Title: Muse, Medium, Misogyny: Acritical analysis of representations of witchcraft as seen in early to mid-modern WesternEuropean art history
Author: Megan Kerr
Publication Year/Date: May 2024
Document Version: Fine Art Hons dissertation
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https://doi.org/10.20933/100001303
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Muse, Medium, Misogyny: A critical analysis of representations of witchcraft as seen in early to mid-modern Western-European art history.
By Megan KerrAbstract
This dissertation forms a critical analysis of the lack of recognition regarding Pagan practices in early to mid-modern Western European art history. Chapter one forms a literature review in which I have examined the available literature on this subject area, including academic journal papers, books and museum materials. Through carrying out this review, I have been able to identify the gap in knowledge which this dissertation has filled. In chapter two I have analysed the ways in which female witches and their practices have inspired artists and contributed to and enhanced developments within art practices and in chapter three I discuss the parallels found within the Pagan practice ofAltar creation and the creation of art, investigating the overlap of ideologies and intentions. Through this, the research has made significant contribution to my studio practice and forthcoming degree show. The issue of misogyny will be a key thematic issue throughout the dissertation, and as such, the findings in relation to Muse, Medium, and Misogyny are explicitly stated in the conclusion. The research has been underpinned by primary and secondary sources of available literature, including attendance at a talk by Judith Hewitt, museums curator for Dumfries and Galloway West
Introduction
Muse, Medium, Misogyny is an investigation into the lack of academic recognition surrounding ritualistic and Pagan practices in the context of art history. It touches on the contributing factors toward the representation and perception of witchcraft within the framework of early modern to mid modern western European art history and offers discussion surrounding what constitutes art and how we define creative pursuits. Whilst the parameters do restrict from the available knowledge, it allows for a more in-depth understanding and subsequent analysis of the available materials from the time-period.
This is a new and under-developed issue within academic writing, as outlined within the literature review in chapter one, which is why it is an important area to discuss. Its’relevance comes from the contemporaneous interest in witchcraft, as often surfaces at times of political or economic upheaval; conjuring an interest in the supernatural and fantastical as a form of escapism which commonly manifests within popular culture. It combines a delicate overlap of topics which have previously been dismissed in their relevance to each other, however, now in an age of feminism, spirituality and artistic celebration, it is an area of exploration which would capture the interest of a plethora of groups and therefore is of importance to academic research.
The reasoning behind the previous neglect is part of what I would like to investigate as it offers an insight on attitudes within academic circles, and so I will be looking at both the balance between gender, art and witchcraft, and the contributing factors that have led to the interplay of these subjects to be of such interest An area under-researched leaves a gap in knowledge, which I aim to fill by providing a contemporary feminist perspective to the discussion, with contemporary feminist voices being another underrepresented group in
academic writing, as Jeni Hart is referenced saying “research that is explicitly feminist is underrepresented in mainstream higher education academic journals” in Feminist Research in Higher Education (2011), again heightening the importance of offering this research and consequent discussion.
In chapter one my aim is to address the negligence of academic writing on the subject via a literature review, in which I break down the various sources to which I will refer throughout the chapters of my dissertation and highlight the key areas which have previously been neglected within scholarly practice. Through chapter two I will introduce the various ways in which the witch has inspired and been utilised as a muse within art history, as well as the ways the practices of witchcraft have influenced and ultimately advanced the development of art and art practices in Western European history. Chapter three will explore female artists who have explored their double life as both Pagan and artist in order to create; whether it be through ritualistic practice to create art, or their practices as art. Primarily I will be focussing on the practice of altar construction as an art form, observing the practice through historical and contemporary lenses, investigating intention and labour, towards the end goal of analysing how the context in which they are constructed/displayed can entirely change the ways in which they are perceived. Through my conclusion I aim to draw the line between the three headers; muse, medium, and misogyny, in a way that is not only cohesive but offers a new perspective.
