WIKTORIA SAMULSKA
Speaking the Unspoken: Symbolism in Art of Jan Matejko and Jacek Malczewski During Partitions of Poland
May 2025
Fine Art BA Hons Dissertation
DOI 10.20933/100001379
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“Speaking the unspoken: symbolism in art of Jan Matejko and Jacek Malczewski during Partitions of Poland”
Wiktoria Samulska
Fine Art (Hons)
Word Count:7693
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of a Bachelor of Art (Hons) degree in Fine Art
Duncan of Jordanstone College of Art and Design
University of Dundee 2025
Abstract
This dissertation delves into the hidden symbolism in art of Jan Matejko and Jacek Malczewski, who, through their works, uplifted the spirits of a nation overwhelmed by melancholy and lack of belonging during the Partitions of Poland (1795-1918). This work is intended to raise awareness of the need for patriotic art. From the perspective of a Polish woman, I will try to analyze what Matejko and Malczewski conveyed in their works. To better understand the meaning of the selected paintings, I took into account the personal experiences of the artists, as well as historical and religious themes, thus trying to do justice to the messages carried by art. The following chapters explain the hidden symbols in the paintings Stańczyk (1862), Rejtan-The Fall of Poland (1866), Melancholy (1894), The Vicious Circle (1897). Through my research, I want to show how art and politics were combined to work as a resistance movement in artist's hands. As the results of my research, I presented their opposition to the reality in which they created, as well as the actions taken to maintain the spirit of the nation. Despite the passage of time, their paintings remain an inspiration and guide for subsequent generations of Poles.1
1 For word count purposes the abstract isn’t included
Acknowledgments
With this work I want to thank people who shaped me into the person I am today:
My Mum and Dad for believing in me and my doodles, pushing me to do art and always offering a helpful hand when I needed it;
My sisters Hania and Ola for being there for me;
My art teachers M. Opara and A.Chiari for creating an artist from a small girl who only wanted to draw horses;
My history teachers B. Iskra and E.Barnuś for making me fall in love with history;
My friends and family for understanding me;
My advisors P. Braham and T. Kovats for their support and guidance over the last year; And finally I show my gratitude to every Polish artist for carving a path I can follow.
Introduction
In 1795, Poland lost its independence and could not regain it for the next 123 years. Russia, Prussia, and Austria divided Polish lands among themselves, and the Kościuszko Uprising (1794) was the last attempt to defend sovereignty. Following the collapse of the state, the nation fell into melancholy and despair. Many poets, including Adam Mickiewicz (1798-1855), Juliusz Słowacki (1809-1849), and Maria Konopnicka (1842-1910) encouraged the struggle to regain independence in their works, wrote about sacrifice, longing, and lack of belonging. However, this work is not about poets, but about two very important artists who have forever ensured their place in the history of Poland. It was their art, filled with meaning, based on history, philosophy, and symbolism, that laid the foundations for regaining independence.
This dissertation aims to present Jan Matejko and Jacek Malczewski as witnesses of history, who through images forever consolidated their opinions and feelings towards those times. Their art encourages deep reflection. In the following chapters, I will describe my analysis and feelings about four selected works of art (Stańczyk (1862), Rejtan-The Fall of Poland (1866), Melancholy (1894), The Vicious Circle (1897)), from the perspective of a Polish artist. In the nineteenth century in Poland, an artist had a duty towards the nation. Most artists of that period devoted their art to showing the homeland as it was before the partitions, hoping that in the future it would return to its glory2 (B. M. 2024). The art of that time is filled with patriotism, anger, sadness, and hope. Artists told stories with their paintings like poets writing them down on paper. What they presented cannot be treated as facts, but rather as their point of view on selected events. Their canvases were not intended to be a chronicle, but to record their personal feelings, emotions, and thoughts on the struggles during that era.
2 Broniewski M. (2024) Great Polish Artists and the Idea of Patriotism: How Art Expressed Love for Homeland. Available at Wielcy polscy artyści a idea patriotyzmu: Jak sztuka wyrażała miłość do ojczyzny - Patrioteka (accessed: 28th December 2024)
I first encountered Jan Matejko's art in 2013, when my parents took me to the National Museum in Warsaw when I was still a little girl. I don't remember much from that day, but what stuck in mymemoryforever was the moment when I saw "The Battle of Grunwald". The huge painting depicting the moment of the battle made a great impression on me. Words can't describe the feeling when you look at the canvas and the figures seem to be moving in front of your eyes. With paints and brushes Matejko was able to make you feel part of his paintings. That moment in the museum became the basis for my fine arts studies.
"Art itself is almost by its nature a mask. On the one hand, it reveals what the artist wanted to show, on the other hand, it exposes and involuntarily shows some secret about him."
-Zdzisław Beksiński3 (W. K. no date)
3 Walczak K. (no date) BEKSIŃSKI.LIVE. Available at Beksiński.Live (Accessed: December 20th 2024)
Jan Alojzy Matejko
Jan Matejko (1838-1893) was an outstanding Polish painter who became famous as one of the best European painters of the second half of the 19th century. His paintings conceal numerous historical symbols and figures. In his work, he was criticized for reopening old wounds, but he believed that by showing the mistakes and moments of the greatness of the Polish State, he would shape the hearts of young Poles and maintain the fighting spirit. Over the many years of his work, he achieved many successes, including medals at general exhibitions in Paris (1864, 1867,1878). Because of the patriotic symbolisms of his paintings, he was deprived of the prize in Berlin. However, in the Russian region, the distribution of copies of his paintings was completely prohibited.
