, 8, pp. 530–542.

Cohen, K. (1973) Metamorphosis of a Death Symbol. University of California Press.

Gosden, C. and Marshall, Y. (1999) ‘The Cultural Biography of Objects’, World Archaeology, 31(2), pp. 169–178.

Perkinson, S. (2017) The Ivory Mirror: The Art of Mortality in Renaissance Europe. Bowdoin College Museum of Art. Wellcome Collection (no date) Ivory model of a skull and a human head, France, undated, Wellcome Collection.

Available at: https://wellcomecollection.org/works/srjbbf7y (Accessed: 8 January 2021).

Image credits: Fig. 1: Wellcome Collection. Approximate scale added by author.

Fig. 2: Art Gallery of Ontario.

Fig. 3: Cohen, K. (1973) – see sources.

Fig. 4: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Fig. 5: The British Library.

The Ilam Pan – Evidence of Roman Military Ritual?

Department of Archaeology Lower Mount Joy, South Rd, Durham, DH1 3LE

Kyle A. Murray – Department of Archaeology, Durham University – K.A.Murray@durham.ac.uk 1. Introduction

3. Considering Water and Ritual

5. A Ritual Context? – A Critical Discussion

The Ilam pan, otherwise know as the Staffordshire Moorlands pan is a trullae (a shallow dish) found in the parish town of Ilam, England in 2003.

The artefact rose to national importance due to the votive Celtic design, but also naming several forts along the western side of Hadrian’s Wall. It perhaps gives the contemporary name the Romans used for the wall, RIGORE VALI AELI DRACONIS. This most likely refers to VALI (Vallum) and Draco, the soldiers name. However the AELI could refer to either his name, or Hadrian’s family name, which combined with VALI would indicate the “Aelian Wall” otherwise known as “Hadrian’s Wall” (Holder, 2012). However, in recent years the debate around its function has been static and lacking in real depth, considering the level of importance this object presents.

Rivers and Spirits In the Roman World

A Comparative Approach:

- Hadrian’s Wall itself has been discussed in a ritual context, supplanting key locals such as fords, commune places between the physical and spiritual at these natural places of power. (Symonds, 2020) - Rivers and water are sacred in the Roman world, key with spirits, healing and the cleansing.

- Water sanctuaries are known throughout the Roman Empire, such as Bath, but also sites on Hadrian’s Wall, such as Coventina’s Well being focal points for their commune with water. (Cousins, 2014)

It is critical to understand the Ilam Pan in the context of its wider material culture: - Ilam Pan: Found in a marsh context overlooking the River Manifold (Figure 2) with a dozen brooches in a linear arrangement, orientated in the same direction. (Jackson, 2012) - Rudge Cup: Found in a structured deposit near the River Kennet, with animal bone, ceramic and metal vessels, indicative of a ritual burial.

- Amiens Patera: Found buried with a Dea Nutrix (Romanised Gallic god of fertility) (Cousins, 2020) It is clear to see a ritual function associated with the trullae, and it is no different for the Ilam Pan. Similar pans are used at the sanctuary site at Bath used to cleanse and relinquish ones self, suggesting that this could be the ritualistic ending of a military career, with the relinquishment of the vessel as a symbolic measure (Ibid, 2020). With Hadrian’s Wall and its role in the break between the physical and spiritual, perhaps the Ilam pan is an everyday ritual object for the soldier through their career, and when it concludes, then it is symbolically returned to the context it was created for.

Figure 1. (Left) The Ilam pan as currently seen in the British Museum. Note the visible lettering COGGABATA and MAIS, linking to Bowness – on – Solway and Drumburgh forts.

Figure 2 (Left).

Location of all Trulla with reference and design towards Hadrian’s Wall. Note their location in regards to rivers.

2. Current Theory & Debate Souvenir : -

-

-

Souvenir is the current thinking by modern scholarship, with published work in 2012 from multiple specialists. (Breeze & Kϋnzl, 2012) Due to the spread of comparable examples throughout England, France and Spain (listed in Figure 2), it is thought that these were tokens used by soldiers as memorabilia from Hadrian’s Wall.

Potential secondary uses such as wine drinking. However the current debate is around its manufactory, was it a Roman or native product, and where it was created. (Jackson, 2012: 108)

Potential Issue?