Having been raised Christian, I have always had an exposure to, and hence fascination with, spiritual art.Art that is anchored in belief and passion is what resonates most with myself as both an artist and a viewer. I find it to be the most admirable as it holds an external force; belief which possesses the artist to a state of creation. Beyond this, there is a focus on the
depiction of narrative and atmosphere, commonly involving symbolism My art has often settled in the territory of the mystical and uncanny, which is due to the influence of my upbringing and the art and visual cultures to which I was exposed.Art based on devotion or worship, to capture a sensation or emotion, has always been what has fascinated me, and so the creation of a space in which to explore emotions, energies and devote worship is an obvious choice for the kind of art I would like to explore in my own practice, and beyond which, the area of research in which my work would rest. Since my second year in University, my work has existed within the realm of nature and spirituality as I have long been fascinated with and have had a personal interest in witchcraft, the occult and the aesthetics with which these are associated.At DJCAD I began to develop my academic interest and expertise in the subject through essay writing and studio research, which has culminated in my studio practice and academic writing settling in this area.
As a result of my interest, I have read widely and attended a number of talks and exhibitions, which has consequently provided me with a strong, foundational understanding of the issues within the topic and the areas that require further research and are of interest to like-minded people. I am not a practicing witch myself, so would be considered an outsider-researcher (Breen 2007), however I do not feel this hinders me as it allows me to be objective in my writing and arguments.
When speaking of the European Witch Craze, I am concerned with the period "from around 1400 to 1700; the early modern witch trials in Europe.” (Nochlin, 1988), and mid-modern describes up to the mid 1900s. When speaking of witches or witchcraft, I am referring to female practitioners specifically, as I am discussing this topic in the context of misogyny. Generalisations to include Wiccan and Pagan groups are made for the sake of being able to
refer to old world and new world practices and attitudes to allow for the most comprehensive discussion on the issues, as these groups are related and are faced with many of the same difficulties. The primary geographical focus is Western Europe as they were at the forefront of the witch craze (Holland, 2006, p. 124).
Literature Review
The topic of Pagan practices and their representations within art history weaves its’way through a rich tapestry of historical, artistic, and societal issues, requiring the consultation of various forms of literature to gather an understanding of the relationships between the comprising elements. Spirituality, gender, representations, and the question of “what constitutes art?” spans a massive area of knowledge and therefore I have focused on how they have previously been investigated relative to each other, allowing for me to identify the lack of writings on my particular area of focus and offer an original contribution to knowledge concerning the underrepresentation of the PaganAltar as an art practice, in particular, from a contemporary, feminist point of view.
The co-existence of art and magic is explored within Jamie Sutcliffe’s Magic. (2021) in which he describes their relationship as “deeply strange and symbiotic. We could even say that magical practice is inherently artful” (p.15), going as far as listing various ritualistic practices which could be understood as a form of art practice themselves. It is this parallel I am investigating myself, however, I aim to focus primarily on the practice ofAltar creation, and the ways in which it too may reflect the values and processes of creating art. Sutcliffe also touches on why this comparison has classically been overlooked, suggesting it is because the nature of contemporary art is to be seen, whereas due to the society in which magic has existed, it has oft been forced to hide, as history has proven it to be condemned as opposed to celebrated. Whilst Sutcliffe’s writing does contribute greatly to my argument, I wish to take my ideas further with more specificity. His writing lacks the dissection of the societal issues which amounted to practitioners of magic having “dwelt in the shadows” (p. 15) and I wish to have a more developed argument for the symbiosis of magical practice, primarilyAltar creation, and the artistic process
Kay Turner explores the domestic altar as an artform in her book Beautiful Necessity: The Art and Meaning of Women’sAltars (1999). Turner visits women who have dedicated their energy to the creation of a space to worship within their homes and investigates the practice from a scholarly perspective, writing on her findings with reference to the parallels shared with art practice and delves into the difficult power-imbalances which are responsible for the lack of previous scholarly recognition. Turner notes this lack of recognition as a larger issue within academia, writing “Anthropological and art-historical sources either failed to mention home altars or described them in terms that always implied their insignificance.” (p.11) insinuating the foundational issues of misogyny which uphold and consequently withhold professional artistic recognition. Beautiful Necessity shares the viewpoint in which art and altars are birthed of the same processes; described by Rose Wognum Frances as “Once you put an object in relation to another, it tells a story; it makes a different reality…. This is the beginning of all art: to take this thing and put it in relation to that thing…always the relationship, the implicit relationship between things. It’s the basis of the altar aesthetic.” (p. 96) and provides a comprehensive resource on the practices and subsequent dismissal of women’s worship in the context of altar-making; however, Turner’s research is concerned with the modernAmericas, whilst I am interested in the practices and contributing societal factors contained within this subject in relation to Western-Europe.
