Death is a certainty to life. It will happen to every living creature, every human being, but why with this same knowledge, do we all hold a different attitude towards Death?
Philosophers and artists alike have used their voice to try and dissect this phenomenon, creating schools of thought or using visual symbols. I am no different in having a peculiar interest. I want to analyse our attitudes towards Death, of which I believe there are a main three. The attitude of Indifference, Fear and Embrace. An attitude of Indifference suggests that one is unconcerned with Death, perhaps it does not float into the subconscious often, but when it does, it is not met with any strong emotion. The attitude of Fear suggests that one is scared of Death, when they are reminded of their mortality, they may become distressed, even if just for a fleeting moment before the thought is pushed into the back of the mind. Finally, the attitude of Embrace suggests that one is at peace with their end, whenever it may come, and do not dwell on this often.
I will be looking at the origins of some artistic tropes intrigued with Death, that of Vanitas, Et in Arcadia ego, Momento mori, and the Danse Macabre, looking at artworks from the Renaissance period up to Contemporary art. I will also be looking the origins, practices and beliefs surrounding Death of some philosophical schools of thought. While discussing Indifference I will look at Kehinde Wiley, a contemporary artist working mainly in paint, video and sculpture, and his painting A Dead Soldier, and the thoughts of Epicurus, and his belief that to fear Death is irrational. In the attitude of Fear, I want to look at filmmaker and author Ingmar Bergmans film Det sjunde inseglet or The Seventh Seal and the philosophy pf Pessimism. Finally in the attitude of Embrace I will explore a
neon piece by contemporary sculptor, Bruce Nauman titled One Hundred Live and Die, and the meditative practices of Stoics. Throughout all three attitudes I will also be looking at individual prints from a woodcut series by Hans Holbein the Younger (to differentiate from his father, Hans Holbein the Elder), titled The Dance of Death, completed from 1523-5.
My aims for this dissertation are to construct a blueprint of potential categories for what I believe to be three of the main attitudes that humans hold towards Death, and upon finishing this piece perhaps the reader will have come to a solution to my question, Should Death be ignored?
Indifference towards Death
To begin, let us delve into the attitude of Indifference towards Death. Perhaps this is more like living with a lack of any attitude towards Death To be “indifferent” according to the Cambridge dictionary, means to show “a lack of interest in someone or something” (Indifference, 2024). The Vanitas art movement is relevant in discussing why one might live with Indifference towards Death. The term “Vanitas” has two potential origins, one of which being a derivation from the Latin objective “Vanus” which translates as “fleeting”, “empty” or “ephemeral” (Battistini and Sartarelli, 2005, p 360)
Another origin may be from the first lines of the Book of Ecclesiastes 1:2 from the Bible, these being: “Vanity of vanities, saith the Preacher, vanity of vanity, all is vanity.” (Book of Ecclesiastes 1:2-11, 2024). The Vanitas art movement originated in Europe during the 15th century amid tensions due to an economic crisis following the arrival of Europeans in the Americas and the Thirty Years’ War, which started partially for religious reasons due to the Protestant Reformation (Enrico De Pascale and Shugaar pp99). An event considered to be the beginning of The Protestant Reformation was when a professor of Biblical studies, Martin Luther, hears of influential religious leaders telling people that making payments or buying gifts for the Roman Catholic Church was a way of obtaining forgiveness and absolving one’s sins Martin Luther then wrote a thesis criticising the idea (The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2024). Following this, in Protestant countries there was a lack of demand for sacred imagery as they were condemned as idol-worshipping. In the Book of Ecclesiastes, “vanity” is disapproved of, and is seen as a wasted interest of the impermanent objects around us, which only distract from our commitment to God, and ultimately our Death. The movement, having originated from a
Christian text, also makes suggestions of the deadly sins: gluttony, lust, pride, etc, and the goal of Vanitas artworks are a warning to the viewer not to become seduced by these and to focus their efforts on looking after their soul. For a work to be considered as falling under Vanitas, it must reference this concept, for example by emphasising the suggestion that items of luxury are nothing more than a distraction.
Depicted in The Astrologer (figure 1), on the left side, we see a man, The Astrologer, in a room surrounded by tools, such as a celestial globe hanging from the ceiling and a divination bowl on the right side of the table. He is intently gazing up at the celestial globe while his left-hand points in its direction. His right leg is outstretched, and his right hand is gripping the arm of his chair, it looks as though he is halfway through rising out of the seated position. On the right side, we can see Death holding a skull, similar to
Figure 1. Hans Holbein, The Dance of Death (The Astrologer), 1523-5
his own. His exaggerated pose, shoulders shrugging and head tilted to the side suggest he is inquisitive about this object. His legs striding apart and back arched so much, evoke a playfulness to Death, rather than maliciousness.
