Substance Use Within Art

Title: Substance Use WithinArt

Author: Alex Harrow

Publication Year/Date: May 2024

Document Version: Fine Art Hons dissertation

License: CC-BY-NC-ND

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-ncnd/4.0/

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.20933/100001303

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Acknowledgements:

I would like to thank everyone who has provided me with support throughout this dissertation. To my friends, family, and peer group, thank you for the advice that was provided and for listening to my gripes over the workload.

For those who were able to proofread my dissertation truly thank you for having a second set of eyes to see spelling errors and general corrections, I would have missed due to my dyslexia, your kind words helped throughout this process.

And to my academic advisorsAnna Notaro & Helen Gorrill you’ve provided so much help through this dissertation, your guidance has provided support for me to create this dissertation, thank you so much for your academic teaching

Abstract:

This dissertation will explore the subject of ‘Substance use within art’examining the work produced by artists from the 19th century to the current day while they were under the influence of mind-altering substances. It discusses such themes as the artistic relationship with drugs, mental health connections, and the creative implications or otherwise of drug use. Astereotype of those who are creatives is that they will abuse illicit substances as a means to create art. This dissertation aims to explore that concept and establish if there is any merit behind it.

This work has used scientific research that dates back to the 60s with studies that investigate this concept of drug use within creativity. These studies vary in their results throughout the years with some stating there wouldn’t be any creative benefits to drug use, while others state that perception of image and colour is heightened while under the influence of certain psychoactive substances.

This dissertation analyses the lives and works of thirteen different artists who have been documented as affected by narcotic abuse to some extent throughout their lives and have used this experience as a means to create art. The artists selected have engaged with substance abuse within their practice experiencing euphoric highs as the most miserable lows, some have never recovered from their involvement with drugs as their addiction becomes consuming in some cases even leading to their death. It seems that many of the artists who use substances within their practice would later go on to regret it. It will also touch upon other creatives such as writers, poets, and musicians - substance use isn’t exclusive to painters, as other careers within the arts have also found creative benefits as a means to produce work.

Introduction

It has long been acknowledged that many creatives have used mind-altering substances as a means of elevating their work From alcohol to opiates certain artists have been known to use almost anything as a means of developing their practice. This dissertation aims to explore three centuries starting from the 19th to the current day, as this is when drugs became more ubiquitous influencing artists in the process. Further exploring artists seen as prominent during their period and their relationship with addictive substances within their careers.As well as addressing arguments such as whether drugs potentially can increase an individual’s creativity, the relationship with mental illnesses, and what happens to the artists that become consumed by their addiction.

There are associations between the life of an artist and a certain level of trauma that they have overcome to produce work. Whether that is through tragic life circumstances, mental illness, or an affliction of addiction It seems prolific artists were destined to live a rather troubled life; this dissertation will examine how artists befall this fate. The lives of artists can inform of the dangers and benefits that come with substance abuse, acting as a cautionary tale for aspiring artists.

Given the taboo nature surrounding the topic, there are very few publications that focus solely on this topic. Meaning it is all the more apparent that this subject requires proper investigation - focusing on elements of the artists' lives that are rarely spoken about - such as their substance use and mental health. Despite the potential to play a significant role in both their artistic practice and output.

My interest in the topic stems from an experience with highly addictive tendencies possibly as a result of my mental health I also have found my own overt creative tendencies often become more prominent while intoxicated when I will often draw or paint despite being in such state. Though difficult for non-artists to appreciate, through my research, I have found there to be many other artists who have also used mind-altered states as a means to create.

Prelude

Fig (1).Artist Unknown, ‘The Tassili Mushroom Shaman’, 6,000-9,000 B.C.E., Cave Painting (Algerian cave)

‘The Tassili Mushroom Shaman’is early evidence of art being influenced by mind-altering substances. Found inAlgerian caves dating back to 6000-9000 BC, early man had discovered the hallucinogenic qualities of certain mushrooms and created art as a means of describing the experience. It is widely accepted that our ancestors used these ‘magic mushrooms’as a means of religious practice developing cults that would hold ceremonies where the fungi would be taken for their psychoactive qualities (Orrelle et al 2021).

The humanoid figure is covered in a fractal pattern: this is recognised as a major way in which psychedelics affect one’s vision. The figure also has a bumble bee head which can be interpreted as being part of a hive mind due to communally taking these mushrooms together Another indicator of this piece’s influence comes from the small mushrooms that cover the figure from the neck down Considered to be compelling evidence that the ancient people of the Sahara would have been experimenting with psychedelic substances while it was a lush green land some ten thousand years ago (Samorini Citation 1989; Sansoni Citation 1980). This artwork gives an insight into early experimentation with psychedelic mushrooms, our relationship with these substances and also how people may broaden their perspectives as means to create art.

