Critical Studies Dissertation DJ40002 – Standard Dissertation
Exploring the relationship between art and space through sculpture
Fine Art (Hons)
Word count:
Duncan of Jordanstone College of Art and Design
University of Dundee 2024
Abstract
This dissertation explores the relationship between art and space through sculpture. I use empirical research utilising a selection of books, ebooks and journals. The first chapter gives a to sculpture and its use in Ancient Greek culture covering the Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic periods. The second chapter travels through to the Renaissance Period referencing the work of Michelangelo and examining sculptures place within the Paragon debate. The third chapter introduces Post-war art and Modernism with sculpture and space analysed within the work of Henry Moore, Barbara Hepworth and Carl Andre. The forth and fifth chapters move through a selection of 21st Century sculptors that include Antony Gormley and Sarah Sze and introduces the documentation of sculpture through different media, namely photography and painting. The conclusion presents a summary of thoughts and findings which evidence that sculpture and space are intrinsically linked
List of Illustrations
Figure 1
‘Statue of Kouros’ Late Archaic Period (530 B.C.), Carved Stone. Image courtesy of National Archaeological Museum of Athens
Figure 2
‘Herakles and Worshipper’ Athens (400 B.C) Attive Votive Relief. Photograph © Vanni Archive/Art Resource, NY.
Figure 3
Alexandra of Antioch, ‘Venus De Milo’ (100 B.C.), Carved Stone. Image courtesy of the Louvre, Paris
Figure 4
Michelangelo, ‘David’ (1501-1504), Marble 517 cm. Image courtesy of the Gallaria dell’Accademia Firenze
Figure 5
Henry Moore, ‘Draped seated Woman’ (Old Flo) (1957) Bronze cast, image curtesy of the Henry Moore foundation DACS 2024
Figure 6
Barbara Hepworth, ‘Epidauros II’ (1961), Bronze. Image courtesy of St Ives Borough Council
Figure 7
Carl Andre, ’13 Copper Triode’ (1975), Copper thirteen parts along the wall, six extending out, 50 X 50 X 0.5 cm each. Image courtesy of Artnet
Figure 8
Antony Gormley, ‘Co-ordinate’ (2017), Steal. Image courtesy of Anthony Gormley Website
Figures 9
Antony Gormley, ‘Another Place’ (2005-2006), Cast-Iron 189cm. Image courtesy of Anthony Gormley Website
Figure 10
Sarah Sze, ‘Metronome, The waiting room’ 2023,Projection, photograph, metal, other materials. Image courtesy of Artangel
Figure 11
Giovanni Bologna, ‘Venus Urania’ (1575), Gilded Bronze. Image courtesy of the Kunsthistorisches Museum
Figure 12
Francesco Morandini ‘Portrait of Vincenzo Borghini’ (1573), Oil on panel. Image courtesy of Christ Church Picture Gallery
Introduction
This dissertation explores the relationship between art and space Periods of art will be analysed to build an understanding of the origins of sculpture through to abstraction with a focus on contemporary examples where space and sculpture intertwine. A brief account of sculpture’s relevance within Greek and Renaissance periods will consider the impact of sculpture on the growing awareness of the art and space relationship. From statue to sculpture. Examining various factors including, sculpture made in collaboration with other art forms, site-specific art and public sculpture in comparison to gallery exhibited work. Considering how elements of shape, form, size, and texture enhance the understanding and awareness of the space surrounding the work and the viewer. The presence of sculpture alongside us and the effect of the given framing of a work in addition to our experience of and sensory interaction with sculpture leads us to an understanding of the space we take up. Contemporary sculpture continues to develop a larger role in the art world.
We gain a better understanding of the relationship to space through art the more audiences are surrounded by sculpture.
The theme of space has been explored throughout the history of art. It has been used to convey context for art and specifically sculpture throughout different periods and continues to develop this relationship within contemporary settings.
Space has a profound impact on how we perceive and interact with art. Whether it is the physical, where space surrounds the sculpture, the context of gallery, exhibited work in contrast with site specific art and public sculpture or whether it is the conceptual. The interplay between art and space shapes our experience. This research aims to look at different examples of how sculpture has worked with space to understand the effects, the context and the viewers engagement with the art- work to further understand the art and space collaboration.
Chapter One : A b rief look at Sculptures in Ancient Greek Art and the Egyptian influence
Ancient Greek sculpture viewed today stands mostly out of context within museums and gallery spaces. Looking back at the various periods within Greek art will help build an understanding of the various factors that have impacted sculpture and its progression to how it is viewed today.
Ancient Greek art spanned over three identified stages, Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic.
Archaic Period (800 – 480 BC)
Egypt and Near East regions had a major influence on sculpture within this period of time.
Here the distinctive male statues known as ‘Kouroi’ meaning ‘young man’ (see Fig.1) were used to commemorate the deaths of young men or awarded as trophies (David, 2020). Kouroi statues were tall muscular men carved from stone presenting the naked form of a man. They were
depicted rigid and standing straight with arms by their side and usually one foot in front of the other as if stepping forward (Sakoula, 2002). The purpose of these statues is an important factor
when considering the role of space in art. These figures acted as tombstones (David, 2020).
