FORENSIC ARCHITECTURE INVESTIGATION OF CHINESE EMBASSY IN BELGRADE

FORENSIC ARCHITECTURE INVESTIGATION OF CHINESE EMBASSY IN BELGRADE

JUNLONG SHAO

6 JUNE 2022 A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for MARC 6020 Thesis MASTER OF ARCHITECTURE Faculty of Architecture, Design and Planning

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Figure 1 Conflict in City.Artwork:Junlong

Abstract Architect Eyal Weizman proposed a new language to the building called "Forensic Architecture".

After the Cold War, civilian buildings destroyed by political and state violence became commonplace.

He argued that the ruin of the post-conflict building contains substantial evidence of the previous violence. Hence, he tried to present his findings and evidence more vividly in international court and political forums through digital embellishment with his knowledge of architecture. As an architect, he succeeded in presenting his findings in courts and forums, gradually changing the Forensic system.

At the same time, there are more and more activists from different disciplines who, through their expertise, investigate cases. These cases are filled with political and military violence. This article will introduce which non-forensic professionals are working on the case and how Forensic Architecture is changing the traditional Forensic system. After researching its basic theories, I will use Weizman's similar approach to analyze potential evidence about the bombing of China in Yugoslavia and whether this evidence contradicts the U.S. government's reports. In addition, an architectural aesthetic is used in forensics to challenge the authority of political aesthetics and security services in an attempt to make visible what is hidden.

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CONTENTS ABSTRACT

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CONTENTS

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

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INTRODUCTION

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I. SURVEY

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a. Forensic Journalism

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b. Killing Spatial Forensic

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c. Forensic Architecture

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d. Comparison

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II. FORENSIC ARCHITECTURE THEORY

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a. Transformation of Froensis

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b. Evidence

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c. Aesthetics in Forensic

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d. Conclusion

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III. THE INVESTIGATION OF THE CHINESE EMBASSY IN KOSOVO WAR

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a. Imagery Timeline of Chinese Embassy

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b. U.S and NATO Report

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c. Reconstruct Space

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d. Journalism Investigation

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e. Map Aesthetics

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f. Geospatial Aesthetic

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g. Target Building (FDSP) Undamaged

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h. Conclusion

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IV. IN SUMMATION

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V. LIMITATION AND FURTHER RESEARCH

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VI. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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III

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thanks to MATTHEW GILL as my supervisor for his weekly help, and also to coordinator Simon for his feedbacks. matthew's weekly zoom videos helped me a lot to structure this paper, and I am very grateful for their help.

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INTRODUCTION Forensic Architecture research team was formed in 2010 by a group of architects, including Eyal Weizman from Goldsmiths, University of London, collaborating with multi-disciplines1. They investigate national political violence and the violence of military strikes through architectural surveys, Analyze the urban environment and reconstructed architectural models, and simulated scenario animations.

Forensis means "in open court" or "public" in Latin, looking for evidence and discussing it openly.

Instead of analyzing blood and bones like traditional forensic methods2. Forensic Architecture uses buildings as the principal object of investigation. Weizman pointed out that building form and structure continuously change over time3. He believes that architecture is perceptual and can record changes in different fields, climate change in meteorology, and national politics transformation in international relations4. These buildings' record is the evidence sought in forensics.

1 2 3 4

Eyal Weizman. Forensic Architecture : Violence at the Threshold of Detectability. Brooklyn, NY: Zone Books (2017): 9.

Weizman, Forensic Architecture. 65.

Rhoda Feng." Investigative Aesthetics: Eyal Weizman." bombmagazine, November 9,2021.https://bombmagazine.org/articles/eyal-weizman-interviewed/ Feng, Investigative Aesthetics: Eyal Weizman.

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The evidence of Forensic Architecture revealed many violent cases that were misjudged or dismissed due to insufficient evidence. These cases are usually entrusted to the Weizman group

by NGOs(Non-government organizations) to recollect evidence and bring it to court for retrial.

Among these retrials, cases contain government and individual cases as well as the poison gas experiment at Auschwitz concentration camp in World War II 5 and racial abuse of black people by police6. Hence, the successfully amended judgment of these cases announced that Forensic Architecture as a discipline could assert itself in antagonistic forums and political directions.

Following the introduction, the article is divided into three parts. The first part, "survey," comprehensively describes NGOs working on spatialized modes of investigating state crime. They come from different disciplines and how to collaborate to investigate social issues. In addition, three organizations (from Media; Urban; and Architecture) are described in detail how they collect and organize cases and analyze how they differ from each other in terms of operation or who is the leader in spatial investigation: the first being Bellingcat, represented by journalists, the second by Killing Architects, with a background in urban design, and the third is Forensic Architecture, which is a team of architects. They also demonstrated the "forensic architecture techniques" in their investigation cases, including FA's cross-referencing of digital models and actual footage (pictures, testimonies, videos) to construct the whole event and Killing's incorporation of satellite maps to visualize the data.

The second part is "Forensic Architecture Theory". This part introduces the concepts of Forensis; Forum; Evidence; Aesthetics, which are the most important theoretical foundations in Forensic science, and the connections between them, among which Forensis and Forum are both from Roman Latin and have the closest connection therefore The Forensis and Forum are both from Roman Latin and are most closely related, thus they will describe in the same chapter. Additionally this part will use some examples of actual investigation to demonstrate the concept in practice as a fundamental theoretical case study for the third part.

In the third part of the thesis: "The Chinese embassy in Belgrade" .This section is the article's core; I will review the 1999 Yugoslav-NATO war. In the late 20th century, the United States carried out armed intervention in Yugoslavia with the support of other NATO allies. Moreover, on the 46nd day of the military strike, the US military bombed the Chinese embassy. This part mainly investigates the deliberate bombing of the embassy by NATO under the political and military violence or the accidental bombing as officially reported by NATO. Since the two sides (China and NATO) did not show enough reports about the incident, there are many constraints and potential problems. Therefore, I will start with previous forensic theories, examine how they were spatially involved in the case, and look for potential evidence rather than trying to "solve" the case to give a definitive answer.

Although forensic science and architecture already have independent and sophisticated disciplinary frameworks, this new integrated practice mode also represents a new aesthetics. Architecture transforms the aesthetics of forensics, while forensics evolves architecture into an investigation of spatial materialization.

5 Weizman, Forensic Architecture. 13-16.

6 Valentina Di Liscia."Forensic Architecture and Bellingcat Map Police Brutality at Black Lives Matter Protests." hyperallergic, October 30, 2020. https://hyperallergic.com/598414/forensic-architecturebellingcat-black-lives-matter-protests-map/

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Survey The insufficient capacity of the government to deal with certain social issues at the end of the last century fostered the creation of a number of non-profit, non-state and spontaneous organizations.

These organisations were initially designed to address a range of social issues and investigate events in depth through non-governmental status. From homelessness and poverty to human trafficking and military violence, the contributions of voluntary organisations are part of a broader spirit of 'community' and market-based solutions to urgent public problems. In addition, they have members from a variety of fields, from war correspondents to DNA bio-forensics to builders, and this teamwork can be more effective in enhancing the areas involved in investigating cases, as well as bringing the expertise of members from different fields to bear on in-depth investigations. As a result, in-depth research on social issues often results in challenging government authority and resisting or modifying national policies and programs.

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The cases taken up by these organisations can be classified in two ways: 1) they are employed by the state government or work with government agencies; 2) they operate alone or in opposition to the state, investigating cases that have been completed by some governments and exposing littleknown government secrets. As some governments became increasingly vague about solving social problems, spontaneous organisations would become the key to investigating problems in the latter part of the modern Neoliberal period.

Figure2 displays a few of the better known organisations that are active in Europe and the USA. These organisations often use open-source intelligence (OSINT) in their investigations, which are based on government reports, budgets, interviews, telephone directories, press conferences, websites and speeches. This type of public data is generally published on the internet, online publications, blogs, discussion groups, citizen media and different national news and social media platforms (including Ins, YouTube). Although these sources are open to the public, it does not mean that each individual has the ability to discover the value of public data. Hence, interdisciplinary collaboration in the research process will increase efficiency.

In these spontaneous organizations investigating cases, the valuable clues found generally need to be linked to time and space, as objects with clear timelines and spatial coordinates can be effectively recognized as evidence. A spatial investigation can be defined as the combination of resources collected through OSINT with digital maps, spatial data analysis, and data visualization fields to visualize data that would otherwise exist as text 7 . Thus, compared to non-spatial data, spatial data has several advantages, given the known locations and attributes, and the data can be easily mapped and analyzed as well as represented.

On the other hand, due to the increasing analytical and visual representation capabilities of spatial technology, effectively presents, demonstrates, and explains complex information in the courtroom.

Spatial technology can lead to more effective investigations that link people, places, objects, and time, and Listi found the field of forensic spatial analysis to be increasingly popular 8. As a result, more organizations are analyzing cases through this technology, including Newyorktimes, which, in collaboration with architects, reconstructed the Syrian government's chemical attack on civilians through the work "One Building, One Bomb"9. Despite some debate and controversy over the technology, space technology has gradually come to dominate the investigation of violence and the provision of evidence in the forensic system, and the aesthetics of forensic architecture have been recognized in the courtroom.

Figure 2

Worldwide Forensic Organization. Artwork:Junlong .