In his 2006 book Misogyny, Jack Holland elaborates on the societal factors which amounted in the massive impact of the witch hunts. He attributes the considerable difference in the longevity of the witch-craze between NorthAmerica and Europe as “the fact that Old World misogyny did not enjoy a completely successful transplant to the new world.” (p. 126) and goes on to outline the conditions in early modern Europe which allowed the craze to thrive Holland gives an in-depth and meticulously researched account of the impact misogyny had on the early European witch-craze and underpins my writing with a foundational
understanding of the dynamic between early modern society and witches, opening the floor to further these conversations and explore more niche issues which have previously been neglected within academia. Misogyny doesn’t go as far as to introduce the role of art within the witch craze period and the intense, trichotomous relationship of misogyny, art and witchcraft remains an area bountiful in new academic discussions.
The delicate relationship between gender and ritual practice is explored in Elizabeth Shuler’s journal article Balancing Act: A Discussion of Gender Roles Within Wiccan Ritual (2013).
The prevalence of gender within Wiccan ritual is discussed in detail, however, it is not the role of gender within the practice which I am looking to investigate, it is gender as an external factor on the academic recognition of ritualistic practices within art. What Shuler does relevantly draw attention to, however, is the performance aspect of rituals. Shuler refers to Lynne Hume on the subject, who eloquently summarises it with “just as a play consists of performance and performers, props, costumes, lighting, music, and special effects in order to create a mood, or atmosphere, so it is with any pagan ritual.” (p. 51). This is unfortunately only briefly touched on by Schuler but does tie in with a lot of the ideas I am concerned with regarding the multi-disciplinary aspect of ritual worship, and demonstrates it to be a shared idea, although sparsely addressed.
The most relevant thesis I could find via Ethos - database of doctoral theses - on the issue was Susan J. Elsley’s writing on the witch as a figure within popular culture; Images of the Witch in Nineteenth-Century Culture (2012). Elsley’s thesis provides a broad and thoroughly researched background on the many appearances of the witch. The third chapter Witches in Nineteenth-Century Poetry and Art offers the specificity of the witch’s multiple guises within 19th century art history, and contributing societal factors which resulted in such a diverse range of depictions, however, does not span my desired timeframe and does not go beyond
the issue of depictions in art, leaving open the area of representations of witches as artists, which I aim to investigate myself
In order to observe contemporary opinions and new discussions on the topic, I attended the talk Women, Witchcraft, and Birds at Dumfries Museum, delivered by Judith Hewitt, former museum manager of the Museum of Witchcraft and Magic in Cornwall, and current museums curator of Dumfries and Galloway Museums West. Hewitt took the audience on a journey through the various depictions of witches through the ages and posed the question of what it really means to be a witch. This question framed the discussion of what a witch is and where our ideas of “the witch” have come from, suggesting “witch” is actually a collective term for a whole host of magical practitioners generalised into one, predetermined neat little package. The issue of self-proclaimed witches was then raised, as their definition of a witch would be what the word means to them individually. This really resonated with me as I feel it is an effective way to draw a comparison between witches and artists; how do you define what art is, other than something that has been proclaimed as art. It is what it means to the individual. The phrase from the talk which I feel encapsulates this discussion best is “the definition of "witch” exists within context”, which I feel is equally as effective when “witch” is interchanged with “art”. It is about intention, rather than objective definition.Another moment during the talk which I found particularly relevant was that Hewitt drew attention to ancient altars being held in museums, this then allowed me to think further about how context can affect interpretation. When put on display, a level of importance is bestowed upon it. If displayed in an art gallery, is an object immediately recognised as art? Regardless of individual opinion on the object and its value as an art piece, the answer is yes, suggesting that art exists within context. Whilst Hewitt’s talk was not entirely concerned with my subject matter, it offered a space for thought-provoking discussion and inadvertently opened avenues for further development on the definition of what constitutes art. It was valuable to have a
primary source and Hewitt was kind enough to share her details with me to allow further discussion on the subject, however her talk did not cover all bases with which my research is concerned and so the gap in knowledge continues to exist.