Astrology has been a celebrated science for millennia. It’s said to have been known for its significance since its birth, believed to be from as early as the 3rd millennium BCE when people began to track the stars and sun and planets, right up until its dwindle in popularity during the 17th century (UNESCO, 2021). It was often recommended as a class for medical and mathematics students. Some scientific evidence to back up Astrology can be thanks to the fact that ancient Greek philosophy was an important influence on medieval philosophy, which was dying out during the 17th century. One theory that was important in supporting astrology was the micro-cosmos macrocosmos theory (The Renaissance Mathematicus, 2011). Also known as the microcosm macrocosm theory, this was discussed and supported by well known ancient Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle, however the theory has been argued to have been researched in much greater detail during the pre-Islamic Iranian period, between roughly 500 BCE until 650 CE (Encyclopaedia Iranica Foundation, 2024). The theory states the idea that the microcosm, or the Earth, and the macrocosm, the outer Universe, reflect one another, and having the ability to read the stars was a way of predicting mankind’s actions on Earth (Conger, 1922, pg 10-14) This surety in the science of Astrology was what led to Astrologers becoming so important, they were often employed in positions of power to make predictions for political or financial purposes, the weather, or also reasons of vanity by those in positions of power, for example predicting their time of Death (The Renaissance Mathematicus, 2011). And so,
since proclaimed Astrologers could certainly predict the future and know of people’s fortunes, how did this effect their personal view of Death?
Astrologers from this period shared a similar view, which was influenced by religion, this being the prominent Christian faith during the European Renaissance. In Christianity, it is stated in the Book of Ecclesiastes 12:7, “…the spirit returns to God who gave it.” (biblestudytools.com, 2020). However, this Christian belief was ultimately influenced by Greek philosophy, (Akopyan, 2022) and so we can go back again to look at Plato, who was influenced by his teacher, Socrates, who argued on the immortality of the Soul in his writing, Phaedo. One argument Plato writes of is known as the Cyclical argument, this being that the world is full of Forms, or states, with opposite states that keep each other balanced or “imperishable”. Written as a dialogue between Socrates and Cebes, Plato puts forward examples of these states, such as being awake and asleep, of heat and of cold. To explain this point further, he suggests a fire being plunged in snow Once a fire has been put out by the cold, the state of a fire does not cease to exist, it still exists in another time and place. Plato argues the same for the states of being alive and of being dead. While people are dead on Earth, there are still others in a state of being alive, and so there must be a place where the dead exist during the time they are dead, before they can complete the cycle and come back to life. “Then when death attacks a man, the mortal portion of him may be supposed to die, but the immortal (immortal is in reference to the Soul) retires at the approach of death and is preserved safe and sound?” (Gutenberg.org, 2013). And so, with these influences it is clear why the Astrologer believed in the Soul departing from the body after death, still existing in another place, this place being the macrocosm (Allen, Rees and Davies, 2002).
To return to Holbein’s The Astrologer (figure 1), and why this piece is displaying an attitude of Indifference towards Death. There is no clear strong emotion in the Astrologers expression. He does not look distressed in this moment before his physical departure from Earth. He is focused on the celestial globe, as he is rising from his chair in what looks like a slow, distracted rise, rather than an attempt to flee fate. It looks like he is calculating the cosmos. He is trying to work out exactly where the stars and the planets are aligned at this moment, so he can perhaps have some insight before his Soul ascends into the universe he has studied so well. He does not look frightened nor excited. He is Indifferent to Deaths approach. The Vanitas art movement should be a reminder to the viewer not to be distracted by the temporality of earthly objects, but to spend their efforts on looking after the Soul. Surely the Astrologer is a perfect example of a being who spends their life focusing their efforts on the Soul. If the macrocosm and the microcosm are reflections of one another, and the macrocosm holds the Souls of those who have physically departed form Earth, while the microcosm holds the Souls of those who are currently occupying physical bodies on Earth, and the astrologers job is to read and interpret these reflections, then I think it’s clear that The Astrologer can be held as an example for those who wish to please the Vanitas art movements demands.