7 Gregory A Elmes, George Roedl, and Jamison Conley. Forensic GIS: The Role of Geospatial Technologies for Investigating Crime and Providing Evidence. Vol. 11. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, (2014): 2. http://www.nldongre.com/Data/Files/73_91.pdf 8 Listi, Ginesse A, Mary H Manhein, and Michael Leitner. “Use of the Global Positioning System in the Field Recovery of Scattered Human Remains.” Journal of forensic sciences 52, no. 1 (2007): 11–15.

9 Colin Moynihan. “Forensic Architecture Founder Says United States Prevented His Visit.” The New York Times (The New York Times, February 20, 2020), https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/19/arts/ design/forensic-architecture-founder-says-us-denied-him-visa.html.

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The first part of this article will discuss how this type of non-forensic professional organization investigates cases. The majority of them are journalist teams; thus, they investigate cases more likely through hypotheses based on social issues and build case frameworks and information searches. Some multidisciplinary organizations, such as Killing Architects and Amnesty International, are Architecture or Forensic Science + investigative journalism. They are more focused on digital technology and investigative journalism through geolocation, DIY aerial photography, photogrammetry, open-source, and DNA to find deep secrets behind the cases. Forensic Architecture is a pioneer in spatial investigation and a multidisciplinary research group; they are more based on architectural and archaeological techniques to reconstruct and simulate violence in conflict zones and challenge the state's authority in international courts to defend human rights. Although these three organizations have the same purpose in protecting human rights, they still have differences in case research and justification. Therefore, this section will analyze the methods and techniques used in the survey by three organizations, Bellingcat, Killing Architects, and Forensic Architecture, and discuss their differences.

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a: Forensic Journalism Bellingcat is a non-profit research service based in Amsterdam, the Netherlands, that investigates human rights violations 10. The organization also conducts investigations in collaboration with government or other similar non-government organizations as well as New York times and Forensic Architecture11. Bellingcat's reputation has been enhanced by the exposure of the Malaysia Airlines 777 incident in 2014.

2014 was the darkest year for Malaysia Airlines since its inception. A few months after the loss of Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 on March 8, a Malaysia Airlines Boeing 777 crashed in a missile attack near the village of Hrabov (Donetsk Oblast) in eastern Ukraine on July 17 12. The geographical location of the plane crash in Donetsk Oblast, which belongs to the Ukrainian separatist organization (PS: A few days before the conflict between Russia and Ukraine, Russian President Vladimir Putin announced on February 21 that it recognized the Donetsk People's Republic as an independent country13). Simultaneously, the military conflict in the region was at its peak at the time of the disaster; thus, the public generally believes that the crash's responsibility includes the participants in the military conflict, the Ukrainian government forces, and separatist groups in eastern Ukraine.

Therefore, the international media focused their attention on the Ukrainian government, forcing the Ukrainian government to take responsibility for the incident and apologize.

Bellingcat group worked with British state to investigate the MH17 case as an investigative journalism organization specializing in human rights violence investigations in conflict zones and factchecking and open-source intelligence14. Multiple reports released by the Bellingcat investigative team demonstrated that the deployment of the Buk missile launcher that shot down Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 (MH17) over Ukraine involved senior officials of the Russian Ministry of Defense and its military intelligence services. They combine calls intercepted by the Ukrainian Security Service (SBU) related to MH17 and biometric analysis with voice forensic personnel to confirm the identity of Russian officials involved in the division of Ukraine15. In the content of the intercepted phone calls, analyzing the specific meaning of unique nouns-code names, as well as the code name "Skif" and "San", was

Figure 3 The flight path of MH17 and the last FDR (Flight Data Recorder) point shown in red along with the front line; this is highlighted in blue with the approximate Bezler control area; and the administrative border between Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts in white. The Buk missile site and the main crash site are shown with green and red icons, respectively.

Artwork:Bellingcat

10 2022. https://www.bellingcat.com/about/.

11 2022. https://www.bellingcat.com/about/.

12 3 Sebastian Anthony, “Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 Shot down in Ukraine: How Did They Do It?” ExtremeTech.com, 2014.

13 KOVACEVSKI CONDEMNS RUSSIA’S DECISION TO RECOGNIZE DONETSK AND LUHANSK PEOPLE’S REPUBLICS AS INDEPENDENT. INFOMAC Daily News Service. Macedonian Information Centre, 2022.

14 Yuliya Ilyu. “Journalistic Investigations in the Digital Age of Post-Truth Politics: The Analysis of Bellingcat’s Research Approaches Used for the (Re)Construction of the MH17 Case.” Perekrestki, no.

1(2019): 56. http://journals.ehu.lt/index.php/perekrestki/article/view/977.

15 Bellingcat."A Birdie Is Flying towards You’ Identifying the Separatists Linked to the Downing of MH17." 2.

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mentioned many times during the missile transportation to Donetsk and launch, it found that was a former Russian Alpha Special Forces "Aleksandr Sergeyevich Khodakovsky"16（Figure3）.Decoding of the codename proves Russian involvement in the transportation and launch of the Buk missile.

Despite being compromised by data from Russian hackers during the investigation17, Bellingcat organization successfully exposed the role of Russian separatist leaders in the operation and their ultimate objective in this case.

The methodology of the Bellingcat research base on open source data, most of the data in the Website and social media platforms. They use mainly digital mapping tools and data on social media to create a complete narrative of the event, which has changed the way the media discusses the event. However, the openness of the internet and the use of big data often lead to the authenticity of the results, while political factors can affect the credibility of publicly available data. Bellingcat group investigates cases using the grounded theory (GT) method, which is characterised by building a theory from empirical information, generalising from primary sources, and then rising to a systematic theory18. Therefore, the cases investigated at Bellingcat are supported by empirical evidence and cannot be built upon their own as a complete framework, relying on available data for research. It also requires an in-depth study of each open data and a screening report. Hence, journalism in forensic science is likely limited by the authenticity of the data and the need for existing available factual evidence to build the framework .

Figure 4 The intercepted calls from Ukraine were analyzed to identify the person and the position corresponding to each code.

Artwork: Bellingcat

16 Bellingcat."A Birdie Is Flying towards You’ Identifying the Separatists Linked to the Downing of MH17." 38.

17 Jane McCallion. “Bellingcat Vs Fancy Bear: How Hackers Tried to Halt the MH17 Investigation.” IT Pro ,2016.

18 Massimiliano Tarozzi. “What Is Grounded Theory?” London [England: Bloomsbury Academic (2020): 3.

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b: Killing Spatial Forensic Spatial analysis is an integral part of the forensic process of obtaining evidence. The spatial skills of architects in analysis and representation can be put to good use in diverse fields. British architect and urban designer Alison Killing founded Killing Architects, a team of members from various disciplines who use knowledge of architecture and urban development and journalistic research to investigate urgent social issues. The team's expertise in forensic analysis of buildings and satellite imagery of buildings uncovered secret camps allegedly built by the Chinese government in the Xinjiang region to imprison Uighurs, Kazakhs and other Muslim minorities19.

While investigating the Xinjiang Camps, Aslion Killing discovered that Chinese mapping software "Baidu"was deliberately obscuring parts of the buildings in Xinjiang, masking the map in the form of a mosaic. Conversely, the mosaics are visible on Google Earth (Google was banned in mainland China in 201420), with the heavy concrete-walled buildings and guard towers surrounded by high fences21. In a collaboration between Killing Architects and BuzzFeed News, a study of the changes in the satellite map shows that the buildings are being expanded. A comparison of satellite maps from 18 months ago displayed that the camp had expanded ten-fold, and combine with 3D model of the building and an interior model showed that a camp could accommodate approximately 3,700 people22. According to Satellite images and Google Earth, it shows approximately 260 such buildings in the Xinjiang region with the sign of a fortified detention centre23. However, following the revelation of the Xinjiang Camps, the Chinese government denied their existence, paradoxically claiming that intensive education in eradicating "extremist ideology" and combating terrorism in the region had been a great success and that there was no racial detention. The Chinese government's repudiation does not remove the presence of the thick concrete buildings at Xinjiang camp. On the contrary, it proves that satellite maps and digital models play an significant role in spatial forensics, demonstrating that the architects have a unique perspective on spatial understanding.

The combination of public data and spatial analysis has provided Killing Architects with a major breakthrough in the study of social issues, winning a Pulitzer Prize for its research on Xinjiang Camps24. She also as a first architect or urbanest to win that prize. Killing's investigations generally use architectural or urban software to construct prototype objects of investigation, using those to build digital models that can visualise evidence. Publicly available data from online media is also being collected, and the data collected is combined with digital models to build a more complete story of the event. For instance ,in the Migration Trail, Killing collected chat messages from victim's social media platforms and combined with the digital map to construct a complete incident25. Hence, the visualisation of the architectural technology with open data can be used as a more comprehensive forensic testimony.

Figure 5 A rendering of the camp at Mongolküre.

Alison Killing for BuzzFeed News.Artwork :Kiliing.

19 Fred A Bernstein. “Newsmaker: Alison Killing.” Architectural Record 209, no. 8 (2021): 21.

20 Comparitech.“Is Google blocked in China and how can you access it?” 2022. https://www.comparitech.com/privacy-security-tools/blockedinchina/google 21 Megha Rajagopalan, and Alison Killing. "Review of Inside a Xinjiang Detention Camp." Buzzfeednews, December 2020. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/meghara/inside-xinjiang-detention-camp.

22 Megha Rajagopalan, Alison Killing, and Christo Buschek."China Secretly Built A Vast New Infrastructure To Imprison Muslims." Buzzfeednews, August 27,2020.https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/ meghara/china-new-internment-camps-xinjiang-uighurs-muslims.

