Discarded city of Chuquicamata

Discarded city of Chuquicamata

The connection between extraction logistics and the discarded urban process

Course: Dissertation, MA Architecture and Adaptive Reuse, MSA 2022-2023

Student: César Vicencio Vega

Email: 21400882@stu.mmu.ac.uk

Date: 24 April 2023

Cover image. Screenshot made by the author to video on youtube. Video Flight over Chuquicamata camp, Calama, Chile, April 2018. (Source: [adapted from] Marcel Wendl, 2018:online) [Online video] [Accessed on 23rd April 2023] Vuelo por campamento de Chuquicamata, Calama, Chile. - YouTube

Discarded city of Chuquicamata The connection between extraction logistics and the discarded urban process

Based on the case study of the Chuquicamata mining camp in northern Chile, this dissertation analyses the discarded condition for urban settlement, according to the changes generated in the industrial operation that has caused the implementation of extraction logistics in the mining industry. The development of the mining business on a global scale permeated the limit between the place of extraction and the place of manufacture, implementing an infrastructure network dedicated to the movement of materials and products through the territory, which affects the permanence of the settlement associated with the typology of a company town. Currently, logistics cities are linked to this network, however, they receive incidents that affect their permanence and establish discarded conditions, which affects the physical space and its inhabitants. Through the understanding of the discarded dynamics, it is proposed to provide sustainability to the place.

Keywords: Discarded, mining settlement, company town, extraction logistics, supply network, sustainability.

Chapter N° 1: Introduction

The construction of urban settlements linked to industrial operation is a typology that has been implemented globally since the 19th century, associated with the technological and functional changes that are introduced by the industrial revolution (Garner, 1992) The implementation of these settlements initially occurs in Europe and North America under the name of industrial city or company town, to later settled in Latin America in settlements that are mostly associated with the extractive industry (Paterlini de Koch, 1992)

Specifically in Chile, the implementation of this typology has clear examples in the mining industry in the north of the country, beginning in the mid-19th century with the exploitation of nitrate and later in the early 20th century in copper mining. Despite the different contexts and histories, these ventures maintain in common the implementation of an urban settlement linked to the industrial operation, which is modified according to the changes originated in the industry and usually ends with the discarding of the place. Currently, when touring the north of Chile, it is possible to find a modified territory with wasteland depots, large machinery, infrastructure, and settlements linked to these ventures with completely abandoned homes, buildings, and industrial areas. See Figure 1. These are testimonies of industrial development linked to extractive mining, which, with the decline of the industry, were discarded and became ghost towns. These places, which in the last century attracted people and resources associated with development and growth, today expose the abandonment and destruction of the original settlement, becoming discarded places that gave way to a new mode of operating detached from the initial urban settlement, structuring a new extraction logistics that expands throughout the territory.

Figure 1 Abandoned dependencies of Chacabuco town, located in the Antofagasta Region, Chile. General view of the offices and administration year 2015. Image obtained from the internet (Source: elpatrinopiocomplejo.blogspot.com, 2023: online)

The objective of this dissertation is to investigate the connection between the discard site and the extraction logistics, and the logistics operation associated with the dispatch practice. This is in relation to the spatial changes that the urban settlement receives associated with the operational changes implemented by the mining business. For this objective, the discard condition will be investigated about the physical changes experienced by the urban settlement, from modifications in its buildings to the total abandonment and disuse of the place, analysing the incidence of the productive process and the search for optimization that promotes the company by prioritizing the extractive business. The case study of the Chuqucamata mining camp, located in the north of Chile, which corresponds to a company town built to support copper mining extraction at the beginning of the 20th century, will be taken, analysing the development of the urban settlement and its link with the development of the industrial mining operation related to the supply network and the capital market, which was strengthened during the 90's on a global scale and mainly in East Asia.

Through the literary review, we will seek to define and deepen concepts related to the typology of the settlement, the discarded processes, and the influence of the market in the mining business, generating a frame of reference that allows linking information sources from different disciplines. The research methodology takes information from the Chuquicamata case study, and the informative crossing of literature, archives, and empirical data related to the place and the extractive operation, to generate a context of analysis regarding the evolution of the camp and its link with industrial exploitation.