Next, to discuss a contemporary piece of art; A Fallen Soldier (figure 3) by Kehinde Wiley (Wiley, 2007) from his 2008 series, Down Kehinde Wiley is an artist who works in paint, video and sculpture, based between New York, Senegal and Nigeria, but he is most wellknown for his large-scale portraits of friends, family and celebrities in oil on canvas reaching up to 4 and a half metres in length. In an artists talk hosted by the Saint Louis Art Museum for Wiley’s exhibition, Kehinde Wiley: Saint Louis, on 17th October 2018, Wiley discusses his thought process and meanings behind many of his works In his
paintings, Wiley says he is interested in thinking about the opposite of a typical portrait you might find in a portrait gallery. He said he had gathered from his visits to exhibitions, that typically portraits should convey a sense of power and pride, and he wanted to combat that. He had also said that the reason many of his works are so large in scale is because he also wanted to address our obsession with permanence in a portrait gallery, and he wanted to push the boundaries on that idea by making his work so huge that it would make an even greater, unforgettable effect on the viewer (Saint Louis Art Museum, 2018, 20:50-22:18) Wiley said that a big influence for his Down series was a painting by Hans Holbein the Younger (Wiley, 2008) titled, The Body of the Dead Christ in the Tomb (Holbein the Younger, 1521) (figure 2), which was painted only 2 years before his woodcut series. In his painting, A Fallen Soldier (figure 3), Wiley is particularly looking at “The Fallen Figure”, more precisely “…the moments in which the opposite of the self-possessed figure come into play…” (Saint Louis Art Museum, 2018, 21:2721:37). The painting displays the two most typical symbols of the Vanitas art movement; human skulls and bones, and a popular feature of Wiley’s portraits are the luxury branded clothes his models wear. Here, the model is sporting Timberland boots, a brightly coloured streetwear hoodie, blue jeans and a large sparkling silver watch and a gold chain with a cross around his neck, resting across his chest. He is lying on the ground; it looks like he is in the middle of the desert somewhere in central America with the large flat stones in the background. In his left hand he holds the hilt of a sword, very
Figure 2. Hans Holbein, The Body of the Dead Christ in the Tomb, 1521
clean, not scuffed at all, with the blade looking like it is lying under, or perhaps inside his back, while his right hand is resting upon his belly, fingers at an awkward angle as if his hand has fallen into this position, rather than resting here on purpose. The figures eyes are just open, looking straight out onto the viewer, but there is no life behind them. His body is limp, and the way his head is tilted back at an uncomfortable angle, his hand holding the sword also at a strange angle, suggests that the figure we are seeing must be dead, or at least on the very cusp This is an example of a piece of art that is conveying the Vanitas art movements idea. Vanitas tries to convince the viewer the importance of being in control of yourself, and Wiley himself said this is supposed to be a display of a person at the absolute opposite of self-possession (Saint Louis Art Museum, 2018, 23:07-23:12). It is not clear who this soldier was fighting, but it is clear that he lost, and his armor, his worldly possessions, did not help
Now to discuss Epicurus’ attitude towards Death. Epicurus was an ancient Greek philosopher, alive between 341-270BC, who believed that for an action to harm us, we had to be in conscious existence for it to do so, otherwise, how would we know it was happening, and so how could it hurt us? In a letter Epicurus wrote to a contemporary named Menoeceus, he states “Accustom yourself to believe that death is nothing to us,
Figure 3. Kehinde Wiley, A Fallen Soldier, 2008
for good and evil imply awareness, and death is the privation of all awareness; therefore, a right understanding that death is nothing to us makes the mortality of life enjoyable…” (Epicurus, 2016). In this quote, Epicurus is explaining that Death is something evil and negative, however for us to be able to acknowledge a difference between something good or evil, positive or negative, we must be conscious and aware of our surroundings, but because Death causes us to become unaware, unconscious to our surroundings, then it cannot harm us as we cannot be aware of Death after it has happened. Therefore, Epicurus’ argument is that it is irrational to live in Fear of Death, because while we are in the state of being alive, it cannot hurt us, and so what is the point in fearing something that we will never experience. However, there are some arguments against Epicurus’ thoughts, one being that he assumes there is no afterlife. If it is true that our souls, or our consciousness passes on to another realm, perhaps we will be aware of our previous life, the life we just died in on Earth, and for many surely there will be negative emotions as our friends and family are left behind for example. Another argument is while Death might not negatively affect the individual who has died, there can be feelings of evil for those who are still alive. Family, friends, anybody nearby who witnessed another’s death, can still be negatively impacted by Death.
Fear towards Death
Secondly, I want to discuss the attitude toward Death of living in Fear. With this attitude, Death may ruminate on one’s mind and become a negative aspect of their life.