23 Rajagopalan."China Secretly Built A Vast New Infrastructure To Imprison Muslims."

24 Bernstein, “Newsmaker: Alison Killing.” 21.

25 Alison Killing. "Migration Trail." 2022. https://www.migrationtrail.com/.

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c: Forensic Architecture With the deterioration of local military conflicts and developed countries' involvement, the media are reporting on war zones, and increasing cases concerning architecture and the built environment have been brought before international courts. Most of the buildings in these cases play the role of perpetrators of violence against human beings, but they are also victims of war and witnesses to it, documenting the whole process of violence. The majority of buildings are reduced to mere remains and broken pieces of concrete, and these dilapidated buildings or ruins are often considered selfevident examples of atrocities. Thus in an environment where the issue of military violence is rife, architect Weizman attempts to transform the built environment from an account of alleged violations to a source about historical events or, rather, as a complex method that aims to narrate history from what it covers, Architecture as an evidentiary tool in the narration of the whole of violence26.

Weizman, Paulo Tavares, Susan Schuppli and Situ Studio describe how architecture has become more than a means of violation in conflict, as it has become an essential source of evidence in the search for international justice27. They created Forensic Architecture (FA) to showcase cities at war and to expose the human rights violations committed by certain countries. They document human rights violations in documenting urban conflicts through the movement of intelligent lenses and showcase them with international courts and public media.

FA's forensic techniques are often used through 3D modelling, allowing FA to create a virtual space and cross-reference it with OSINT, including human rights reports, news reports and social media content, to create a complete description of events in time and space as a simulation and footages28.

Afterwards, the evidence collected, the interactive scenarios created are handed over to the judiciary.

In addition, FA's extensive forensic approach uses architectural specialised digital tools to simulate its understanding of the physical space in which a human rights event occurred in order to build a range of evidence based on the event. Combining victims' memories and OSINT in virtual scenarios and digital models guides surviving victims to recall memories of the violence they suffered and to obtain detailed testimonies29. Some victims, however, suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder and are reluctant to disclose past atrocities. Since 2014, the FA team has developed a PARRERN software that collects and shares real reports of people who have suffered violence anonymously via the internet30. These reports will be mapped in time and space to create an initial framework.

Furthermore, the FA usually investigates cases from the perspective of architecture and urban space. For example, during the 2008-2009 Gaza conflict, the Jordanian Coordination Committee for Environmental Action reported in a statement that the Israeli military offensive against the Gaza Strip

Figure 6 Footage techniques commonly used in FA: the combination of real pictures and virtual models.

Artwork：Forensic Architecture.

26 Eyal Weizman, Paulo Tavares, Susan Schuppli, and Situ Studio. “Forensic Architecture.” Architectural design 80, no. 5 (2010): 59.

27 Weizman,Forensic Architecture. 60.

28 Sebastian Klovig Skelton. “How Forensic Architecture Uses Tech to Protect Human Rights.” ComputerWeekly. 2022. https://www.computerweekly.com/feature/How-Forensic-Architecture-uses-tech-toprotect-human-rights.

29 Skelton. How Forensic Architecture Uses Tech to Protect Human Rights.

30 Weizman. Forensic Architecture : What is Forensic Architecture. Brooklyn, NY: Zone Books,( 2017):114-118.

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and its use of chemical weapons had not only killed thousands of Palestinians, It also destroyed the infrastructure and environmental resources of the area, including the contamination of water and agriculture31, but the Israeli government denied this report.The FA thus began to investigate the incident. Working with Munitions Expert Chris Cobb-Smith, they examined data reports on the use of white phosphorous munitions by the US military against Iras in 2004 to develop a parametric model that simulates the trajectory of a projectile detonated in various configurations in a typical urban environment32. The projectile's impact on the built environment at the urban and residential building scale was analysed, and it was found that the fumes claimed by Israel to be located over Gaza cities were none other than white phosphorus and referred to an international military tribunal33. The success of the case represents not only the forensic viability of cities and buildings as evidence in conflict areas but also as a challenge to authoritative governments.

Figure 7 Parametric modelling of white phosphorous shells exploding over Gaza .Artwork: Forensic Architecture.

31 Hana Namrouqa. “Environmentalists Call for Investigation into Israel’s Use of White Phosphorus.” Knight-Ridder/Tribune Business News. Washington: Tribune Content Agency LLC, 2009.

32 “Forensic Architecture.”Forensic-Architecture.org. 2019. https://forensic-architecture.org/investigation/white-phosphorus-in-urban-environments.

33 “Forensic Architecture.”Forensic-Architecture.org. 2019.

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COMPARISON After analyzing three organizations in different disciplines, Bellingcat, Killing Architects, and Forensic Architecture, even though those organizations mostly rely on OSINT to investigate cases, the members of their organizations have different backgrounds and would have different investigative theories. Bellingcat's members are primarily journalists. They depend on existing empirical data to build theories in the investigation process and could not use the visualization of data as evidence of violence, similar to FA. When dealing with more complex cases, like those related to urban conflict, Bellingcat will work with FA or Killing, combining the digital capabilities of an architect or urban designer34. With a background in architecture and Urbanest, Killing's approach combines existing information with city models or digital maps, interspersing the whole story with city models or satellite maps. The audience can more clearly understand where and when the incident occurred.

Moreover, the members of Forensic Architecture are mainly from the architectural discipline. They concentrate on integrating OSINT and digitization in the investigation of cases and the integration of open data into architectural and urban spaces. As a result, their findings are presented by adding parametric simulation videos to existing databases. Compared to Killing Architects, FA's investigation process is more complicated. They begin each case with a series of studies that include site visits, LiDAR scans, photogrammetry, and ground-penetrating radar as the use of digital models to locate and synchronize source materials in space and time35. In terms of digital modelling, the organization can accurately build out the crime space and then allow the actual film to be combined with virtual animation through cinematic techniques. From an aesthetic point of view, the investigation results presented by FA are more convincing compared to the first two.

Overall, the three organizations depend on investigative data from OSINT, which they filter by finding this information in forums or databases that are open to all. Journalists and activists use these digital data sources to produce a public record of these human rights violations and provide links to available sources of information. Links to these sources of information can facilitate the investigation of cases by more individuals. These links have revolutionized traditional forensic science, allowing individuals to gather evidence of violent crimes through OSINT. In the meantime, these NGOs have encouraged the commons to better monitor the state's authority by uploading videos and pictures exposing state and military violence through social media.

34 https://www.bellingcat.com/about/ 35 Skelton. How Forensic Architecture Uses Tech to Protect Human Rights.

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Forensic Architecture Theory After analyzing how existing non-forensic professional organizations analyze cases, it find that although architects originally conceptualized forensic architecture, architecture in this context does not refer to architectural design but an expanded field of exploration and study of space. The field is a new disciplinary area between architecture, urban environment, law, forensics and history. Forensic Architecture theory considers forensic objects a whole with people or spaces and buildings, or countries or societies because forensic objects are in constant evolution and are not static. Further, forensic architecture conceives of space/events as a hybrid of material and temporal distributed throughout the architectural field. In this section the theories of Forensis; Evidence; Aesthetics in forensic architecture will be introduced and how dose they connect in order to adopt these theories in Spatial Investigation of the Chinese embassy bombing in the third section.

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TRANSFORMATION OF FORENSIS Forensic has its origins in the Latin word forensis: "Pertaining to the forum"36. In Roman times the trial process was public, allowing the citizens to participate and encouraging them to give evidence concerning the case37. Thus, in Roman times, the forum was a platform for negotiating and giving evidence about the case to each other to understand the case better and investigate the truth, with evidence and forum being prerequisites for forensis. Furthermore, the most significant element in forensics is Fields and the Forum: Fields is not only a static area but also an active and abstract field, as investigators can map out the traces of a crime by searching for traces of the field38. Forum is a public discussion of a controversial object or site.

In addition, in the investigation of a controversial object, many of the objects being explored are inanimate and challenging to narrate in the form of sound; for instance, rivers, wars, countries and other abstract objects often require a power of an aural demonstration to present the truth39. Hence, the Roman rhetorician The Quintilian called 'prosopopoeia' gave sound to inanimate objects through the rhetorical technique of anthropomorphism40. In the traditional courtroom , forensic anthropologists presented human remains as witnesses and interlocutors, recounting the violence suffered41. With today's technology, anthropomorphism will digitally manipulate objects, present abstract objects come to life in the courtroom in the form of video or pictures and in the narrative.

Forensic science does not only apply to courts and medicine today, but teams like the one by Weizman have opened up a new field of forensic science, studying violations by the state and challenging the state's authority. The shift in the object of evidence to the state is unprecedented and full of unknowns. This is because the object of state violence is not only a person or an object but can even a case that has already occurred and has been decided by the court. By forcing the court to change or destroy evidence through the state's authority, state violence is more likely to be denial and secrecy of evidence, the erasure of an event from history.

In 2014, Forensic Architecture, together with Francesco Sebregondi, developed an open-source software named PATTRN42. The software allows the forum to evolve from a bounded space into an infinite open database, PATTRN enables its user community to share and collate first-hand reports of local events, then map the relationships between discrete events and make sense of the scattered pieces of information. The data is anonymously uploaded, reducing the risk of human identification.

PATTRN operates by allowing participants to create a library of events with spatial coordinates and a timeline and add tags, media, and content to these events. The data is then collated in the backend cloud, allowing visualisation and a detailed map of the events. In this borderless Forum cloud, fragments of events can be collected and elaborated to create a complete visualisation of the data.

