Title: Crafting Éire: The Irish Arts and Crafts Movement and The Impact on Irish National Identity
Author: Aoife Cawley
Publication Year/Date: May 2024
Document Version: Fine Art Hons dissertation
License: CC-BY-NC-ND https://creativecommons.org/licenses/bync-nd/4.0/
DOI: https://doi.org/10.20933/100001303
Take down policy: If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim.
This dissertation explores the impact of the Irish Arts and Crafts movement (1886 to 1925) on the creation of the Irish national identity. The movement was set against the backdrop of a politically unstable time. Ireland was fighting for its freedom having been ruled by the British for centuries before. The many years of colonisation left the nation with no clear sense of identity and this movement seized the opportunity to carefully craft one. This dissertation will give a brief overview of the history of colonialism in Ireland. This is essential in understanding why there was a fragmented sense of identity and why there was a need to create one. The areas of stained glass and textiles, specifically An Túr Gloine and Dún Emer, are discussed in great detail about their involvement in the movement and the creation of the nation’s identity
I would like to thank my family and friends for all their support and encouragement throughout this degree and dissertation. I would also like to thank my supervisor, Dr Sandra Plummer, for all the guidance and support throughout the year.
In Ireland, the Arts & Crafts Movement lasted from 1886 until 1925. Although this period was shorter in duration when compared to English, American, and other European arts and crafts movements, this movement had a tremendous impact on Irish visual identity (Bowe, 1990).
Between 1886 and 1922 Ireland saw a growing interest in the nature and quality of design. In this period, the Irish Industries Association was established, and the Irish Free State was founded A national identification movement occurred, which was expressed through politics, literature, the resurgence of the Irish language, fashion, and music. The Arts and Crafts movement served as a powerful visual representation of the Celtic Revival that occurred at the close of the nineteenth century (Bowe, 1989). This movement promoted employment of Irish workers and sales of Irish product nationally and internationally. Ireland’s movement supported both participating artists and craftspeople and directed the nationalist political goals of the early twentieth century.
Political unrest was prevalent during this period, with key historical events in Ireland’s struggle for independence taking place alongside the arts and crafts movement. From 1870 until the end of the First World War, the nation sought "Home Rule" status, which led to the 1916 Rising and escalated into the War of Independence in 1921–1922. There was no clear consensus during this period of political unrest regarding the nature of Irish national identity, and many saw the pressing need to develop an expression of Irishness visually that could present a united image of the Irish nation. In years previous, the idea that Irish people lack a natural ability to express themselves artistically or to appreciate beautiful things like architecture, sculpture, and painting, was upheld and spread by British propaganda. In turbulent and changing times, music, language, folklore and tradition can be passed on orally but for the visual arts to thrive and endure, they require stability, leisure and more importantly, funding (Sheehy, 1973). While under British rule, the Irish experienced difficult social and economic issues, making it extremely difficult to create an identity that was expressed visually for themselves.
During the preparation for this dissertation, I conducted a literature review of the subject area through books and academic journals (see Bowe, Cullen, Daly, Forker, Griffith, Helmers, Kennedy, Hayes, Heckett, Kreilkamp, Pim, Shorthall, and Wilson, to name a few.). While Nicola Gordon Bowe has written extensively and informatively on the topic of the Arts and Crafts Movement, Harry Clarke, and An Túr Gloine, there is a lack of resources from other authors. It also proved difficult to find resources on the female figures involved in the movement despite the likes of Dún Emer and An Túr Gloine, two major collectives of the movement, being managed and run by women. Therefore, it can be said that this dissertation attempts to contribute to the gap in the subject and provides an original contribution to the University of Dundee, but also to the subject areas of the Irish Arts and Crafts Movement, Irish visual identity, and the history of women in Ireland.
This dissertation examines how Ireland was represented through its Arts and Crafts movement, with particular focus on the medium of stained glass through the collective An Túr Gloine and artist Harry Clarke. It also examines Dún Emer Guild and how their textile work expressed the idea of an Irish cultural identity. To understand both of these areas, political and historical context is essential. This is presented in chapter one.
It is often debated by scholars whether or not Ireland was a colony or a kingdom of Britain. Hovarth (1972) is of the belief that because Britain dominated Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, this isn’t considered colonisation as it is “intragroup” domination. According to Hovarth (1972, p.46) ‘intragroup’ domination occurs in a culturally homogenous society. It is worth noting that Hovarth’s opinion can be viewed as outdated due to the year in which the article was published and the advancement of post-colonialist theory since then. Pilkington and Ryder (2005) discuss this question in their essay “Was Ireland A Colony?” and come to no real definite conclusion. Montaño (2015) also mentions the unclear consensus amongst scholars, stating that these opinions usually describe Ireland as being both a colony and kingdom of Britain. Ohlmeyer (2016) is of the opinion that it was a colony and that Ireland was subject to the first structures, laws, and ethnocentric beliefs upheld by the British that were later exported to other British colonies. Rahman, Clarke and Byrne (2017) are also in agreement with this view, writing in their article on the British colonial model in Ireland and Canada: “Britain forced its way onto both lands through methods that included forced relocations of Indigenous peoples and legislating assimilation through penal laws in Ireland and the Indian Act in Canada” (Rahman, Clarke and Byrne,2017, p15).
The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries saw the English Crown seizing territory owned by the Irish and awarding it to British people. After Britain established English and Scottish Protestant communities in Ireland, the collapse of indigenous Irish institutions, such as clan-based political systems occurred (Gershon, 2022). These plantations, the largest of which was the Ulster plantation, permitted these settlers to claim the land of Gaelic Catholics. The plantations were viewed by the Crown as a tool for anglicising, subjugating, and "civilising" Gaelic Ireland. These plantations brought about significant changes in the economy, population, and land ownership, as well as centuries of ethnic and sectarian strife. According to Montaño (2015, p.282), London officials believed the best way to create order, encourage respect, and make money in Ireland was to alter Irish land by settling, dividing, rearranging, building, and using other control methods. These officials wanted to establish a distinctly English version of civil culture and eradicate the native Gaelic culture. By separating the two cultures, they hoped to eliminate the "degenerative effects" of the native Irish's language, customs, habits, and manners. Accounts were spread throughout Europe of the “barbaric and savage” native Irish. Many of these accounts came from people who had never been to Ireland and were also deriving these ideas from biased English sources.