According to the Cambridge dictionary, Fear means “a strong, unpleasant feeling that you get when you think that something bad, dangerous, or frightening might happen” (fear, 2024). Therefore, to live in Fear of Death means that one may become scared and nervous when reminded of the inevitable event that is forever approaching
“Et in Arcadia ego” is a Latin phrase, translating directly as “And in Arcadia (am) I”, but thanks to the artists motif we translate it as “I, too, am in Arcadia” (Latin-is-simple.com, 2016). This is a movement highlighting the inescapability of death in all walks of life, even in a supposed paradise like Arcadia. Arcadia is a location referenced from ancient Greek mythology, a utopia where many characters dwelled or passed through, a place at peace with nature (www.greekmythology.com, 2024).
Arcadia came back into discussion, described in much classical poetry during the 16th and 17th centuries, and this is when the translation we tend to go by today came about from interpretations by painters Guercino and Nicolas Poussin during the beginning of the 17th century (Enrico De Pascale and Shugaar, 2009, pp.9394). Guercino’s painting, “Et in Arcadio ego” (figure 4) from 1618 (Guercino) depicts two shepherds who are inhabitants of Arcadia, and have come across a decaying human
1618
Figure 2. Et in Arcadia ego, Guercino,
skull, set upon a stone plinth with the inscription “Et in Arcadia ego”. They look bewildered as they angle their heads trying to work out what they are seeing. Around the skull, picking at its remains are a mouse, a fly and a worm. These are traditional symbols of the evil and corruptibility of material flesh, and a hint of the ever-fleeting nature that surrounds us – even in paradise. Nicolas Poussins piece, also titled “Et in Arcadia ego” (figure 5) painted in 1637-38 (Poussin) also depicts some shepherds, three this time, also residents of Arcadia who come across a large tombstone depicting the same inscription, and they too seem perplexed as they try to explain their finding to a woman who is also looking at the tomb.
This piece does not contain any classic symbols of skulls or bones or small animals or insects, simply the tombstone centred in the middle of the painting, but every figure in the piece has tried to block the stone from view in some way, which still speaks to the message of Death. Try as we might, we can’t stop it finding a way in, even in paradise.
In Hans Holbein’s woodcut print of The King (figure 6) we see The King centred in the piece surrounded by his servants. Hans Holbein lived in London during the period that he designed these woodcuts, and at this time it was King Henry VIII on the throne, so it can be safe to assume that this is himself in the print, also since The King seems to be wearing the same tilted headpiece that Henry VIII sports in many of his portraits. The King is sitting behind a long table covered with a tablecloth, and this is topped with
Figure 3. Et in Arcadio ego, Nicolas Poussin, 1637-8
several dishes. His servants on each side are more focused on the table than on the King, they are busying themselves with serving or clearing dishes. We can see the Kings gaze, however, is fixed upon personified Death on the right-hand side. Death is pouring what might be some wine from a jug out into a bowl, while his eyes, or rather the sockets where his eyes would be did he have flesh, are staring directly into The Kings. They are locked into one another’s presence, however the King is sitting upright, stiff, his expression looks concentrated, he’s trying to work out what he’s seeing, while Death is mid action, slouching casually, the line separating his skull from his jawbone even looks like a grin There is also a classic symbol of the impermanence of life, this being the hourglass sitting on the table towards the left, which looks like it is running out. The action of the wine being poured out by Death can also be a symbol of time running out, the jug is held almost vertically, and the flow of liquid looks like it has almost run out
Figure 4. Hans Holbein, The Dance of Death (The King), 1523-5
here too, straight into the palm of Death himself. This woodcut is a good example of the Et in Arcadia ego motif being used to remind the viewer of their ultimate Death. High royalties are known, especially in the centuries before our own, to have lived lives of luxury and abundance, with minimal worry. They do not have to think about how they will get food on the table, or about the health concerns with consuming too much. They do not have to think about money, affording clothes, even choosing what outfit to wear for the day. They may have the greatest selection of recreational activities at their disposal, they do not have to worry about spending their days doing tedious tasks, like washing or cleaning. It can be said that comparing the lives of royalty to those lives of the common folk, can be like comparing the dwellers of Arcadia to those who living outside The expression on The Kings face is reminiscent of the same expression on the shepherds faces in Guercino’s Et in Arcadia ego 1618 painting. To look at their faces alone, they look plain, maybe caught in a dull moment of everyday life, nothing special, but it’s following their gaze to find that they are looking at a physical presence of Death that makes the viewer understand they are actually deep in thought and possibly close to shock at this moment. It could be the case that living a life so full of extravagance and distraction can lead one to forget that Death is on the way. At least in Guercino’s piece, the two shepherds can take some time to come to terms with their fate. The King in this print seemed to have only been reminded of his final destiny moments before it was due, not allowing him time to come to terms with Death beforehand, which would establish Fear in anybody.