Journalists play an important role in the PATTERN software, and most of the information is uploaded by journalists from different countries. In Event in which people died trying to reach Europe, journalists from 15 European countries uploaded data on the number of people who died in Africa trying to reach or stay in Europe43. From the visualized data, countless lives were found lost in the Mediterranean Sea and at the Greek-Turkish border. In 2015 Turkey closed its borders with the European Union in exchange for money and diplomatic favors, which effectively prevented the passage of refugees through Eastern Europe44, which explains why so many refugees died at the borders, and on the other hand this visualization can be used as evidence of state violence.

36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44

Anselm ,and Weizman . Forensis : the Architecture of Public Truth. Berlin: Sternberg Press,pp.9. 2014.

Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed.

Weizman, Forensis : the Architecture of Public Truth. 9-13.

Weizman, Forensic Architecture. 65.

Weizman, Forensis : the Architecture of Public Truth. 9-10.

Weizman, Forensic Architecture. 68.

Weizman, Forensic Architecture. 116.

Weizman, Forensic Architecture. 117.

William Spindler. “2015: The Year of Europe's Refugee Crisis,” UNHCR, December 8, 2015, https://www.unhcr.org/news/stories/2015/12/56ec1ebde/2015-year-europes-refugee-crisis.html.

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In this bureaucratic situation, Weizman sought to change the status of forensic medicine by turning it into a counter-hegemonic discipline, aiming at reversing the relationship between the individual and the state through forensic perspectives, and ultimately making the tyranny of the state known45.

They have also developed a new understanding of Forum and Fields in forensics. Compare with Forensis,the collection of evidence in the modern Forensic is no longer collected by professionals but has moved to large internet databases where they can sort out more independently generated evidence, individual could be an investigator in searching case. The framework of this evidence is based on the experience of the abused, the accuracy of the evidence is ultimately improved by using satellite imagery or analyzing video evidence in the lab, mapping out traces of the crime, and presenting abstract objects in anthropomorphic ways46. Moreover, the modern forum is not just restricted to a limited space of communication but is increasingly spread across websites and media.

By taking advantage of the rapid dissemination of information in the Internet age, the continuous indepth discussion of these kinds of social issues inadvertently puts pressure on the government to publicly admit and apologize for making changes.

Figure 8 Ancient Roman Forensis Forum

Figure 9 Fortress Europe: Visualization of the Migrants' Files datasets.As locasted by PATTRN. Artwork:Forensic Architecture.

45 Weizman, Forensis : the Architecture of Public Truth. 11.

46 Weizman, Forensic Architecture. 66.

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EVIDENCE IN FORENSIC Evidence is often based on objects that actually occurred and usually reveals facts by the changes that the objects suffered themselves. Evidence in forensic can be divided into direct evidence and circumstantial evidence, physical evidence, and reconstructive evidence47. Direct evidence includes statements and confessions of eyewitnesses or victims; physical evidence is the traces left at the scene of a violent crime through architectural debris; reconstructive evidence is the technical means to simulate the process of violence and bullet trajectories in a virtual scene, accurately indicating the location of the victim in the crime space and the exact manner and sequence of the crime events48.

Thus evidence can link the person to the crime or crime scene, combining the crime process, space and time. Simultaneously, detailed evidence has a conclusive role in the courtroom, and each piece of evidence presented can influence the outcome of the trial.

Despite the forensic architecture organizations collecting evidence by analyzing public data and probing social media, the methods of collecting evidence differ. According to the analysis of the three organizations in the first part of this article: When investigating social issues, Bellingcat usually first looks for news related to the issue or collects information posted by the government on the Internet. For example, in the case of the recently condemned Russian invasion of Ukraine, Bellingcat journalists relied on a large number of videos and images posted by civilians on social networks as evidence to expose the Russian government's political disinformation49. Killing Architects is more likely to base on observing changes in satellite maps as circumstantial evidence when investigating cases related to construction. In the case of the Chinese campus, they compared changes in Google satellite maps of Xinjiang with Chinese mapping software over several years and found what appeared to be a cover-up of certain areas of Xinjiang by the Chinese government 50, as well as hundreds of campuses accommodating thousands of people, thereby serving as circumstantial evidence of human rights abuses by the Chinese government against Xinjiang's ethnic minorities.

At the same time, FA is more focused on reconstructive evidence. When they work on the victim's testimony, they are more likely to reconstruct the scene from the victim's recollections51, and use architectural techniques to build precise models from the memories to allow the victim to recall the more detailed testimony in the virtual model.

Nevertheless, the evidence in Forensic Architecture is also problematic. Even though FA is able to perfectly simulate the process of violence and to obtain testimonies from victims' memories in digital models, the complexity of memory causes testimonies to be full of amnesic fragments and blank segments52, and consequently cannot rely on memory to paint a complete picture of the whole event. In addition, these non-forensic organizations do not have the same technology as developed countries or the military and they cannot accurately zoom in on satellite images. Therefore, this evidence is sometimes not strong enough to point to the criminal process of the perpetrator and the state violence.The viability and convincingness of evidence in forensic architecture are substantially constrained by technology and open-source.

47 Douglas P Lyle. “Types of Evidence Used in Forensics.” Dummies, March 26, 2016. https://www.dummies.com/article/academics-the-arts/science/forensics/types-of-evidence-used-in-forensics-138087/.

48 Lyle. “Types of Evidence Used in Forensics.”

49 Eliot Higgins. “Russia’s Bucha ‘Facts’ versus the Evidence.” Bellingcat, April 4, 2022. https://www.bellingcat.com/news/2022/04/04/russias-bucha-facts-versus-the-evidence/.

50 Rajagopalan."China Secretly Built A Vast New Infrastructure To Imprison Muslims." buzzfeednews, August 27, 2020. https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/meghara/china-new-internment-campsxinjiang-uighurs-muslims 51 Weizman, Forensic Architecture.45.

52 Weizman, Forensic Architecture.128.

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AESTHETICS IN FORENSIC Aesthetics was primarily defined in Greek as anything closely associated with the senses53, but forensic aesthetics refers to the sensory capabilities of matter itself. Aesthetics is found in three important forensic contexts: Fields, Lab, and Forum54, where matter is the ability to refract and reflect its surroundings and is considered to be the embodiment of beauty because it is a constant record of the surrounding influences. In war, architectural remains and bones are a classic material aesthetic, and they can recognize as witnesses to the war because they are a continuous record of the surrounding environment through the traces on the walls of buildings or the process of decomposing bodies. Simultaneously in the lab, it is possible to react to details that are not visible to the naked eye by means of technologies as well as the age of the soil and simulated bombs hitting buildings.

In addition, digitalization is used in the lab to combine techniques like film, photography and 3D modelling, to organize images and data, validate facts, assemble cases and compile narratives55.

Eventually, in the forensic forum, participants can present the investigation results they have collected, again with aesthetic embellishments to give authenticity to the data they have presented and to present the details of the events in a more perfect way. Forensic aesthetic modifications are usually narrative, dramatization and projection. The aesthetics are presented in the courtroom through visual displays, projections and digital simulations, which have a strong visual impact and an immersive feeling.

The concept of forensic aesthetics is perfectly demonstrated in the images produced by Richard Helmer, while later becoming an important method for investigating war crimes and human rights violations56. This case progressively changed the perspective of traditional forensic aesthetics, successfully turning a static object in the courtroom and modifying it into an anthropomorphic object through technology. After the suspected remains of Josef Mengele, the "executioner of Auschwitz", were discovered in 1984 in the suburbs of São Paulo57, German pathologist and photographer Richard Helmer overlaid video images of portrait photographs on video images of skulls through the video technique of "face-skull superimposition" to determine whether the two represented the same person58. By the time Mengele's skull appeared on the forum's screen, political aesthetics had been gradually sensitized to the fact that real images produced through technology were more effective in the realm of courtroom presentation and visualization.

However, occasionally forensic aesthetics is questioned in exhibitions showing a large number of videos and photographs. Peter Wollen argues that "The cinema cannot show the truth, or reveal it, because the truth is not out there in the real world, waiting to be photographed"59. Thus, the self doubts whether architectural analysis and digital modelling techniques can unravel the complexity of the case. The overuse of rhetoric, design and aesthetic means of constructing videos and images

Figure 10 Montage Aesthetics in display Conflict area.

Artwork:Forensic Architecture 53 54 55 56 57 58 59

Lesley Martin.“Aesthetics.”Csmt.uchicago.edu. 2003. Csmt.uchicago.edu. https://csmt.uchicago.edu/glossary2004/aesthetics.htm.

Keenan, Mengele’s Skull : the Advent of a Forensic Aesthetics.67-71.

Weizman, Forensic Architecture.96.

Thomas Keenan, and Weizman. Mengele’s Skull : the Advent of a Forensic Aesthetics. Berlin: Sternberg Press, pp.55.2012.

Keenan, Mengele’s Skull : the Advent of a Forensic Aesthetics.14.

Keenan.56.

Peter Wollen."Godard and Counter Cinema: Vent d'Est ".(1976): 373.file:///C:/Users/RGB/Desktop/Semester%204/thesis%20studio/Wollen.pdf

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can reinforce the viewer's conviction that what they are seeing is the truth. This materialistic way of expression only makes it easier to miss the hidden secrets behind the events. In the case of The killing of Tahir Elci (2019), the narrative structure does not allow the audience to understand the real reason why the victim was killed60, despite the fact that FA clearly conveys the course of events through the use of cinematic aesthetics using camera and scene transitions. This is the constraints of Forensic Aesthetics. But it is undeniable that architecture often plays a mediating role in cases involving urban ruins and spatial violence, and architects excel at simulating the space of events through collected data, using 3D models to locate multiple images in space and establish interrelationships. The aesthetics of constructing virtual models from spatial information in this way describes a new way of arguing in forensics, taking traditionally static objects and presenting the relationship between time and space in a montage of aesthetics.