In 1650, Cromwell defeated the Catholics and in 1691, William of Orange did the same. The "Penal Laws" were then implemented in 1695 that targeted the Catholic majority. There were numerous limitations imposed on Catholics in Ireland. The primary goal of the legislation was to deny Catholics their land, but they also imposed restrictions on their civil, political, and religious liberties. They weren't allowed to own guns, denied their right to vote, and couldn't hold public office. They were unable to run their own schools or send their children to study abroad. Ordinary clergy, bishops, and priests were also exiled (Kerr, 2001). These Penal Laws can be seen as another way the British attempted to eradicate Irish culture, language, and customs. English (2016) states that the application of the Penal Laws brought about emigration and widespread poverty throughout the island of Ireland, but it also strengthened the bonds among the people who stayed in Ireland and promoted nationalism. Although Irish MPs were introduced to Westminster by the Act of Union in 1800, the Catholic Irish people were not eligible to hold a place in office. Daniel O'Connell, a barrister and nationalist leader, founded the Catholic Association to advocate for increased political rights. His overwhelming victory in the 1828 County Clare by-election forced the government to enact the Catholic Emancipation Act, allowing Catholics to hold public office and serve as Members of
Parliament. Following this liberation, Ireland saw a surge in the construction of Catholic cathedrals and churches
Similar to the written accounts discussed earlier, throughout the nineteenth century, Ireland was also portrayed visually as a number of negative stereotypes that were illustrated in satires and political cartoons. These appeared in publications like "Punch", a weekly British publication of satirical cartoons, and other printed media. Many of these negative depictions had come from an English perspective and portrayed the Irish as an inferior race to the British and were often likened to that of neanderthal-like creatures (Cullen, 1997). Centuries after the Plantations, the idea that the Irish were “barbaric and savage” as a nation was still being perpetrated by the British. These cartoons were strategically designed to highlight British supremacy and Irish inferiority. “It seems that conceptions of the Irish and Irishness were constructed from multiple elements, most importantly ethnicity, class, and religion: the Irishman's negative qualities were inherent, almost unavoidable, and were produced by his Celtic inheritance, religion, and peasant status” (Forker 2012, p. 64). In the cartoon titled ‘Two Forces’ published by Punch in 1881 (Fig.1), it depicts the nation of Britain or ‘Britannia’, the Latin word for Britain, personified as a woman. She is stood tall and boldly in the opposition of an ape like man who is threatening the woman, while she consoles a distressed ‘Hibernia’(a personification of Ireland). Britannia is standing on a banner which reads “Land League” while she protects herself and Hibernia with a sword with the words “the law” engraved into the blade. Hibernia is afraid of the ape-like Irishman. He is dressed in ill-fitting and ragged clothes with a hat that reads ‘anarchy’. This cartoon implies that Britain is a civilised and strong nation while Ireland is weaker and relies on Britain for protection. The nation is under attack from its own inhabitants that are uncivilised and barbaric. This cartoon is referencing the nineteenth century political movement the Irish National Land League. This was a movement that sought for the abolition of landlordism and for the tenants of the farms to own the land in which they worked on. Majority of the tenants of these farms were Catholic.
The last decades of the 1800s saw a sharp increase in the movement for Irish independence within the United Kingdom. A third Home Rule measure, which did not appease many unionists and nationalists, was passed in September 1914 following the rejection of the bills in 1886 and 1893 by Parliament. This Home Rule bill was immediately suspended for a period of 12 months due to the outbreak of the first World War. Its implementation would eventually never happen due to the 1916 Easter Rising which created overwhelming support for an Irish republic after the execution of the revolution’s leaders. This led to the Irish War of Independence which concluded with the Anglo Irish Treaty in 1922. The treaty created the 26-county Irish Free State, which was given dominion status inside the British Empire (Wallenfeldt, J, 2023). Despite an end to the War of Independence, the signing of the Anglo Irish Treaty created a deep divide in Ireland, resulting in a civil war which lasted from 1922 to 1923. Ireland officially became a republic in 1949 while the six counties in the north of the country are still under British rule to this day.
During the turbulent political period when Ireland began evolving as a nation, it was left with a disjointed national identity and visual representation due to the British government's attempt to eliminate Irish culture for centuries prior (Griffith, et al., 2019). The process of developing a visual identity began with formulating Irish emblems. The most prevalent symbols that were accepted seemed to be the Irish wolfhound, the round tower, the harp, and probably the most well-known, the shamrock. Because the British government appropriated these Irish national symbols, nationalists wanted to avoid these. The use of harps and shamrocks in decorative art started to feel like "a shallow, sentimental, and ineffectual" nationalism (Sullivan, 2020, p. 239). A revived emphasis on applied arts, such as metalwork, tapestries, stained glass, and printed materials, occurred in the early 1900s. These works were created and produced for Catholic churches, government structures, and even private clients. Artists of the Arts and Crafts movement looked for themes in literature, mythology, and objects thought to have originated in pre-conquest Ireland. They were especially interested in items
created between the seventh and the twelfth centuries, which was known as the "golden age" of Irish art (Wilson, 2013). Objects from this era included the Book of Kells (fig. 2) and the Tara Brooch which are both heavily decorated with Celtic knotwork.
Like any Arts and Crafts movement of the time, the Irish one looked to English designer William Morris (1834–96) for inspiration. Morris himself had had been influenced by John Ruskin (1819–1900). Ruskin idealised the processes of the Middle Ages and contended that workers were enslaved to labour when no creative agency was allowed, and that aesthetic freedom was necessary to create true art.
The Irish Arts and Crafts movement began with lace and crochet industries. These textile industries thrived, even after a devastating nationwide famine which had left many families in extreme poverty. These industries provided women from all social classes with beneficial and fulfilling work in every region of the nation, which was especially important during the harsh winter months. It also came before the later home and art industries of the 1880s, which progressed on to wood, metal, weaving, and embroidering.
The Dublin Metropolitan School of Art was reorganised to provide exceptional design and craft teaching after the Irish Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction took over from London in 1900 (Bowe, 1988). Sarah Purser, a widely recognised painter, and Evelyn Gleeson, a carpet designer and artist, had both set up their own workshops, Dún Emer in 1902 (Gleeson) and An Túr Gloine in 1903 (Purser). These would then go on to be, arguably, the most successful workshops to come from the Arts and Crafts Movement.
The early twentieth-century Catholic Church had established itself as a major influence in Irish society via successful reform, standardisation, and development. The fact that 92.6% of people in the newly created Irish Free State were Catholic indicated that the state would have a Catholic identity (Kerr, 2001). Majority of the leaders in the Dáil identified as Catholic, therefore, the law reflected a Catholic moral perspective. Divorce was forbidden and publications deemed immoral were subject to censorship. Wilson (2013, p.14) states: “Since for many nationalists, Irishness had become integrally linked with Catholicism, in opposition to British Protestantism, the late nineteenth-century Church’s use of “Irish” symbols and motifs to decorate its buildings encouraged associations between nationhood and religion.” The church was encouraged to assume the role of a patron of a national artistic endeavour by ordering handcrafted pieces from Irish artists and craftspeople. This resulted in the Catholic Church funding the primary areas of the Arts and Crafts movement, i.e., stained glass windows, ecclesiastical textiles, metalwork, and woodwork.