Next, to look at the 1957 Swedish fantasy film, Det sjunde inseglet or The Seventh Seal (Bergman, I.), with Ingmar Bergman having directed and written the screenplay, and it being based off of an older screenplay he wrote, Trämålning which translates to Wood
Painting I watched a version of this film with English subtitles generated by The Criterion Collection (The Criterion Collection, 2018). This film is noticeably clear about its themes of Death and faith. It is set during The Plague, or The Black Death, between 1346-53 in Sweden where our protagonist, Antonius Block, and his squire Jöns, have just returned from the Crusades. They have landed upon the beach, Jöns is still asleep but Block has just awoken, began whispering his prayers and is coming to his senses when the personification of Death approaches him. Block knows who this tall, cloaked, mysterious figure is and asks, “Have you come for me?”. Death responds, “I have been walking by your side for a long time.” Block proclaims that he’s not prepared to go yet as Death starts pacing towards him, opening his cloak to invite the knight inside. Block exclaims, “You play chess, don’t you?”. Death asks, “How did you know that?” and Block responds, “I have seen it in paintings and heard it sung in ballads.” Block is then successful in inviting Death for a game of chess, the conditions being that while the game is still being played, Block will be allowed to live, and if he wins, he shall be released from Death. He then holds out two clasped fists to Death, Death points at one hand, and Block opens his palm to reveal a black pawn. “You drew black!” declares the knight, “Very appropriate. Don’t you think so?” replies Death (The Seventh Seal, 1957, 00:03:45-00:05:45). Colour is used symbolically throughout the film, or perhaps the lack of colour. The entire film is shot in black and white, and so it’s more about the contrasts that convey symbolism. In the beginning of the film, the beach scene is very grey, washed out and almost monotone. It suggests a murkiness and conveys how lost Block may be feeling at that moment. He has just come back to his home country after
fighting for his life, only to find that Death has taken over his homeland too. The Plague is wiping out the population, and as the film continues, although Block was praying at the very beginning, we learn that he is actually losing his faith in God and becoming
disorientated in his beliefs. The chessboard (figure 7) is another example of colour being used as a symbol, black and white, death and life. Later, Block and Jöns befriend a travelling comedy acting couple and their child - Jof, Mia and Mikael. It seems that they are a bright light in the murky grey world, bringing laughter and joy to the people, a symbol of Joseph, Mary and baby Jesus. In one scene as they are performing their travelling show, they are wearing high contrast black and white striped jester outfits, dancing and making jokes for the crowd while their song sings the lyrics “…the dark one is always near you, always around the corner…”. Suddenly, their show is stopped abruptly by a march of solemn, self-flagellating monks, moaning and groaning as they make their way into the village to spread their message. One monk comes out from the
Figure 5 Det sjunde inseglet (The Seventh Seal), Ingmar Bergman, 1957
huddle and addresses the audience (figure 8), who have turned away from the stage, some of the crowd now kneeling on the ground and beginning to pray with their head on their clasped hands. “Do you know, you confirmed idiots, that you are all going to die? Today, tomorrow, or the next day. You are all condemned.” shouts the monk (The Seventh Seal, 1957, 00:33:04-00:41:40).
Later on in the film, Blocks group of friends gets bigger as people tag along, everybody’s personality is different, they don’t seem to belong together, however Block invites everybody to join him on the way to his castle where his wife is waiting as they seek shelter to hide from The Plague. While they are having a respite in the forest during their travels, Jof sees that Block is playing a game of chess with Death, which nobody else seems to notice, and so he decides to flee the group with his wife and child. At the end of the film, the remaining members of Blocks group finally arrive at his castle and are sitting down to share dinner. There is a grave storm outside, loud gusts of wind can be
Figure 6 Det sjunde inseglet (The Seventh Seal), Ingmar Bergman, 1957
heard outside the walls, but the guests seem to be enjoying themselves, when there is a sudden change of tone. The room becomes dark as Death begins to approach. All eyes lift from their plates and turn to the camera, as we look through Death’s gaze. Everybody seems to have a different reaction. Some are at peace; some are in denial, but there is no doubt that everybody knows, this is the end, especially Block, as we earlier witnessed him officially lose his game of chess. Jof, Mia and Mikael awaken in their caravan in the sunny calm after the storm of last night, and Jof has a vision of his old friends upon a hill, being led away in the Danse Macabre, the Dance with Death (figure 9).