Framing a grave, giving it structure and a sense of place. The material is often marble, occasionally limestone, ivory or wood used alongside the rigidness of the figure’s pose associate with pillars and their strength in the structure of a building. The material was hard and strong giving a sense of weight similar to that a person might hold, as well the sense of time taken by the sculptor to carve the figure and the sculpted life.
Sculpture used as tombstones and trophies reflect an outlook on sculpture as an object more than an art form. Used as a tool to symbolise an achievement and dedications of human life. The link between sculpture and death demonstrates the influence from Eg yptian sculpture on Archaic Greek sculpture. Arnold Auerbach (b.1890-d. 1978) an English sculptor wrote ‘The Egyptians, however, devoted a very great part of their art not to the service of the living, but to the dead.’ (Auerbach, 1952, p.16), Art and sculpture were used to acknowledge the life someone had, to accompany them into death. The idea of a person taking up space within their life and that of sculpture taking up the space they leave behind. Egyptians ‘embalmed the body even after death to preserve it; and to make absolutely sure that the spirits earthly shape should continue to exist for its return’ (Auerbach, 1952, p.17). The Egyptian culture did not accept death as final and believed the body itself could be held in time so as to be used again. Egyptian figures were placed in tombs and positioned ‘in the postures they would naturally assume in their ordinary occupations’ (Auerbach, 1952 p.17), a physical representation of living human being.
The stance reflects how sculpture explores the idea of space. The kouros poses with one foot in front of the other, physically mimicking the action of a person stepping or moving forward. This can symbolise the journey of life. The sculpture stands at the height of a person which helps viewers to relate physically to the statue. The figure could step out and fill the same space a human being does.
The bodies of the kouroi depict the ideal body shape during the Archaic times, a generalised formula of a tall slender strong man. They lack the extreme realism of the later statues within Ancient Greece but capture naturalistic figure (Dominiczak, 2014). As in Egyptian culture ‘the body’s disintegration troubled them’ (Auerbach,1952 p.17), the deceased would need strength in the next life. The kouroi statues followed this formula of rigid posing, one foot forward and a well- built figure. Choices within sculpture at the time allows an understanding of how the beliefs within a culture impacts art and the space it represents. The similarities in the kouroi further an understanding in sculpture being used as a tool, more seen as an object for the body to sit in and move through, as a dedication to a person who lived. As a pillar to mark life and death.
A shift into observation-based learning began to take hold towards the end of the Archaic period. Sculptors continued to explore of the human form with a focus on naturalism taking precedence.
Classical period (500- 232 B.C.)
This was considered the ‘golden age’ as it produced a vast amount of highly recognised works of art. During this period sculpture encompassed a wider range of figures, poses and an increase in realism. Observation based learning led to a focus on the detail of the human body as opposed to the rigid formulaic characteristics found in the Archaic period. Dynamic, more relaxed poses were introduced with the contrapposto becoming one of the most iconic classical body poses (David, 2020). Contrapposto describes a figure posed with one leg holding the weight of the body whilst the other is free and bent slightly at the knee. A more realistic resting position of the human body. In tandem in capturing naturalism in sculpture, the cultural context and subjects of these sculptures reflected much more heavily the Greek culture and their beliefs. Primarily religious context. Sculpture adapted to this and took up space in temples and places of worship. Ancient Greek sculpture was ‘not…used as visual embellishment without distinct religious purpose’ (Fullerton,2016) Statues were sculpted with the highest level of craftsmanship and attention to detail, ‘The Greek sculptor aimed at expressing ideas of the legendary gods and heroes, by
presenting them in the shape of the most noble and characteristic human beings imaginable’ (Auerbach, 1952 p.23). These gods were worshipped as perfection and imagined in the image of the ideal human figure with a focus on naturalism and realism.
The sculptures size in relation to space encapsulated through form the idea of Greek gods and their magnitude. The human figure became the subject of the highest value and the more realistic the more celebrated the sculptor. The more respect was shown towards the chosen god
In the words of Pausanias, a Greek author and geographer of the 2nd Century ‘Pheidias an Ancient Greek sculptor prayed to Zeus, the god of sky and thunder in Ancient Greek religion and mythology, to receive his approval for his statue in Olympia, which the god gave by sending a thunderbolt’ (Pausanias and Henry, 1918 p.5-11) Pausanias describes how Zeus did not physically become or enter the statue instead it outing an idea within Greek culture that a god ‘did not live in their statues, they only visited them’ (Chaniotis, 2017, pp.33)
A statue could become a vessel for people to worship at in hopes a god would communicate to them through it. Statues as dedications to the gods were known as votives with notable examples being the cult statue. These were statues placed in the main room of a temple to offer a body a deity could inhabit (Fullerton, 2016)
This idea of the gods visiting through sculpture gives a sense of space itself. A vessel in which great power can contain itself. This sense of travel and calling from the worshippers to the gods and vice-versa. The sculpture holds its own space in which messages can pass through, almost as a window from where one spirit relates to another, where a god and his worshippers exist in the space between, a place where a human body physically cannot go but where its essence can.