In the previous chapter, it was identified that the Catholic Church saw an opportunity to merge Catholicism with Irish identity amid the political unrest and Irish Free State's formation. After the Catholic Emancipation in 1829, there was a large number of Catholic churches being erected. Large commercial organisations in France, England, and Germany were often commissioned to create stained glass windows for these Irish churches, regardless of their quality or appropriateness. These firms offered conveyor-belt designs, competitive prices but had no regard for the site, lighting, and the surroundings (Caron, Wynne, and Bowe, 2021). However, critics started to call on the Church to promote and foster the creation of high quality, Irish-made art by patronising artists instead of these larger industrial firms. These demands had much to do with the influence of the arts and crafts movement, whose main ethos was a rejection of industrialised, modern manufacturing methods and a desire to go back to production based on handicraft, individual creativity, and the use of high quality materials from local sources. Edward Martyn, a wealthy Catholic landowner and patron of the arts, was one of the most outspoken and insistent opponents of industrially or globally made stained glass in Irish churches (Griffith, Helmers and Kennedy, 2019). In order to create work but more importantly, mentor a new generation of young Irish craftsmen and women, Martyn made the decision to track down the most significant modern stained glass artist of the time, Christopher Whall, and attempted to convince him to come to Ireland. Even though Whall was very enthusiastic and supportive of Martyn’s mission, he was unable to give up on his own work in England. As a result, in July 1901, he assigned his "chief assistant" and "favourite pupil," A.E. Child, to take up the role of ‘Instructor of Stained Glass’ at the Dublin Metropolitan School of Art (Nicola Gordon Bowe, Caron and Wynne, 2021). Martyn also found support from Sarah Purser and in 1903, they made the decision to form a co-operative stained glass workshop in which they named An Túr Gloine (the Irish for the Tower of Glass). The best of the recently trained students could then start accepting commissions under Miss Purser's guidance and A.E. Child's supervision and instruction. Sarah Purser aimed for An Túr Gloine to create windows that reflected the Arts & Crafts movement, with the artists being a part of every part of the process, i.e., the materials used, designing the cartoon sketch, but also being the person to carry out the painting of the glass. It was also important to Purser to incorporate the finest elements of Celtic sculpture, jewellery, and illumination in a contemporary style (Bowe, 1989). After starting with a bank loan, the studio was able to cover overheads, materials, and the services of the artists thanks to investments made by Purser and Child.
The first major commission for An Túr Gloine came from St Brendan’s Cathedral in Loughrea, Co. Galway in 1903. This was for a two light Annunciation window, which Child painted but was derived from a design by Christopher Whall. Michael Healy was Purser's first recruit for An Túr Gloine. He painted an angel in the window during his apprenticeship and, in the following year, created his first original window for the cathedral. Its delicate painting and vibrant colouring in the Celto-Byzantine style proved his skill with stained glass instantly. Purser only ever created one public window which was for the porch in Loughrea, but she did offer advice on design elements on the other windows. Her primary responsibility was to act as the workshops unwavering protector and promoter, persistently seeking commissions for her artists and making sure the work was appropriately and fairly distributed always putting quality before profit. (Nicola Gordon Bowe, Caron and Wynne, 2021). She oversaw the orders, clients, glaziers, the operation of the workshop, and the recruitment of the artists. Between 1903 and 1912, she hired Beatrice Elvery, Wilhelmina Geddes, Ethel Rhind and Catherine O’Brien.
Purser began to display glass and mosaics created by her artists at An Túr Gloine at the third Arts and Crafts Society of Ireland exhibition, as well as at other significant domestic and international shows These works didn't start to garner critical acclaim until the Society's fourth exhibition. (Bowe, 2016).
By 1910, Ethel Rhind and Catherine O’Brien were commissioned to create work for the new ‘HibernoRomanesque’ Church of St Enda in Spiddal, Co. Galway. In O’Brien’s window depicting St. Michael, he is dressed in a green cloak of Celtic tradition, which is fastened on the shoulder with a form of Tara brooch. In the panel depicting St. Enda, the namesake of the church, the saint is also illustrated in similar Celtic fashion to St. Michael. In both glass windows, local landscapes are included, for example the church itself is included under St. Michael with the Galway Bay and the Hills of Clare behind it. A Gaelic type font is used by O’Brien for the inscriptions in her windows. In Rhind’s opus sectile (fig. 4), created by placing flat glass pieces in a mosaic and laying them in plaster, she uses a Gaelic type font and the Irish language to describe each station of the cross. Lord Killanin (1950) states: “The title under each station is in Irish, as befits a Gaeltacht church, and to my knowledge there are no inscriptions in English in the church; those not in Irish are in Latin.”
Healy and Elvery had also creatively blended figurative elements and calligraphy from early Christian and Irish Romanesque periods to create windows with a distinct charm and local significance. Wilhelmina Geddes also employed these composition elements. In her debut autonomous stained glass triptych, which was commissioned for Martyn by Purser, she depicts scenes from the life of St. Colman MacDuagh of Galway (fig.5). St. Colman MacDuagh was a hermit who spent his days praying and fasting, first living on Inis Mór and later in a cave in the Burren. Using visuals from the surviving ruins of the monastic community at Kilmacduagh, Geddes created illustrations of Colman wandering across the karst landscape as a bearded monk. This succeeds in depicting an authentic rugged Irish landscape, one more specific to the west of Ireland. Like her fellow collective members, Geddes also employs a Gaelic typeface to identify the saint. Through her stained glass, she demonstrates that she is visually aware of antiquarian study and that she is passionate about portraying this new information to viewers in contemporary times (Bowe, 2016).
Harry Clarke emerged as the most prominent and prolific artists of the Arts and Crafts Movement. Although, in 1905, Clarke was enrolled for Child’s night classes at the Dublin Metropolitan School of Art, he was the only artist of the movement to create stained glass who was not associated with An Túr Gloine. He had gained knowledge from his apprenticeship with his father's stained glass manufacturing and church decoration business, and had the opportunity to study medieval stained glass abroad in London and France. (Griffith, Helmers and Kennedy, 2019). Clarke created an extremely independent style that both referenced elements of the European avant-garde while upholding traditional conceptions of Irish culture. Many of his contemporaries believed that his elaborate detail and intricate form alluded to the complex and maze-like nature of Celtic art. This style set him apart from the work of British artists and resulted in a style that was simultaneously modern, Irish, and unexpectedly unique (Griffith, Helmers and Kennedy, 2019) From his early student work and onwards, collectors admired Clarke's inclusion of dramatic narrative aspects drawn from Celtic and Irish religious mythology and literature. Early in the twentieth century, cultural nationalists began to portray Ireland more as a Celtic society. They used this portrayal as a way to appropriate and reclaim the negative connotations the British gave the term “Celtic”. Wilson (2013, p.36) describes Clarke’s windows as “attenuated and hieratic aloof, mysterious, and exotic creatures inhabiting a liminal and timeless Celtic otherworld of magic and myth.”
According to Sheehy (1973), the Honan Chapel is often referred to as an essential component of the Irish Arts and Crafts movement and serves as an excellent example of the Celtic Revival's influence on the movement. Built in 1916, an overall Celtic Revival style was used in the design and in the furnishings of the Honan Chapel The interior was made up of works that aimed to capture the spirit of a new Ireland (Dunleavy, 2004). Clarke was initially commissioned to make the west window for the Chapel. These three windows were to depict Ireland’s three patron saints, Patrick, Brigid, and Colm Cille. The design for the St Brigid window that Clarke submitted received a great response So much so, that he was then asked to create the two chancel windows and the five nave windows in the
Chapel, which would honour Munster's patron saints. Choosing saints linked with the province of Munster and the locale of Cork, John O'Connell's (the architect and designer) selection of saints for the church was a statement of Irishness (Griffiths, et al., 2019). Expecting to receive the full commission for her artists at An Túr Gloine, Purser was disappointed to receive only eight windows while Clarke received a total of eleven (Bowe, 2016).