“[...] the political thought of the painting ("Prussian Homage") was best understood and evaluated by the Emperor himself, since, despite the opinion of the entire jury, he did Mr. Matejko the honor, and the unanimously awarded prize himself... He refused"
- Cieszkowski 4 (S. M. 2016)
Matejko was a man who was not afraid of consequences. During the Spring of Nations, he openly supported the efforts of the revolutionists not only spiritually, but also through material donations and even personal delivery of weapons to the front. What was so outstanding in Matejko's paintings that to this day every child in Poland knows his works?
4 Szczypkowska M. (2016) Chapter “I ask again, where is...” in Jan Matejko-known to everyone. Poznań, Wydawnictwo s.j. p.350
In the monograph of Jan Matejko (1973) by Juliusz Starzyński we can read.
"He was fought by idealists for the overly realistic message and bluntness of his canvases, and by realists for his religiosity and mystical, symbolic inclinations. He was opposed by the Impressionists for his austerity and avoidance of subtle shades of colour, refined aesthetes accused him of excessive expressiveness of form, and others for subordinating the form to content, wanting to make the so-called artistic workshop what it should be – a tool of the ideological, social impact of art. However, one thing is certain: there is no one, and especially not a single Pole, who could remain indifferent to Matejko's work."
5 (S. J. 1973)
Through controversy, his art managed to reach every social group, thus proving that it does not matter how history remembers you; it is important that they remember you.
5 Starzyński J. (1973) , Jan Matejko, Warszawa. Arkady. p. 31
2.1 “Stańczyk” (1862)
1.1-Jan
Jan Matejko painted many brilliant paintings depicting historical scenes. "Stańczyk" was created directly after Matejko graduated from university. Jan Tarnowski, a well-known historian and rector of the Jagiellonian University in the 19th century, said "Matejko, after Stańczyk, created paintings that were bigger, more splendid and more famous. However, none of them was more beautiful and deeper than Stańczyk [...] A painter, a man and a Pole, he showed for the first time his soul sad until death, his unrelenting and constant care, his brilliant gift of guessing, feeling, recreating the tragic moments of the past and tragic sufferings."6 (S. M. 2016)
6 Szczypkowska M. (2016) Chapter “In fear of the carpenter” in Jan Matejko-known to everyone. Poznań, Wydawnictwo s.j. p.94
Fig.
Matejko (1862) Stańczyk,[oil on canvas], National Museum in Warsaw
His scenes are planned in every detail, there is no room for coincidence. Was it the sight of the court jester resting from the royal court that was able to move the entire nation? Or were people able to see the hidden message written in paint?
1.2-Stańczyk (detail)
The first thing that catches the eye in the painting is the figure that depicts the jester at the court of King Zygmunt the Old. The figure itself disguises many meanings (Fig.1.2.) the face that looks melancholy into space, belongs to the artist himself.
Perhaps an attempt to identify with the figure he painted. An artist, like a jester, has a certain freedom in expressing his opinions. Something that seems obvious at first glance can have a hidden meaning that we will only see if we want to see it. Understanding the truths spoken by the jester or painted by the painter depends on the logic of the person in contact with their workshop. Jesters have been a permanent element of royal courts since the dawn of time, so they have witnessed historical changes at the very source. In literature, they are often associated with stupidity, but in William Shakespeare's play "King Lear"(1623) we can read
“Jesters do oft prove prophets” - Regan, King Lear7 (W. 1623),
7 Shakespear W. (1623) King Lear , Act 5 scene 3 Available at: Shakespeare's King Lear Act 5, Scene 3 (accessed: January 5th 2025)
Fig.
which gives us a straightforward view that jesters were the only people at court who were free to say what they thought, not what would please their ruler.
Stańczyk's pose – folded hands and a sad face avoiding eye contact – may mean that the painter is waiting for future events and for the viewers of the painting to devote a moment to their reflections on the surrounding reality, without a direct message. In his paintings, Matejko depicted longing for his homeland, often feeling like Stańczyk- a misfit-clown in society8 (S. M. 2016). Masses of people forgot about their motherland, learned to live in the new world, but Matejko's heart, despite the passage of time, suffered and longed for freedom.
From under Stańczyk's unbuttoned garment (Fig1.2), we can see a chain with Saint Mary, symbolizing the union of the country with the Church... But why did it matter in this painting? Did Matejko want to show that faith is an inseparable part of a Pole thinking about the future? To understand the message of this passage, we must refer to the historical events of that period, if we look at the table, we will see documents lying on it with the date "1533". An additional hint as to the closer date is the comet, we can see it in the left corner of the image (fig.1.3) - historical records show that it was visible in the sky in June/July 15339 (L. 2019). This means that the scene on the canvas takes place just after Russia took Smolensk away from Poland. Here the medallion is of significant importance. Religion was used as a kind of propaganda, during this period the Habsburgs planned to support Russia in the war with Poland. Thus, they would go to war
8 Szczypkowska M. (2016) Chapter “In fear of the carpenter” in Jan Matejko-known to everyone. Poznań, Wydawnictwo s.j. p.94
9 Lubicki L. (2019) The mystery of "Stańczyk". Why did Matejko "confuse" such an important thing? Available at: Obraz „Stańczyk” Jana Matejki (Accessed: December 10th 2024)
Fig.1.3-Stańczyk (detail)
with the Roman Catholic country and at the same time support Orthodoxy, which would be a movement against the Vatican. The medallion may suggest that at that time hopes were placed in God and the Church.