Early interactions of intoxicants within theArts

Acrucial time when the dangers of drug abuse were introduced to the world was in 1839 the start of the first opium war Throughout the 19th century, recreational use for opium was higher than it had ever been in history leading to social and economic disruption in China as well as an addiction crisis. The war would also have other ramifications for the rest of the world as opium would gain in popularity and spread throughout the Western world reaping havoc. Without the knowledge of the major health risks, and dependency people would fall into its trap. This led to a rise in opium dens where people who had succumbed to addiction living for the next high. Louise Crane (P5, 2011) states

“The 19th century was a crucial period of drug-taking development both in terms of potency and plurality. The Victorians took not just alcohol and opium but cannabis, coca, mescal and, with the invention of the hypodermic needle in the 1840s, morphine and heroin. The 19th century also saw the origins of drug control, and the medicalisation of addiction to these substances”.

Widespread use of now illicit substances was commonplace as medication during the Victorian era.

The works which came as a result of the opium wars often depicted these opium dens ‘Opium Smoking’by Gustave Doré an etching as a means of representing a tale of fiction written by Charles Dickens the Mystery of Edwin Drood The scene depicts a scene from the novel involving smoking opium in the Lascar's Room. Awoman is caught by candlelight holding a large opium pipe with a large crowd of people watching and waiting behind her for their turn

Other creatives also found a benefit from opium, this wasn’t exclusive to painters as writers and poets also experimented. One intriguing poem written on opium is called ‘Kubla Khan’ and is an account of Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s experience with prescription opium, also known as

“A Vision in a Dream” written in 1797 The final extract states: “And all who heard should see them there, and all should cry, Beware! Beware! His flashing eyes, his floating hair! Weave a circle round him thrice And close your eyes with holy dread for he on honey-dew hath fed, and drunk the milk of Paradise”. (Kumar, P5. 2016)

The poem’s meaning has been speculated for over 200 years but there are some intriguing terms within the conclusion, such as religious elements where Coleridge seemingly refers to himself as having the face of God, where those who looked at him would have to close their eyes in holy dread which is referred to within the Old Testament (Altman 2019). He also refers to the promised land with terms such as honey, milk, and paradise So, it seems that Coleridge believed that if he were able to correctly recount and recreate his dream, he’d become a godlike being able to create the perfection of an Eden within his poem. The

Fig (2). Gustave Doré, ‘Opium Smoking - The Lascar's Room in 'Edwin Drood'’, 1872, Etching (The British Museum)

influence of opium seems to have expanded his spiritual perspective allowing Coleridge to create something ethereal through this remarkable experience.

The critically acclaimed ‘Ophelia’by Sir John Everett Millais admittedly, is not initially associated with opium, but on reflection of the circumstances surrounding the work, it’s hard not to link this painting with the reality of the opium crisis. This Pre Raphaelite painting created by Millais, portrays a scene from Shakespeare’s Hamlet where Ophelia is singing while floating in a river before she drowns. Millais managed to capture the scene with an astute accuracy depicting Shakespeare’s description perfectly from the willow tree, botanical flowers, and river that carries ‘Ophelia’through the piece and including subtleties like the robin

Atheme of this work is death, it depicts Ophelia’s suicide after becoming mad when Hamlet murders her father, Millais uses the Poppy as a means of representing death in this piece. The poppy is also the flower that produces opium there is little to correlate them, other than the model Elizabeth Siddal who was addicted to Laudanum at the time (an opium tincture)

Through the contemporary lens described in Roland Barthes 1967 book Death of the Author the interpretation of a piece of art can change over time once the artists have passed away this is the case with ‘Ophelia’due to the model’s addiction.

Siddal originally took Laudanum for chronic pain but shortly felt addicted to the high, this left a vague expression on the model's face which can be seen in ‘Ophelia’and other PreRaphaelite depictions of her Truly the greatest tragedy of Ophelia occurred a decade after it was painted as Elizabeth Siddal passed away from an opium overdose when she was only 32, shortly after she had given birth to a stillborn daughter It seems Elizabeth Siddal also drowned as Ophelia did, consumed by madness and grief she was dragged under by the current of her addiction

After the death of Elizabeth Siddal her husband Dante Gabriel Rossetti, another Pre Raphaelite, was torn with grief. She continued to be his muse, but his piece ‘Beata Beatrix’is the most poignant tribute to her. Based on the book of poems La Vita Nuova by Dante Alighieri, Beatrix is an element of his divine comedy, the piece depicts Beatrix at the moment

Fig (3). Sir John Everett Millais, ‘Ophelia’, 1852, Oil on Canvas (Tate Britain) Fig (4). Dante Gabriel Rossetti, ‘Beata Beatrix’, 1870, Oil on Canvas (DelawareArt Museum)

of her death Rossetti uses different symbolism to portray his loss, the red dove on Beatrix’s arm is used to show both love and death as it delivers a white poppy, intended to represent the cause of her death with opium being the reason behind her overdose. Behind her is a sundial representing the fleeting time they had together, the background is a depiction of the heavenly kingdom which casts light across the piece. There are two figures one in shadow is Rossetti himself looking over to the angel of love, shown in a red gown holding the flickering flame of Beatrix’s life in her hand. Rossetti also suffered from an addiction as he first gained a taste for the substance Chloral but through substitution therapy, he swapped Chloral addiction to Morphine which would have a tragic toll on Rossetti as the opiate caused severe depression

Suffering from hallucinations these later played into his psychotic breakdown (David et al. 1938) The tragic romance of Elizabeth Siddal and Dante Rossetti echoes the consequences of opium. The raw power behind these paintings’imagery is so significant with their heartbreaking depictions of grief.