Clarke's portrayal of these saints reveals a deep knowledge of religious iconography and history. As a way to prepare for the design of the St. Brigid window, he analysed legends and stories surrounding her life in the Leabhar Breac and the Book of Lismore (Hayes, 2014). In the Brigid window (fig. 6), she is clad in a deep blue robe with accompanying cloak, and a white headpiece adorned with spirals. Clarke’s use of blue is intentional, as St. Brigid is often referred to as “Mary of the Gaels”. Throughout art history, it was typical for artists to dress the Virgin Mary in blue, intertwining her identity with the colour. Brigid was held in the same regard as Aodh de Blacam in the Irish Monthly (1939, p.577) wrote; “Every nun, taking Mary as part of her name in religion, seeks to be another Mary, however humbly; and those who called Brigid Mary of the Gael signified that she succeeded in that holy aspiration beyond all other religious women of Ireland.” There is also an abundance of blue used in the St. Ita window. Clarke dresses Ita in a deep royal blue robe as she was commonly known as “Brigid of Munster”.
In the Brigid window, a calf stands at her side. This is representative of her patronage being for livestock and dairy workers. She carries a statue in her left hand of her church in Kildare. St. Brigid is accredited with establishing Kildare by building her double monastery there. It was once a major site of Christian importance and the location for many of her miracles. While the St. Brigid cross, a common symbol associated with the saint, does not explicitly feature in this window, Clarke does create a reference to it in the background of the glass. St. Brigid crosses are weaved from straw or rushes and the background design is made up of sheaths of wheat. While the depiction of St. Brigid is the only window that is discussed in this chapter, the other ten windows in the Honan Chapel by Clarke also show his extensive knowledge in hagiography and symbolism of Irish saints.
It is evident that Sarah Purser, the artists at An Túr Gloine, and Harry Clarke all influenced the creation of the visual identity through their stained glass artistry. They succeeded in creating a distinctly Irishstyle and bringing relatable imagery to life.
Textiles had a huge part to play in the Irish Arts and Crafts movement. During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, textiles provided an opportunity for women with a wide range of educational backgrounds and financial statuses to significantly impact design and craft industries, especially in rural areas (Bowe, 1989).
Dún Emer Industries was established in 1902 by Evelyn Gleeson, and sisters Susan and Elizabeth Yeats (often referred to as Lily and Lolly). This project was born out of a sense of nationalism, an interest in the textiles industry, and the aim for the emancipation of women, which were all shared by the three founders. Gleeson had worked in London as a portrait artist but also had trained under Alexander Miller, a follower of William Morris, for six months (Larmour, 1984). Gleeson was inspired by the ideals of Morris which was focusing on the importance of beauty and the creative impulse rather than forcing those in poverty to manufacture goods so that the wealthy could purchase them (Pim, 1985). Gleeson had a deep interest in Irish affairs and met the Yeats family and the Irish creative community in London while being a member of the Irish Literary Society and the Gaelic League (Devine, 2009). Due to illhealth, she decided to move from London to back Ireland but was also encouraged and financially supported by friend, Augustine Henry, to actively participate in the Irish Renaissance and Irish women's emancipation by opening a craft centre (Devine, 2009).
In 1902, Gleeson approached Susan and Elizabeth Yeats and invited the sisters to join her on the endeavour. Susan, also known as Lily, had trained under May Morris, daughter of William Morris, as an embroideress, while Elizabeth, qualified as a teacher and had given professional lectures and teachings on art before becoming a housekeeper for her family (Devine, 2009). By 1902, Gleeson began renting a house in Dundrum, Co. Dublin that was originally called Runnymede. Gleeson also acquired a printing press for Elizabeth Yeats, as well as two weaving teachers and a couple of local women to take on as trainees for the business (Bowe, 1989). Two individuals at a time were trained by Elizabeth on an Albion printing press, where they learned type setting, typography, composition, and ink rolling. They also assisted in the hand painting of prints and other printed materials. Leading the needlework department and also serving as an instructor was Susan. The trainees at Dún Emer were also given instructions in Irish by Susan L. Mitchell (Daly, 2020).
The women decided that their business needed a more appropriate name and in line with Celtic Revivalist fashion, they chose Dún Emer. The name, which translates from Irish as Emer’s Fort, came from Irish mythology. Emer, who was the wife of epic hero Cú Chulainn of Ulster Cycle fame, was known for her skills in needlework and the domestic arts. (Larmour, 1984). The legend of Cú Chulainn in particular had become popular among other visual artists and craftsmen of the time, but also with those who were involved in the literary revival. For example, the very successful poet W.B Yeats, who was the brother of Elizabeth and Susan, used both Cú Chulainn and Emer in his poems, for example, “The Death of Cuchulain” and “The Only Jealousy of Emer” (Shortall, 2022).
In 1903, Gleeson released a prospectus for Dún Emer which presented the company with a social and political mission. It also developed a business plan aimed at preparing workers for an as-yet-unrealised future in which women would have professional prospects, financial freedom, and a voice in the workplace (Ní Bheacháin, 2023).
“A wish to find work for Irish hands in the making of beautiful things…” (Gleeson, 1903)
The three founder’s nationalist views, combined with their feminist ideals, fuelled the desire to construct an organisation for the creative training and employment of young women. Overall, all of the employees at Dún Emer Industries were female. They gave opportunities for careers to recently graduated girls and young women, some of whom were in their early teens, even though they had no
prior training or experience. The firm expanded gradually, as documented by the staff-compiled internal magazine "Leabhar Dún Eimire," which records thirteen girls in employment in 1912, but by 1905, there were a total of thirty (Daly, 2020). There are also records of women progressing on from their training at Dún Emer and becoming teachers of their craft. May Kerley was one of these women who then went on to found the Glenbeigh Carpet and Rug Industry with the skills she had learned at Dún Emer (Paterson, 2004).
Dún Emer Industries followed the same objectives of the English Arts and Crafts movement, which included: bringing beautiful things into the reach of the general public; turning the house into a point of interest and attraction; reducing the migration of workers from rural to urban areas; rejuvenating the village's industries; and providing training in the arts and handicrafts (Paterson, 2004). Gleeson (1903) outlines the same ideals, stating:
“Things made of pure materials, worked by these Irish girls must be more lasting and more valuable than machine-made goods which only serve a temporary purpose. All the things made at Dun Emer are beautiful in the sense that they are instinct with individual feeling and have cost thought and care.”
It is also mentioned in this prospectus that the embroidery work that is created at Dún Emer is medieval in style, which was revived by William Morris himself Materials that are used in the business are also highlighted, with the importance being on those of Irish origin. Gleeson also claims that the designs being created by Dún Emer give off a sense of Irishness.