Art historian Linda C. Hults’book The Witch as Muse: Art, Gender, and Power in Early Modern Europe (2005) is perhaps the most relevant source to my topic as it navigates the territory between art and gender with a direct focus on witchcraft. Hults (2005) analyses artworks of the period and relates them back to the beliefs of the time, outlining the influences behind the depictions of witches and witchcraft and hence consequences of the rampant misogyny in early modern Europe. She provides an in-depth discussion on the dynamics of gender and power and the effect this had on the creative outputs of society, therefore laying the groundwork for which my research can build atop of.
As my review of the available literature spanned primary, secondary and tertiary sources, including contemporary discussions and both independent and renowned authors, I feel confident that there is a definite gap in knowledge which my research will fill, offering a new perspective and understanding of the issues surrounding academic recognition of Paganistic and ritual practices within the framework of art and art history
Muse
Women and art have a complex relationship. Women are responsible for so much within the world of art yet are always the ones to be neglected recognition “Even when they did not make art, early modern women contributed to its production, whether as models, female kin, mistresses, or wives.”(Hults, 2010), without women, so much art and so many developments within art history would have never existed, yet misogyny remains rife, as it has all through history. One incarnation of women who best exemplifies this tumultuous relationship is the female witch.
The image of the female witch has enchanted creatives for as long as she has existed From her earliest materialisations in woodcuts to her current domination of popular culture, it is hard to find a medium in which she has not been depicted. Mythos and folklore turned to poetry and plays, words turned to works of art, and the witch was woven into art history as one of the all-time greatest muses. It could be argued that to be a muse is an honour; to be so worshipped to the point of inspiring creation, often thought of as beautiful, glamorous or captivating, but is it really all it is made out to be?After all, there are no rules to ensure your depiction will be complimentary, and no one knows this as well as the female witch.