Inebriated Impressionists

During the 19th century, there was another revolutionary artists’movement that occurred in France when artists gathered to admire light and colour - creating impressionism An aspect of the impressionists which is rarely discussed is their relationship with alcohol, they would often drink as a means of heightening their vision, the drink favoured by the impressionists was absinthe.

Absinthe grew in popularity due to grape vines being decimated by phylloxera during the 1870s. Easy to produce and inexpensive, it contained wormwood which by itself has no psychedelic effect but was said to introduce thujone into the drink which gave it certain hallucinogenic qualities which many artists took advantage of.Artist Paul Gauguin said.

“Absinthe is the only decent drink that suits an artist”.

showing the influence which, the drink has within creative circles (Bole, Pg 937. 2019). Impressionists saw potential in the hallucinogenic effect that absinthe had used to develop their sense of light while painting (Quarterly, 2003) One such artist who was influenced by absinthe was Edgar Degas.

Degas was one of the founding members of the impressionists and though he wanted to be regarded as a realist it’s hard to deny that his painting technique encompasses many elements

Fig (5). Edgar Degas, ‘L’Absinthe’, 1876, Oil on Canvas (Musée d'Orsay)

within the impressionist’s teachings Although Degas is often best recognised for his depictions of dancers, his more criticised work ‘L’Absinthe’painted in 1876, was poorly received by the public due to the portrayal of the couple in the work – derided as ‘uncouth’ and ‘degrading’ The woman was derogatorily labelled as she was out in a bar with a heavy spirit in her decadent dress.Art critic George Moore even went as far as to say, “Heavens! – what a slut!”

(Bos, 2019). This painting shows a typical scene of urban life during the 19th century where a couple in a bar to order a glass of absinthe. The viewer ostensibly sits at the closest table where Degas would have painted the scene.Absinthe is a focal point of the work no doubt showing that Degas would have been frequently drinking while creating his paintings, the girl in the piece is meant to represent the feeling of absinthe with her vague expression, stooped shoulders, and a melancholic smile. Degas saw how absinthe was becoming commonplace among the lower class and artists during this time, capturing a moment that involved social isolation within a rapidly changing Paris (Byron’s Muse, 2014)

It is well documented that post-impressionist Vincent Van Gogh suffered greatly throughout his life, he struggled with his mental health and alcohol dependency, which was worsened by an impoverished life. Van Gogh wrote to his brother Theo in a letter

“The only thing to bring ease and distraction, in my case and other people’s too, is to stun oneself with a lot of drinking or heavy smoking.”

This gives insight into the extent of Van Gogh’s relationship with abusive substances and how he would use them to numb himself as a means of dealing with his mental health (Douma, P8. 1999). His drink of choice was absinthe, the same as the Impressionists, Van Gogh created his study ‘Café Table withAbsinthe’.

Van Gogh’s addiction to absinthe was extremely deep as the Thujone in the absinthe seemingly had other effects Apparently, this may well have led Van Gogh to desire his terpenes, and this could have led him to even consume his paints as a means of satiating his addiction (Niels, 1988). He developed his renowned brush technique using vivid colour hues and thick paint distribution whilst under the influence of the hallucinogenic spirit.

Fig (6). Vincent Van Gogh, ‘Café Table withAbsinthe’, 1887, Oil on Canvas (Van Gogh Museum)

The piece ‘Café Table withAbsinthe’has been watered down losing that sense of colour Van Gogh painting with its use of orange and greens, but its pale appearance only provides context to the work as the viewer is instantly drawn to the clothing of the passersby outside the café. However, the glass of absinthe appears almost to be glowing with the vivid use of green the subject matter is made clear by its compositional placement.

The painter struggled throughout his life with numerous issues one of the most prominent was when Van Gogh got in a fight with his housemate and fellow painter Paul Gauguin, eventually mutilating himself. This event which would cause him to institutionalise himself as a means of seeking help (Blumer, M.D 2002).

Sadly, just two years later he suffered from a major mental breakdown caused by manicdepressive psychosis, he turned a revolver on himself in an apparent suicide (Blumer, M.D 2002). Paintings created by Van Gogh were undoubtedly assisted by the use of absinthe this subverted the misery of his life. Likewise, it is expected that well known works as Sunflowers, his self-portraits and Stary Night may have never been created without the inspiration of the green fairy.