“Everything as far as possible, is Irish: the paper of the books, the linen of the embroidery and the wool of the tapestry and carpets. The designs are also of the spirit and tradition of the country.” – Gleeson, 1903.
This section from the prospectus reflects the Nationalist view that the business had. As discussed previously in chapters 1 and 2, a major characteristic of the Irish Arts and Crafts Movement was the use of Irish materials. It was also important to the movement to create work that embodies Ireland and Irishness, and it is evident from the above quote that Dún Emer Industries was also in consensus with this idea. The guild made the connection between the craft revival and the Irish Revivalists' advocacy of economic self-sufficiency and social self-awareness as requirements for Ireland's prosperity in international markets (Paterson, 2004).
Following the implementation of the Penal Laws in the seventeenth century, there were numerous limitations imposed on Catholics in Ireland. But after the Catholic Emancipation in 1829, there was a resurgence of Catholicism and Ireland saw a surge in the construction of Catholic cathedrals and churches (Hayes, 2022). This created a need for skilled artists and craftspeople to decorate these new churches, which has been discussed in terms of stained glass in chapter two. But with all these churches, there needed to be textiles, for example: altar covers, chasubles, banners, etc. The most well-known ecclesiastical items made by Dún Emer were the 24 embroidered banners of saints for St Brendan’s Cathedral in Loughrea, Co Galway, and the altar furnishings for the Honan Chapel, Co. Cork. Both of these churches also used An Túr Gloine and Harry Clarke to create their stained glass windows.
The embroidered banners for St Brendan’s Cathedral were made in 1903 and mostly featured Irish saints. They were designed by Jack B. Yeats, Mary Cottenham Yeats, George William Russell (AE), and Pamela Colman Smith. The saints were embroidered by Lily Yeats while her assistants worked on the backgrounds of the banners. They were created from silk and wool embroidery on Irish linen (Shortall, 2023,a). These banners create a folk art effect by using simple compositions with brightly coloured flat areas enveloped by thick lines. This style pays homage to the primitivism of the era and the idea of the Irish peasant as a representative of "true" Irish values and culture (Wilson, 2013). The use of
Gaelic typeface and titling the saints in the Irish language enhance the banners’ sense of place and “gaelicisation”. These banners also demonstrate the research put into each saint by Dún Emer and their collaborators. In the banner depicting St. Kevin, it illustrates the legend of the saint being so still while in one of his meditative states, that birds would land in his hand, build a nest, and lay eggs. The banner features numerous avian species and more specifically blackbirds surrounding St. Kevin. Blackbirds are a common attribute to the saint seeing as they are one of his patronages. The banner also features the shore of Glendalough in the background. This is where the saint set up his monastery. The inclusion of the landscape in some of the banners further adds to the sense of place.
In the banner depicting St. Jarlath, it depicts an elderly man standing beside a horse and cart. The wheel of the cart is broken. This banner is depicting a legend in which St. Brendan, one of Jarlath’s pupils, directed him to take a newly built cart and to travel until the wheels broke. This would lead him to the place of his “resurrection” and to many others after him. The cart didn’t take him far as the wheel broke in Tuam. This banner illustrates this legend further highlighting the depth of research in folklore and legend carried out by the designers and makers of Dún Emer.
In an edition of The Irish Monthly published in 1904, N. O’M (full name not available) writes a review of the banners saying:
“There is nothing of the conventional style about them, each figure being true to the traditions of the times in which the saint lived; so that perhaps to the untutored eye some of the figures might seem more quaint than beautiful in the ordinary sense-just as some people will prefer the conventional modern drawing-room style of picture to the work of the old masters. But one quickly realises that these saintly little mediaeval figures carry with them the real atmosphere and feeling of Ancient Ireland, the Island of Saints, and the ordinary style of church banner soon becomes common-place and uninteresting by comparison.” (O’M., 1904, p. 167)
The quote above describes the banners and figures as medieval. This highlights the influence of William Morris and John Ruskin on the textile work of Dún Emer. Evelyn Gleeson had already stated in the Dún Emer prospectus that the work produced from the guild would follow a medieval style and the ‘Virgin Mary With Child Jesus’ banner demonstrates this. The banner features a heavily decorated border of vines, leaves, and fruit. This form of ornamentation is very typical of a medieval illuminated manuscript. The floral display at the foot of Mary’s throne also works in tandem with the border to portray an almost ‘millefleur’ effect. Millefleur (literally translating from French as “thousand flowers”) was a common background style used in tapestries from the Middle Ages. This style was revitalised by William Morris in his own tapestry designs. The banner also shows another example of the gaelicisation of the figures by giving Mary and the infant Jesus red hair. The clothes that the infant Jesus is wearing is very similar to those that a “Child of Prague” statue would be wearing. The Child of Prague is an popular statue in Ireland and there is strong belief that devotion to the statue will bring good luck and good weather. This detail further adds to the “Irishness” of the banner.
Nationalists of the nineteenth century considered Ireland’s early middle ages, which was termed the “Irish Golden Age'', as a period of great cultural accomplishment. The Book of Kells has been hailed as Ireland's finest illuminated manuscript and provided a source of inspiration for the altar furnishings for the Honan Chapel in Cork. The workers at Dún Emer Industries made use of the motifs from the Book of Kells and combined them with depictions of local early Irish saints (Kreilkamp, 2016). Dún Emer provided the Honan Chapel with embroidered altar frontals, dossals, seating cushions, banners, and weaved carpets. The altar frontals and dossals were utilised in accordance with the appropriate Liturgical calendar events and were matched with the vestments that were made for the chapel by William Egan and Sons (Heckett, 2000). For instance, there is a black set that is used for the Annual Founders Mass, which is customarily held during the third week of October. It serves as the Honan
family's ceremonial monument. A white antependium with blue appliqué panels and embroidery was created specifically for the Blessed Virgin Mary's feast days. In the panels, red-headed Irish angels are seen helping and showing their respect for Mary and her baby. The depictions of the angels in red hair show how the workers at Dún Emer set out to “gaelicise” scenes from the Bible. This can also be seen in the saints chosen to decorate the central ensemble of the frontal. The three patron saints of Ireland, Patrick, Brigid, and Colm Cille, are embroidered alongside three medieval saints local to Munster, Ita, Finnbar, and Colman. However, Brigid's noticeable placement beside Christ and the decision to include Saint Ita seem to convey the designers' subtle feminist ideals on behalf of Dún Emer's seamstresses (Kreilkamp, 2016).