The title of this film, The Seventh Seal, is a quote from a passage in The Book of Revelation 8:1, “When he opened the seventh seal, there was silence in heaven for about half an hour.” (Book of Revelation 8:1-2). The Book of Revelation is a reference to the end of the world, which works well in conjunction with the setting of The Plague for
Figure 7 Det sjunde inseglet (The Seventh Seal), Ingmar Bergman, 1957
this film. I believe some of the characters who faced Death at the end of the film were in Fear more than others, however I think it is clear that Block was filled with Fear. He makes references throughout the film at his lack of faith of God, and how he wanted to spend his last days seeking “knowledge”. “What is going to happen to those of us who want to believe but aren’t able to?...I want knowledge, not faith, not suppositions, but knowledge.” Block tells, who he doesn’t realise is Death, while in a confessional (The Seventh Seal, 1957, 00:20:05-00:21:12). This Fear of the unknown, a Fear of an unknown existence of God or of an afterlife, are prominent for the protagonist throughout this film, manifesting an example of how somebody may live with an attitude of Fear towards Death.
The philosophy of Pessimism believes that Death makes life meaningless. Arthur Schopenhauer is considered to have been a starting point for modern Pessimistic philosophy (Troxell, 1993) after his 1818 written work, The World as Will and Representation gained popularity. In this piece, Schopenhauer claimed that the world we see only exists in our brains, while outside of our brains it does not exist at all. To clarify, he claimed that the world can only exist if our brains are able to see and comprehend it, and our brains can only exist if the world is there to create them, and so our brains and the world around us can only exist, through co-existence. “I am, and besides me there is nothing. For the world is my idea.” (Schopenhauer and Payne, 1966, p22). Schopenhauer also claims that we do not actually possess free-will, only a phenomenon of will, and our consciousness is simply a medical aid used by the will to preserve the body. “We fail to see that the individual, the person, is not will as a thing-initself, but it is a phenomenon of will, and as such is already determined and has entered into the form of the phenomenal, the principle of sufficient reason.” (Schopenhauer and
Payne, 1966, p45). Then Schopenhauer goes on to discuss happiness. He claims our thirst for knowledge is a way for the will to feed and keep our brains happy, much like any other organ in the body, and how our wishes and desires becoming fulfilled, then replaced by new ones, are a circular motion that maintain our happiness or purpose in life. “We consider ourselves fairly fortunate if there is still something to wish for, and to strive after, to keep up the game whereby desire constantly passes into satisfaction, and satisfaction into new desire – if the pace of this is swift, it is called happiness, and if it is slow, sorrow – and does not falter and come to the standstill that shows in dreadful, stultifying boredom, in lifeless yearning without a definite object, a deadening languor.” (Schopenhauer and Payne, 1966, p85). Schopenhauer condemned existence as futile, stating in his book of essays, Parerga and Paralipomena, Volume 2, that “work, worry, toil and distress are indeed the lot of almost all human beings their whole life through” (Schopenhauer, 2015, p269). It is clear then why pessimist thinkers have the idea that non-existence is preferable to existence if life is only full of negative emotions and pain.
However, Pessimistic thinkers might be contradicting themselves by choosing to continue to live in suffering, but perhaps it’s because we cannot be absolutely certain that death means the same as non-existence. To not exist, means there is nothing, but after the end of life, the transition of existence in the subjective world onto death, is not entirely certain. And so, Pessimist thinkers may also fall into the attitude of living in Fear of Death.