A stone relief ‘Herakles and worshipper’ Athens 400 B.C. (see Fig. 2) portrays Herakles the Greek god of superhuman strength responding to a worshipper. Within this image the worshipper waves to greet Herakles whilst the god appears posed in a passive way, one hand on his hip he looks down, with the other hand leaning against his club. The position suggests he is at rest after labour or that he has stood like this for some time. A position held despite someone being present or not (Hedreen,2021). This divine being has been continuing to work with or without contact, he is a spirit in a different body in a different place to that of his statue or his worshipper. This relief highlights the Greek beliefs of ‘another place’ that the gods are communicating from somewhere other than where they are and through sculpture, they are able to conceptualise this idea.
Hellenistic period (323- 31 B.C)
This period introduced much more expressive sculpture than that of the Classical period. Figures during this time developed a wider range of facial expressions and explored not only religious subject matter but themes of ageing, death and movement. The positions of figures became even less static often appearing to be in mid motion. Focus on naturalism and detail of the human body continues from the Classical period however most recognised of the Hellenistic period are the ‘wet drapery’ sculptures. These were figures in dynamic poses with carved fabric covers or
interacting to accentuate the body and capture an audiences’ attention. Exploring space by representing the figure interacting with objects, in this case material fabric. This relates to the viewer themselves and their own relation to the things and space around them. Drapery folding and creasing where the body bends, where two forms meet and how each morphs. Dynamic posing is utilised where the body is twisted or in contrapposto, where the weight of the body leans more favourable to one side than the other creating an ‘s’ shape. This gives the sense the body is in motion, turning around in the space.
The twisted posture of Alexandros of Antioch ‘Venus de Milo’ show this well (see Fig.3), portraying a women leaning on her right leg. The drapery follows the shape of her lower back and covers her legs. The folds of the mimicked fabric are realistic and the viewer is able imagine the weight of the material against their own body. The hips and shoulders face different directions highlighting a sense of movement and leading the eye to the space around the body. Margaret Beiber writes on characteristics of Hellenistic sculpture that ‘in poses and composition by
striving to present the solid shapes occupying aerial space fully and correctly: statues were not to be convinced and presented as animated contours in a limited number of aspects, but as tri-
dimensionally actualised solids satisfactorily viewable from every available angle’ (Carpenter and Bieber, 1957). ‘Venus de Milo’ is presented on a high plinth meaning the viewer looks up to view the figure. They are able to be physically closer to the statue but still able to observe the whole figure. This closeness amplifies the sense of relationship to the viewers space. The plinth forces the viewer to notice the difference in size between themselves and the work giving a comparison of the space one takes up in relation to the sculpture. The pose encourages the viewer to walk around the sculpture taking in different viewpoints and perspectives. Different people viewing the sculpture from their own angle will have a differing perspectives of the work and how it shares space with them and so others.
Greek sculpture over time continued to depict the human form more than others, with a focus on increasing realism and naturalism in detail, pose and context of the sculpted figure. Sculpture explores space as an idea of the cultural and religious beliefs pertaining to life and death, the divine power of the Greek Gods and the interaction we have with these ‘other places.’
Chapter Two : Renaissance and the Paragone debate
The Renaissance period (14th Century - 16th Century) across Europe started in Italy and was seen as a rebirth due to the innovation within culture, art and thinking (Ballard, 2022) after much of Europe was consumed by the plague crisis of the Middle Ages (Brooks, 2022)
During this time, art, science and architecture were closely linked. Artists such as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo studied anatomy to recreate the human body precisely. Architects such as Filippo Brunelleschi studied mathematics to accurately construct domes (Mullen et al, 2018).
These areas of expertise come together within the work of Michelangelo’s statue of ‘David’ (1501-
1504) (See Fig.4). Standing at 17 feet and situated in the Gallaria dell’Academia I’d Firenze, Florence Italy. This work reflects key aspects of how sculpture and space work together.