Another important element is the throne on which Stańczyk sits , and the scepter lying at his feet (Fig.1.1). Both objects are an indisputable symbol of power. But why does an ordinary jester sit on the king's throne? There is speculation that he sits on it out of disrespect and not because of fatigue, because he is not afraid of the consequences for this act. You could saythat he doesn't care what happens to him because he knows that the future will be much worse than the present moment. If we have a throne and a scepter, where is the King himself? We can notice him in the right part of the painting (Fig.1.4), where he and Queen Bona are enjoying a ball, surrounded by nobles, in the light of candelabra – symbolizing that war is not their concern, and they prefer to spend their time having frivolity rather than worrying about their nation10 (S. M. 2016).
The ballroom colour scheme is full of life and warm tones, providing a visible contrast to the foreground, which is kept in a dreary tone. The jester is also dressed in red. What does this show us? Perhaps the fact that despite turning his back on the nobility at a given moment, in the long run he belongs to the same group of people he despises? From the analysis of the whole picture, we can deduce that this may have suggested that what we see at first glance is not always true. The painter showed us that, what we do is not always what we think we should do. Perhaps the very juxtaposition of the royal couple and the jester is intended to show that it is usually the average people who are most affected by wars, their lives are at stake more often than those who have power.
10 Szczypkowska M. (2016) Chapter “In fear of the carpenter” in Jan Matejko-known to everyone. Poznań, Wydawnictwo s.j. p.97
Fig.1.4-Stańczyk (detail)
The following symbol in this painting is probably the least visible and obvious, it is the cathedral seen through the window (Fig.1.3). At the historical point represented in the painting, this cathedral should not be there, because it was built in the 18th century. Matejko decided to put it there, probably to show that our history is not just a collection of dates, but rather a process that alternately interacts, so everything that happens creates a system of connected vessels. Because, did Matejko want to show what was happening in 1533, or did he want to use this scene to portray the situation of the country in 1862?
2.2 “Rejtan-Upadek Polski” (1866)
This painting caused controversy not only among the partitioning powers but also among Poles. The canvas was to show the moment of signing the Partition Pact, or rather its free interpretation. Many of the people in the painting were not present that daybut were added to give solemnity and signification to the whole affair.
This painting had probably the greatest resonance and impact on Polish society, it was completed only a few years after the fall of the January Uprising, when the feeling of loss and defeat was still very present in the nation. One thing was certain: the painting made an unforgettable impression on people.
We start the analysis of the painting with the title character. The first thing that catches our eye is a man lying on the ground and tearing apart his shirt – Tadeusz Rejtan himself. Above him, we see men standing in a destroyed room.
Fig.2.1-Jan Matejko (1866) Rejtan-Upadek Polski,[oil on canvas], Royal Castle in Warsaw
(Fig.2.1) Rejtan lying on the ground and blocking the door with his body was to symbolize his readiness to sacrifice for his country. He showed that a true patriot would rather die with his country than live and watch its fall. The same message was also repeated in Polish literature at that time. Stanisław Wspiański (1869-1907), a poet and one of Matejko’s students, wrote :
” We have to do something that would depend on us, given that there is so much going on that does not depend on anyone.”11 (S 1903).
Directly speaking, a true patriot is not afraid to take action in a moment of need. The subsequent symbols are located directly next to Rejtan. We see a sword lying on the ground, partially covered by his cloak, but the fact that Rejtan does not use it may signify that he is aware that there is no point in continuing the fight and he chooses to sacrifice himself instead. On his bare chest we also see a medallion, which is constantly depicted in Matejko's paintings and symbolizes the Christian religion, at this point, it may depict devotion to a God or ongoing faith.
Fig.2.2-Rejtan-Upadek Polski (detail)
Above Rejtan, we can see three men-Stanisław Potocki, Adam Poniński, Franciszek Branicki in order from the left. Although they stand shoulder to shoulder, their reactions to Rejtan's sacrifice are very different. (Fig 2.2) The most authoritative seems to be Poniński, who with his hand raised points to the door (where Russian soldiers are already awaiting orders). Despite his Polish citizenship, we can see numerous Russian decorations and medals on his red uniform, showing us that his loyalty does not devote him to his homeland. Another important symbol showing his
11 Wyspiański S. (1903) Liberation, Available at: WolneLektury.pl (Accessed: January 2nd 2025)
allegiances (Fig.2.2) is a coin rolling at his feet to tell us that he was paid for by the Russian embassy. The coin is not lying flat on the ground, but rather balancing on the edge –intended as a message that the future of Poland may go in various directions.