In the development of this dissertation, the characteristics of the urban settlement linked to the industrial operation will be investigated, considering the typology of the company town and the adaptations that the model has in Latin America, focusing on Chuquicamata. Through the analysis of the case, the urban history of the place and the influence of the mining operation will be reviewed, highlighting the changes in the buildings that seek to make the extractive operation viable, ending in the process of Transfer to Calama.

After this, the discarded conditions of Chuquicamata will be reviewed, and how the changes in the extractive and production business affected the abandonment of the settlement. The causes and modifications that establish new commercial and economic processes promoted by extractive logistics on a global scale will be reviewed, conditioning the discard process and the sustainability of the place.

Finally, the characteristics of the current settlement in the city of Calama and the links it has with extraction logistics and the territory will be exposed, following the expansion of the capital and supply network that configures the current mining operation, exposing the incidence of new operation on urban settlement and territory.

At the end of this dissertation, conclusions related to the discarded condition of the settlement and projections for the new mining place will be presented, related to the scope of the mining business and extractive logistics. It reflects on the sustainability of the settlement and its projections regarding to the network and the territory, defining parameters for new urban spaces that provide sustainability to the constant changes faced by the settlement based on the adjustments required by the extractive business.

Chapter N° 2: Literature review

This dissertation investigates the discarded process in settlements linked to extractive logistics, caused by the operational changes generated by the industry. For this, a literary review of different studies and analyses related to the mining industrial settlement and its operation is carried out, considering its evolution and actions that generate the discarding of the place. The research considers the history and development of the mining settlement by the operational changes and the globalization of the business, putting the debate on the condition of discarded of the operational place that is generated due to extractive logistics.

Initially, the historical development of the urban settlement linked to industrial exploitation is reviewed, where various authors support the generation of the company town as a response to the operational needs generated by the industrial revolution during the 19th century. Authors such as Garner (1992), Dinius & Vergara (2011), Porteous (1974), and Paterlini de Koch (1992) state that the company town allows the viability and operation of a monofunctional business with a recognized owner, establishing a strong relationship and dependency between an area of industrial operation and an area for the lives of workers and their families. This definition of typology applies to the study and allows for generating an analysis regarding the characteristics and modifications that the model sustains over time and the incidents that are generated in the operation. Along with this, authors such as Garces (2007), Gutiérrez-Viñuales (2008), Garcés, O'Brien, and Cooper (2010) support the incidence of the extractive operation on the residential area and the urban development of the place, configuring a self-sustaining sector. and closed for urban settlement, which is linked to the territory through transport infrastructures and services that support the mining business. Regarding the Chuquicamata case study, authors such as Tapia (2001), Martínez (1948), Rodríguez (2000) Matamala and Vitalich (1996) present the historical development of the urban camp, exposing conditions from the beginning of its operation and up to the process. closure and transfer to the city of Calama, providing information on the historical, social, and community context linked to the place.

Due to the closure of the urban camp of Chuquicamata, during the last 15 years, various academic essays and publications related to Chuquicamata have been carried out Authors such as Vilches V. (2007), Gutiérrez-Viñuales, (2008), and Pérez-Bustamante & Vilches (2015), mainly develop a documentary compilation and historical description of the 92 years of the urban settlement, exposing the characteristics of the settlement and its community. However, these documents do not delve into the discard condition associated with the influences of the extractive operation, so they do not directly explore the evolution of the company town and its adaptation to the new logistic cities1 . For this, it is necessary to incorporate the influence of the mining and the changes coming from the operation that affect the place and the territory, not only related to the physical change of the settlement but also considering the influence of the extraction logistics that maintains the operation of the mining business.