Writing in the Irish Monthly in June, 1934, T.F Ryan states: “The Dun Emer Guild has undoubtedly raised the standard of church vestments in Ireland, just as it has raised the standard of altar carpets, but no workers have come into the field with skill equal to that of the members of the Guild…”
In Ireland, the early 1900s were plagued by uncertainty over the precise definition of Irish identity. The resurgence of Irish art and literature during this time was intended to provide a genuinely Irish response to this dilemma. This Arts and Crafts movement being set against the backdrop of a politically turbulent time created an opportunity for there to be a tremendous impact on the visual identity of Ireland. The political history of Ireland is complex but it is a crucial element in understanding the missing period of visual history and why the Arts and Crafts movement looked to the pre-colonial past of Ireland for inspiration in their work. The implementation of colonialism in Ireland created a standstill in visual expression as the Irish had challenging social and economic conditions during their time under British rule. The Irish people had to overcome the negative stereotypes that were seen in political cartoons and establish themselves as a nation more than capable of expressing themselves in language, music, literature, and in particular to this dissertation, in the arts and crafts. The Irish Arts and Crafts movement guided the early twentieth-century nationalist political objectives by crafting a visual identity for Ireland, supporting Irish product sales both domestically and abroad, as well as the employment of Irish labourers
The work of An Túr Gloine, Harry Clarke, and Dún Emer was successful in achieving the movement's goals of producing high quality craftwork but it also achieved a distinctively Irish style and bringing to life the imagery that Irish people could relate to. The inspiration for many of the motifs seen in the art and craftwork coming from mythological, folkloric, and historic contexts is a strong display of pride in the nation's culture. Through these works, we are reminded of the ‘golden age’ of Ireland and the beautiful intricate Celtic knotwork of the Book of Kells or of items such as the Tara Brooch. These motifs weave themselves into the work of the movement and develop into a recognisable “Irish” or “gaelicised” style. These depictions of saints also merge together Catholic faith with Celtic traditions and mythology of the past, creating a unique expression of identity through the stained glass and textiles. It also is a physical indicator of the involvement of the church in the formation of Ireland’s identity.
The artistic contribution of the Arts and Crafts movement to the Irish national identity is significant because it places the movement in a historical context characterised by changing and complicated power dynamics. The movement persevered in being committed to Irish artists' professional growth, employment opportunities, and artistic education while also creating a brand new visual identity for the nation. It provided a response to the pressures of modernization, postcolonialism, and political and social transformation.
‘Mise Eire?: Shaping A Nation Through Design’, a conference at the National Museum of Ireland, (2016). RTÉ Radio 1 Available at: https://www.rte.ie/radio/radio1/clips/21082104/ [Accessed 21 Oct. 2023].
Alter, P. (1974). Symbols of Irish Nationalism. Studia Hibernica, [online] (14), pp.104–123. Available at:
https://www.jstor.org/stable/20496051?searchText=&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQ uery%3Dbritish%2Bcolonisation%2Bof%2Bireland&ab_segments=0%2Fbasic_search_gsv2%2Fcontro l&searchKey=&refreqid=fastly-default%3A979aa1b39ad98dbaeaf1c087e22154da&seq=17 [Accessed 21 Nov. 2023].
Anon (500AD). Book of Kells. Available at: https://www.visittrinity.ie/blog/stunning-eastersymbolism-in-the-book-of-kells/ [Accessed 26 Dec. 2023].
Arthur, P. and Cowell-Meyers, K. (2019). Irish Republican Army. In: Encyclopædia Britannica. [online]
Available at: https://www.britannica.com/topic/Irish-Republican-Army.
Baskin, L.U. (1987). A Gathering from the Dun Emer Press & the Cuala Press. The Massachusetts Review, [online] 28(3), pp.525–548. Available at:
https://www.jstor.org/stable/25089906?searchText=&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQ uery%3Ddun%2Bemer&ab_segments=0%2Fbasic_search_gsv2%2Fcontrol&searchKey=&refreqid=fas tly-default%3A003054f63a2b6f3e97e7d98392fbe3a0&seq=3 [Accessed 20 Oct. 2023].
Bowe, N.G. (1987). Wilhelmina Geddes. Irish Arts Review (1984-1987), [online] 4(3), pp.53–59. Available at:
https://www.jstor.org/stable/20492006?searchText=&searchUri=&ab_segments=&searchKey=&refr eqid=fastly-default%3A3234614db233c2dcf2069a30153d834a [Accessed 28 Oct. 2023].
Bowe, N.G. (1988). Wilhelmina Geddes, Harry Clarke, and Their Part in the Arts and Crafts Movement in Ireland. The Journal of Decorative and Propaganda Arts, 8(8), p.58. doi:https://doi.org/10.2307/1503970.
Bowe, N.G. (1989). Two Early Twentieth-Century Irish Arts and Crafts Workshops in Context: An Túr Gloine and the Dun Emer Guild and Industries. Journal of Design History, [online] 2(2/3), pp.193–206.Available at:
https://www.jstor.org/stable/1315808?searchText=&searchUri=&ab_segments=&searchKey=&refre qid=fastly-default%3A053caf7b4f0c39ba2a0952549e358f7b&seq=8 [Accessed 19 Oct. 2023].
Bowe, N.G. (1994). Imagining an Irish past: The Celtic Revival 1840-1940. Irish Arts Review Yearbook, [online] 10(10), pp.106–107. Available at:
https://www.jstor.org/stable/20492772?searchText=&searchUri=&ab_segments=&searchKey=&refr eqid=fastly-default%3Adf1299c3136f098a39e8bf15b58b11e4 [Accessed 27 Oct. 2023].
Bowe, N.G. (2016). The Jewel in the Crown: the Art of Stained Glass in the Irish Arts and Crafts Movement, 1903-30. In: The Arts and Crafts Movement: Making It Irish. University of Chicago Press.
Bowe, N.G. and Cumming, E. (1998). The Arts and Crafts Movements in Dublin & Edinburgh. Irish Academic Press.
Caron, D., Wynne, M. and Bowe, N.G. (2021). Gazetteer of Irish stained glass : the works of Harry Clarke, the artists of An Túr Gloine (The Tower of Glass) and artists of succeeding generations to the present day. Newbridge, Co. Kildare, Ireland: Irish Academic Press.
Cullen, F. (1997). Visual Politics. Cork University Press.
Curran, C.P. (1942). Michael Healy: Stained Glass Worker 1873-1941. Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review, [online] 31(121), pp.65–82. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/30098024 [Accessed 27 Oct. 2023].
Daly, C. (2020). Women of the Cuala Press. [online] Research Collections at Trinity. Available at: https://www.tcd.ie/library/manuscripts/blog/2020/12/women-of-the-cuala-press/ [Accessed 20 Oct. 2023].
Davis, T. (1843). Our National Language. [online] celt.ucc.ie. Available at: https://celt.ucc.ie/published/E800002-035.html.
de Blacam, A. (1939). Mary of the Gael. The Irish Monthly, [online] 67(794), pp.577–586. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/20514580 [Accessed 18 Nov. 2023].
Devine, R. (2009a). Gleeson, Evelyn | Dictionary of Irish Biography. [online] www.dib.ie. Available at: https://www.dib.ie/biography/gleeson-evelyn-a3491 [Accessed 19 Oct. 2023].
Devine, R. (2009b). Rhind, Ethel | Dictionary of Irish Biography. [online] www.dib.ie. Available at:
https://www.dib.ie/biography/rhind-ethel-a7651 [Accessed 27 Oct. 2023].