She first appeared to the Western art world within the realm of printmaking;Albrecht Dürer’s 1497 engraving “ Die Vier Hexen” or The Four Witches is recognized as one of the most important early artworks on the subject of witches, (Artsper, 2021) aligning artistic interest with contemporary issues of the time: the European witch craze. It is believed to depict three witches indoctrinating a girl and is laced with symbolism which supports this narrative Scottish National Galleries (2020) draw attention to the details: ”The skulls and bones scattered at their feet are indicators of magic and invocation, where the burning devil in the
lower-left reiterates the presence of evil.” and the pose of the witches is likened to classical depictions of The Three Graces, figures often associated with classical beauty. This juxtaposition of beauty alongside evil was of particular interest as it subverted expectations of the era. It was more common at this time for evil to be depicted as ugly, most commonly as an attempt to demonise so-called ugly women. This can be seen with Francisco de Goya’s Los Caprichos ; a series of 80 prints from the late 18th century Goya’s prints turned the narrative on its’head and instead of condemning women, he condemned the condemner – the church. In his series of intaglio prints he depicts witches engaging in nefarious deeds representative of the behaviours of the church at the time, of which he disapproved, as a way of portraying ”the perils of superstition and ignorance” (Davenport, 2019). Whilst it was not an intentional attack on women, Los Caprichos still enforced the harmful stereotypes which justified the murder of potentially millions of women (Holland, 2006) displaying how engrained misogyny was into the narrative of witchcraft. The fact that witches have been depicted as both attractive and repulsive is perhaps the most obvious way to demonstrate the extremity of the misogyny that plagued society; there is no way for women to win
Even as the craze waned, witches and witchcraft were still inspiring new art; Frederick Sandy’s beautiful enchantresses, Vivien (1863) and Medea (1866), gilded in gold and laden with magical symbolism came about in the late 17th century, 100 years after the last woman was legally burned in 1787 (Holland, 2006). When depicted as attractive, they are harlots, intent on distracting and misleading men, using their mystifying sexual prowess to their own advantage – as opposed to the alternative explanation of men being easily distracted. Deanna
Petherbridge outlines this incarnation and her lasting impact on art in Witches and Wicked Bodies (2013);
“The dangerous but infinitely alluring femme fatale has remained a potent figure in European art well after witchcraft ceased to be regarded as an actual threat to society
and religion… developed by the Romantic poets [she] became a potent theme for artists in the nineteenth century, particularly the Pre-Raphaelites.” (p. 21).
Beauty was punished, just as was a lack of it. When depicted as ugly, it is an attack on the women that do not care to service men – often old, they are no longer of child bearing age, they are withered and unappealing and so do not even provide a visual satisfaction to men, they simply take up space and offer apparently nothing in return. This dichotomy of perception is an insight into just how deep rooted the misogyny lay; there was no way for women to win.
Whilst misogyny was one of the leading factors in the mass impact of the European Witch Craze, as Jack Holland breaks down in Misogyny (2006);
“At least three conditions conspired to create the emotional, moral and social context for the witch-hunts. First, the fourteenth century, which ushered them in, was... a period of terrible calamities. Plague and war threatened to unhinge society. Fear and doubt caused people to view the world in a darker and more sinister light. Secondly, heretics real and imagined threatened a once seemingly all-powerful institution, the Church... Finally, Christian society’s deep-seated misogyny provided the needed scapegoat in the form of woman.” (p. 128)
The witch’s popularity amongst creatives in the early modern period definitely supported the trajectory of the hate. The creative fascination can be traced back to a few core reasons; art historian Linda C Hults explains in her 2005 book The Witch as Muse; Art, Gender and Power in Early Modern Europe that due to the already established ”corrupt fantasy” associated with witchcraft, it was easier ”for male artists to displace fears about their own vulnerability onto women and to display their control of this unruly beast.” (p. 27). This was not a new concept as Hults later goes on to explain “Asimilar dynamic operated in the early
modern period, when artists and poets exploited a topical issue and the inventive elaboration of a negative female stereotype contributed to their identities and self-promotion.” (p 37, 2005) alluding to the larger issue of misogyny amongst these depictions of witchcraft. The figure of the witch provided an “other” to bare the weight of the anxieties of society at the time, hence her demonisation; what was deemed unacceptable by society was projected onto this figure, brought to life by male artists, to enforce conformity This is evidenced by Catherine McCormack in her book Women in the Picture (2021) stating “Anthropologists tend to agree that the image of the witch is a strategy used to make people, chiefly women, conform to expected social norms,” (p. 128). Women accounted for 80% of the executed as a result of the witch hunts (Holland, 2006) emphasising the fact that misogyny played one of the most crucial roles within the craze.