Embrace towards Death
Finally, to discuss what I believe to be the 3rd attitude towards Death, living in Embrace. One who lives with this attitude lives in the opposite of Fear. When one with this attitude is reminded of their Death, it does not disturb them, more so it can influence a greater respect for their life. One art movement designed to remind the viewer of Death, without necessarily being fear-fuelled, is the Memento Mori movement. The phrase, Momento Mori, originates from Latin translating to “remember you will die”. It comes from the teachings of Socrates who said that philosophy is “about nothing else but dying and being dead” (Daily Stoic, 2017). Typical symbolisms found in Momento Mori artworks are candles, often recently extinguished, fruit, flowers, a skull, an hourglass or a clock. The purpose of these artworks is not to create fear in the viewer necessarily, but as a reminder on the fleetingness of life. The phrase is also said to have gained usage in ancient Rome. When a high ranked Roman soldier made it home from battle, he was praised by citizens and high ranked officials, however to prevent the solider from “falling into the sin of pride” or becoming disillusioned, he was appointed a slave to reiterate “momento mori” in his presence at regular intervals, to remind the soldier of his mortality (Enrico De Pascale and Shugaar, 2009, p86). Looking at Hans Holbein’s woodcut The Old Woman (figure 10), we can see The Old Woman in the mid-right centre of the piece. We can tell this woman is old because she needs to use 2 hands on her cane to walk across the rocky path, and while she is wearing many layers of fabric that hide her small frame, we can see that she is hunched over as her clothes drag along the ground behind her. We can also see she is quite short as the two personifications of Death aren’t standing upright, yet they still seem to stand well above her. The two
skeletons look particularly cheerful in this piece. The leading skeleton is bent over, focusing down on his instrument, like a glockenspiel, with a beater in each hand. It looks like he is striking a tune that the second skeleton is dancing to. The second skeleton has one arm and one leg in the air, it looks like he is dancing a jig. His body is turned towards the old woman, and the viewer, and he is looking down upon her with his exposed teeth looking like a large grin. We cannot see his lowered arm as it is behind the old woman’s figure, but with his bent elbow protruding out to the side, it looks like he is guiding her along the path. On the ground on the left-hand corner, we can see an hourglass, the bottom half is filled with sand, but the top half has been shattered,
Figure 8. Hans Holbein, The Dance with Death (The Old Woman), 1523-5
suggesting time has ran out, and it would be useless to try to turn the hourglass over to make more. The old woman in this piece does not appear to be in distress. It does not look as if she is struggling to get away from the skeletons, she is not looking around her for an exit, but she is looking down at the ground, trying not to trip over as she walks, suggesting she is ready to go where Death is leading her, only she cannot hop and skip as fast as them. Upon the head of the dancing skeleton sits a wreath crown made of olive leaves. In ancient Greek mythology, the goddess of war and wisdom, Athena, is said to have gifted Athens with an olive tree, as an act of caring and wisdom, to provide the city with food (Atlas Obscura, 2008). This led to the symbolism of olive trees and leaves being coupled with success and strength during ancient Greece and Rome, with wreaths also crowned on winners of the Olympic games and on brides. Olive oil was also used during ancient Greece and Rome as a cleanser, which created a symbolism of purity too (Fedfedfed.com, 2021). In ancient Egypt, during a death ceremony, a deceased person may be crowned with a wreath, called a Crown of Justification, which was a symbol of victory over death in the afterlife (Riggs, 2005, p81). Over time, the wreath of olive leaves has become a symbol used in the Momento mori trope as an allusion to peace in Death (Enrico De Pascale and Shugaar, 2009, p88) and a reminder to the viewer that it is inescapable, and one day we too shall wear this crown.
To look at a contemporary piece of work by Bruce Nauman, his neon signage piece, One Hundred Live and Die (figure 11), Nauman has taken 100 phrases describing human actions or emotions, and formed them with neon lights. They have been presented in four columns. Columns 1 and 2 and columns 3 and 4 are mirrors of each other, with the first emphasising an emotion or action in Death, and the next responding the same thing, but in Life. “EAT AND DIE. EAT AND LIVE. SLEEP AND DIE. SLEEP AND LIVE. Etc”
There are fifty different actions in total, ranging from delicate and monotonous, to more active or aggressive. This piece is displayed on the wall of a darkened room, the colours of the phrases ever-changing, creating a dance of light around the space, and upon the
viewer’s body. This piece is hard to miss if you walk into the space. Displaying the same actions next to each other, comparing one with Death, and the same again but with Life, the viewer is forced to consider their own mortality. Also, by having mirroring columns, and lights that flash on and off, Nauman is highlighting the dualism of Life and Death. The brightly coloured, dancing lights should evoke positive feelings. The vibe in the room should be comparable with being at a nightclub or watching fireworks in the night sky,
Figure 9. Bruce Nauman, One Hundred Live and Die, 1984
but paired with the dread of being reminded, “Momento mori”, the bright lights suggest a false, forced attempt at bringing happiness to the viewer. This piece is a successful example of Momento mori. The viewer is subtly reminded of their mortality, and while we may read and reflect on these emotions and consider that one day they will cease to be experienced by our consciousness, at least we can remember to enjoy them now.