Authors such as Arboleda (2015, 2018, 2020), Brenner (2017, 2020), and Danyluk (2021) write about this condition, describing the incidence of logistics in the territory and exposing how the supply chain and the dynamics of movement of materials are part of the extractive operation This operation mode generating a change in the perception of the urban and the

1 The definition of a logistics city is indicated in the text by Martin Danyluk (2021) and refers to a city that relates its growth to activities and infrastructure to facilitate the movement of goods or people.

territory and establishes that currently, the mining business is no longer limited to the extraction site, expanding its incidence in the supply chain that operates on a global scale. According to Arboleda (2020), this operation promotes the exchange infrastructure in the territory, incorporating ports, railways, ships, and cities on different continents, which participate in an accelerated network of continuous exchange, and modify the limits and sizes of local extraction toward a global scale operation. In the vision of Brenner (2017), The development of infrastructure and the extension of capital have modified the notions of urban and rural, generating a diffuse limit between the city and the countryside, where the supply network that moves merchandise through the territory is developed. Danyluk (2021) exposes how this growth of the infrastructure and organization of the urban supply network overlaps the territory on a global scale, generating repercussions that are manifested in the network, affecting the place and life of its inhabitants. He exposes cases such as the Panama Canal, California, and New York, where this network generates externalities that affect the local community and their way of life In these cases, the authors reflect on the incidences of the extractive operation regarding the territory, the city, and its inhabitants, considering the implementation of infrastructure for the supply network and the incidence of capital in the place. In the long-scale mining process, the incorporation of technology has modified the limit between extraction and manufacturing, influencing the reorganization of the city to incorporate infrastructure that facilitates the movement and exchange of goods (Arboleda, 2018). In short, this affects the limit and functions of the settlement linked to production, causing alteration of the place according to business requirements, affecting its sustainability, and giving it a discarded condition.

Authors such as Gordillo (2019), Lopes de Souza (2020), Svampa (2019), analyse the condition of discard and sustainability in relation to extractive logistics in Latin America, exposing conditions associated with the administration of the place and how the network of capital and global scale determine the discard condition. Gordillo (2019) proposes moving away from the concept of globalization, narrowing the understanding of the urban and generating particularities within the network, and inserting a more local scale to achieve a better link between the parties that participate in the network. Lopes de Souza (2020) states that some settlements with precarious economic and environmental conditions are justified as acceptable due to the progress and benefit of a majority, questioning the limits of the discard condition. Svampa (2019) exposes the condition of neo-extractivism regarding the scale of intervention and the factors involved, as a process rooted in Latin America. These authors recognize a search for strategies and/or positions linked to the urban at a local scale, which considers specific problems faced by the settlement, inquiring into environmental and community conditions that could provide guidelines for the sustainability of the urban space and its inhabitants, not only in the configuration of the physical space but also with respect to conditions that define the operation, such as working hours, the types of work contracts or even the provision of resources for the operation.

Chapter N° 3: Research Methodology

The research methodology aims to review the development of the urban settlement according to the changes generated by the industrial operation and the discard condition, considering an analysis of the physical changes registered in the settlement over time, which will be related to the changes operational established by extractive logistics. For this, an analysis of the typology of the company town and the changes generated by the operation is carried out, reviewing through the case of the Chuquicamata mining camp the incidences of the operation on the place with more than 92 years of existence, proposing that, through By studying this case, it is possible to determine common conditions for other settlements associated with extractive logistics and understand the actions that condition the discard.

The first method of information is related to historical and bibliographical background regarding the implementation of urban settlements linked to industrial development and the repercussions that the operation generates in its progress. This will allow for establishing a frame of reference and context on which this research will unfold, relating the theoretical information with the case study of the Chuquicamata copper mine. These sources of information are related to the work of Garner (1992), Dinius & Vergara (2011), with the development of settlements linked to the industrial development of the late 19th and early 20th centuries in various parts of the world, but with greater emphasis on the Latin American experience exposed by Paterlini de Koch (1992), and specifically in the case of Chile, developed by Garcés (2007). The related literature describes the development of these settlements, based on the company town typology, which links from its origin to the construction of a settlement related to industrial production activity. The objective of this is to understand the origin and structure of the type of settlement.