Potocki is captured in a completely different way. He holds a signed partition pact in his hand, but his face shows that he is not proud of his deeds. We witness sadness on his face and eyes fixed on the floor, as if he were ashamed to look anyone in the eye- fully aware of the consequences that will fall on his country and that he can no longer stop it. With his other hand, he tries to stop Poniński from making any move, almost as if he doesn't want the situation in the room to escalate too much. Branicki stands right under Poniński's arm. He covers his face with his hands, as if he is just realizing the enormity of the outcomes of his doing. The pose expresses despair in its entirety, the quill falls out of his hand, probably the same one with which he signed the consent to the partition of Polish lands – he tries to distance himself from his actions.
(Fig.2.1) At the very front of the canvas we see an overturned chair and scattered letters, which are a representation of Poland falling and descending to pieces. Torn curtains, broken sconces and burnt-out candles highlight the catastrophic state of our country.
The only perfectly preserved element of the room is the painting of Catherine II (Fig. 2.3), which towers over the entire room, showing who is really in control of the situation. In real life, this painting was never
Fig.2.3-Rejtan-Upadek Polski (detail)
there, so we can unequivocallysaythat Matejko painted it on purpose- for symbolism and to add seriousness to the moment. Compared to the portrait of the Empress of Russia, which is very visible, we have the Polish coat of arms and the throne (Fig. 2.4), which, despite being symbols of power and country, are barely visible and squeezed into the right corner of the painting, showing the slowly disappearing Polish state.
Right in front of the throne we have King Stanisław August (Fig.2.4) standing helplessly among the crowds with a melancholic face. The positioning of his figure seems interesting, because he does not confront Rejtan directly, but rather it can be said that he is partly facing the portrait of Empress Catherine II. It was widely known that she was his mistress before he ascended to the Polish throne12 (Z. K. no date). King August seems powerless over what is happening to his land, it was Empress Catherine who placed him on the throne and, ironically, she was also the one who ended not only his reign but also erased his country from the maps of Europe.
Other interesting figures in the painting are three people sitting on the balcony. Between the two women, in the shadow (Fig 2.3) we can see the Russian ambassador, who is supposed to show that although it was the Poles who signed the treaty, it was the Russians who were in charge of everything. This message did not appeal to people who saw this painting in 1866, because by analyzing this canvas we can say that Poles were as complicit in the partitions as Russia, Austria, and Prussia. If the Polish aristocracy had not been so 12 Zielińska K. (no date) Catherine II and Stanisław August, History Institute Of Polish Academy of Sciences, Available at: Microsoft Word - Zielińska Ewa - Katarzyna II i Stanisław August.docx p.4
Fig.2.4-Rejtan-Upadek Polski (detail)
controlled, it is possible that the partition would not have taken place, and the historyof the whole of Europe, not only Poland, could have been written by a completely different ink.
There are two people who often seem to be omitted in the analysis of this work. The first of them is Izabela Czartoryska (Fig. 2.3), who sits on the left side of the Russian ambassador. She was his mistress, but was persuaded into this affair by her husband Adam and King August, to have access to the details about the actions of Russia. Izabela, despite her casual-lookingpose, was a great patriot. After the partitions, she chose to save Polish history as her life goal. She created a huge collection of Polish and European paintings and artifacts, thus formingthe first Polish museum that has survived to this day13 (Z.-G.J.2024) The last symbol is a young boy standing just under the balcony (Fig. 2.3). He leans above the crowd of people and in his hands we can see a sword – showing that our faith should be in young people and in their willingness to fight for the country, as they are the last hope of the failed state. These are not all symbols hidden by Matejko, but they all try to convey the same thing - Poland collapsed due to the corruption and bribery of the Polish nobility. It was criticized that instead of "The Fall of Poland" the work should be called "Sale of Poland" –which of course caused a wave of indignation against the painter. Countess Władysławowa Sanguszko said that the painting should be sold to Russia, to which Matejko replied:
"This is a good solution because if the Russians bought the living, they may also buy the painted ones"14 (S. M. 2016)
EveryPolecould guess what Matejko wantedto say. Hepainted what most peopledid not want to remember. The descendants of the people shown in the painting lived in Matejko's time, their children witnessed how the actions of their fathers were summarized on one canvas – a symbolic blemish on history and the shame of the nation that such a situation was allowed to take place.