It was stated in Breezes work that “They may have had no other function” and has limited the investigation to that of solely a souvenir item.

However as will be shown, when compared to a wider context we are potentially missing key elements of this artefact. (Breeze & Kϋnzl, 2012)

Figure 3 (left). Pan from the Sanctuary Site at Bath.

Dedication on the handle to a possible owner, and emotive Celtic art, much like the Ilam Pan

6. Conclusion

4. Expanding The Framework?

While evidence for such pans is limited, the Ilam pan is the best preserved, and is rightful of such significance.

However, confining it to one theory because of limited evidence and modern day conceptions does not do it justice. We must apply it to contemporary practises, such as rituals and symbolism and compare it with the limited examples we have to expand the narrative. This could evolve into a wider social narrative of military life on the Wall.

Therefore, the Ilam Pan and its counterparts cannot be simply confined as souvenir items, and can provide a duel function. Therefore it is possible that the Ilam pan gives us one of the best examples of military ritual ware on Hadrian’s Wall, while broadening our knowledge of the value attributed to water and rivers, and how that translates into a personal object.

All images not created by the author of this poster have been properly acknowledged, credited and implemented in line with copyright law.

Figures: Fig 1: British Museum (2005) The Staffordshire Moorlands Pan. Available at: https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/H_2005-1204-1. Accessed 20/01/2021 Fig 2: Self made map, with thanks to Stepmap.com for providing access to the software. Fig 3: Cousins, 2020: 106 Bibliography: Breeze, D., Kϋnzl, E. (2012) The First Souvenirs: Enamelled Vessels from Hadrian’s Wall. Kendal: Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society.

Cousins, E. H. (2020) The Sanctuary at Bath in the Roman Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Holder, P. (2012) The Inscriptions on the Vessel. In D. Breeze & E. Kϋnzl (eds) The First Souvenirs: Enamelled Vessels from Hadrian’s Wall. 37 Kendal: Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society Jackson, R. (2012) The Ilam Pan. In D. Breeze & E. Kϋnzl (eds) The First Souvenirs: Enamelled Vessels from Hadrian’s Wall. 37 Kendal: Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society Symonds, M.F.A (2020) Hadrian’s Wall: Creating Division. London: Bloomsbury Publishing.

The Opet Festival: its significance in New Kingdom societies Yin Man Chan (Melody) | Durham University | yin.m.chan@durham.ac.uk 1. Background context

4. Highlight of the festival

In the New Kingdom (18-20th Dynasties; 1550 to 1069 BC), many festivals were celebrated in Thebes (present-day Luxor). The Opet Festival was one of the most paramount festivals. The earliest evidence could be traced back to the reign of Hatshepsut (Figure 1), one of the female rulers in Pharaonic Egypt.

People would receive free staples of an ancient diet - bread and beer. The festival was also celebrated at Medinet Habu.

Temple officials had distributed 11341 loaves of bread and 385 jars of beer to people involved in the festival.

WEST BANK OF THE NILE FOR THE DEAD

Archaeological study of ancient Egyptian festivals mainly relies on textual and pictorial evidence from ritual manuscripts, monumental inscriptions and depictions. This poster aims to shed some insights of the festival.

Map 1: The map of Thebes. It shows the processional routes during the Festivals of Opet, and the Valley (Kemp 2007, 266). The orange arrows indicate the regular procession routes. Some annotations are added in orange and blue.

2. Aims of the festival This seasonal festival was closely linked to the agricultural cycle. It intended to secure annual summer inundation. The maintenance of food surplus was important to agrarian societies. It also emphasised the renewal of the royal ka (spirit) in order to restore kingship at Luxor Temple.

THE NILE RIVER

Figure 1: The scene of boat procession during the reign of Hatshepsut, depicted in the Red Chapel at the Karnak Complex (Darnell 2010, 2).

EAST BANK OF THE NILE FOR THE LIVING

MAP 1

5. Changes of the festival ➀ Length of time The festival initially lasted 11 days in the mid-18th Dynasty, but had extended to 27 days by the end of the reign of Ramesses III.

3. Religious connotation – Festival of Life and living

FIGURE 1

Thebes was a sacred city with religious values. The area is heavily endowed with temples. It was celebrated on the east bank of the Nile River, where people lived. Great festivals were the times that allowed average Egyptians to gain a closer access of divinity.