Witchcraft and misogyny brewed another form of creativity in the guise of the printing revolution.As the European Witch Craze was manifesting in the later half of the 1400s, Johannes Gutenberg was busy inventing the printing press (Roos, 2019, History). Whilst the witch craze was not directly responsible for this invention, it did offer a platform to realise the full potential of printing. Printed works held such authority due to much of early modern society being under-educated and overly susceptible to manipulation, weaponizing fear and ignorance. It made information more accessible and felt more real to those that didn’t know any better. Witchcraft pamphlets were created to feed the beliefs of the church to the general public, and as Carla Suhr writes in Publishing for the Masses: Early Modern English Witchcraft Pamphlets (2012), were “part of the efforts to “re-Christianize” England, or to reintroduce “proper” Protestant doctrine.”. They were often formed around real trials and patchworked from legal documentation, perhaps in order to establish some sense of higher power, however, as previously noted, these were intended for a lesser educated audience, many of whom would not understand the technical terms that are so prevalent in formal
writing. This then meant that the pamphlets were required to be simplified for the sake of accessibility, however not to the extent that they no longer held a feeling of authority. Suhr phrases this dichotomy as “[the meeting of two worlds]: the spreading of the elite view to the general masses, hidden in entertaining narratives that are easy to read, to listen to, and to repeat.”. The spreading of information was streamlined into being widely accessible and easily manipulated.Another way in which printing was heavily utilized to make information accessible was through woodcuts. Illustrations were an indicator of the intended audience, as suggested by Suhr, who goes on to explain that it is not necessarily the image itself – often generalizations were made for sake of ease – but simply the presence of an illustration that informed audiences it would be accessible to the semi-literate. Printing also meant the same image could be reproduced with ease offering a standardized visualization, allowing for certain qualities to become known as defining characteristics due to their prevalence in woodcut illustrations. Jon Crabb (2017) states “most of the really iconic images found on the internet today come from just one collection, The History of Witches and Wizards: Giving a True Account of All Their Tryals in England, Scotland, Sweedland, France, and New England
... Collected ... By W. P. (1720).”; in which pointed hats and dark robes frolic gleefully with devils and demons, an image familiar to many when thinking of the classical woodcuts of witches.
Mass hysteria and mass production came together to create the perfect storm in the form of Heinrich Kramer’s Malleus Maleficarum (Hammer of Witches) (1487). Having previously had his findings and theories dismissed by the court, Kramer was able to take control for himself by utilizing mass production to distribute his views to less educated, more impressionable audiences, radicalizing his readers into sharing his disdain and merciless ambition to rid the world of whom he believed to be witches. Holland describes the Malleus Maleficarum as a justification for genocide (p. 118, 2006), it acted as a manual for the
identification and extermination of witches and as print held great amounts of authority at the time, it was highly effective
The printing revolution and the European Witch Craze fueled each other's fires, birthing the iconic image of the witch as we know her today and offering a masterclass in how best to utilize a new resource Without the madness of the witch craze, it is possible to argue that the printing revolution may not have had such immediate massive development and impact, and we may not even communicate ideas in the same ways we do today, and so it is another example of the ways witches and witchcraft are responsible for the development and creation of art and art practices
Medium
Magic, the medium of mediums?Art and magic have long been connected – both seen as outsiders interpreting life in their own unique ways. There is a dialogue between the two, in which they dip into each others ideologies or aesthetics, sometimes one being the driving force behind creation within the other. It is recognised in writings on the subject of this relationship that the act of magic, or ritualistic practices can be read within the context of artistic creation. Jamie Sutcliffe describes this relationship in Magic (2021);
Magic’s relationship with art is deeply strange and symbiotic. We could even say that magical practice is inherently artful. The casting of a protective circle, the weaving of a corn dolly, the spread of a tarot deck, the deep lulls of trance and meditation.