Here the meticulous study of the human form linking back to Ancient Greek Classical and Hellenistic periods, is continued by Michelangelo during this Renaissance period with realism being an important characteristic of artwork during this time. ‘David’ depicts a highly detailed large scale male figure. The pose resembles that of the contrapposto with one leg carrying the weight and the other angle outwards, hips and shoulders oppose one-another with the head faced to one side. Much like the Hellenistic period (see Fig. 3) this position gives a sense of movement. One leg is out as if the figure may decide to walk forward, into the space around it. The left foot faces left with the torso facing forward, the shoulders align to the right along with the face. Changes in direction give a sense the sculpture itself is exploring how it can interact with the space around it. The large scale of the work emphasises the grandness of its setting and forces the viewer to look up in order to appreciate the detail. The gallery allows the viewer to understand the weight of the sculpture, the time taken to carve it, and adds context to its importance the work holds. It is very large and yet also on a plinth, intentionally raised off of the
ground to further show the importance of the subject. With the figure being raised up into a different space to the viewer, both occupy the same space but also their own space separately. The body of the figure is muscular and towers powerfully over the viewer and being the largest figure in the building dominates the gallery. It draws the attention of the room and demands an awareness of the space that’s being occupied. Its mass physically pulls the viewer in and around it. The figure is not a specific portrait of anyone rather ‘reconstructed from the memory of many models – and sculptures – the detailed have been strengthened by the most penetrating attention to anatomical research…’ (Auerbach, 1952 p.42). The statue encompasses many different figures within it mirroring the range of different people coming to view it. Setting can also effect a sculptures relationship to space. ‘David’ was originally placed in front of the Palazzo Della Signoria, the seat of the Republican government. The statue being placed here meant an increase in its religious meaning, as the front of the Palazzo Della Signoria was used often as an altar (Hall, 2005 p.50) Placement of sculpture in different settings can change its perceived meaning and it’s interaction with other elements within the space can lead to differing perspectives.
The P aragone debate
During the Renaissance sculpture began to hold a less prominent place in the art world despite the quantity of works produced being similar to the quantity of painting produced, viewers were not as captivated by them(Hall, 1999, p.2). Where in Archaic time a formulaic approach was taken, sculpture in the Renaissance period was criticised as being ‘exclusive due to this focus on one style, one sculptor, one period…’ ( Hall, 1999, p.2). Less gallery space was taken up by sculpture due to this amidst Paragone debate. As art became more infused with classical literature and philosophy painting saw new advancements into the three-dimensional and use of oils. Painting and sculpture aimed for realism and a naturalistic approach. This is what led to the paragone debate which was between sculpture, painting and partially architecture with each art form seen as the superior by their own groups.
This debated continued throughout the Renaissance period. Sculpture was criticised for being ‘a less personal and spontaneous art.’ (Hall, 1999, p.3) The art form was seen as requiring less artistry and skill than that of painting. Baldassare Castiglione, an Italian diplomat and prominent author at the time described that ‘For although statues are modelled in the round, like objects in real life, and painting is seen only on the surface, sculpture lacks many of the things found to be in painting, and especially light and shade; for example the natural colouring of the flesh, which appears altogether changed in marble, the painter copies faithfully, using light and shadow according to need, which the sculptor cannot do.’ (Baldassarre Castiglione, Conte and Bull, 1976 pp.98-99) Here Castiglione speaks in favour of painting as an art form, suggesting it be truer to real life and supports the Renaissance aim of creating work that was realistic. Previously sculpture during the Classical and Hellenistic period of Ancient Greek Art were commended for their naturalism due to their detail and posing of the body. However Castiglione is suggests that without changes in colour and control of light the sculptor is not able to create a perfect copy of a subject.
Critics ‘fostered the belief that the art form reached its apogee in Ancient Greece. Thus, sculpture was not only limited conceptually; it was also geographically and temporarily circumscribed’ ( Hall, 1999, p.3). The realism sculptors were able to achieve through pose, form and subject matter was not able to progress its development and was stunted by its own subscription to naturalism and therefore would not be seen to progress from the standard of Ancient Greece. The renaissance period led to an ideal ‘gentleman artist’ which worked against the sculptors of the time (James Hall, 1999, p.3). Sculpture involved much more manual labour compared to painting. Leonardo da Vinci said on sculpture it was ‘a very mechanical art, because it generates sweat and bodily fatigue in the executing…with his face caked and all floured with marble dust, he looks like a baker…and his house is filthy and full of chips and stone dust (Farrago,1992, p.257) This suggests a view on sculptors being of less social status at the time with a comparative statement on painting being ‘the painter sits in front of his work with great ease,
well-dressed…house…clean, and he is often accompanied by music or readers of varies and beautiful works that are head with great pleasure without the uproar and compounded of hammer and other noises (Farago,1992, p.257). It associates sculptors labour with that of poor intelligence and social status. Painters are regarded as higher status hence the ‘gentleman artist ideal of the renaissance as painting took precedence over sculpture. The ideal viewer was ‘stationary and absorbed in calm rational contemplation’ (Hall, 1999, p.3). The idea of moving around a sculpture was uncomfortable. Sculpture was placed outside of the art world, and no longer regarded as high as it once was. The Italian renaissance faulted sculpture for its craft, medium and the space it took up. Despite the limits on sculpture during this time it would be important to understand how these ‘limitations’ would later become its advantages in pushing through the naturalism ideal and deepening the relationship between space and sculpture.