Festival of Valley was associated with death and the afterlife. The Festivals of Opet and Valley may represent two sides of the universe.

Key activities happened during the Opet Festival were  Oracular session - ask the gods for favours and receive a yes or no answer  Reward ceremony in the presence of Amun  Appointment of the priest and official under the consent of Amun  Processions of the fattened bulls - suggest the distribution of meat

Figure 2: The solar barque is usually carried by priests with the accompaniment of officials (1), and (2) priests; (3) chief priests; (4) Ipiy, a sculptor from Deir el-Medina; (5) the vizier Paser; (6) the scribe of Deir elMedina, Amenempiet (Kemp 2007, 249).

Figure 2: The sacred barques of Amun was the focus of religious processions in the New Kingdom.

This scene is depicted at the mortuary temple of Seti I at West Thebes during the Opet Festival (Kemp 2007, 249).

➁ Approach of processions (Map 1) The barque processions from Karnak to Luxor were the focus of the festival. The barque of Amun first travelled by land, then returned by water. The Nile River became the medium of transport by the late 18th Dynasty. Priests brought the barque back to the inner sanctuary of Karnak with the entourage of singers, musicians, and acrobats.

6. Conclusion No explicit evidence of pre-18th Dynasty origin. The processional route remains uncertain. Festival had connected the landscape, and brought the totality of cosmos eventually. The celebration continued into the Roman period. Further study and survey are required.

FIGURE 2 References Accetta, K. 2013. Access to the divine in New Kingdom Egypt: Royal and Public Participation in the Opet Festival. In C. Graves, G. Heffernan, L. McGarrity, E. Millward and M. S. Bealby (eds.), Current Research in Egyptology 2012: Proceedings of the Thirteenth Annual Symposium, Oxford: Oxbow Books: 1-21.

Assmann, J. 2001. The search for God in Ancient Egypt. New York: Cornell University. Černý, J. 1962. Egyptian Oracles. In R.Parker (ed.). A Saite oracle papyrus from Thebes in the Brooklyn Museum: Papyrus Brooklyn 47.218.3. Providence: Brown University Press, 35-48.

Darnell, J, C. Opet Festival. In J. Dieleman, W. Wendrich (eds.), UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology. Los Angeles.

Digital Egypt website, https://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/digitalegypt/Welcome.html. [accessed on 22 January 2021] Fukaya, M. 2019. The Festivals of Opet, the Valley and the New Year: Their Socio-Religious Functions. Archaeopress.

Lacau, P. and Chevrier, H. 1977. Une chapelle d'Hatshepsout à Karnak. 2 volumes (1977 - 1979). Cairo: Institut français d'archéologie orientale du Caire.

Kemp, B. J. 2007. Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization. London and New York: Routledge.

Acknowledgements I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Penelope (Penny) Wilson for providing remarkable insights of the subject.

REVISITING ARCHAEOLOGY OF INTEREST: UNDERSTANDING PALAEOLITHIC ARCHAEOLOGY, LESOTHO. Nthabeleng. M. Rantso, MA Archaeology: Department of Archaeology, Durham University Email: nthabeleng.m.rants’o@durham.ac.uk

INTRODUCTION

l

l

l

l

l

Lesotho is a mountainous country with a large number of caves and rock shelters that were inhabited by hunter-gatherers, therefore making these landmarks places of interest for Palaeolithic Archaeology reseach (Carter and Vogel ,1974).

Tool producing hominins have inhabited Lesotho and South Africa for at least 2 million years and major Stone Age technologies in Southern Africa are described through the model of Early Stone Age (ESA), Middle Stone Age (MSA) and Later Stone Age (LSA) (Lombard et al. 2012).

Hunter gatherer are also found to settle in open air sites usually nearby water sources. However, to understand hunter gatherers’ mobility patterns and technology adavancements, Palaeolithic Archaeology reconnstructions have to concentrate on both open air sites and closed shleters. This will provide a clearer lifeways of Stine Age people.

In most cases caves preserve archaeological material well (Karkanas and Goldberg 2019) thus Lesotho palaeolithic research is mostly centered on caves and rock shelters and little attention is directed to open air sites due to low preservation as a result of harsh depositional and postdepositional processes.