Conclusion In summary, by evaluating the four basic theories of Forensis; Forum, Evidence; and Aesthetic in Forensic Architecture, it is beneficial for the non-Forensic specialist to investigate cases through these theories and establish a preliminary case framework. The four theories are closely interrelated.

The Forensis theory emphasizes the Forum as a public platform. Individuals can display the evidence they have investigated related to the case on the platform for the international tribunal trial.Forensic Architecture's Forum is not confined to traditional tectonic space but can be a social media or data cloud library. In addition, in Forensic Architecture, each case is composed of a relationship between different aesthetic perspectives. The new perspectives represent a new way of collecting evidence; for instance, the concrete wall is aestheticised to the blast; the cloud is aestheticised to the chemical gas in conflict areas 61. Thus the concept of aesthetics is of fundamental importance in FA theory, not only in terms of collecting evidence for a case but also in combining the rhetoric and architectural techniques as performativity and as a presentation tool in a Forum. In an international context of complex social issues and political conflicts, forensic architecture can be used as a groundbreaking theoretical tool in the international investigation of human rights violations. Forensic Architecture can be used as a groundbreaking theoretical tool in the international investigation of human rights violations.

Section III（The Investigation Of The Chinese Embassy In Kosovo War）, this article will investigate the bombing of the Chinese Embassy in Yugoslavia by the U.S. government and NATO from these four theories. Due to the lack of open intelligence information on the incident reported by the Chinese government and NATO joint forces, this article cannot definitively analyze whether the bombing was an accidental bombing as officially reported by the U.S. and NATO or whether it was a deliberate attempt, but it will analyze whether there are inconsistencies in the U.S. military report and whether the Chinese government was hiding secrets at the embassy through the available opensource.

60 Deniz Johns."FORENSIC ARCHITECTURE: THE WHOLE TRUTH?" Millennium Film Journal, Fall 2021.https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A683690348/AONE?u=usyd&sid=bookmarkAONE&xid=3420c4d0.

61 Weizman. "Forensic Architecture with Eyal Weizman." UNSW. May 5, 2022, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UL2dx66n7d8&list=PL50XnIfJxPDV4QnTChrS3z7sfvC5vvIyd&index=2.

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The Investigation Of The Chinese Embassy In Kosovo War Introduction: This chapter starts with the background of the Bombing chinese Embassy and the reasons for the military intervention of NATO forces in Yugoslavia. In the period from 1991 to 1992, nation-states other than Serbia and Montenegro gained independence from Yugoslavia, and the former federal polity gradually disintegrated as a result 62. However, the demarcation of the new borders led to a decade-long Yugoslav civil war between the former Yugoslav states. The war was marked by a series of horrific events, including genocide, crimes against humanity, ethnic cleansing and rape, and some 130,000 people died in the nearly decade-long civil war (Crisis in the Balkans)63.

The Milosevic government's campaign of ethnic cleansing and the killing of Albanians in Kosovo drew strong international condemnation. On March 24, 1999, U.S.-led NATO forces decided to launch a series of military campaigns against Yugoslavia to prevent ethnic cleansing, and this military interention end of 10th June64.

From a political perspective, the Serbian capital of Belgrade, which was the capital of the government of the FRY for several years, has been the scene of numerous military operations. These military strikes included the Urban killings in Vukovar in 1991, the 1991 bombings of Dubrovnik, and the 1992 siege of Sarajevo, all of these brutal military orders came from the Generalstab complex in the city of Belgrade65. The Generalstab complex used to be the Yugoslav Army Headquarters and the Federal Ministry of Defense. The NATO attack did not appear to be an act of violence or a violation of human rights but more of the liberation of the former Yugoslav people. However, in this "justifiable" military strike, NATO forces also committed unjustifiable violations, bombing targets of strategic military importance as well as unreasonable targets as schools and hospitals66.

62 Allan E Goodman and James E. "Yugoslavia, 1991-1992: Could Diplomacy have Prevented a Tragedy?". District of Columbia: Georgetown University. School of Foreign Service. Institute for the Study of Diplomacy, (1992): 5-9. https://search.alexanderstreet.com/view/work/bibliographic_entity%7Cbibliographic_details%7C3966296.

63 Noam Chomsky. "Crisis in the Balkans." Z Magazine, May, 1999. https://chomsky.info/199905__/.

64 Chomsky. "Crisis in the Balkans."

65 Nikolina Bobic. Operations of Force: NATO, Belgrade and the Inflection of Urbicide. The University of Sydney, (2014): 109.

66 Bobic.56.

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Imagery Timeline Of Chinese Embassy A:1999

Fig a: 08/05/1999 (Escape the fire )

b 17/05/1999 (AP Archive)

c 17/05/1999 (AP Archive)

d 17/05/1999 (AP Archive)

e 17/05/1999 (AP Archive)

g 2001 SASA STANKOVIC

h 2001 SASA STANKOVIC

i 2001 SASA STANKOVIC

j 2001 SASA STANKOVIC/EPA

l 10/11/2010 ANDREJ ISAKOVIC

m 10/11/2010 ANDREJ ISAKOVIC

n 10/11/2010 ANDREJ ISAKOVIC

o 2021 Chinese Cultural Center

B:2000- 2010

f : 2000 EPA

C: after 2010

k :10/11/2010 ANDREJ ISAKOVIC

During the 78-day military airstrike, social infrastructure buildings like primary and secondary schools, hospitals, hospitals and hospitals were included as military targets, while the Chinese Embassy was also the target of bombing on the night of May 7. That night the U.S. sent B2 stealth bombers, the B2 being the ace U.S. military weapon, over the embassy, dropping five bombs on the main body of the building67. The incident resulted in the deaths of three Chinese journalists, Zhu Ying; Shao Yunhuan; and Xu Xinghu68. The images figure a to e, respectively, demonstrate the evacuation of survivors from the main embassy building on the night of the bombing, and the U.S. government's inspections of the site afterwards. After one decade, the Chinese government eventually decided to rebuild the embassy in 2010 and convert it into a Chinese cultural center.

In terms of the international legal definition of embassies, they are legally considered to be the territory of the country they represent, despite that they are located in the territory of other countries69.

Thus, the bombing of an embassy can be seen as a challenge to the authority of a Sovereign.

Figure 11 icture combine with digital model (after air strike ) .Artwork: Junlong.

67 Daniel Williams. "Missiles Hit Chinese Embassy." Washington Post Foreign Service. May 8, 1999; Page A1. https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/longterm/balkans/stories/belgrade050899.htm 68 Kevin Ponniah and Lazara Marinkovic."The night the US bombed a Chinese embassy." BBC News. May 7,2019. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-48134881 69 Embassy Law and Legal Definition, n.d. https://definitions.uslegal.com/e/embassy/

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U.S and NATO Report As the incident became increasingly serious, the U.S. government and NATO compensated and apologized to the Chinese families and reported that the incident was not directed at China but that multiple factors and errors by multiple branches of the U.S. government were responsible for the mistaken bombing. The U.S. government report was The bombing resulted from three basic failures. First, the technique used to locate the intended target--the headquarters of the Yugoslav Federal Directorate for Supply and Procurement (FDSP)--was severely flawed. Second, none of the military or intelligence databases used to verify target information contained the correct location of the Chinese Embassy.

Third, nowhere in the target review process was either of the first two mistakes detected…. that the targeted building was not the FDSP headquarters….was in fact, the Chinese Embassy--was ever consulted70.

Official reports from the U.S. Army and NATO indicate that the cause of the incident was attributed to the use of outdated maps by the U.S. Army in the development of the FDSP as a potential military target, using commercial maps from 1989 and 1996 and 199771. The actual situation FDSP was 350m away from the Chinese Embassy. And none of these maps mentioned the FDSP buildings and none of the maps accurately indicated the current location of the Chinese Embassy. As a result, an unknown coordinate was incorrectly used as the coordinates of the FDSP building, as well as not used to update the location of the other country's embassy in the planning of the military strike, and not detected in the follow-up target verification prior to the eventual military strike, resulting in the Chinese embassy being "accidentally bombed ".

Consequently, It is difficult to understand from the report why obsolete maps were used in the military campaign because the world's number one military power with the highest satellite imagery, and it is difficult to explain the problem in the coordinates of the bombing target.

Later in this chapter, it will simulate the methodology of Forensic Architecture to investigate the case, through combining digital modeling, journalistic research, and OSINT to analyze NATO and U.S. Army reports and examine potential evidence.

Figure 12 The Chinese Embassy and the target building FDSP are on the same street, approximately 350m distance.Artwork: Junlong.

70 Thomas R Pickering. "Oral Presentation to the Chinese Government: Regarding the Accidental Bombing of The P.R.C. Embassy in Belgrade." U.S. DEPARTMENT of STATE. June 17, 1999. https://1997-2001.state.gov/policy_remarks/1999/990617_pickering_emb.html 71 Pickering.

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Reconstruct Space Despite the building was reconstructed as a modern building, and the walls can no longer record the military violence of that period, the war violence of NATO forces against Yugoslavia and the fact of bombing Chinese Embassy cannot be removed. In order to gain a deeper knowledge of the case, photos of the building's interior taken by Western media and reports given by the Chinese government were combined with digital models to understand the location of the five bombs of the bombing and the direction of their trajectory.