Chapter Three : A rchitecture and Sculpture
Sculpture has a strong connection to architecture. Both developing as art forms together throughout art history and exploring space in similar ways. Within Ancient Greece sculptors and architects would collaborate together. The role of the sculptor was to enhance and embellish elements of a building. These two areas ‘always went hand in hand. The architecture was never simply the vehicle for the sculptor, nor was the sculpture merely decoration; its position enhanced and helped to articulate parts of the building and its themes added something to the sanctity of the temple’ (John Boardman, Greek Art p.80). Sculpture took the space of storytelling. The subject of these reliefs as part of the architecture of a building were the Ancient Greek gods. The realism of these statues would elevate a building to the level of impressing the gods. Temples and places of worship would attract the gods. Just as these statues link the space between the gods and worshippers so does the architecture. It frames to a space that houses people. Sculpture as well as being an individual art form can explore the relationship of space in a new way through architecture. It can harmonise and share a space with another art
form to where it becomes ‘…impossible to tell where one artist began, and another ended’ (Kay Wagenknecht-Harte, Chp. 3 p.19) The Renaissance critiques on the physicality of moving around a sculpture, moving around a space becomes an advantage as space becomes in itself the subject of architecture and sculpture. The discussion of architecture and sculpture leads to that of the gallery space. How architecture houses sculpture and can display it. Both show how space itself becomes a subject in a work deepens the impact of a work on the viewer. Jenny Holzer is an American conceptual artist whose work included, large scale installations and projections onto buildings. She explains how the dimensions and limitation of a gallery space can enhance the visual effectiveness of a work as she ‘…can make the room completely dark, and I can make a total experience…it’s the visual experience, the physical experience; of being in a room that sometimes seems to turn upside down or pulse or have reflections…its for the mind and body’ (Papadakis, 1990, p.31)
Architectural spaces can be adapted by size, colour, lighting and temperature. These factors can be controlled and used to give different meaning and feeling to spaces. It can overcome the painters critique when space lighting can be controlled in order to change a sculptures colours. This control of the architectural space can make modern galleries able to adapt to the context the artist and artwork wishes to convey. Artworks appear to exist in an eternal state of display as this white setting gives no sense of time, the condition of the artworks appearing beyond time (O’Doherty, 1986, p.7). This idea of sculpture transcending time can be seen to begin with the Egyptian ideas of life and death. The Archaic Kouroi sculptures embodying this as they represent tombstones. The sculpture within the gallery space can continue to evolve as it is not limited to its time, instead the white space allows for viewers to bring their own experiences to the work.
Chapter Four : Post - War (1945 - 1970) Scu lpture and Moderni sm
The post-war period was a key time where sculpture began to re-establish itself. The ‘gentleman artist’ of the Renaissance being replaced with the ‘worker-artist’. This was a time of significant change within society as it began rebuilding itself In 1909 Picasso carved an apple from white plaster implying sculpture could be made from anything and could be anything (Hall,1999, p.5) Materials and a shift towards the physical act of making, led artists to embrace the viewer seeing the process of making. The Ancient Greek and Renaissance strive for realistic representations stopped being the most important factor. Modern abstracted art was becoming much more popular. The modernist movement focused on use of movement and the exploration of space. Sculpture was becoming more widely used due to it being a physical hands-on art form that could be interacted with by the audience. The encouragement of experimentation allows sculpture to be used more freely and as a tool to explore its ability to adapt the space around it. New ways of thinking can be explored about how people perceive the form of a sculpture or the context. Space and sculpture can either be ‘…responsive or resistant to that environment’ (Daniel Burden) with both sides allowing different ideas to be conveyed. One of the artists working during this time was Henry Moore.
Henry Moore (b.1898- d.1986)
Moore was an artist exploring sculpture and space together. His work combines environment and the human form with many sculptures being situated outdoors. The human form is the subject most Moore statues explore. The space the body takes up and the space itself as a subject to play with within these sculptures. Moore’s signature holes within his sculptures reference his idea on space working alongside art to create a narrative. ‘The hole connects one side to the other, making it immediately more three dimensional’ (Henry Moore). The hole allows the viewer to look through the sculpture to view it from inside and out. The negative space left distorts how
we look at the form and how the space in between becomes a focal point of the work. The hole emphasises an importance on the surroundings of the sculpture and how this can physically affect the context or understanding of a sculpture work. Moore’s ‘Draped Seated Woman’ (195758) (see Fig 5) one of several figures depicting a figure draped in a gown. This drapery shows influence of the wet drapery Classical Greek statues. Offering a comparison into how different the approach to this figure is compared to the realistic figures of Ancient Classical Greece. Moore has made the figure abstract with a large body and disproportionate head. Allowing the body to come forward as a focus means the viewer connects with the physicality of the sculpture rather than the face of the person. The sculpture is posed, with the right arm holding most of the weight. The feet and shoulders positioned in opposite directions linking to the contrapposto pose seen in the Hellenistic period. Moore is hoping for this comparison with his abstracted figure symbolising the new freer approach to sculpture exploring space in a different way. Rather than through divine dedication to gods Moore’s sculpture expresses how exaggerated forms of the human body are being used to explore space as something relative to the body. Alongside it. The awareness it gives the viewer comparing their own body and how they are posed.