Complementary to this, the changes in the industrial operation and the extractive business are analysed, examining how this situation affects the structure of the settlement and its discarded condition. For this, a literature review is carried out regarding the strategies of implementation and operation of the business, investigating the concepts of extractive logistics and supply network and the effects that these changes promote in the place and territory. This information inserts a perspective of dynamism and updating regarding how the development of businesses and the influences of capital have affected the permanence of the settlement, especially in the globalized world of the late twentieth century, which considers what was exposed by Arboleda (2020) about the fact that currently, the influence of the global network on the business matrix is a widely verified and recognized fact. Accordingly, the modifications in the extractive model should define new concepts of habitability for the urban settlement, which take charge of the disposal actions and are linked to conditions of sustainability and adaptation.

As a complement to the bibliographic information and to generate a visualization of the process of physical change of the settlement, the methodology will use archival data related to the Chuquicamata mine, which correspond to different graphic representations such as plans and photographs, which are analysed in a complementary way. This information supports the concepts derived from the literature analysis and supports the concepts of change and discard that are visualized in the development of the settlement. The planimetry files were obtained in the year 2003 from the place called Central de Planos de

Chuquicamata2, which stores planimetric documents since the beginning of the mining settlement in 1915. The files considered correspond to those of the urban development of the settlement, representing the changes that the settlement has during its existence. These settlement planimetry records are complemented with information on the territory and the formalization of the logistics network that supports the operation, either through service infrastructure or new settlements generated in the area, incorporating cartography related to the territory, routes, ports, etc., such as areas that are linked to the existing supply network on a regional and even global scale. In relation to the photographs, an archive record obtained from local publications is analysed, as well as a record of own authorship during the years 2000 and 2020, which refer to urban life in the housing settlement, as well as to the industrial development of the extractive company, focusing mainly on the changes that are visualized in the settlement as well as in the mining operation. These photographs allow linking spaces and occupations, in addition to the changes in the operation and their incidence in productive processes.

Finally, this information is complemented by the author's empirical experience, acquired by living in the urban camp until the date of its closure and by working in the company CODELCO between 2010 and 2020. In this work experience, he carried out functions related to the transfer to Calama and later in the operational area of commercial cargo dispatch to different national or international points. Based on this, examples will be presented that reflect changes in productive ways that over time generate incidents in the new settlement and the territory, reflecting themes exposed by Arboleda (2020) and Brenner (2020) on the global network and how this affects the territory. This presentation of empirical examples, linked to the literature and archival records, allows linking the sources of information analysed, to reinforce the idea of this dissertation regarding the connection that exists between the place of discard and the logistics of extraction, considering that the Spatial modifications of the urban settlement originate from changes in the extractive industrial process. It is considered that, by understanding the discard action and the dynamics of change generated by the operation, it is possible to identify an opportunity to generate sustainability and permanence for the settlement.

2 Central de Planos corresponds to a storage archive that has planimetric documents of the mining camp and of the industrial zone of Chuquicamata. This place is in the operational area and is managed by the CODELCO company through its Communications and External Relations Department. Currently, these documents are protected by Decree No. 176 of 2015, of the Council of National Monuments where the area is declared a Typical Zone and Historical Monument.

Chapter N° 4: Industrial settlement typology

The objective of this chapter is to define the typology of the urban settlement linked to an area of exploitation, reviewing definitions and examples in the literature that establish the characteristics that organize this type of urban space.

According to different authors such as Garner (1992), Dinius & Vergara (2011), Porteous (1974), Paterlini de Koch (1992), technological advances and industrial development during the 19th century caused a change in the conception of the urban, work and production, present an organization that links industrial operation with the urban settlement, defining it as a company town. According to different literature approaches, the definition of the company town typology corresponds to an urban settlement linked to an industrial operation, which is generated and managed by the owner of a mono-functional company, and which develops an operational area next to a housing area and services for workers and their families.

This type of typology is generated with the industrial development of the late 19th and early 20th centuries in different parts of the world, presenting variations according to their context and type of company, but which establishes common characteristics regarding the typology. Garnier (1992) indicates that the typology is defined by five characteristics:

1. Capitalism: These settlements are generated mainly in countries associated with capitalism, allowing the growth and development of the company as a private business that seeks to make a profit. They usually establish themselves in areas where there is not a large investment and can organize the place according to their objectives.