Open air sites should merit the same attention as rock-shelters and cave sites because these locations have been occupied by huntergatherers. The differences in locations have the potential to provide a wealth of information regarding their subsistance activities and cognitive behaviours.

DISCUSSION

Fig 2: Picture of hunter-geatherers engravings in an open air space, Kimberely, not far from Lesotho (Wildebeest anf Kuil Rock Art Center..

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

• Why do Palaeolithic open air sites get less attention than caves settings when hunting and gathering is done in open air spaces?

• Will reconstructing of open air sites povide a better understanding of the hunter gatherer commmunities during the Paleolithic Lesotho?

• To what degree can river systems help us reconstruct and understand hunter gatherers socio-economic life?

Figure 3: Melikane Rockshelter oerlooking Melikane river (Steward et al 2016) METHODOLOGY

Fig 1: Map of Lesotho showing Palaeolithic sites across the Caledon River (Mitchell and Arthur 2012)

l Research for this study will be conducted on five open air sites from different geographical regions especially river systems in the proximity of cave shelters that have been previously researched. l Trace and record GPS coordinates of rock-art and rock engravings encountered at these river sites. l Surface collection of stone tools and pot sherds will be done at river sites including river valleys. l The study seeks to understand the geochronology of the fluvial deposit through palaeomagnetism and OSL dating. l Stone tools will be classified into their assemblage sequence such as ESA, LSA and MSA and sites will be dated.

Hunter gatherers’ are known as nomadic humans whose lifestyle depended on foraging and hunting. They occupied caves for shelter while other daily activities such as hunting were performed in open air spaces. The hunter gatherers in Lesohto produced stone tools from special raw materials such as quartz, opalines, dyke and hornfels. Due to their sites’ close proximity to river channels, chances of them collecting the raw materials from river gravels, hafting and knapping close to resources is high. It is also important to understand if these stone tool producing people did not have gendered spaces (domestic and public) to broaden our knowledge of open air sites and help us answer questions we inquire for a longer view.

Figure 4: In blue circle is the picture of Sehonghong rock shelter in proximity to Sehonghong river (Wright and Prada-Sampler 2020) CONCLUSION

The purpose of this study is to shift research to open air sites to balance the chronological bias of the Palaeolithic Archaeology of Lesotho. Understanding hunter-gatherers socio-economic life in open air sites will open avenues for future research to analyse the development of palaeolithic archaeology in Lesotho and comparing it to what is known about hunter gatherers way of life in Southern Africa and across the globe .

REFERENCES Carter P. L. and Vogel J. C. 1974. The Dating of Industrial Assemblages from Stratified Sites in Eastern Lesotho. Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland: Man 4:557-570.

Karkanas.P and Goldberg. P. 2019. Reconstructing Archaeological Sites : Understanding the Geoarchaeological Matrix. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated.

Lombard M., Wadley L., Deacon J., Wurz S., Parsons I., Mohapi M ., Swart J and Mitchell P. 2012. South African and Lesotho Stone Age Sequence Updated. The South African Archaeological Bulletin: South African Archaeological Society 195: 123-144 Tooth. S. Changes in fluvial systems during Quaternary.

Atlantic Promontory Forts: an Iron Age Cultural Zone?

Oscar Beighton | Durham University | oscar.j.beighton@durham.ac.uk 1. Introduction:

5. Conclusions:

3. Results:

Iron Age promontory forts are found along much of the Atlantic coast of Europe and the British Isles.

Dwelling, Castel-Meur (du Chatellier 1890 fig.2)

Hut foundation, Treen Dinas (Gordon 1940 fig. 4)

An archaeological approach is thus needed to examine whether they represent an “Atlantic cultural zone”.

2. Methodology: Variable data quality limits archaeological approaches. However, three sites in different regions have sufficient data to compare topography, site morphology, and architecture.

Castel-Meur and Treen Dinas were excavated in 1889 and 1939 respectively, with limited publication.

Porth y Rhaw was excavated from 1995-1998 and is well-published.

Topography Morphology Architecture (defensive)

Caesar’s Commentaries on the Gallic War mentions people sailing from Brittany to Britain and is the main basis of this theory. Archaeological comparisons, however, are uncommon, and rarely in depth.