According to the report from Chinese government ,figure 13 displays that the first bomb penetrated the entire building and exploded on the first floor and figure 15 illustrates the trajectory of the first bomb and and the location of the explosion in the basement. Delayed detonation of bombs is usually programmed into the fuse in advance. In addition, according to Thomas Withington in his book "B-2A Spirit Units in Combat", the bomb used in this incident was the Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM)GBU 3172. This bomb was GPS/INS guided (the GPS, INS and WGS relationship will explain later in the "Evidence Section") and had an accelerometer-based electronic fuse at the front of the GBU31 bomb that could be controlled by the number of layers, distance or time of triggering73. When the bomb penetrates the target, the gas pedal senses the G-load on the bomb due to deceleration. And the fuze can distinguish between land, concrete, rock and air74. Hence that can confirm the first bomb was dropped after the next level of triggering was pre-programmed by the U.S. military, and also represents whether there is a military target on the first floor or merely to strike the building structure.

Figure 13 A bomb penetrated from the fifth floor(Combine STANKOVIC' photo with Digital model ).Artwork: Junlong.

Figure 14 Plan of Chinese Embassy Bombing(Chinese xinhuanet).Interpretation:Junlong.

Figure 15 Trajectory of the first bomb in Digital model. Artwork: Junlong.

72 Thomas Withington. "B-2A Spirit Units in Combat." 2006. 41.

73 Military Analysis Network. “Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM) GBU-31 - Smart Weapons.” n.d. Man.fas.org. Accessed April 11, 2022. https://man.fas.org/dod-101/sys/smart/jdam.htm.

74 Military Analysis Network. Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM) GBU-31 - Smart Weapons.

21

According to the U.S. Army report they were targeting the FDSP building and they accidentally bombed Chinese Embassy, then It can seem that the U.S. Army's first bomb was aimed at the FDSP basement level. However, there is no available information on the FDSP building floor plan to confirm whether the FDSP had a subterranean level. Assuming the FDSP had a subterranean level, it would be reasonable for the U.S. military to pre-program the bomb fuse. Conversely, if the FDSP building did not have a subterranean level, then there are serious inconsistencies in the U.S. Army's post incident report. Hence, If the hypothesis non-existent basement is valid, the basement level of the FDSP building could be used as circumstantial evidence to challenge the US Army report.

Consequently, under the condition that spatial investigation is limited by open source, the decisive evidence of the case can be found by assuming the potential of the investigated subject, besides it is possible to study the case from a different aesthetic perspective. The next part will introduce the study from a Journalism perspective.

FDSP (Logistic Building)

Chinese Embassy

Ground Logistic Building has a basement or not

Figure 16 Digital Model Investigation (FDSP).Artwork: Junlong.

Figure 17 Footage of Chinese Embassy .Artwork : Junlong.

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Journalism Investigation The inability to confirm the internal structure of the FDSP building, it caused the spatial investigation to be shifted to the Chinese Embassy building to investigate whether the Chinese Embassy may have the targets of U.S. military strike. In forensic architecture, researchers will generally establish a new case framework by gathering existing news. According to the investigation of multiple media reports about the Embassy, two suspected military targets inside the Chinese Embassy were revealed.

The first potential target: In August-October 1999, several Western media outlets had published that NATO forces had found Yugoslav radio communications signals coming from the Chinese Embassy.

One of the intelligence officials in Macedonia stated that on the night of April 23, communications signals from Yugoslav President Milosevic's lodgings disappeared after being bombed that night75, when they reappeared in the air, NATO discovered that the signals were coming from the Chinese Embassy. During this 78-day military air campaign, it was discovered that most of NATO's primary military target was the communications base stations. Therefore, Yugoslav communication stations inside the Chinese Embassy could be considered a motive for the crime in the forensic evidence theory, but it does not directly prove that NATO intentionally bombed the Embassy.

Another suspected military target is the wreckage of a U.S. F-117 stealth bomber hidden inside the Chinese Embassy. On March 27, 1999, one of the U.S. Air Force's most technologically advanced stealth aircraft was shot down by the Seriban army76. Some reports claim that the aircraft's wreckage was subsequently transported to the Chinese Embassy, giving the Chinese government access to military secrets of aviation77. However, the Chinese government denied this claim and denied the presence of the F-117 wreckage at the Embassy78. It is impossible to know whether the Chinese government had involvement with the F-117 wreckage from the media news reports.

Although suspicions were found during the investigation of the news reports, and these suspicions may have been indirectly responsible for the incident, they were not supported by evidence and could not be used as valid evidence for the case in the Forum. This is the constraint of Journalism in forensic architecture, as it relies on existing reports to establish the framework of the case. For this reason, the Weizman team and Killing Architects team combined press and media sources with their data collected through OSINT during the case investigation. In the next section will analyze the potential evidence of presence in the maps collected from OSINT.

75 76 77 78

Chris Marsden. "British newspaper says NATO deliberately bombed Chinese embassy in Belgrade." World Socialist Web Site. 19 October, 1999. https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/1999/10/chin-o19.pdf Richelson Jeffrey T. "When Secrets Crash." AIR FORCE Magazine. July 2001: 62. https://www.airforcemag.com/PDF/MagazineArchive/Documents/2001/July%202001/0701crash.pdf Altin Kukaj. "The Implications of the 1999 U.S. Bombing of the Chinese Embassy in Belgrade on Contemporary Sino-American Relations: A Theoretical Analysis". Senior Theses.(2019): 45.

Ponniah."The night the US bombed a Chinese embassy." BBC News. May 7,2019.

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Map Aesthetics

In the previous part of the article, two different areas were described to investigate the digital model case and the Journalism investigation. However, there are limitations due to the lack of relevant data in the architectural model and evidence to support the Journalism perspective. The following two parts will focus on analysing OSINT from different forensic aesthetic perspectives and the discovery of some new potential evidence from MAP and Satellite imagery.

Figure 18 Belgrade city map, Portion of Beograd Serbia City Graphic 1:15,000 Edition 2-NIMA,Sheet 2 , N a t i o n a l I m a g e r y a n d M a p p i n g A g e n c y.

Artwork:Junlong .

24

24

Map From

After finding this map of Belgrade in the English version, it is necessary to know which country it is published in. Figure 19 was found to be from the National Imagery and Mapping Agency, which was established in 1996 as an agency of the U.S. government to collect, analyze, and disseminate geographic intelligence for national security purposes79. Hence, the map could be used for military activities, probably for the military intervention in Yugoslavia in 1999.

Time Information

Secondly, the text in the red line in the Figure21 illustrates when the map information was updated: Map Information updated with 1997; Embassy and Bridge updated in 1999; Street name and numbered feature information as of 1998. Thus the geographic location of the Chinese Embassy is possible that it was updated in 1999, which is consistent with the U.S. report that they used the 1996 and 1997 versions of the map 80 .

There is a possibility that the location of the Chinese Embassy was not updated.

Paradoxically, in a July 22, 1999 court, U.S. C-I-A Director George Tenet admitted that U.S. diplomats had visited the Chinese Embassy in Belgrade in 1997 81and admitted court: We have also found one report from 1997 that gave the correct address of the Chinese Embassy82. These testimonies prove that the U.S. government had the exact location of the Chinese Embassy in 1997. It is noticeable that in court, the U.S. consistently persisted in its argument that the 1997 version of the map they used did not have the exact location of the Chinese embassy entered into the database83.

However, the U.S. government has known the coordinates of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade since 1997. It is difficult to explain that the U.S. government did not know the location of the Chinese embassy during the Yugoslav air strikes.Moreover, it has a logical contradiction between the official reports of subsequent incidents and the testimony .

Figure 19 National Imagery and Mapping Agency

Figure 20 Belgrade map

79 80 81 82 83

Figure 21 (From map top)

https://www.nga.mil/defining-moments/National_Imagery_and_Mapping_Agency.html Pickering. "Oral Presentation to the Chinese Government: Regarding the Accidental Bombing of The P.R.C. Embassy in Belgrade."

George Tenet.“USA: CIA DIRECTOR TESTIFYS OVER BOMBING OF CHINESE BELGRADE EMBASSY.” AP Archive, July 22,1999. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gtpTh8U_ST4&t=59s Tenet.

Pickering. "Oral Presentation to the Chinese Government: Regarding the Accidental Bombing of The P.R.C. Embassy in Belgrade."

25

Chinese Embassy FDSP(Logistic Building)

Map Notes

Figure 22 Belgrade Map (Yellow Blocks are Military Buildings).

Artwork: Junlong.

Map Notes

The National Imagery and Mapping Agency has mastered the structure of the city of Belgrade and has numbered and categorized the urban building complexes from the notes below the map. In particular, they have marked the building clusters of Government Buildings and Military Establishments. The yellow parts of the map numbered 71-79 military buildings, and the red parts were government buildings. Therefore, during the military intervention in Yugoslavia in 1999, these governmental and military buildings were the real targets of U.S. and NATO humanitarian intervention.

However, the FDSP building, a target of U.S. military strikes on the night of May 784, is neither a Government Building nor a Military Establishment, but why is it a military target. Ironically, in previous military campaigns, NATO and the U.S. military have conducted military strikes on homes, elementary schools, and hospital buildings85. Referring to previous military operations that were in violation of humanitarianism, it would not be surprising to attack an FDSP building that was outside the scope of the military target.

84 Pickering."Oral Presentation to the Chinese Government: Regarding the Accidental Bombing of The P.R.C. Embassy in Belgrade."