Drug use throughout ModernArt

Born nine years before Van Gogh’s tragic death, Pablo Picasso developed modernism during the 20th century whilst also suffering from an addictive personality. The artist is best known for working across several different artists' movements and even creating his own with Cubism.

Picasso created ‘Les Demoiselles d’Avignon’in 1907 widely regarded as being the first example of Cubism. This piece rapidly changed how art could be perceived within this new modern era, allowing artists to step away from the traditional aspects of painting and focus on such elements as shape, gesture, and mark-making as a means to create. ‘Les Demoiselles d’Avignon’is a depiction ofAvignon a brothel street in Barcelona it features five prostitutes in different poses all captured in the cubist style. Picasso acknowledged the historic anthropological influences from Iberian sculptures as well as Oceanic andAfrican artefacts specifically Tribal masks due to their accentuated facial features.

Picasso was a frequent cocaine user during this period after being introduced to the substance by writer Gertrude Stein. He became a prolific addict suffering from substance abuse throughout his life, and this would often make him extremely tough to work with as he would become aggressive which would often cause strained relationships with his models and family (Karanovic, 2022). Cocaine was far from the only substance Picasso experimented with. He reportedly used absinthe, opium, hashish, morphine, and other psychotropic drugs. Picasso's use of opium played a significant influence in both his Blue and Rose Periods, he smoked opium between 1904-8. He stopped after witnessing the suicide of his friend KarlHeinz Wiegels an artist and fellow addict (Golding, 1991).

His friend artist Jean Cocteau (Pg 64, 1932) refers to when Picasso told him

“The smell of opium is the least stupid smell in the world.”

Evidently, he admired the sensation opium gave, as Cocteau explains the only smell compares is that of the circus or sea. Picasso was able to use mind-altering substances to develop his practice but that came with a plethora of issues, hurting those closest to him and doing irreversible damage to those relationships while intoxicated, it’s impossible to say if Picasso would have been able to produce the same volume of masterful pieces while sober.

Fig (7). Pablo Picasso, ‘Les Demoiselles d’Avignon’, 1907, Oil on Canvas (The Museum of ModernArt)

Jean Cocteau struggled with his mental health and turned to substances to deal with his internal struggle Heavily depressed after witnessing his father’s suicide at age 9, by sixteen Cocteau was introduced to opium which he would use to influence his writing and further interested him in the arts He would abuse other substances such as cocaine, morphine, and alcohol. He experimented with several different creative mediums as he worked with film, poetry, and illustration. Cocteau was considered to be a significant member of the artist's groups such as Dadaism and Surrealism.

In 1932 Cocteau created a book Opium: The Diary of a Cure to show his recovery as he struggled to get off opium, it features several of his illustrations that depict his experience with opium hallucinations

In his diary he states

“Everything one does in life, even love, occurs in an express train racing toward death. To smoke opium is to get out of the train while it is still moving. It is to concern oneself with something other than life or death.”

Evidence of how the artist uses opium as a means to escape from the day to day and using these mind-altering experiences as a means to perceive the world existentially (Cocteau, Pg 17. 1932). The book addresses the tragedy of becoming an opium addict, some of his remarkable experiences whilst on the drug

Cocteau’s drawings all feature similar themes within their imagery. They contain characters which are often constructed with pipes, doing an action which shows how Cocteau was dealing with his affliction. Cocteau made work that coincided with his mental health decline using it as a means to deal with his struggles, a key concept of his work is creativity seems inseparable from misery.

Do recreational drugs have any ability to enhance an artist's practice?

Every substance affects the brain differently. One of the most intriguing ways is in changing an individual’s perception of colour. For example, psychedelics can warp their visual interpretation allowing the user to see bright colours, vivid imagery, and geometric patterns. Hartman and Hollister (1963) found that almost all means of perceiving colour were altered when they had been stimulated by psychedelics. Through their investigation, they gave subjects either mescaline, psilocybin, or lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) as a means to understand how these substances can affect how colour can be encountered. They found

Fig (8). Jean Cocteau, ‘Drawing 31 & 32’, 1929, Ink on Paper (Opium: The Diary of a Cure)

subjects would struggle to discriminate between different hues but stated that they did find colours to become enhanced.

One report on how psychedelics affect consciousness can explain how we interpret imagery while under the influence of substances. There are two different ways we see images while on hallucinogenic substances one being ‘elementary imagery’, described as being able to see colours and shapes while having eyes closed or being in pitch blackness. The other is ‘complex imagery’ where a subject could conjure fictitious images through their imagination allowing vivid recollection of memories from their past (Studerus et al., 2010). Other studies have come to similar conclusions finding that psychedelics can help an individual to recall memories more clearly and help them to perceive imagery while under the influence of psilocybin (Carhart-Harris et al., 2012). These studies highlight the influence of psychedelics on perception image, including more intense and radiant colours, this offers a powerful tool for visual artists within their practice.