Internal area

Porth y Rhaw Treen Dinas 0.25 acres (severely eroded - 6 acres (2 habitable? originally >1.1 acres) Partially eroded)

Surface

soil

Relief (external)

35m cliffs likely level; unclear due to erosion

Relief (internal)

Architecture (domestic)

Similarities between sites as far apart as north-west Iberia and the Hebrides have frequently been highlighted.

Some believe they represent an Iron Age Atlantic cultural zone (e.g.

Henderson 2008).

Comparanda

Sea access Defences - layout Defences - walls Defences entrances

small shingle cove bank and ditch Trivallate (irregular) linear; eastern edge; flush against cliff(?)

Castel-Meur

Relationship

5 acres (erosion unclear) soil to one metre(?), some rocky, small area of thin soil rocks 40m cliffs west, 12m cliffs east 15m cliffs(?) steep downward slope west steep slopes either side of to east central spine small sandy cove bank and ditch Bivallate (regular)

small shingle cove bank and ditch Trivallate (regular)

offset; away from cliff

unknown

inside narrow stream valley; narrowest point; downhill Defences - position uphill from approach from approach 2 per acre (limited Domestic structures ca. 16 per acre (unclear due excavation - unknown - density to erosion) dwellings possible) fabric (internal bank) earth and rubble earth and rubble features (internal stone revetment; internal bank) stone revetment platforms fabric (external bank(s)) dump rampart dump rampart ground plan foundation setting fabric

circular at surface wood

entrance

westward (to sea, prevailing southward (to winter sun, wind, evening sun?) defences?)

circular cut into slope stone

unclear

similar

significantly similar

Some morphological elements imply contact between the sites, but significant differences refute close connections.

This study highlights the need for further excavation and survey, if Iron Age Atlantic connections are to be studied further; a greater understanding of portable artefacts would be particularly impactful.

narrowest point; level with approach

19 per acre unknown revetment unknown; internal platforms unknown significantly dissimilar dissimilar

rectangular cut into slope stone

Aerial photograph showing topography of Porth y Rhaw (© Coflein)

variable (downhill - ease of access? Seaward?)

4. Discussion: The multivallate morphology of the defences at all three sites represents a coherent development from earlier Bronze Age univallate promontory sites. All three sites also overlook narrow coves; this corresponds with a high concentration of such sites in areas marked by rugged coastal cliffs, and their absence near open beaches. This may indicate a culturally coherent preference for defensible sea access; however, it may simply represent similar responses to local pressures.

Computer-generated 3D topographic model of Treen Dinas (© Google Earth)

The dearth of significant similarities is more telling. Many traits often cited as indicators of cultural coherence are either natural phenomena or products of environmental or social factors. Moreover, the domestic architecture demonstrates local traditions that imply culturally distinct groups.

Some domestic architectural variations may be environmentally induced – fabric may be determined by resource availability, while environmental factors may influence positioning of the entrances. Chronologies must also be taken into account (see timeline), though quality of dating is inconsistent – C14 dates are available for Porth y Rhaw, while Treen Dinas and Castel-Meur are estimated based on typology.

Variations do not dictate an absence of maritime interaction in this period; it is possible, if not probable, that some level of interaction contributed to the proliferation of promontory forts.

However, the existing evidence does not definitively attest an Iron Age Atlantic cultural zone.

Porth y Rhaw Treen Dinas

By comparing these sites, this project aimed to test the concept of the Atlantic cultural zone for the Iron Age.

Caesar’s account has been given undue weight in reconstructing Atlantic cultural connections, and has excessively influenced archaeological interpretations.

Existing data neither conclusively favours nor refutes an Iron Age Atlantic cultural zone. This corresponds with the outcome of Murphy’s (2018) study of Atlantic administrative systems.

Computer-generated 3D topographic model of Castel-Meur (© IGN)

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Castel-Meur Roman →

British Iron Age Hallstatt 800 BCE 700 BCE 600 BCE 500 BCE Timeline of Iron Age occupations (timeline by author).

La Tène 400 BCE

300 BCE

→

Roman 200 BCE

100 BCE

BCE/CE

100 CE

Further reading: Henderson, J. (2008) The Atlantic Iron Age: Settlement and Identity in the First Millennium BC, Routledge; Murphy, K. (2018) The Atlantic Coast. Internet Archaeology.