This sculpture furthers the idea of where the sculpture is displayed can affect its meaning. ‘Draped seated Woman’ was originally displayed in Tower Hamlets in East London, UK. The sculpture became well-loved and named locally as ‘Old Flo’. This nickname shows how the people within this area connected to the figure. Its endearing nature compared to the original titles suggests it was seen as one of the community. Here sculpture is situated in a public space and influenced by the constant reactions from passers by again demonstrating how placement and context changes the outlook of art.
Barb ara Hepworth (b.1903-d.1975)
Hepworth was another sculptor during this time who explored modernism and its themes. A similar focus on representing space and place through abstracted forms. Carving out physical spaces in sculptures and incorporating holes within her work. Movement was created by positioning pieces against one another. The viewer Is encouraged to look through the sculpture.
As you move around a work you become aware of the direction your body is travelling, how close or far you are from the sculpture ‘Body experience…is the centre of creation’ (Barbara Hepworth, 1970) physically interacting with and responding to the work. This interaction with what’s around us is part of the creative process. The hole symbolising not only the connection of different kinds of form but also a physical way to show the form relationship with the invisible, the in between. Hepworth’s ‘Epidauros II’ (1961), (See F ig. 6) depicts an oval hollowed out form where a further circle shape at the top is carved out and two holes in the back. This form is surrounded by holes and landscape can be seen through the two back holes. The use of a plinth raises the sculpture to eye level. The two holes in the centre resemble binoculars and the position of the piece outside in front of a body of water suggests the viewer can connect space to the sculpture. You can physically interact with the sculpture as it is in a public place. The history of modernism is intimately framed by that of space, have we ‘reached a point where we see not the art but the space first’ (O’Doherty, 1986, p.14)
Andre is an American minimalist artist known for his ordered grid format sculptures. These incorporate a range of materials such as metals and woods. His work centres around the idea of sculpture, space and time
The viewer interacts by steping on the works. ‘All sculpture is an experience in time and space as either a form you experience in time by walking around it, or, as Ad Reinhardt, the abstract painter, once said, a form you tripped over while backing up to look at a painting’ (Christophe Cherix et al., 2014, p.231). The work ’13 Copper Triode’ (1975) (see Fig. 7) depicts a series of of flat tiled metal placed down the centre and along the back floor of a room. The room remains empty part from this sculpture which draw your eyes. The sculpture creates a walkway. The encouragement of stepping on this work resembles a stage. Sculpture is being used to redefine a spaces context.
The Viewer walks down the centre of the room in a position of divide. Just as ‘David’ dominated the gallery, here the viewer themselves is placed in the centre. They become the focus of the work.. ‘One could argue that the grid is together… merging, become a single unit, but when invited to step on them, they become a sequence,’ (Christophe Cherix et al, 2014, P.233). This interaction between audience and sculpture leads to a greater understanding of the space we take up, through interaction we gather a sense of time and its passing giving the viewer a perception of the space they hold, the moment they are in.
The concept of time and space links to Andre’s thoughts on being present, the experience of the everyday to show that being aware of the time you travel through the space you take up work together in building awareness of how you interact with the world. ‘Where knowledge of our circumstances, is essentially visual and where the experience of the everyday modes of temporalities present and historical. Being present is therefore a sensory perception that involves knowledge analysis of history…experience of space…knowledge of time’ (Christophe Cherix et al, 2014, p.234).
Sculpture has been used in order to reflect this sense of time and space as a means to allow the viewer to be truly present. Elements in which the body is able to experience space, awareness of time, the context in which they have been placed further helps to gain this sense of presence.
‘SUBJECT’ for Kettles Yard, Cambridge England, exhibition 2017 (see Fig. 8) was a series of five artworks installed in 3 main rooms and a corridor connecting them. ‘Co-ordinate’ 2017 was a work re-conceived for this space. It represents a ‘tuning device’ as it demonstrates how the
architecture has responded to the sloping site. Each of the five works links sculpturally but individually ‘offer different perspectives on the core idea: the relationship between the organic body to the hard edges, constructed habitat of human beings, raising the question as to whether geometry and precision, co-ordinates, maps and models deaden the imagination or can provoke the release of energy and emotion’ (Gormley et al., 2018, p.64).