The 60s was the start of the drug culture craze when it became commonplace for those who were creative, but none seemed to be as inspired by the effect of mind-altering substances as musicians. With a rise in hippy lifestyle such bands as the Beatles exploded in popularity creating music that was able to reflect their experience with psychedelics, “Would we have Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds had the Beatles not taken LSD?” questioning the creative capabilities that came from their use of drugs (Fields, P5. 2013). The Beatles weren’t the only musicians known to use substances within their practice others such as The Doors, The Who, The Rolling Stones, Bob Marley, Jimi Hendrix, JeffersonAirplane, Pink Floyd and David Bowie were all extremely popular during this period taking influence from drugs which were popular during the time (Gonzales, 2017). Bowie stated while in conversation with Tracy Emin on the subject of drug influence on creativity.

“Mmm… having experienced drugs, the work is never the same again. Station to Station was a drug album. Low and Heroes were not. Never Let Me Down was. It’s all contradictory ”

this shows that Bowie could use substances as a means to create music, but it wasn’t an exclusive means to work (Munro, P6. 2016). Musicians like artists have always had a longstanding relationship with using substances as a means to produce work, and like visual artists, the effect on their work is often varied.

Andy Warhol was one of the most influential artists throughout the 60s He had a very complicated relationship when it came to his use of drugs as he claimed that he would never use them ‘recreationally’, as he found no creative benefits from his use of substances but instead would often use them as a means of helping him cope with his public lifestyle and pressures from his workload. His fascination with the rising drug culture in the 60s is extremely apparent within his work as he used acidic psychedelic colours tying them to the trends of the time. With a rise in substance abuse, Warhol was at the forefront being able to view and experience this party lifestyle incorporating these ideas into the work.

Although Warhol would frequently deny any use of illicit drugs such as cannabis, cocaine, and LSD they were all extremely popular at the time Instead, he would stick to his prescription medication such as antidepressants and his personal favourite Obetrol - a diet pill with similar attributes asAdderall (Deveney, 2022). He would often use this to stay up all night. Warhol abused these drugs throughout his career but not directly as a means to create art, instead, Warhol struggled increasingly with being in the public eye and with mental health issues such as depression, anxiety, hoarding, hypochondria, and an obsession with his body image.Andy Warhol’s abuse of amphetamines might have played into the artist's death at 58, he was meant to have a routine gallbladder removal surgery in 1987 but sadly he wouldn’t survive the surgery due to being malnourished and dehydrated, thought to be caused by years of overconsumption of Obetrol. So, Warhol didn’t use the pills as a means to create work but instead used them to survive his artist's lifestyle, until it would sadly play into his death (Deveney, 2022).

Long time friend ofAndy Warhol and fellow artist Jean Micheal-Basquiat became increasingly popular during the 80s due to his influential neo-expressionist work Sadly, Basquiat wasn’t as fortunate as Warhol when it came to substance abuse falling heavily into recreational substances and would use drugs to make his art Living a rather wild and chaotic lifestyle frequenting parties or even hosting them where he would often consume drugs such as cocaine, heroin, marijuana, LSD, and PCP. Whilst hosting parties it wasn’t rare for Basquiat to become irritable whilst being intoxicated and he would throw out his guests stating that he needed to work and would promptly begin a new piece (Sawyer, 2018). A

Fig (9). Jean Micheal-Basquiat, ‘Dust Heads’ 1982, Mixed Medium on Canvas, (Private Collector, New York)

work that Basquiat created while being under the influence of PCP is ‘Dust Heads’in 1982

This painting depicts two of his friends that had become addicted to the drug, and also refers back to the work’s title as the street name for PCP isAngel dust. Intended to show how his friends would be entertaining while intoxicated but how they could also become increasingly difficult to deal with, Basquiat shows this through the figure’s composition. With deep circles for eyes almost spinning, both seem to be grinning, one is more prominently painted in red with their hands above their head attracting the attention of the viewer. Mixed media helps to depict the situation using acrylics, oil sticks, spray enamel and metallic paint on canvas The viewer can feel the energy with the bold brush strokes and vibrant use of colour - the mayhem which is conveyed becomes apparent with the application of the material.

Basquiat once said.

“I had some money, I made the best paintings ever. I was completely reclusive, worked a lot, took a lot of drugs. I was awful to people.”

Demonstrating how he understood the importance of his work but also acknowledges he was struggling with his drug abuse and how he would treat people while intoxicated (McGuigan, P1. 1985). When Basquiat andAndy Warhol became friends and collaborators Warhol set out to help Basquiat overcome his addiction, which worked temporarily, while the two artists worked together Basquiat stayed off drugs. In 1985 Warhol and Basquiat exhibited together but this would ultimately end their relationship as a critical review from the New York Times stated that Basquiat was a “mascot” for Warhol, leading Basquiat never talk to Warhol again (Fields et al. 2021).Afriend Brett De Palma said:

“I think Jean became very paranoid and suspicious of even Andy and felt that, you know, Andy had this reputation of being a vampire and feeding off of younger artists, and needing new blood to infuse his career.”