[Online] (48). Available at: doi:10.11141/ia.48.5.; Crane, P., and Murphy, K. (2010) The excavation of a coastal promontory fort at Porth y Rhaw, Solva, Pembrokeshire 1995-98.

Archaeologia Cambrensis (159) 53-98; Gordon, A.S.R. (1940) The Excavation of Gurnard’s Head, an Iron Age cliff castle in Western Cornwall. The Archaeological Journal. (97) 96–111; du Chatellier, P. (1890) Oppidum de Castel-Meur en Cleden (Finistère). L’Anthropologie. (1) 401–412.

Aerial photos (map inset): Porth y Rhaw & Treen Dinas ©Crown copyright; Castel-Meur ©Mégalis Bretagne | Map by author in Stepmap, ©Stepmap and ©123map | Timeline by author

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If there remain any accessibility issues, the author gladly welcomes feedback and suggestions.

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A Smelting Pot? How ‘Slag-Tapping’ Furnaces can provide a fresh perspective on Britain’s links with Europe in the late Iron Age What is a ‘slag-tapping’ furnace?

Why is this important?

By Sam Gedrych

Fig.3: Current distribution of pre-Roman slag-tapped furnaces

Slag-tapping bloomery furnaces in the Weald had thick This technological advancement is significant because it only walls constructed from clay strengthened with stone & exists in this part of south-eastern Britain during the late Iron Age (Cleere and Crossley 1995: 53). The low Weald itself during all appear to date from AD 0-50. this period was extremely rich in iron ore & possessed a They produce impure iron ‘blooms’ from charcoal, widespread of small-scale iron producing sites yet lacked roasted iron ore & oxygen at around 1200°c. significant population centres.

At this temperature molten silicates & part of the iron ore combine, this is known as ‘slag’ & is the byproduct of this reaction.

Fig.1

This technology is not an indigenous development & instead must have been imported from somewhere within continental Europe, possibly the modern-day Rhineland region (Ibid; Cleere 1972: 13). Furnaces are fixed entities & so we are clearly dealing with the transmission of a technological concept from the European mainland via human agency.

There is a large amount of evidence of iron objects, particularly ‘currency bars’, being produced in the Weald and then being moved across southern Britain, more than likely travelling through exchange networks (Cunliffe 2005: 495-99). Here we have clear evidence for a complex system of social interactions being enacted by a group, or groups, of individuals in the Weald who are exchanging both goods and ideas further into Britain and on the continent in the late Iron Age

Where does this lead?

The iron production occurring in the Weald during the late Iron Age is commonly thought of as operating at a ‘cottage-industry’ level (Cunliffe 2005: 495-99). With the level of technological advancement on display in such a condensed area over only 50 years, can this activity truly be considered as unorganised?

In less advanced furnaces molten slag sinks to the bottom of the furnace pit under its own gravitational pull Slag-tapping furnaces have a small hole at ground level which can be opened allowing the molten slag to flow out leaving just the fuel and the bloom.

Because of this flow molten slag sets upon contact with the cool air outside and forms distinctive flowing patterns on its surface making it highly recognisable.

The removal of molten slag from the furnace means that it can be fed or ‘charged’ with ore & charcoal for longer, creating a larger bloom.

Once the smelting is complete the bloom is removed from the furnace & beaten with hammers to remove impurities producing wrought iron ready for smithing.

© crown copyright and database rights 2021 Ordnance Survey (100025252)

Fig.2: Slag tapping in action- taken by author at a Wealden Iron Research Group experimental bloomery furnace firing, April 2015.

The evidence for technologically advanced smelting practises is well researched, and yet, Bibliography and attempts to place this into a social framework additional images: often still rely on outdated theories of Belgic invasions. By reassessing this evidence in light of contemporary research on wider social trends being generated in the south-east of Britain, including the region’s strong trade connections with the northern coastal areas of Gaul and Belgium, we may realise new conclusions for the social history of the Weald.

The Silk Road was an important trade route in ancient times and was divided into the Land Silk Road and the Maritime Silk Road. The Land Silk Road connected China with Central Asia and Europe, while the Maritime Silk Road centred in the South China Sea, connected Southeast Asia and other countries in East Asia. Fig.1 The Silk Road, Around A.D. 618-907 (Tang Dynasty) (adapted from He, 2014)

2.The Overland Silk Road and the arrival of the lute in China.