Magical cultures and sentiments depend on aspects of performance, craft, and visual projection, and the frequently accrued tangible residues, a clutter of worked ephemera that aids and assists the maintenance and transmission of magical intent. (p. 15)
In a generalised, objective sense, art and magic practice both make use of the considered arrangement of objects, perhaps best summarised in Beautiful Necessity: The Art and Meaning of Women’s Altars by Kay Turner (1999), as “intention visibly rendered through artistic means” (p. 95). Intention and consideration are what sets art making and ritual practice aside from simply being an array of objects, and offers the most obvious parallel between the two practices.As art exists in a way in which it is ever evolving, it has a tendency to elude definition and so the only real way to define what art is, is through selfproclamation. This addresses one of the main differences between magical practitioners and artists as “Where magic has, for the sake of its own modesty, potency and the safety of its practitioners, dwelt in the shadows, contemporary art frequently strives for recognition”
(Sutcliffe, 2021). As previously discussed, practitioners of magic, primarily witches, have not been historically celebrated for their alternative behaviours and beliefs, hence the inclination to stay quiet about their creative outputs. This directly contrasts with artists who typically must promote themselves in order to receive acclaim and professional success. Had history not condemned – and not to be forgotten; killed - those who they did not understand, maybe there would be a louder and prouder community of witch-artists, who felt safe enough within society to share their practices
The parallel of practices is not a new discussion; William Perkins, 16th century theologian and Puritan, spoke of witchcraft and art in A Discourse on the Damned Art of Witchcraft; I say it is an art, because it is commonly so called and esteemed among men, and there is reason why it should be so termed. For as in all good and lawful arts, the whole practice of it is performed by certain rules and precepts, and without them nothing can be done. So witchcraft has certain superstitious grounds and principles on which it stands, and by which alone the feats and practices of it are commonly performed. (2012, p. 30)
Perkins offers a succinct breakdown of the phrase “the art of witchcraft”, which is so commonly thrown around without much consideration into what it really means The objectiveness with which Perkins’writing came from suggests that there should be no dispute on the subject; witchcraft and ritualistic practices are to be recognised as art. Puritan’s were notoriously anti-witch, hence why Perkins’quote on the topic is of such interest as it allows us to see arguments for the similarities of art and magic from multiple perspectives, new and old, supporters and opposers. This raises the question of why there is such a lack of academic interest and recognition in the field. Even out with the art world, witchcraft has struggled to gain attention within academic circles, as Historian Charles Zika wrote in 2007, “Only in the
past two to three decades have witchcraft images been considered a topic worthy of serious scholarly study.” (p. 3). The tide has seemingly begun to turn over the last decade with more contemporary voices offering their input, especially within artistic circles, drawing the same conclusions of the intrinsically artful nature of rituals. In 2013, Elizabeth Shuler wrote on the topic of “gender roles within Wiccan ritual” and again drew attention to the importance of intention, phrasing her perception of ritual practice and altar making as “the principle of balance enacted by the careful placement of these items.” and the parallels of performance; “...the circle casting, the placement of the tools, and even the repetition of incantations becomes a way of slipping into a different place, of stepping beyond the threshold of normal existence. Lynne Hume says of the drama of ritual that “just as a play consists of performance and performers, props, costumes, lighting, music, and special effects in order to create a mood, or atmosphere, so it is with any pagan ritual.” The performance of the ritual, the theatre of it, creates a space that is in between.” (Shuler, 2013, p. 51)
Shuler’s perspective and phrasing steers more in the direction of performing arts, rather than visual arts, however the sentiment remains that the practices of witchcraft can be viewed as an art form in themselves.