Dunleavy, M. (2004). Introduction. In: V. Teehan and E.W. Heckett, eds., The Honan Chapel: A Golden Vision. Cork University Press, pp.1–17.
English, R. (2011). History and Irish nationalism. Irish Historical Studies, [online] 37(147), pp.447–460. Available at:
https://www.jstor.org/stable/41414839?searchText=&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQ uery%3Dbritish%2Bcolonisation%2Bof%2Bireland&ab_segments=0%2Fbasic_search_gsv2%2Fcontro l&searchKey=&refreqid=fastly-default%3A7f305e272592617df8b4025e9fa6304f [Accessed 21 Nov. 2023].
English, S. (2016). From Oppression to Nationalism: The Irish Penal Laws of 1695. From Oppression to nationalism: The Irish Penal Laws of 1695, [online] 14. Available at: https://hilo.hawaii.edu/campuscenter/hohonu/volumes/documents/FromOppressiontoNationalismTheIrishPenalLawsof1695SamanthaHowell.pdf.
Finan, T. (1990). A Poet in Glass. The Furrow, [online] 41(3), pp.147–155. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/27661704?seq=9 [Accessed 21 Nov. 2023].
Forker, M. (2012). The use of the ‘cartoonist’s armoury’ in manipulating public opinion: anti-Irish imagery in 19th century British and American periodicals. Journal of Irish Studies, [online] 27, pp.58–71. Available at:
https://www.jstor.org/stable/41932626?searchText=the+irish+peasant+in+art&searchUri=%2Factio n%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Dthe%2Birish%2Bpeasant%2Bin%2Bart&ab_segments=0%2Fbasic_ search_gsv2%2Fcontrol&refreqid=fastly-default%3Aeac67f0d0b7dfd6117be8ac21a8e4d26 [Accessed 29 Nov. 2023].
Fowler, C. (2019). Transatlantic Textiles: Ireland’s Dun Emer Textiles in America During the First Decade of the Twentieth Century. Textile History, 50(2), pp.163–186. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/00404969.2019.1646622.
Garvin, T. (2006). National Identity in Ireland. Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review, [online] 95(379), pp.241–250. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/30095838 [Accessed 16 Mar. 2023].
Gershon, L. (2022). Britain’s Blueprint for Colonialism: Made in Ireland. [online] JSTOR Daily. Available at: https://daily.jstor.org/britains-blueprint-for-colonialism-made-in-ireland/.
Gleeson, E. (1903). 1903 Prospectus. [online] sites.pitt.edu. Available at: https://sites.pitt.edu/~jkna/DunEmer/Industries.html [Accessed 20 Oct. 2023].
Griffith, A., Helmers, M.H. and Roisin Askale Kennedy (2019). Harry Clarke and artistic visions of the new Irish state. Kildare: Irish Academic Press.
Hayes, M. (2014). Seeing ourselves in stained glass - a comparative study of nineteenth and twentieth-century Irish stained glass. [online] dspace.mic.ul.ie. Available at: https://dspace.mic.ul.ie/handle/10395/2061 [Accessed 29 Oct. 2023].
Hayes, M. (2022). The Visual Representation of the Crown of Thorns Motif in Irish Stained Glass: A Symbol of Universal Suffering for the Catholic Revival in France and Ireland in the Early Twentieth Century. Religions, 13(7), p.588. doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13070588.
Heckett, E.W. (2000). Heavens Embroidered Cloths - textiles from the Honan Chapel University College Cork, Ireland . [online] University College Cork. Available at: https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1795&context=tsaconf.
Horvath, R.J. (1972). A Definition of Colonialism. Current Anthropology, [online] 13(1), pp.45–57. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/2741072?seq=1.
John Patrick Montaño (2011). The Roots of English Colonialism in Ireland. [online] EBSCOhost. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Available at: https://web.p.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=0&sid=e8e80c32-e075-440a-a73cf7475428c5b8%40redis&bdata=JmF1dGh0eXBlPXNoaWImc2l0ZT1laG9zdC1saXZlJnNjb3BlPXNpdGU% 3d#AN=435253&db=nlebk [Accessed 7 Nov. 2023].
Kerr, D.A. (2001). The Catholic Church and National States in the 19 th and 20 th Centuries: The Case of Ireland. Kirchliche Zeitgeschichte, [online] 14(1), pp.96–111. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/43100024?searchText=british+colonisation+of+ireland&searchUri=%2 Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Dbritish%2Bcolonisation%2Bof%2Bireland&ab_segments=0% 2Fbasic_search_gsv2%2Fcontrol&refreqid=fastlydefault%3A991f1969210e66e3e336382ce7bb3d81&seq=2 [Accessed 21 Nov. 2023].
Killanin, L. (1950). St. Enda’s, Spiddal – Cumann Forbartha Chois Fharraige. [online] Cumann Forbartha Chois Fharraige. Available at: https://www.coisfharraige.ie/cumann-forbartha/stair-choisfharraige/st-endas-spiddal-by-lord-killanin/ [Accessed 27 Oct. 2023].
Kreilkamp, V. (2016). The arts and crafts movement : making it Irish. Verlag: Chestnut Hill, Ma: Mcmullen Museum Of Art, Boston College.
Larmour, P. (1984). The Dun Emer Guild. Irish Arts Review (1984-1987), [online] 1(4), pp.24–28. Available at:
https://www.jstor.org/stable/20491681?searchText=dun+emer&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSe arch%3FQuery%3Ddun%2Bemer&ab_segments=0%2Fbasic_search_gsv2%2Fcontrol&refreqid=fastly -default%3A479df1f62ab747cd8e83a070eb54a2ec [Accessed 19 Oct. 2023].
Lloyd, D. (1989). WRITING IN THE SHIT: BECKETT, NATIONALISM, AND THE COLONIAL SUBJECT on JSTOR. [online] www.jstor.org. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/26282983?seq=7 [Accessed 22 Nov. 2023].
Lyons, P., Maley, W. and Miller, J. (2013). Romantic Ireland. Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
McBrinn, J. (2016). Wilhelmina Geddes: Life and Work. The Journal of Modern Craft, 9(1), pp.109–112. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/17496772.2016.1183949.
McCaffrey, L.J. (1973). Irish Nationalism and Irish Catholicism: A Study In Cultural Identity. Church History, 42(4), pp.524–534. doi:https://doi.org/10.2307/3164971.
McCormick, T. (2013). The Roots of English Colonialism in Ireland. By John Patrick Montaño. Critical Perspectives on Empire. Edited by Catherine Hall, Mrinalini Sinha, and Kathleen Wilson.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011. Pp. xiv+426. $99.00. The Journal of Modern History, 85(3), pp.676–678. doi:https://doi.org/10.1086/670840.
McGrath, C.I. (1996). Securing the Protestant Interest: The Origins and Purpose of the Penal Laws of 1695. Irish Historical Studies, [online] 30(117), pp.25–46. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/30008727?searchText=the+penal+laws&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoB asicSearch%3FQuery%3Dthe%2Bpenal%2Blaws&ab_segments=0%2Fbasic_search_gsv2%2Fcontrol& refreqid=fastly-default%3Ade12e1b70c7b9ea16bb441947ba49de7 [Accessed 21 Nov. 2023].