13 Zawierucha-Gomułka J. (no date) The Princes Czartoryski Collection, National Muzeum in Kraków, Available at: Kolekcja Książąt Czartoryskich - Muzeum Narodowe w Krakowie (accessed: January 6th 2025)
14 Szczypkowska M. (2016) Chapter “Rejtan’s Name” in Jan Matejko-known to everyone. Poznań, Wydawnictwo s.j. p.173
Jacek Malczewski
Jacek Malczewski (1854-1929) was a leading creator of neo-romantic art. In his paintings, he often repeated the same motifs concerning the problems of homeland, life, death, and the idea of romanticism. By many, he was called "the poet of painting and the painter of poetry", because in poetry he found an endless source of inspiration15 (E 1990). He was brought up in the spirit of patriotism, from an early age he was inculcated with love and duty towards the nation. The fall of the January Uprising left a significant mark on the fewyear-old Jacek, as this theme is repeated many times in a series of his paintings. It was Jan Matejko who discovered his talent and in 1872 he wrote to his father:
"the drawings drawn by your son's hand seem to indicate and promise a considerable painting talent, which should not be kept for too long"16 (S. M. 2016)
The following year began his education at the School of Fine Arts in Kraków, but in 1876 he left to continue his education in Paris. Homesickness caused him to quickly return to the country and work again under the supervision of Matejko. However, he never finished his studies for fear that he would lose his artistic personality17 (S. 2001).Despitethedifferences ofopinionhehadwith Matejko regarding artisticexpressions and forms in paintings, the master's teachings left a mark on him and shaped the historical and patriotic trend in his work. Over the following years, he painted a series of paintings inspired by the poetry of Juliusz Słowacki (1809-1849). In his art, he focused on Polish traditions and folklore, complementing them with originally interpreted mythological motifs and religious themes. Due to its high artistic value, his work was awarded medals at international exhibitions in Munich (1892), Berlin (1891) and Paris (1900). The subject matter of his works was permanently changed when in 1881 Teofil Lenartowicz's "Siberian Shadows" was
15 Clegg E. (1990) “Faux Terrain: Discontinuous Space in the Early Work of Jacek Malczewski,” Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte. p.199
16 Szczypkowska M. (2016) Chapter “House of Art” in Jan Matejko-known to everyone. Poznań, Wydawnictwo s.j. p.279
17 Krzysztofowicz-Kozakowska S. (2001) Chapter ”My Life” in Jacek Malczewski, Wrocław, Wydawnictwo Dolnośląskie. P. 8
published.Fromthattimeon,Malczewskibeganto depictthenightmareexperiencedbythosesenttoSiberia. His paintings began to be dreary in their colors and dramatic in their subject matter – brutal realism rich in the psychological study of Poles in Siberia18 (S. 2001).
18 Krzysztofowicz-Kozakowska S. (2001) Chapter ”Vicious Circle in History” in Jacek Malczewski, Wrocław, Wydawnictwo Dolnośląskie. P. 18
3.1 “Melancholia” (1894)
Fig.3.1-Jacek Malczewski (1894) Melancholia, [oil on canvas], National Museum in Poznań
The painting "Melancholia" is considered to be a manifesto of Polish symbolism. Malczewski created it as a summaryof Polish historyin the nineteenth century – a kind of artistic reckoning of the nation19 (M 2009)
The most unambiguous meaning of this painting is the presentation of the tragic fate of Polish society during captivity. However, this canvas, like any other, contains a part of the artist's soul. Why did Malczewski decide to paint a crowd of people captured as if in a dream in his studio? His art was difficult to interpret even in his time, possibly only he knew what exactly he wanted to show. He confirmed this with the words:
"So it often happens that when I look at my canvases, I say to myself: [...] It wasn't me who painted. [...] And I don't know who is right. Is it all those who do not perceive what I see, or I who perceive what no one sees?"20 (S. 2001)
19 Wróblewska M. (2009), Melancholia - Jacek Malczewski, Available at: https://culture.pl/en/work/melancholia-jacek-malczewski (accessed: December 28th 2024)
20 Krzysztofowicz-Kozakowska S. (2001) Chapter ”My Life” in Jacek Malczewski, Wrocław, Wydawnictwo Dolnośląskie. P. 5
In this painting, Malczewski combined patriotic, mythological, and personal elements, thus creating an allegory of Polish history and national identity. Despite the many people in the central part of the canvas, it is the two figures at the two ends of the painting that catch the eye the most. (Fig. 3.1) Sitting in his studio, with his back to us, is Malczewski. The formations of his ancestors come out from under his brush and wander through his studio, giving it meaning that by painting them he brings them back to life and pays a kind of tribute to the fallen. Malczewski himself does not pay attention to what is happening in his studio, he is bent over in his chair and clearly in the creative phase. He can't see what's going on behind him, but he's certainly able to hear it- a connection to the fact that he never witnessed the fall of independence or any of the uprisings. He grew up listening to stories of the past and being surrounded by constant melancholythe result of unsuccessful fights.
(Fig.3.1) The first figures to emerge from the canvas are children. They start as little boys, and after a few steps, they begin to grow up. There are already various weapons in their hands, and their facial expressions define rebellion and willingness to fight, their faces are directed towards the window, showing us their ultimate goal – freedom. Behind the children, we can see adult men, among them we see priests, peasants, and the fallen of the last uprisings. Their uniforms are characteristic of the Kościuszko scythe-bearers21 (Wikipedia 2024), Napoleonic soldiers22 (Wikipedia 2024), and insurgents of 186323 (Wikipedia 2024) –later Siberian exiles24 (Wikipedia 2024) (Fig. 3.2). Even though these people never really fought side by side, Malczewski placed them on his canvas next to each other. It took over 120 years to win freedom. It was not the result of the efforts of only one group of people, but rather the constant struggle of three generations of Poles.
21 Kościuszko Uprising (2025) Wikipedia, Available at: Kościuszko Uprising - Wikipedia, (Accessed: January 6th 2025)
22 Duchy of Warsaw (2025) Wikipedia, Available at:Duchy of Warsaw - Wikipedia (accessed: January 6th 2025)
23 January Uprising (2024) Wikipedia, available at: January Uprising - Wikipedia (accesed: January 6th 2025)
24 Sybirak (2022) Wikipedia, Available at: Sybirak - Wikipedia (accessed: January 6th 2025)
The insurgents illustrated in the central part of the painting (Fig. 3.2) are illuminated by the sun falling through the windows of the studio, their faces expressing longing and hope. They tear their shirts from themselves, which is a recurring motif from the painting "Rejtan – the fall of Poland". In this way, they express their readiness to sacrifice for the longed-for freedom.