‘Co-ordinate’ spans from ceiling to floor and from one wall into another room. The cross breaks the space into four sections and causes the viewer to immediately think about the space they are in and their relationship to how the room has been broken up. The cross frames each side of the room and separates the space from each other. It creates an awareness to the viewer to be conscious of which side of the room they are captured in and creates a sense of restriction. Nevertheless, the fact that the lines touch each side of the building creates an illusion that the sculpture is playing a role in the structural integrity of the building. Similar to the pillars of Ancient Greek architecture ‘Co-ordinate’ uses its relationship and contact with architecture to further a dialogue and understanding of the relationship between the art and space. Gormley states that ‘the lines of square section steel bar would be orthogonal to each other but separate as the
viewer walks through the galleries, they could unite or connect different spaces’ (Gormley et al., 2018, p.73) The steel lines span different rooms physically connecting the spaces through the medium of sculpture. It maps out a path between spaces, a path the viewer uses to walk through. The viewer adds movement and brings life to the sculpture changing how it relates to the space. This act of moving around the space is a necessary part of experiencing the sculpture. Architecture is used as a context for sculpture allows it to become a medium which conveys space as a fundamental part of the art work. Jamie Fobert in conversation with Antony Gormley and Jennifer Powell notes that during his time ‘architecture is always experienced in relation to our own body’ (Gormley et al, 2018, p73) This concept of architectural framing, holding a space in which the viewer can step into and experience, furthers the concept of context within art as an important factor in interpreting the purpose behind a work. Architecture being understood with the physical body evokes the sense of encouragement in interaction between art and the viewer. Exploration into the relationship between art and space ‘all comes back to the human body…that ability to measure space against our own body: with some building, we have no sense, no ability to do that. But a sequence of volumes that define height and depth and change in direction can be a very bodily experience’ (Gormley et al, 2018 p.73). This link back to the body is a consistent theme throughout sculpture history. The body’s movement between forms or within a place plays a role in expressing space as being something material, tangible. To become equally physical and touchable as sculpture. Gormley’s work touches upon these ideas of interaction. Thinking about art in situ, when art is create for a space, to be interacted in a certain setting. The ‘core experience of being on an Andre sculpture as a share communal place with others, with matter and time’ (Christophe Cherix et al, 2014, p.238) This interaction builds upon our understanding of ourselves and the space we inhabit. Walking through ‘Subject’ where every room is connected by the space from the last. ‘Da-sein’ translated literally to ‘Being there’ from German. This is a key concept introduced by Martin Heidegger German philosopher of the 20th Century. ‘Being there’ this ‘presence-to is expressed in the ‘as’ of ‘taking-as’. Thus the unity of the different
modes of being is grounded in a capacity for taking-as (making-present-to) that Aristotle argues is the essence of human existence’ (Wheeler, 2011) There are different ways of experiencing time, place and through this ability to be in the present the viewer can understand the full human experience. Heidegger’s thoughts on Aristotles suggests that ‘he has misconceived the deep structure of taking-as. For Heidegger taking-as is grounded not in multiple modes of presence but rather in a more fundamental temporal unity’ (Wheeler, 2011) Heideggers ideas of ‘Being and time’ come through here as the ‘temporal unity’ (Wheeler, 2011) This idea of the interaction between space, the viewer and therefore the time created through this interaction. A moment, presences is created as the viewer becomes aware of their effect on what around them. Aware of being, and others also being. Meaning is created as a consequences of the relationship created by the interaction of the viewer and space as both react to one another within the same time. A moment is shared between them. As seen whilst stepping on a Carl Andre sculpture or walking through the various spaces Antony Gormleys ‘Subject’ Take you through.
Antony Gormley ‘Another Place’
‘Another Place’ 2007 situated on Crosby Beach (see Fig. 9) Created with location in mind, highlights the ideas of setting, title, interaction between space and viewer to reflect the meaning behind the work.
‘Another place’ was a public sculpture work where bronze casts of the body were placed along Crosby beach. Some in land and other in the sea. 100 sculptures were created. (Veasey, 2015).
The figures face towards the sea and over time are affected by the settings natural movement. The sculptures become eroded due to the weather. Some figures placed out to sea will become submerged and hidden under rising sea levels. The setting plays a major role in providing context.
Sculpture explores this space in the form of the human figure. These iron statues could be mistaken for people visiting the beach. Gormley has ‘adequately spaced’ the figures ‘to allow for people to walk between them and in fact it is the space between that is critical always in the work’ (Anthony Gormley, 2023) Gormley has considered the setting whilst creating this work. The space becomes part of the work as it allows people to get close to the sculptures and interact. The setting is that of a place ‘in-between. A beach is a place where land meets the sea. The figures
slowly submerged in the sea verses those that remain on land as well as the title of the work ‘Another place’ links a parallel to life and death. The material used furthers this idea due to the iron rusting and decaying as they are worn down by the sea. Gormley used sculpture to inhabit this space between life and death and show the element of journey from one to the other. Sculpture is being used to navigate space and in this instance the journey of life.