After Basquiat ended his friendship with Warhol he turned straight back to hard drugs as a means of getting by, becoming more of a recluse even declining any calls from Warhol as he sought to achieve his own acclimation (Fields et al, P26. 2021) Sadly, once Warhol died in 1987 Basquiat was distorted and overcome with misery and regret, he fell further into his addiction in 1988 Jean Micheal-Basquiat passed away at the age of 27 from a heroin overdose (Wines, 1988).

Continued Contemporary Perception of Drugs and Creativity

In 2017, Fruzsina Iszaj conducted a study in Hungary that sought to understand the relationship between substance abuse and art students. They compared two groups one of the art students and the second being non-art students, they looked at how the students would regularly intake such substances as alcohol, cannabis, and tobacco. The study also assessed such factors as the age, gender, and frequency of use by the participants: it culminated in some interesting findings

Iszaj found that art students are more likely to suffer from some form of psychological disorder than the non-artistic group, this may lead to greater abuse of substances by artists as a means to cope this result also seems to link to the emotional capacity of the artist. The study concluded that those who have used psychoactive substances earlier in life tended to become more creative deciding to follow that path into the arts. Though they seemed to find that mental health issues were more apparent in those who are art students, the study couldn’t conclude whether the use of psychoactive substances was the cause behind the artist's psychological disorders (Iszaj et al. 2017).

Other research found comparable results as the age someone first encounters an inebriated state from alcohol, this would affect their academic study forcing them down certain paths when it came to later education leading to a proclivity towards the arts (Kuntsche et al. 2013). NancyAndreasen (1987) conducted a study that looked at the relationship between creativity and mental health issues, looking at a group of 30 creative writers in comparison to the same number of controls. The study found that the creatives were eighty percent more likely to suffer from mental illness within their lives whereas that was only apparent for thirty percent of the controls, the study also found there to be a distinct link between creativity and schizophrenia

Alex Grey is a remarkable contemporary artist who relies on psychoactive substances as a means to paint scenes that will often have deep themes in relation to spirituality, divine knowledge, and even the experience of psychedelic substances in itself. Grey will often work while under the influence of hallucinogens such as DMT, LSD, and magic mushrooms.Along with his wifeAllyson, they have a unique daily routine which, according to them, helps keep them creatively enlightened

The couple will meditate, take cold showers, and also hang upside down on an inversion table allowing their spines to stretch and blood to rush to their heads, as a means to emulate the effect of LSD (Eckstein, et al 2023).

Fig (10).Alex Grey, ‘Flesh of the Gods’, 2021,Acrylic on wood, (MesaArt Center,Arizona)

Grey met Allyson while studying at the Museum of FineArts in Boston where Grey would first take LSD.An experience that rapidly changed his understanding of the mystical world and inspired him to further create art where psychedelics are involved (Grey, et al 2023). Together they would go on to make several projects together. One of their most significant endeavours is “The Chapel of Sacred Mirrors”, which is a non-profit organisation focused on trans-denominational teachings as a means for spiritual renewal and appreciation of visionary arts, the contemporary church is covered in paintings by Grey that convey such ideas as human experience, altered states of consciousness and other psychedelic spiritual insights. Other works which touch on these themes is one of the most intriguing paintings that looks at the influence of psychedelics ‘Flesh of the Gods’a piece dedicated to hallucinogenic fungi. The pieces title ties back to the old adage given to Teonanacatl mushrooms in Mexico these have psychedelic qualities and were prominently used by “mushroom cults” within South America (D.W, et al 2022), the piece also features some of these “mushroom cults” art pieces as they created mushroom sculptures made from stone these can have seen them in the bottom left. These ideas also relate to ancient Egypt at also appears in the background as the God Osiris was known for gifting humanity the immortal plant the magic mushroom, Osiris is located in the top left featuring his regal cap (Ahmedm et al 2023) The piece also refers to cave depictions of humanoid mushrooms from Tassili that were created over eight thousand years ago (Grey, et al 2021), these cave paintings were also further discussed during the prelude of the dissertation The subject of the painting is the X-ray hand that has a flaming eye on the palm this is intended to represent the advanced state of consciousness psychedelics provide, the hand is holding on to several mushrooms this is the main theme of the piece as it relates to the amalgamation of history in the background all of which was influenced by hallucinogenic fungi demonstrating the legacy of influence of these substances in art from prehistoric to today.