Some of them do not succeed, in the foreground we can see people who fall out of the procession, their faces and bodylanguage indicate that theyhave surrendered in the fight (Fig. 3.3). Some still hold their sabers, others raise crosses to heaven devoting themselves to God.
In the crowd of fallen people, two people stand out: a small boy and an old man with a banner. An elderly man holds an hourglass in his hand, a symbol of the passingoftime.Hisbodyhaspreparedfor the collapse and no longer protects itself
Fig.3.2-Melancholia (detail)
Fig.3.3-Melancholia (detail)
from it. The complete opposite of his apathy and resignation is depicted by a little boy lying on the ground in front of him. He is trying to break the chains with his hands and feet. Despite the distance from the window, his face is still illuminated by the light and expresses determination. It is a literal representation of the change of roles in the struggle for the country, the older man has already played his part and passes the fight on to the younger generation.
(Fig.3.2) Further in the crowd we can see women dressed in mourning colors, facing an open window, there are no obstacles in their way, and yet they do not reach for freedom. They are holding handkerchiefs, and on their faces, you can see the number of losses they have suffered – loved ones they have lost, and in their mourning, they do not reach their goal. They may be afraid that the price of freedom was too high, or they are unsure what the next step should be25 (S. 2001). Next to them, older men have the same dilemma: they are right under the window – a metaphorical free Poland, yet they do not reach for it. A few turn their faces away from the light – this is how Poles felt at the end of the 19th century, filled with apathy and resignation, they lost faith in freedom. Although it is at their fingertips, they are no longer sure how to reach for it.
On the other side of the window, we have the eponymous Melancholia (Fig.3.1), it stands proudly looking into the distance, surrounded by a beautiful garden symbolizing a better future. She seems to be the last barrier in the way of the nation but also displays the state of mind of the country during the loss of independence.
What is Malczewski's role as an artist in all this? After all, this canvas was not only to represent the role of soldiersbut rathertheroleoftheentirenation,showingtheefforts andsufferings ofeachsocial group putting
25 Krzysztofowicz-Kozakowska S. (2001) Chapter ”Vicious Circle in History” in Jacek Malczewski, Wrocław, Wydawnictwo Dolnośląskie. P. 21
them on an equal footing. If we look closely, we can see that right in front of the window there is a young man facing us (Fig. 3.4), his face red with tears, a violin in his hands, he is dressed in the same coats as the old people in front of the window. He holds his violin just as soldiers hold their sabers – this is his form of fighting for the country. He pours his pain, sorrow, and hope into music.
An example of such music is Fryderyk Chopin (1810-1849).
One of his most famous works, the "Revolutionary Etude"26 (Niemczuk 2014), was created based on his feelings when he heard about the fall of the November Uprising in 1831. In this piece, as on this canvas, the sounds, like the characters, are overwhelmed by frenzy and the desire to fight, to gradually intertwine with melancholic moments. Chopin described his love for his homeland in his notebooks, where he put into words the thoughts of most Polish artists of that period. In his diary, we can read:
Fig.3.4-Melancholia (detail)
"O God, it is You! You are and you are not taking revenge?! Are you not yet fed up with Moscow crimes –or – or are you a Muscovite yourself..."27 (Sydow B. 1955)
26 Chopin F. (1831) Étude Op. 10, No. 12, available at: F.Chopin - Etude Op.10 No.12, Revolutionary (Etiuda Rewolucyjna)Grzegorz Niemczuk, piano, (accessed: January 2nd 2025)
27 Sydow B., Miketta J. (1955) From the Diary Album of Fryderyk Chopin, available at:Fryderyk Chopin, (accessed: January 2nd 2025)
It is this kind of dedication to the country that is presented by the characters next to the violinist. We see boys holding books and brushes. They fall, but they do not stop their actions. Thus, they show that every kind of effort and resistance is important, Malczewski presented artists as a wake-up call for a country overwhelmed by sleep and lack of desire to fight. The image was created to remind people of the sacrifices of their ancestors, what they are fighting for, and to summarize the last hundred years of history. Giving up is tantamount to letting the sacrifices made so far go to waste. Forgotten like an old book, just a story to be told, which will disappear over time if the next generation does not remember it. This canvas was never intended to depict the past, but rather to tell the tale of human history and the personal choices of each group of individuals, among whom Malczewski plays the role of a spiritual guide, combining the experiences of many people into one dream that they share.
3.2 “Błędne Koło” (1897)
Jacek Malczewski (1894) Błędne Koło,[oil on canvas],
"The Vicious Circle" is considered as one of Malczewski's most important works, his artistic manifesto. It is a dynamic allegory of life and fate, depicting a small painter sitting on a high ladder28 (Muzeum Narodowe w Poznaniu 2024). In the years 1890-1900, Malczewski in his multi-threaded, symbolically complex art placed the fate of man as the main character. In his compositions, he mixed fantastic characters with realistic surroundings, asking a question what was true and what was a fantasy. In "The Vicious Circle" the main theme was to show the role of an artists as a witness to the events, but in my analysis, I would like to propose a different perspective on this subject. Because what if Jacek Malczewski did not want to perpetuate the role of an artists, but rather tried to tell us about his artistic struggles in those times?