2. Faster construction and high investment: The settlement is built in a short time and with a large investment made by the company. This investment considers the incorporation of technology and infrastructure that seeks to maximize the industrial operation, changing the place in a short time.

3. Decline in the environment: Large-scale exploitation generates environmental decline, related to the exploitation of natural resources and/or the implementation of operational processes that affect the place, its biodiversity, and even the health of those who live around it.

4. Prioritize the industry: Industrial exploitation is prioritized. The sustainability of the business and its viability is essential, being over the maintenance and continuity of the settlement and its community.

5. Social order derived from a work structure: The social structure of the settlement is defined by the business hierarchy, generating social strata in the inhabitants according to their role in the company. This condition is reflected in the organization and location of residential areas and public buildings, which is also associated with the extractive area.

Figure 2 Configuration diagram of the company town typology. Image made by the author.

Examples of this typology can be found since the mid-19th century in Europe and North America, related to textile factories, food, and/or extraction of raw materials, generating representative cases such as Saltaire in England or Pullman in the United States. See Figure 3.

The Latin American context is exposed by Paterlini de Koch (1992), who highlights updates in the characteristics of the typology since the investment is foreign capital, incorporating a new layer in the housing area for the representatives of the company. This modifies the organization of the settlement with the incorporation of homes and buildings specifically for these users and formalizes the hierarchical organization in the urban space. A relevant characteristic of the Latin American cases is that they are mainly related to the extraction of raw materials and natural resources, so their repercussions have incidences in different areas, such as territorial, economic, and even environmental. As indicated by Svampa (2019), this extraction process is strongly linked to raw materials and damage to the surrounding environment, either due to the large scale of the operation or the repercussions of the process, which has evolved and currently presents a new process defined as neo extractivism Some Latin American examples are found in the research by Gordillo, G. (2019) on the agribusiness market related to soybeans, which has a large presence in Argentina and Brazil, establishing a large-scale market with multinational investments. In the case presented by Dubowitz (2013), in the Brazilian Amazon, rubber extraction was developed to supply the North American automotive industry promoted by Henry Ford, building a settlement called Fordlandia, which was abandoned when the industry declined. In the investigation of Dinius & Vergara (2011), it is exposed the extractive settlements linked to mining in the north of Chile, which were initially related to nitrate and later linked to copper, generating settlements that have modified the territory in which they are located. place the job All these examples, although they correspond to different types of industries and with

Figure 3 Planimetry of Saltaire in the England and Pullman in the United States. First settlements of the company town typology. The housing and operational areas are shown. Image made by the author based on plans of the places.

different evolutions, have common characteristics regarding how the industrial operation and the market have influenced the development of the settlement, defining construction processes, evolution and even abandonment, which define characteristics for the discarded city investigated in this dissertation.

Due to the variety of examples and evolutions present for the company town, in this dissertation the case of the Chuquicamata copper mine located in Chile will be taken, to expose different stages that link the operational changes and the development of the urban settlement.

Chapter N° 5: Case study, Chuquicamata mining camp.

Thus, on May 18, 1915, the thermoelectric plant began to work together with the Chuquicamata leaching plant. At eleven in the morning of that day, President Ramón Barros Luco from the La Moneda Palace pressed a button connected to the telegraph, which started the first Tocopilla generator, whose energy in turn started the precipitation process and turned on the lights in Chuquicamata. Since then, Chuquicamata has been working continuously. Martínez Rodríguez, Gerardo, 1943.

This chapter presents the case study of the Chuquicamata copper mine, located in the north of Chile, reflecting through its urban history the effects generated by the operational and administrative changes of the extractive company, which have an impact on the discarding of the settlement. This chapter is organized according to the scales of exploitation present in the business, reflecting how this has affected the urban settlement, making a distinction between artisanal exploitation, medium-sized mining, industrialized exploitation, and finally the current global-scale mining.

This analysis is supported by planimetry of the mining camp, generated with files and literature sources, exposing the urban development of the settlement according to the operational changes of the mining business and the discard actions during the process.