Since 1995, US-based artist Bryan Lewis Saunders has made a self-portrait every day as a means of self-discovery. This project drastically altered when he started to use substances to access different states of consciousness this changed how he perceived himself. It was named ‘Under the influence’. His project was relentless as Saunders would take a new intoxicant every day as a means to create, he was able to make over 50 self-portraits taking whatever

Fig (11). Bryan Lewis Saunders, ‘Under the Influence’ 2001-2014, Mixed Media on Paper, (Private Collection)

substance he could find before suffering from major health problems, now Saunders wants to continue ‘Under the Influence’but will exclusively take drugs which are prescribed by a doctor (Saunders, et al 2019). Unfortunately, the process ended up having Saunders suffer from major brain damage, he states that it resulted in "Psychomotor retardation and confusion," thankfully he was able to repair most of the damage that was self-inflicted (Šurkus, P11 2023).

AGuardian article by Rachel Hall explains how Saunders acknowledged elements such as youth culture, potential dangers, and the unfamiliarity of these experiences and how they played into this project. He even explains.

“Starting a drawing or painting with perceptions of my changing physical sensations has always seemed to give me great potential for creativity. Especially when the drug is being taken for the first time.”

This demonstrates his motivation to make art while under the influence his perception of himself was altered (Hall, et al 2023) The career of Bryan Saunders acts as a cautionary tale for what results when an artist takes their substance abuse to an extreme being detrimental to their health and a means to create art, his work gives an extraordinary personal insight into the relationship with self while under the influence of narcotics.

Do the benefits outweigh the risk?

Rachel Hall in the same Guardian article states that there is little to no correlation behind the use of substances as a means to create. She says that there is an association between drug abuse and artistic talent that has promoted the narrative of the troubled artist She goes on to say.

“Many drugs, including alcohol, amphetamines, and psilocybin (magic mushrooms), do not inspire creativity. Instead, they say travel, exposure to culture, meditation and training programmes are more effective.”

This is certainly an opinion, but evidence would appear to contradict that substance use does not influence artistic outputs. It is the case that an artist can create based on their experience being able to engage with such things in a new environment will always encourage creativity (Hall, P2. 2023).

Apaper from Humboldt University 2023 did extensive research into this subject stating.

“Given the numerous side-effects associated with drug use, it is scientifically unsound to recommend their consumption in pursuit of enhanced creative output.”

Certainly, given the risks that come from substance use, there should always be a level of awareness of the dangers that drugs cause, and they shouldn’t be encouraged as a means to make art. This research also goes on to say that most artists who use substances as a means to create are influenced by how they make you feel as though they are being more productive when actually underachieving in comparison to their sober state (Haase, et al, P6 2023).

Researchers at Leiden University in the Netherlands conducted a study to see the creative capabilities of cannabis. They tested high and low doses of THC on control groups to see the outcomes. The low group resulted in no advancement in their creative ability or divergent thinking, and even the high dose group wasn’t able to increase their divergent thinking while under the influence of THC. The study concluded there was no advancement in their artistic practice (Kowal, et al 2015).

In 2023 Dr Paul Hanel from the University of Essex agreed with these ideas on drug consumption stating

“It doesn’t do anything for creativity. People don’t benefit from it – it just has no effect at all.”

Whilst these studies may well demonstrate this may well be the case, it is also clear from the evident outputs of numerous artists that substance use has indeed been influential within their creative practice (Hall, P3. 2023) There is evidence that some of the most influential artists to ever live did so while being under the influence of narcotics. The question then becomes did they started to abuse substances due to a poorer state of mental health or, as Haase suggests, that they have been influenced by the substance to think that it would allow them to become more creative.

An artist who states she has not abused illicit substances as a means to develop their artistic practice is Tracey Emin. Known as a cultural figure within the contemporary art world she creates art that spans across several mediums considered to be autobiographical and confessional pieces. Though she has abused alcohol and cigarettes, Emin is extremely against the use of illicit substances as for a long period of her life she was surrounded by them. While talking with the former director of the Tate Sir Nicholas Serota, she jokes:

“The subject of drugs came into the conversation, artists, and their creative vices. Van Gogh and absinthe, Picasso and opium, Frida Kahlo and cocaine, Jean Michel Basquiat and smack, Jackson Pollock the chronic alcoholic and Emin on her rosé”

Understanding that creatives before her would abuse their “vice” within their artistic endeavours, Emin doesn’t need to live that lifestyle to create great art (The Independent, P1. 2005).

One of Emin's highest regarded pieces ‘My Bed’touches on similar ideas to this as it confronts a period of Emin’s life that she was sickened by as following a breakup with Billy Childish, this resulted in Emin binge drinking four days straight without leaving her bed while being in a particularly depressed and sexually charged state during this time (Christian, et al 2020). She came to surrounded by litter, empty bottles of vodka, cigarettes, condoms, lubricant, period-stained clothing, and pregnancy tests. She found this scene to striking with the sense of vulnerability that it portrayed, becoming one of the greatest works of confessional art (Cohen, et al 2018) Ever since Emin discovered that she had bladder cancer in 2020 she has given up drink for her treatment leading her to suggest that she has become a better artist without this vice,

“Drink used to sustain me, but now I’m free”

she deeply regrets some of her actions while intoxicated and now creates art that better reflects her (The Standard, P1 2023).