"The Vicious Circle" and "Melancholia" are probably the first works in Polish painting of a selfreferential nature, 'painting about painting', similar to self-referential prose, the subject of which is the prose itself" – Maria Poprzęcka29 (D.-Z. K. 2024)
28 Unknown (2024) Jacek Malczewski, Błędne koło, National Gallery in Poznań, Available at:Jacek Malczewski, Błędne koło, 1895–1897 - Muzeum Narodowe w Poznaniu (accessed: January 2nd 2025)
29 Dzimira-Zarzycka K. (2024) Jacek Malczewski- Błędne Koło, Culture.pl, Adam Mickiewicz’s Intitute, available at:Jacek Malczewski, "Błędne koło" | #sztuki wizualne | Culture.pl (accessed: January 2nd 2025)
Fig.4.1-
National Museum in Poznań
The main character of this canvas is a small boy sitting above the crowd on a ladder (Fig.4.1). It is a personification of Malczewski himself. In his hand, we can see a brush, painting attributes are scattered all over the room. Containers with paints and painting patterns lie forgotten on the ground. If the painting is an allegory of human fate, then perhaps this child was supposed to show us the artist's feelings. From an early age, he was brought up with a sense of duty towards his country, he could feel forced to paint for the nation, not for himself. Expectations towards him were always high, first from his parents, and soon after it was Matejko who put the burden of dutyon his shoulders30 (S. 2001). Being aware of other people's anticipations of him, Malczewski could symbolically feel like a helpless child, not knowing if he had any choice in terms of his work. He sits on a high ladder, and towers over the crowd, he does not look like he is part of this procession, but rather a passive spectator.
A ladder divides the painting, putting a barrier between the bright, cheerful group of people and the gloomy gray-blue part of the canvas. On the left we see dancing people, enjoying each other's company (Fig.4.2), among them we can distinguish faun and naked nymphs crowned with vines.
30 Krzysztofowicz-Kozakowska S. (2001) Chapter ”My life” in Jacek Malczewski, Wrocław, Wydawnictwo Dolnośląskie. P. 8
Fig.4.2-Błędne Koło (detail)
Mythological motifs are repeatedly immortalized in Malczewski's early works, so the presence of these deities is not surprising here. Mythological characters can be a thread referring to old Poland – the land before Christianity, when people believed in the world around them rather then God. In the background, behind the nymphs, we can see a couple dressed in old Polish, traditional outfits. They sing and enjoy the sun shining on their faces. Behind the boy, we can see more people wearing similar outfits, but their mood is different from the previous characters. The shadow falling on them gives them a look of melancholy, and their faces convey being lost in the new reality. Among this folk crowd, a woman in a red Phrygian cap, a white blouse, and a blue skirt (the colors of the French flag) stands out (Fig. 4.2). It is Marianne – the personification of republican France, who fought for her freedom at the same time as Poland lost its own31 (Muzeum Narodowe w Poznaniu 2024).
31 Unknown (2024) Jacek Malczewski, Błędne koło, National Museum in Poznań, Available at:Jacek Malczewski, Błędne koło, 1895–1897 - Muzeum Narodowe w Poznaniu (accessed: January 2nd 2025)
Fig.4.3-Błędne Koło (detail)
Thecolorscheme andmoodcompletelychangeon theleft sideoftheimage. There weseehalf-naked figures floating around in a frantic dance (Fig. 4.3). In the back of the crowd, a man appears forcibly dragging a woman dressed in the colors of the Polish flag. She belongs to a happy past, but against her own will, is taken to a tragic future. These two figures and their composition may symbolize the fall of the state, which, like a woman, was taken away by force. Another dramatic character on this canvas is Polonia – an elderly woman falling in the background and floating in her mournful existence. In her hand, she holds a crown made of straw (an attribute with which Malczewski often symbolized the Polish diaspora in his paintings), and on her lap, we can see the body of a small boy in a red coat with shackles around his hands. It is possible that Malczewski only wanted to add dynamics to this scene, but perhaps in this way, he wanted to present the death of his compatriots in the bosom of their motherland.
In the foreground, two men dressed in Siberian coats emerge, their faces expressing suffering (Fig. 4.4). Trying to free themselves, their hands reaching into space, they look as if catching elusive freedom. One man's feet are shackled, he looks terrified and tries to release himself in a delirium. In the central part of the painting,is anolderman, theonlyone who does not show fear, his face expresses determination and willingness to fight. He was captured on canvas at the moment of screaming, his body leaning against a ladder – he is the only figure with a physical connection to the little boy. Behind him, we see a falling Siberian coat, his legs are no longer limited by
Fig.4.4-Błędne Koło (detail)
shackles. Malczewski could have painted him as a symbol of struggle – an old man who returned from hell only to go into battle again. A sign of constant fight and readiness for further sacrifices.