85 Bobic. Operations of Force: NATO, Belgrade and the Inflection of Urbicide.52.

26

Number Reference

The numbering at the bottom reveals vital information about this map, but from the perspective of traditional aesthetics, this information is merely a numerical code. Without the aesthetics of words, it is hard to gain relevant information about the case. In contrast, forensic architecture escapes traditional aesthetics through the multiplicity of aesthetics and sensitivity as a resource for investigation86. The forensic is essentially aesthetic, it depends on the perspective and direction of the view of the subject, and by considering these numbers from a different perspective, there might be an essential tool to unravel the case.

NSN

The full name of the NSN is NATO Stock Number, or National Stock Number, which is a permutation of 13 Arabic digits, each of them representing a separate piece of data stored in the NATO database87. A search of the NATO database for NSN in Figure 24 indicates that the map is U.S. Army Department of Defense data. From this, it can be determined that the map is a U.S. Army map and has the potential to be referenced in the war.

WGS 84

The World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS 84) is a three-dimensional coordinate reference frame (Figure 26) used to establish latitude, longitude and altitude for navigation, positioning and targeting for the Department of Defense, I.C., NATO, the International Hydrographic Bureau and the International Civil Aviation Organization 88. Simultaneously the WGS 84 system is the reference positioning system for the GPS, and the coordinates in GPS are derived from the WGS 84 system data89.

Figure 23 Belgrade map

Figure 24 Map Number Reference

Figure 27 Embassy of China had been signed Department of Defense

Figure 25 Search on NSN Lookup

Figure 26 WGS 84 System Diagram

86 Weizman, Forensic Architecture.94.

87 https://www.nato.int/structur/ac/135/ncs_guide/english/e_1-6-5.htm 88 GISGeography. “World Geodetic System (WGS84).” GIS Geography, October 6, 2015. https://gisgeography.com/wgs84-world-geodetic-system/.

89 DEFENSE MAPPING AGENCY WASHINGTON DC. Department of Defense World Geodetic System 1984: Its Definition and Relationships with Local Geodetic Systems. Second Edition. September 1, 27 1991: 2-3.

As a result, combined with the map in the NSN originated from the U.S. Department of Defense, it confirms that this map was not only used on the battlefield of Belgrade in 1999, but the GPS positioning relied on by the U.S. military weapons was based on this WGS 84 system. The map coordinates would have been displayed in the GPS as well. Confusingly, the Chinese embassy was already marked on this map by the U.S. military, and the location of the Chinese embassy was already recorded in this WGS 84 system, but why would the JDAM bombs that relied on GPS positioning still drop on the Chinese embassy.

After forensic investigation of the map, it can be concluded that although the U.S. government used an outdated map and mistakenly used the Chinese Embassy location as the FDSP when drawing up the bombing target, the GPS coordinates for the JDAM bomb would have been set prior to military operations and would detect the target building as exactly the Chinese Embassy. However, the U.S. military never found out, and the only potential explanation is that the U.S. military GPS was not calibrated based on WGS 84 prior to the operation, resulting in the Chinese Embassy coordinates being shown in WGS 84 but not updated in the GPS. In official report, the U.S. government mentioned that they did not update the database90, but it is not known if the database in the report refers to the GPS database.

Overall, the information on maps in forensic architecture is not only expressed in contour lines and building clusters, but some more valuable information is hidden behind the numerical figures. In the next section, potential evidence will be looked at from a map aesthetic perspective.

90 Pickering."Oral Presentation to the Chinese Government: Regarding the Accidental Bombing of The P.R.C. Embassy in Belgrade."

28

Geospatial Aesthetic Satellite maps can generally accurately record changes in the geographic landscape over time and can assist in detecting changes in urban architecture by comparing satellite images produced at different times91. In forensic architecture, satellite imagery can be used as Geospatial Evidence to reveal long-term social problems and demonstrate the extent of architectural destructions during the conflicts92. The Weizman team and Killing Architects studio typically use remote sensing to collect data from Earth orbits and aerial platforms, using Geospatial Investigation to demonstrate the case process.

Fifth JDAM Bomb

Satellite maps will be the new aesthetic tool to analyze the case of the bombing the Chinese embassy.

Although the 1997 Google-satellite map of the Chinese embassy is available, the satellite map of the FDSP from 1997-to 1999 is missing; thus, the 2000 G-satellite maps are used to ensure that the same period is used. Figure 28 and Figure 30 from Xinhuanet show the approximate location of the five bombs of this bombing, and the fifth JDAM bomb attacked the Official Residence of the Chinese Embassy. The location of this fifth bomb is an essential part of the forensic evidence in this chapter.

Figure 28 Plan of Chinese Embassy Bombing(Chinese xinhuanet).Interpretation:Junlong.

1997 Chinese embassy Figure 29 Architectural Properties of Chinese Embassy.Artwork: Junlong.

Fifth JDAM

Figure 30 Location of Five bombs fell on Chinese Embassy Bombing(Combination with diagram and satellite maps). Artwork:Junlong.

91 Jo-Ansie van Wyk. "Pixels, politics and peace : the forensic use of satellite imagery." Journal of African Foreign Affairs 6, no. 2 (2019): 38-40.

92 Weizman, Forensic Architecture. 102-103.

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Figure 31 2000 Chinese embassy.Artwork:Junlong.

Figure 32 Location of Five bombs fell on Chinese Embassy Bombing.

Artwork:Junlong.

Red :Chinese Embassy Purple: Logistic Building Figure 33 2000 FDSP(Logistic) Building.Artwork:Junlong.

Figure 34 Overlap Chinese Embassy and FDSP(logistic) building.

Artwork:Junlong.

According to official US military reports they were targeting the FDSP building, but an unknown coordinate was incorrectly used as the coordinates of the FDSP building93, thus it can be understood that the US forces had pre-programmed the bombs to explode in the position based on the FDSP building structure, but the wrong coordinates were used to drop the bombs.

However, according to the 2000 Google satellite images it depicts the square footage of the Chinese Embassy and FDSP buildings and then overlay the floor space of the two buildings, it was found the part of the Chinese Embassy was not within the overlap area, and the fifth bomb targeted this part of the building. This represents that if the US forces were targeting the FDSP building, then the main building of the Chinese Embassy was in the area of the mistaken bombing. But the building of the Official Residence was not part of the target area, and the fifth bomb attacked precisely on this building.

93 Pickering. Oral Presentation to the Chinese Government: Regarding the Accidental Bombing of The P.R.C. Embassy in Belgrade.

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N

Outside of Range

Figure 35 13m range from the main building to the outside.

Artwork:Junlong.

Figure 36 Percentage of floor space within and outside the margin of error.Artwork:Junlong.

figure 27's perspective Wall Wall

Figure 37 Artwork:Junlong.

Figure 38 US Embassy officials observe the circumstances (May 17,1999).Artwork:Junlong.

Since the fifth bomb hit a building in close proximity to the main building, this can be explained by the accuracy of the GPS guidance, which is 13 m for JDAM GBU-3194, then all 13 m of the perimeter of the target building can be considered to be within the range of the military target(Figure 35). As a result, extending the northwest side of the building outwards horizontally by 13m, part of the Embassy residence was found to be within the margin of error. Nevertheless, due to the lack of precise data on the exact location of the fifth bomb, the potential for the fifth bomb to hit a military target can only be estimated by probability. By official residence roof area within the predicted JDAM hit error range likelihood, approximately 23.3% of the area was within the military target error range, but the remaining 76.7% was outside of the range. In addition, Figure 38 Shows a picture of the area between the main embassy building and the official residence, it can find that although the red wall in the picture had broken, the overall structure remains intact.Hence, it can be concluded that the bomb did not hit the side of the wall close to the picture. Therefore, less than 23.3% of the official residence area could have been attacked by the bomb. From a probability perspective, the fifth bomb's probability of dropping within the target range is considerably lower than outside the range. This bomb will likely strike an official residence outside the error range. The GPS-guided, highly accurate JDAM bombs can not explain why the fifth bomb landed on a building outside the margin of error.

Although there is a high probability that the fifth bomb struck a building outside of the target range, probabilism is not sufficient evidence to be used in forensic architecture thus the exact bombing coordinates of the fifth bomb are still required. If this coordinate is within range, it can be explained as a guidance error, and if it is outside of range, it can be used as evidence to question whether the US military deliberately set the explosion location of the fifth bomb to a building outside of the target in their GPS programming of the bomb. Coincidentally, this off-target building is an official residence on the plan of the Chinese Embassy, whether this is a coincidence or a hidden story.

94 Military Analysis Network. Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM) GBU-31 - Smart Weapons.

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Target Building (FDSP) Undamaged

Figure 39 The latest street view of the former FDSP building.

Figure 41 April 2000, FDSP Building (Google Earth).

Artwork:Junlong.

Figure 40 The words on top of the building can be clearly seen as "IMMPORT- SDPR".

Figure 42 March 2022, FDSP Building (Google Earth).

Artwork:Junlong.

Moreover, FDSP was a Yugoslavian company engaged in importing and exporting defencerelated equipment95. Thus FDSP, as a military building, was a potential target for NATO and U.S. forces to strike. On the night of the 45th day of NATO and U.S. airstrikes on Yugoslavia, U.S. forces accidentally attacked the Chinese Embassy as a strike initially on the FDSP96. This part will investigate the possibility that the FDSP as a target building was attacked militarily in the following 33 days.