Sarah Sze
Sarah Sze is an American contemporary sculptor creating works where the viewer is invited to explore up close. The work ‘Metronome, the waiting room’ (2023) (see Fig.10) is set within a Victorian waiting room at Peckham Rye station in London, UK (Dimambro , 2023). Similar to Gormley’s ‘Another place’ it has been made with the exhibition space in mind. The work interacts with the space, highlighting the setting. A variety of materials are used including projection screens, metal structures and digital images. Smaller elements are placed together to create a larger work that fills the station space. The work has a central focal point, but is also expanded through image projection to cover the walls of the station. This shows an immediate link between sculpture and space. The elements work together to give the installation an immersive feel with the space and sculptures linked by light. The space is kept dark with projections lighting up specific points in the room and a collection of square panels form to create one central circular sculpture. The panels are held within a metal structure with gaps between each piece allowing space to flow between. Each element is surrounded and interacts with space as do the viewers themselves. The viewers are as the elements, joining together in one space. The old station setting links the work to movement, journey and the action of people moving through space, Sarah Sze ‘I’ve always been interested in certain time throughout history where our relationship to the way we experience time and space’ (Artspace, 2016) The setting of this sculpture influences it and how it is perceived. The imagery projected conveys a variety of places linking
travel which relates to the setting of the station. Sarah Sze’s sculpture show how space within sculpture continues to become a larger part of the work itself. Through title, setting and subject matter the link between space, art and encouragement of the viewers interaction with the work further an exploration into the immersive experience.
This work contains a characteristic element throughout Sze’s work, the use of smaller elements positioned collectively together. The squared panels that have been put together to create a sphere (see Fig.10) Sze allows for a deeper connection between audience and the sculpture by using everyday objects the viewers are familiar with. Using objects taken from lived in spaces to create a new environment that holds a familiar connection to the human material world makes the work accessible. A common ground. These works immerse the viewer, intricate and dense covering vast areas. Crowded yet expansive and organised. They create a pattern, give a sense that the sculpture could continue to grow and morph through the space just as humans change and grow ‘…the real way we experience objects – not in isolation but admits a plethora of information’ (Artspace, 2016). The quantity of objects within a space explores form and context is created by the information they hold together create a bigger picture.
Chapter S ix: The Documentation of Sculpture
The documentation and capturing of sculpture through paint and photography opens a new way to see sculpture itself. Sculptures domain is that of the physical. Alongside its audience it sits within a space. However, with documenting sculpture it becomes framed within the parameters of another medium.
The ‘Venus Urania- (1575) (See Fig 11) sculpture figure. Displayed within the gallery setting behind glass where an audience can view it in the round. The same sculpture is then captured within the ‘Portrait of Vincenzo Borgnini’ (1573) (see Fig 12). Vincenzo is shown holding the ‘Venus Urania’ in his hand. The sculpture has changed setting, now being held a sense of size and weight is given to the sculpture. Interaction with Vincenzo gives the sculpture less space, the object holds less power appearing as an figure that can be held (Wölfflin and Johnson, 2012)
Compared to Figure 11 where the sculpture stands on its own, the subject of the work not overshadowed and so conveys its story. ‘Such comparisons support and amplify what Rodin always suspected – same object, executed in different materials results in two completely different artworks’ (Johnson, 1998, p.83) Two different mediums were explored, the sculpted form of the ‘Venus Urania’ from bronze allows detail of the human form to be captured with a sense of realism. However, painted in oils the sculpture loses these details and instead, the interaction between sculpture and person becomes more apparent and so the meaning changes, resulting the sculpture being admired here as decoration. Displays of sculpture don’t often note their weight (Wölfflin and Johnson, 2012). The change in mediums also shows how new insights can be made about an artwork once placed in this different space.
Sculpture is also captured within photography. Most of the sculpture seen is from photographs within books or online. This causes sculpture to navigate in an unknown space. ‘The sculptor no
longer had any control over the images produced, works were now simply a motif amongst the others to be interpreted’ (Johnson, 1998, p.82).
Photographers had the power to frame the sculpture in their own perceived context adding a new one onto the work itself. Interaction of the viewer affecting the sculpture and the audiences understanding of space. Changing the context of a work changes our understanding of it.
The rise in digital elements within 21st Century culture, through phones, photography and the online space point towards sculpture exploring how it could be placed in these contexts more. The culture of capturing daily life through video and the increase in digital elements within art can give insight to how the art and space relationship through contemporary sculpture.
Conclusion
In conclusion the relationship between art and space has changed through different periods.
The ideal of realism and naturalism in Ancient Greek times differs from the modern. We are less afraid of the decay of something. Modern culture doesn’t dictate that everything must be perfect especially within art to have value. Imperfection can evoke reactions as the ideal does.
Art calls for an audience and when space is used as a subject within a work the audience's ability to interact allows for the work to hold more meaning. Interaction and focus on space allows for a deeper awareness of the body, how we take up space and how we interact with others. A sense of community or ownership over space or art relates to how each is presented.
Moore’s ‘Old Flo’ shows how art placed within a community can be forever linked and have a connection with that community.
When art is placed in an unfamiliar space it causes the original meaning of a work to be changed. Art adapts to the space it is in just as space adapts to frame a piece of work.
Architecture and sculpture parallels art and space. They are each able to frame the other and present each others adaptability.
Michelangelo’s David reflected the idyllic views within Ancient Greek culture to the contemporary example of Sarah Sze’s installation work we can see when a sculpture becomes closer to the viewer themselves a deeper understanding of the connection between art and space is achieved.
Sculpture intrinsically links art and space. One is not at play without the others. Contemporary art reflects this in more immersive ways and continues to play a key role in our understanding of the human experience.
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