The most important element is the rope that we see in the old man's hand (Fig. 4.1), which connects all the figures captured in the tragic part of the painting. The old man moves it forward as if he wants to initiate the movement. Everyone on this canvas is connected, the moment one of them takes a step, the rest will feel the consequences. This could have been a reference to the fact that the insurgents did not constitute such a large part of society, and yet the repercussions of their failed uprisings were felt by the entire nation. The rope, like the feeling of loss and suffering, was an element that united the entire nation, regardless of gender, age, or social status. Art is subjective, so the analysis of this image varies depending on the viewer. Each symbol canhavemanymeanings, andtheabovechapterdelvesintothemfrom myperspective.Adam Heydel, author of the monograph "Jacek Malczewski. Man and Artist" (1933) wrote that the characters depicted in "The Vicious Circle" are the embodiment of the artist's dreams32 (A. 1933).
However, I would like to suggest a different perspective on this work. Good and bad dreams alternately intertwine in the imagination, our subconscious chaotically creates images and we have no control over them. So why did Malczewski present them in a planned procession, slowly changing the mood of the painting from warmth and happiness to grayness and tragedy? If this were a dream, shouldn't the characters appear like well-shuffled cards – never knowing what will appear next? If all this shows Malczewski's dreams, shouldn't he be able to see every figure on the canvas? The idea that he has his back on happiness and folklore makes it clear to me that this is something beyond his reach... just like the past in free Poland.
32 Heydel A. (1933) Jacek Malczewski. Człowiek i artysta, Kraków, Wydawnictwo Literacko-Naukowe
In my opinion, the figures around the ladder are personalizations of historical events and the state of the country. They show Poland from the times of the Slavs, when Polish culture was in full bloom, to the time when their freedom was forcibly taken away and the nation was slowly dying, suffocated by its melancholy and despair. Embodied as a child, Malczewski listens and observes, helpless in the face of the figures around him, holding on to his only weapon-art.
"Art isolated from the homeland and country is also a mission, but the tombs of so many of our ancient heroes, who fought for the homeland all their lives, would look at us with reproach and would only appreciate today's art from the negative side. Art is now a kind of weapon in our hands; We must not separate art from the homeland! [...] art is not only a service to the country, but it is a duty..." – Jan
Matejko to his students 33 (S. M. 2016)
33 Szczypkowska M. (2016) Chapter “House of Art” in Jan Matejko-known to everyone. Poznań, Wydawnictwo s.j. p.283
Their influence on Polish society
Both artists weredevoted to theirhomeland.Theyprovedit not onlywith theirartbut also withtheirteaching at the Academy of Fine Arts in Krakow, shaping a new generation of patriots. Jacek Malczewski also taught painting at the School of Fine Arts for women who at that time, due to their gender, could not be admitted to the Academy.
The works of both painters depicted the constant longing for the homeland, encouraged society to fight, and showed the fate of people suffering for their nation. Their art was an inspiration for many generations of Poles, pushed them to act in times of doubt, and reminded them of their national duty. Both were criticized and condemned by part of society, yet it never stopped their artistic activity. Poet Cyprian Norwid (18211883) portrayed the painting of "Rejtan" as a crime equal to the assassination of Tsar Alexander II by A.Berezowski. He used the term "avenger-egoist-patriot of Poland" and in a poem he published, he wrote:
“Berezowski- would be a political Matejko,
And Matejko – he would be the Berezowski of painting!”34 (S. M. 2016)
34 Szczypkowska M. (2016) Chapter “Rejtan’s Name” in Jan Matejko-known to everyone. Poznań, Wydawnictwo s.j. p.179
Conclusion
In this dissertation, Idelved into the meaning of the paintings of Jan Matejko and Jacek Malczewski, through the analysis of symbolism hidden with paints. I explored the significance of their work for the Polish nation. This work combines an understanding of historical, mythological, religious, and personal themes, giving us adeeperlookattheartists'work atthetimesofPolishPartitions.MalczewskiandMatejko,as representatives of the nation's dilemmas, raised political problems that were forbidden to discuss at that time. During my research on the subject, I tried to understand the hidden messages not only from the perspective of a young Polish woman but also from the perspective of its creators. By analyzing their biographies, I sought connections between their lives and the people they immortalized on their canvases. We are separated from their work by over 100 years full of wars and conflicts, but the history ends in free Poland. We will never know what exactly their paintings were supposed to represent, the answer to this could only be given by the artists themselves. However, this does not stop us from seeking intention and inspiration in their works. Despite the passage of time, the images I introduced in this chapters have become an inseparable symbol of struggle, hope, and patriotism for every Polish citizen. This was confirmed by the attempts made by the Third Reich to destroy these paintings – the protection of these works was paid in blood and will never be forgotten.Theirartwent beyondtalent.Eachoftheircanvaseswasnotonlytheproductofincrediblepainting skills but also captured a remarkable understanding of the political and emotional issues plaguing their country. Matejko and Malczewski created for people, gave them strength in times of doubt and reminded of a higher goal. To this day their art represents effects of wars and politics in human lives.
“Paint, so that Poland will be resurrected!”
-Jacek Malczewski to his students35 (P.-P. J. 1968)
35 Puciata-Pawłowska J. (1968) Jacek Malczewski, Wrocław - Warszawa - Kraków
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