Stoicism is a philosophical thought recently gaining popularity (Daly, 2023) which has a focus on understanding and practicing gratitude for our lives. Stoicism started in ancient Greece, in Athens, during 300BCE and is credited to the philosopher Zeno of Citium Zeno explained that our ability to comprehend reason, morality, make good judgements and decisions, was the most important skill to be able to live a good life. He believed that falling for “impulse and passion” was a waste of time, and being able to consider our actions, consequences, and reason with the world around us was the only true way to get the most from our lives. The name, Stoicism, is believed to have come from the location where Zeno made his teachings, this being from a “Stoa Poikile” or painted porch. The history of the beginnings of Stoicism have been divided into three stages of evolution, “Early Stoa” during 300BCE, “Middle Stoa” during 200-100BCE and “Late Stoa” from 100-200CE, but during this course the main fundamentals of thought have been that of reason, wisdom, logic, practicality, and to concentrate on living in the present moment (Lesso, 2022). Another main cornerstone for Stoics is having an acceptance of Death. They believe that the greatest Fear in our lives is the Fear of Death, but by overcoming this Fear using logic and sense, we can achieve a greater value in our life. The school of Stoicism’s practices on Death sound similar to Epicurus, discussed in chapter 2, however their approaches are slightly different. While Epicurus believed that the thought of Death was an evil, evoking a negative emotion, and life
evoked a positive emotion, the Stoics did not see emotions the same way. They believe that there are three stages leading to the production of an emotion, “1. First movement.
2. Judgement. 3. Emotion.” The first movement is our unconscious first reaction to a situation, for example, you see a mouse in your kitchen. The first reaction could be shock and disgust. Next, we can either scream and run out of the room, letting our emotions control us, or we can use our judgement to prevent our emotions taking over, and take a moment to understand, it is just a small mouse that cannot harm me, and take it outside (philosophybreak.com, 2024). The Stoics have the same approach when it comes to Death and so are different in this way to Epicurus’ thought, as they do not see Death as an evil, but simply a logical phenomenon. One way of training ourselves, according to the Stoics, to overcome the Fear of Death, is to practice “Momento mori” thoughts (Stoic Simple, 2023). Having constant reminders of Momento mori can help the Stoic ingrain onto themselves that one day they will perish, and everything they are able to experience now will no longer be possible. While it sounds depressing for many, they accompany this with practicing to Embrace the moment you are living in now.
Marcus Aurelius, Roman emperor from 161-180CE, once said “Stop whatever you’re doing for a moment and ask yourself: Am I afraid of death because I won’t be able to do this anymore?” (Daily Stoic, 2019).
Conclusion
Throughout the ages, man has tried endlessly to come to an understanding of Death using skills of thought, language, and art. We have asked infinite questions and come to an endless number of answers as to what Death is. Do we know when we die? Does Death hurt? Is there life after Death? If so, what is it like? Is there nothing after Death? What is nothing? It must be impossible to understand the answer to this question while we are still alive. However, at least we can have control over our lives, and our attitude towards Death.
Through this dissertation I have attempted to dissect the attitudes of Indifference, Fear and Embrace – but there are countless more attitudes. I have tried to simplify these to present the reader with an understand of where they may fall, and to suggest that, maybe, it’s something worth considering. Momento mori.
Figures
Fig. 1 - Holbein, H. (2007). The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Dance of Death, by Hans Holbein. Translated by A. Dobson. David Garcia, Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net. p27
Fig. 2 - Wiley, K. (2024). DOWN | Kehinde Wiley Studio. [online] Available at: https://kehindewiley.com/exhibitions/down/.
Fig. 3 - Onfray, M. (2022). Messages from a master – Tate Etc | Tate. [online] Tate. Available at: https://www.tate.org.uk/tate-etc/issue-8-autumn-2006/messages-master#none
Fig. 4 - De Pascale, E. (2009). Death and Resurrection in Art. Translated by A. Shugaar. Los Angeles: The J. Paul Getty Museum. p94
Fig. 5 - De Pascale, E. (2009). Death and Resurrection in Art. Translated by A. Shugaar. Los Angeles: The J. Paul Getty Museum. p93
Fig. 6 - Holbein, H. (2007). The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Dance of Death, by Hans Holbein. Translated by A. Dobson. David Garcia, Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net. p8
Fig. 7, 8 & 9 - [FILMGRAB]. (2013). The Seventh Seal. [online] Available at: https://filmgrab.com/2013/02/26/the-seventh-seal/.
Fig. 10 - Holbein, H. (2007). The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Dance of Death, by Hans Holbein. Translated by A. Dobson. David Garcia, Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net. p25
Fig. 11 - De Pascale, E. (2009). Death and Resurrection in Art. Translated by A. Shugaar. Los Angeles: The J. Paul Getty Museum. p91
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