Montaño, J.P. (2015). Roots of English Colonialism in Ireland. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ Press.
Murphy, J.H. and FitzSimon, B.T. (2004). Introduction [to The Irish Revival Reappraised]. [online] edepositireland.ie. Available at: http://edepositireland.ie/handle/2262/94473 [Accessed 30 Oct. 2023].
National Gallery of Ireland (1904). An Túr Gloine stained glass studio https://www.researchgate.net/figure/An-Tur-Gloine-stained-glass-studio-c-1904-photographNational-Gallery-of-Ireland-ESB_fig3_333580311
Ní Bheacháin, C. (2023). How Dun Emer created a utopian space for Irish women. www.rte.ie [online] Available at: https://www.rte.ie/brainstorm/2023/0504/1380739-dun-emer-guild-evelyngleeson-elizabeth-lily-yeats-history-business/ [Accessed 21 Oct. 2023].
Nie, M. de (2004). The Eternal Paddy: Irish Identity and the British Press, 1798–1882. [online] Google Books. Univ of Wisconsin Press. Available at: https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=puT1kI5bBgC&oi=fnd&pg=PP12&dq=irish+identity&ots=wCZ2HPc6nN&sig=55TH-ktdbjpUrsUbS5jV6OcrJE#v=onepage&q=irish%20identity&f=false [Accessed 30 Oct. 2023].
O’M., N. (1904). Celtic Church Banners. The Irish Monthly, [online] 32(369), pp.167–168. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/20500582?searchText=celtic+church+banners&searchUri=%2Faction% 2FdoBasicSearch%3FQuery%3Dceltic%2Bchurch%2Bbanners&ab_segments=0%2Fbasic_search_gsv2 %2Fcontrol&refreqid=fastly-default%3Abe338e28a8bcf8a6746cdfb9230c0c6e [Accessed 29 Nov. 2023].
O’Riordan, S. (1951). The Cult of Saint Brigid. The Furrow, [online] 2(2), pp.88–93. Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/27655719?searchText=&searchUri=&ab_segments=&searchKey=&refr eqid=fastly-default%3Aae6cc12947e203c558276bb3cd9c9a0d&seq=3 [Accessed 18 Nov. 2023].
Ohlmeyer, J. (2020). Ireland has yet to come to terms with its imperial past. [online] The Irish Times. Available at: https://www.irishtimes.com/opinion/ireland-has-yet-to-come-to-terms-with-itsimperial-past-1.4444146.
Paterson, E.C. (2004). Crafting a national identity: the Dun Emer Guild, 1902-8. [online] edepositireland.ie. Available at: http://edepositireland.ie/handle/2262/94487 [Accessed 22 Oct. 2023].
Pilkington, L. and Ryder, S. (2005). Title Defining Colony and Empire in 19th-Century Irish Nationalism. [online] Available at: https://aran.library.nuigalway.ie/bitstream/handle/10379/4767/4767.pdf?sequence=4&isAllowed=y [Accessed 22 Nov. 2023].
Pim, S. (1985). Dun Emer: The Origins. Irish Arts Review (1984-1987), [online] 2(2), pp.18–22.
Available at:
https://www.jstor.org/stable/20491755?searchText=&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQ uery%3Ddun%2Bemer&ab_segments=0%2Fbasic_search_gsv2%2Fcontrol&searchKey=&refreqid=fas tly-default%3Ac99e0470d2bf0930cae6b0c78546363d [Accessed 19 Oct. 2023].
Punch (1881). Two Forces. Available at: https://magazine.punch.co.uk/image/I0000ryzt9UZ0tWE [Accessed 26 Dec. 2023].
Rahman, A., Clarke, M.A. and Byrne, S. (2017). The Art of Breaking People Down: The British Colonial Model in Ireland and Canada. Peace Research, [online] 49(2), pp.15–38. Available at:
https://www.jstor.org/stable/44779905?mag=britains-blueprint-for-colonialism-made-in-ireland.
Ryan, T.F. (1934). Ecclesiastical Art in Ireland. The Irish Monthly, [online] 62(732), pp.333–343.
Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/43655219 [Accessed 25 Oct. 2023].
Sheehy, J. and Mott, G. (1973). The rediscovery of Ireland’s past : the Celtic revival, 1830-1930 London: Thames And Hudson.
Shortall, B. (2020). The story behind Ireland’s 1931 gift of a carpet to the pope. www.rte.ie. [online] Available at: https://www.rte.ie/brainstorm/2020/0625/1149550-popes-carpet-ireland-1931/ [Accessed 21 Oct. 2023].
Shortall, B. (2022). Cuala Press. Names matter. [online] Research Collections at Trinity. Available at: https://www.tcd.ie/library/manuscripts/blog/2022/09/cuala-press-names-matter/ [Accessed 20 Oct. 2023].
Shortall, B. (2023a). St Brigid at home and on tour with Cuala. [online] www.tcd.ie. Available at: https://www.tcd.ie/news_events/articles/2023/st-brigid-at-home-and-on-tour-with-cuala-/.
Shortall, B. (2023b). The politics of art and crafts in Free State Ireland. www.rte.ie. [online] Available at: https://www.rte.ie/brainstorm/2023/0814/1399657-ireland-arts-crafts-free-state-cuture-dunemer/ [Accessed 21 Oct. 2023].
Sullivan, K. (2020). Modernist Heresies: Irish Visual Culture and the Arts and Crafts Movement. Edinburgh University Press eBooks, [online] pp.234–251. doi:https://doi.org/10.3366/edinburgh/9781474456692.003.0013.
Teehan, V. (2016). Celtic renaissance. Irish Arts Review (2002-), [online] 33(1), pp.80–81. Available at:
https://www.jstor.org/stable/24891719?searchText=&searchUri=%2Faction%2FdoBasicSearch%3FQ uery%3Ddun%2Bemer&ab_segments=0%2Fbasic_search_gsv2%2Fcontrol&searchKey=&refreqid=fas tly-default%3Ab35317bfbfc0bb89ec50f24e0207e73c [Accessed 19 Oct. 2023].
Teehan, V. and Elizabeth Wincott Heckett (2004). The Honan Chapel : a golden vision. Cork: Cork University Press, Cop.
Wallenfeldt, J. (2023). Irish War of Independence | Irish history. [online] Encyclopedia Britannica. Available at: https://www.britannica.com/event/Irish-War-of-Independence.
Williamson, K. (2021). Archive in Focus: The Cuala Press: a female led industry. [online] Explore Your Archive. Available at: https://www.exploreyourarchive.org/archive-in-focus-the-cuala-press-afemale-led-industry/ [Accessed 21 Oct. 2023].
Wilson, A. (2013). Arts and Crafts and Revivalism in Catholic Church Decoration: A Brief Duration. Éire-Ireland, [online] 48(3), pp.5–48. Available at: https://muse.jhu.edu/article/525010 [Accessed 25 Oct. 2023].