Peter Howson is another artist who has struggled with sobriety. He recently stopped using drugs and alcohol as a means to follow his faith and better his health. Howson is certainly an artist who’s been tormented by their mental health as well as being diagnosed with autism.

Commissioned as an official Bosnian war artist the experience of the brutality of the conflict had a detrimental effect on Howson’s life. He used alcohol to cope with what he had seen which eventually led to a collapse in his marriage (Brooks, 2023) Howson has abused substances throughout his career mainly alcohol and cocaine. During this period, he also made poor financial decisions such as intrusting his art management with an individual who was later convicted of dealing drugs (Howson, 2010). He decided to rehabilitate finding religion on his path to betterment, he stated.

Fig (12). Peter Howson ‘Prophecy’ 2019, Oil on Canvas (Private Collector, Canary Wharf London)

“Instead, I got kicked about! But it was there I found God again, although I had always believed. I’d been angry for years, and drinking and taking drugs was part of that, but I realised God’s the only addiction you can safely have.”

Howson was able to use his faith in religion as a means to overcome his destructive addictive tendencies (Howson, P5 2008)

After Howson recovered from his addictions, the work he produced took on much more religious themes such as the piece ‘Prophecy’that depicts a vision that Howson experiencedan apocalyptic scene of inhumanity and violence The piece features an amalgamation of nude figures clambering over each other as they surround the imagery of the cross, there are many layers behind Howson’s creative imagination since becoming sober and embracing his Christian faith this is shown through his dedication to the piece constantly reworking and laying atop his oils as a means to create perfection with captivating brush marks and complex lighting (Felperin, 2019) Another underlying theme of the work is the turmoil left by the result of Brexit this is shown through the anguish of Howson’s tortured figures, he thought that the far right would eventually gain power, influencing how he felt during this time which came out through his work (Millar, 2019). In the retrospective film on Peter Howson ‘Prophecy’ looks at the construction of this piece, but Howson goes on to state that the inspiration for this piece came at his lowest as saw his vision for the painting while suffering from an overdose of cocaine (Paul, 2018)

I had the pleasure of meeting Peter Howson at his recent film screening that took place after his exhibition in Edinburgh ‘When the Apple Ripens’2023.After watching the film on how Howson meticulously created ‘Prophecy’and getting a deeper insight into his life and the struggles that he endured, he allowed the audience to ask him questions. I asked Howson whether or not he needed to use the substances in his life to create art? He responded that he could never make art while under the influence of drink or drugs as he would always hate the results, as the lack of control wouldn’t allow him to create work as perfect as he could while sober (Howson, 2023). It seems that for Howson drugs and alcohol may have played into his creative thinking but not through the productive technique Instead, Howson would use his substance abuse as a form of escape such as his painting would allow him to fully immerse himself into the work, and the use of drugs would allow him not to cope with reality.

Conclusion

As discussed, humans have been subjecting themselves to altered states of consciousness by ingesting substances throughout time, while creatives have been important in depicting these experiences through their self-expression. Each artist is often incredibly different when it comes to their use or whether they are against altering their state of mind while they create. Science has shown that artists are more likely to have poorer mental health, while additionally being more likely to abuse substances, potentially as a means to cope with this internal struggle.

An artist may not produce their best work while under the influence as the control one has of their technical ability while sober is undoubtedly superior The scientific understanding of how substances increase in how we perceive light and colour while under the influence of psychedelics, something that the impressionists figured out during the late 19th century while using absinthe to paint. the influence of substances on creative ability is undecided by science.

Despite this art has been shaped by the use of substances, many of the best artists to have used them as a means to create revolutionary art such as Picasso, Basquiat, and Van Gogh. This has been reflected in our culture from art to poetry and music. It’s unclear what have produced without their reliance on drugs, or if they would have managed to make the same quality of work. These artists were able to create work that was unique to their experience while being under the influence of illicit substances allowing insight into their enhanced state of consciousness. These substances were able to advance movements and the careers of artists establishing them as noteworthy.

Artist's stories give insight into their taking these substances if they ended up damaging their health, it seems that some forms of benefits come with consuming these substances whether through their technical ability to produce work or influence their creative thinking. While being intoxicated an artist’s personality may become eschewed destroying the relationships of those close around them making them difficult to work with. The negative effects drugs have on artist's health are clear such as addiction, brain damage, and overdose. From those such as Tracey Emin and Peter Howson that have relied upon taking drugs or other substances to sustain them is that when they no longer need their creative vices output is improved, and they feel freed from the shackles of the addiction.

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