My discussion utilises the artistic qualities of altar making and the values shared amongst practitioners as the primary example and area of exploration for my argument in the intertwining of art and magic, but my primary concern is the lack of professional recognition, when such direct and obvious parallels are widely recognised. This lack of recognition is addressed by Turner as an obstacle when researching for Beautiful Necessity; “Anthropological and art-historical sources either failed to mention home altars or described them in terms that always implied their insignificance.” (1999, p.11), I also found this to be
an issue when researching for this dissertation as with it being a new, previously underinvestigated topic, there is a lack of evidence I can use to affirm my arguments
Through the literature review and my research concerning the historical representations of women’s worship and their contribution to art history, it has been made obvious that it is an issue of misogyny that is withholding spiritual art from academic acclaim. Feminist art historianArlene Raven states “The altar viewed as aesthetic model, performance genre, artistic object, and women's art – the very acknowledgment of the existence of the altar –begins to change our traditional white, male, Western-bound ideas concerning who the artist is, and how, and to what purpose, she creates." (Turner, 1999, p. 73), indicating that this is not a new issue, but a deeply ingrained prejudice that continues to haunt the art world. Altar making is worthy of professional recognition, if so desired by the artist, as the process follows that of art making; Turner references Rose Wognum Frances on this subject, who writes “Once you put an object in relation to another, it tells a story; it makes a different reality…. This is the beginning of all art: to take this thing and put it in relation to that thing…always the relationship, the implicit relationship between things. It’s the basis of the altar aesthetic.” (p. 96). Anarrative is being created to accompany a visual representation of women’s worship, this follows an objective definition of the process of art making and so why are witches excluded from mainstream, academic recognition
It is because of their historic oppression.As an act of self-preservation, witches could not draw attention to themselves or their practices, for fear of persecution. Art was viewed as independent female thought, which was punished. This has resulted in magic and ritual practices to be conducted in private, to not be spoken of or to be proud of, regardless of changing attitudes towards witchcraft in more recent years, The consequences of 300 years (Nochlin, 1988) of intolerance remain, and practitioners are still fearful of the hatred that exists within society. Despite the contributions to the art world which have been made as a
result of the existence of witches, the art by witches themselves has struggled to break into the circles that would offer reparations for the centuries of atrocities. Even some of our most famous examples of female artists concerned with women’s worship do not get to reap the benefits of their own success; Hilma af Klint for example, asked that her work be displayed only posthumously.Af Klint is possibly the most prominent, mainstream artist working in the realm of magic and witchcraft, unique for her involvement in spiritualism, she would conduct seances as part of her group “the Five”, and translate the messages from the spiritual realm into her art. Kate Kellaway, when writing for the Guardian, quotes af Klint as saying “I had no idea what they were supposed to depict… I worked swiftly and surely, without changing a single brush stroke” (Kellaway, 2016), drawing a comparison between art-making and spiritual possession, as if for her, creating art is not a choice but simply the way in which she worships. The parallels weave in and out of each other, art practice can be magical and magic can be artistic.
Conclusion
My research has culminated to evidence the need of a much wider discussion required within academic circles and society. The contributions toward art resultant of witches, even now, struggle to gain recognition, which is why this topic is so important to discuss and why this research is relevant to contemporary issues within art, as misogyny and alternative practices are such popular topics of conversation in recent years. It forms an expansive field of research, laden with so much history, and yet remains neglected from academic recognition, despite the variety of factors which offer a more dynamic discussion on the topics of recognition and representations.
Misogyny laces every aspect of the conversation, as evidenced through my research, and implements itself as the historical driving force behind the lack of credit, or even simply positive representation, of witches and their practices. Western Europe provides the richest landscape in which to study this issue, as “the persecution of witches in NorthAmerica lasted for so short a time [due to] the fact that Old World misogyny did not enjoy a completely successful transplant to the new world. (Holland, 2006, p. 126), only further evidencing how crucial misogyny was to the extreme development of the witch craze.
The lasting effects of the rampant misogyny of the early to mid-modern eras can still be seen today, as practitioners of magic continue to keep to themselves, away from prying eyes that may wish them harm, they are still exiled and othered by mainstream society and change would require systemic deconstruction of values deeply engrained within our western culture. The harmful stereotypes generated as fearmongering continue to materialise in the media we consume daily and inadvertently poison our minds with old-world ideas.
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