According to the most recent satellite street view picture (Figure 40), the FDSP headquarters were not searched, and the previous "Bulevar umetnosti 2" location is now the IMMPORT-SDPR building.

This implies that the FDSP has disappeared from Belgrade, and it is likely that the building was destroyed during military attacks.

However, from the case of the Bank of New York lawsuit against the FDSP, it mentioned that in September 1996 the Yugoslav government issued a new organic law, declaring in the Commercial Court of Belgrade that the FDSP was officially reorganized as the Yu-goimport SDPR, and the address of the building was still "Bulevar umetnosti 2"97. And from SDPR's official web seems that IMMPORT-SDPR on the map today is the original FDSP headquarters, and this building is still engaged in the import and export of defence-related equipment today98. Moreover, Yugoslavia was under international economic sanctions for 7.5 years before the war began 99,reconstruction of the city did not begin immediately after the war ended. Many of the destroyed buildings were kept in the city for several years before reconstruction began. The former Yugoslav Ministry of Defense Generalštab did not start reconstruction until 2013 100. Thus if FDSP was attacked in 1999, the building would remain in ruins in the satellite map of 2000. Furthermore, by analyzing google maps from 2000(Figure 41) and the latest version of google maps(Figure 42), it discovered that the outer outline of the FDSP building, which was the military target on the night of May 7, has remained unchanged. That demonstrates the building was more likely never bombed by military strikes in 1999.

Consequently, the building was supposed to be hit by airstrikes on May 7, but never suffered any military strikes. It is once again difficult to explain whether the real target of the U.S. bombers that night was FDSP headquarters or the Chinese Embassy.

95 Pickering. Oral Presentation to the Chinese Government: Regarding the Accidental Bombing of The P.R.C. Embassy in Belgrade.

96 Pickering.

97 Ralph Karl Winter. "Bank of New York v. Yugoimport, 745 F.3d 599." United States Court of Appeals, Second Circuit. Aug. 29, 2012. https://cite.case.law/f3d/745/599/ 98 https://www.army-technology.com/contractors/infrastructure/yugoimport-sdpr/ 99 Daniel Williams. "Decades, Billions Needed to Restore Yugoslavia." Washington Post Foreign Service. June 5, 1999: Page A1.

100 Gruia Bădescu. “Making Sense of Ruins: Architectural Reconstruction and Collective Memory in Belgrade.” Nationalities papers 47, no. 2 (2019): 182.

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Conclusion This section reviews the case of the 1999 bombing of the Chinese Embassy in Yugoslavia from a forensic architectural perspective. The purpose of examining the case is to evaluate whether there are conflicting reports from the U.S. government and the Chinese government about the case and to investigate potential evidence. Both governments attempted to use political aesthetics to create a rhetorical set of governmental aspirations in the post-case period. The U.S. government, as the perpetrator, emphasized that they caused the incident by using outdated maps that did not indicate the location of the Chinese embassy. The Chinese government, as the victim, used linguistic aesthetics to convince the Chinese people that it was a deliberate bombing by the U.S., rather than delving into the case and searching for evidence that the U.S. intentionally bombed the embassy.

In order to escape from the political aesthetics and to gain a deeper understanding of the case, several potential pieces of evidence are elaborated from four forensic architectural perspectives: building a 3d model, journalistic investigation, studying Belgrade maps and analyzing satellite maps, respectively. Combining the 3D model with the findings in the post-event scene, a U.S. bomb passed through the Chinese Embassy and exploded on the underground level.

The bomb was pre-programmed to explode on the ground floor of the target building (FDSP).

Therefore whether the building had a ground floor or not would be an important twist in the case.

Reports in several Western media outlets have pointed to the Chinese Embassy's hiding fragments of U.S. F-117s and the presence of communication radios used by the Yugoslav Army. Forensically these objects could be considered potential motives for the perpetrators of the crime. The number reference in Belgrade's map indicates that the location of the Chinese embassy was shown in WSG 84 as the calibration system for the U.S. military's GPS. Still, ultimately the U.S. military GPS bombs struck the Chinese embassy nonetheless.

And the location of the fifth U.S. bomb in the satellite maps is circumstantial evidence to question why the U.S. military was outside the target building when pre-programming the location of the fifth bomb. The satellite map also found that the FDSP building as the target was still intact, contradicting the official report that the FDSP was a military target.

In summarizing the findings in the four directions above, while not directly proving that the U.S. forces bombed intentionally, it is reasonable to challenge the official U.S. government report and question whether the real target of the U.S. forces on the night of May 7 was the FDSP or the Chinese Embassy.

Figure 43 Forensic Architecture Footage Of Belgrade.Artwork: Junlong.

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IN SUMMATION The article aims to explore the re-examination of the mistaken bombing of the Chinese Embassy in Yugoslavia that occurred in 1999 from a forensic architectural perspective. The thesis does not involve an attempt to conclude whether the incident was a mistaken or deliberate bombing.

Instead, it concentrates on gathering potential evidence from OSINT to challenge the reports of both governments. Insufficient information resulted in some of the evidence being presented based on hypotheses following the analysis. But the analytical approach to collecting evidence is based on the theory of forensic aesthetics proposed by Weizman, a leading figure in forensic architecture.

The fundamental concept of forensic architecture is established with urban destruction, which architecturally depicts the effects of military violence on urban space, with spatial elements such as walls and fortifications being deployed as agents and agents of war101. In forensic theory, architecture is reframed as an amalgamation of multiple independent aesthetic elements, each representing a new perspective on the case and the tools to present it. Furthermore, Forensic architecture pursues the re-viewing of cases from different standpoints: backtracking from fragments of information or memory, fieldwork through advanced digital models as simulations, and testing forensic data from and through reconstructed crime scenes102. And by studying images of cases, audio files, government testimonies, and political connections that are brought together to create a forensic "portfolio", cases that happened in the past are allowed to be presented in a new aesthetic form.

Nowadays, increasing numbers of non-governmental institutions are trying to use architecture as a tool in forensics to unlock new perceptions of the political, judicial and territorial, and religious spheres and to challenge the authority of governments and expose their criminal violence.

101 Bobic. Operations of Force: NATO, Belgrade and the Inflection of Urbicide. 255.

102 Sława Harasymowicz. "Book Review: Eyal Weizman, Forensic Architecture: Violence at the Threshold of Detectability."Journal of Visual Culture 16, no. 3 (December 2017): 392–95.

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Limitation and Further Research There is still plenty of further research in this article, especially in the section on the investigation of the Chinese Embassy. Because of the case's complexity, the history of the case is 23 years ago, and the Internet was not well developed at that time. There is limited information available on the Internet today. Therefore, this article cannot directly determine whether the Chinese Embassy was bombed by mistake or intentionally. However, this article analyzes several pieces of evidence that could be used as circumstantial evidence to challenge the U.S. military's report. And It is reasonable to wonder whether the Chinese government is deliberately covering up some of the critical evidence.

Therefore, open-source intelligence can be collected either through field trips to Belgrade or through the government to collect information in future investigations. Because all sovereign states have a database called "Freedom of Information" for the general public to understand what the government did103. Although it is possible to request data and information related to a case from the government through Freedom of Information, the government's response is slow.

Usually, it takes six months, and there is a high probability that the request will be denied. In early May, when writing the Map Evidence section of this article, a request to the Serbian government for maps of the city of Belgrade from 1996 and 1997 did not receive a response. These two maps are the identical erroneous versions of maps used in the U.S. Army report. Hence, it probably can play a decisive role in examining whether the U.S. Army report is contradictory.

Simultaneously, open-source intelligence can also be affected by political circumstances. In today's closed political context in China (human rights issues), there is a high probability of rejection when requesting government information from today's Chinese government, which is part of the limitations of investigating the case. The victim government is unwilling to reveal much information about whether the Chinese Embassy hid F117 debris. Instead, it constructs ideal government rhetoric through aesthetics to inflame people's emotions and make them believe that the U.S. military deliberately bombed the embassy, ultimately achieving the people's anti-American goals.

There is actually one more piece of evidence in this article that proves that NATO was not involved in the mistaken bombing of the Chinese Embassy. The evidence is a NATO audio file recorded by NATO military spokesman Maj. Gen. Walter Jertz describing the air attacks on Yugoslavia for Day 46, May 8: This light show us fixed targets, as you can see, we strike Air Defence and commend and control targets. Including again NOVISAD;KRUSEVAC;IVA NJICA....strike victory production facilities. Lines of communication and other military targets as shown. Serbia Air Defence will light and all of our crafts happy to see return safety104.

The audio from May 8 does not contain any information about NATO military operations in Belgrade on May 7, and therefore proves that NATO was not directly involved in and commanded this operation.This evidence was not investigated in depth due to time constraints, but this could also be the focus of the further investigation Notwithstanding the limitations of the investigation process, there is much potential evidence beyond this article on the FDSP and the Chinese Embassy Building in Belgrade that may require a new discipline of forensic aesthetics rather than an architectural perspective.

103 https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-informationdata-not-covered-freedom-information-act-foia 104 Walter Jertz.Strategic Targets in Day 46. CNN, May 13, 1999.http://edition.cnn.com/WORLD/europe/9904/01/nato.attack.03/nato.maps/#44

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imagery Timeline Of Chinese Embassy Figure a to f: AP Archive.May 17,1999.http://www.aparchive.com/metadata/youtube/ad019d211534995589e6 6e6939822471 Figure f to j：Ponniah,Kevin.The night the US bombed a Chinese embassy.May 7, 2019. https://www.bbc.com/news/ world-europe-48134881

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