The origin of the pipa is recorded in many ancient Chinese historical texts. Sui Shu-Music Zhi (隋书音乐志）: "Today's instruments such as the pipa......come from the West and are not traditional Chinese instruments." Similar records can also be found in the Tongdian（通典）.

The pipa, a traditional East Asian plucked instrument, has a history of more than two thousand years. The pipa was introduced to China by the Overland Silk Road and then to other East Asian countries by the Maritime Silk Road. The development of the pipa is a very good example of how the ancient Silk Road promoted cultural exchange around the world.

Fig.2 Musical figurines unearthed from the khotan region (Zhao, 2003)

空白演示

Pipa (Chinese four-stringed lute)

The Sound of the Silk Road Wenwen Zhang Depertment of Archaeology

3.The birth of the Chinese lute (pipa).

According to terracotta figurines and murals from all over the Silk Road, the flow of pipa can be briefly summarised as Gandhara, Sasanian Persia, Khotan in the southern foothills of the Tianshan Mountains, and finally to China's Central Plains (Zhao, 2003).

After entering China, this kind of lute rapidly developed into a fairly common musical instrument. Chinese people named it “pipa”. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, the pipa was popular both at court and in the private sector, and was known as the "symbol of Tang music". During that time, the pipa was influenced by Han culture, and there have been major changes in the form, the way of presentation and many orther aspects of the lute (Chang, 1980; Feng,1991).

The way of Presentation:The vertical holding style of playing emerged; the number of left and right hand techniques was increased; and the pizzicato tools changed from wood to iron, or directly by fingernails.

4.The Maritime Silk Road and the outward transmission of the pipa.

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Fig.3 Tang dynasty, terracotta figures with pipa held upright

Form:The pipa has changed from a curved item to a straight item; the components (pin&xiang) of the instrument have been added, making the sound more varied; the resonance box has become smaller.

Fig.4 Mogao Cave 220, southern wall, early Tang dynasty straight-item pipa playing paintings

The Chinese pipa spread out thanks to the Maritime Silk Road, resulting in the Japanese biwa, the Vietnamese đàn tỳ bà, and the Korean bipa. When we visit Shosoin in Nara today, we can still see the pipa of Tang dynasty, which was brought back to Japan 1,200 years ago by Japanese envoys across the ocean (Chang,1980;Zhao, 2003; He, 2014).

Sadatoshi Fujiwara, who is revered as the ancestor of the pipa in Japan, was sent to the Tang dynasty as an envoy and learned new pipa principles and brought them back to Japan, creating a new style of pipa in Japanese gagaku (Kenzo, 1999).

What the Silk Road carried was more than just the exchange of the lute itself, but also of the musicians, the musical scores and the other cultures represented by the instrument.

Fig.5 painted in 1298 AD, records the Japanese envoys who crossed the sea to study the advanced culture of the Tang dynasty by ship.

References①Chang Renxia,(1980),The Eastward Graduation of Western Music and Art in the Han and Tang Dynasties. Music Research,(02):7-50.②Chang Renman,(1980),The eastern expansion of Western musical art during the Han and Tang dynasties,Music

Studies (02), 7-50.③Feng Hejun,(1991). The Pipa in the Tang Dynasty. Forbidden City (06), 34-35.④He Ru, (2014), A study of Chinese and foreign cultural exchanges along the Silk Road during the Tang Dynasty, master's dissertation, Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University of Science and Technology. ⑤Kenzo hayashi,(1999), Examination of East Asian Musical Instruments,People's Music Publishing House. ⑥Zhao Weiping,(2003) "The History of Pipa Instruments on the Silk Road", Chinese Musicology (Quarterly), No. 4.

Fig.6 Tang dynasty pipa that is now in the Shosoin

Acknowledgement Prof. Robin Coningham and Dr Penny Wilson Pexels user RAJENDRA DHARASHIVKAR (caption image taken by)

--------Other Master s programmes at Durham University Archaeology Department.

Contact: archaeology.postgrad.taught@durham.ac.uk Durham University Dept of Archaeology South Road Durham DH1 3LE T: 44(0)191 334-1100 F: 44(0)191 334-1101 https://www.dur.ac.uk/archaeology/ Facebook @ArchaeologyDurham Twitter @arcdurham