5.1. History and development of Chuquicamata

Artisanal exploitation

The Chuquicamata copper mine is in northern Chile, in the Antofagasta Region, at 2,870 meters above sea level and in the driest desert in the world. According to Tapia (2001), its mining exploitation has pre-Columbian records linked to the native inhabitants of the area. According to what was exposed by Martínez (1943), its artisanal development with artisanal miners presents its greatest peak after the Pacific War3 , generating interest in the Chilean state and having a record of at least 30 years prior to its industrial development. At the end of the 19th century, the place presented an incipient artisanal mining activity, which began to configure settlements at the service of the operation, organizing the territory through the figure of mining belongings (pertenencias)4 and infrastructure, which promoted the operational and commercial exchange of the copper business. Figure 4 shows the existence

3 The Pacific War (Guerra del Pacifico) corresponds to an armed conflict that developed between 1879 and 1884, which Chile against the allies Peru and Bolivia.

4 A mining belongings “pertenencias” corresponds to a limited territory with an extractive use that the state grants to a taxpayer to generate exploitation of a mining deposit. Its use is regulated by the Mining Code and defines the conditions for commercial exploitation.

Origins and development of Chuquicamata under the Chile Exploration Company

of mining properties in the year 1900, which are located close to the copper vein and organize the artisanal exploitation of the place.

This artisan exploitation is organized in surfaces that do not follow the topography of the land but correspond to limits by coordinates given to each initiative, ordering the place according to requirements and exploitation intentions and reorganizing the territory according to operational needs. This artisan exploitation is governed by individual and experimental work, where the conception of urban settlement and support for the operation is informal and without registering collective intentions. These initiatives are characterized by not having a standard or technological process; however, it is successful due to the good quality of the material and manages to attract new investments and commercial interests.

Medium Mining

At the beginning of the 20th century, mainly due to the incorporation of infrastructure for services and transportation, in addition to a greater administrative organization regarding laws and capital, a medium-scale exploitation process began, which is related to three facts that enhance the mining growth:

• Arrival of the railway to Calama, connecting to the road network that runs through the territory and allows arrival at the port of export. The year 1886.

• Change in the Mining Code that affects the rights of mining property, modifying the condition of effective use that governed the old Code for the payment of an annual fee for its use. The year 1886.

• Rebound in the value of copper, which enhances its exploitation. The year 1896.

Figure 4 The initial organization of artisan exploitation. In colour the areas destined for mining properties pertenencias, the location of the copper vein, and the concession area for a North American company. Image of the author based on archives of the Central de Planos, Plan R-8459, and Plan pertenencias 1915.

These conditions stimulate extraction and promote the emergence of places with specific functions for the business and production of copper. According to what was exposed by Tapia (2001) and Rodríguez (2000), these settlements correspond to the following:

Banco Drummond: A place associated with the commercial exchange, where artisanal miners went to sell their mining exploitation and stocked up on work tools. It fulfills an essential business and operational role.

Punta de Rieles: Point where the railway arrived, and commercial cargo was transported. It corresponded to a place of transit, with rooms and bars in service to the constant movement of people in the place. It fulfills a commercial exchange role.

Placilla: First residential settlement. This place had homes, leisure facilities, and services for the workers of the different mining shafts and their families. In the period of greatest apogee, it had approximately 5,000 inhabitants and the generation of the first cemetery in the place. It fulfills the role of housing service and equipment for the mining community.

These settlements make up an initial organized system that is related to the commercial and economic exchange network. Its construction defines a first idea of urban organization, due to its functions and evolution with respect to the mining venture, solving the needs of the operation through formalization in space. Administratively, the organization of mining companies and greater technological development is incorporated, encouraging the economic interest of North American foreign capital.5 looking to invest in the place. Figure 5 shows the initial settlements and the link with the extractive area defined by the mining properties, formalizing settlements that are organized to meet the needs of the business and workers, incorporating housing and services. These settlements have an informal character,

5 Due to the increasing industrial and agricultural mechanization of the United States, together with the massive electrification promoted at the beginning of the 20th century, the demand for copper increased and pressured large North American companies to look for new deposits outside their limits, inserting the Chilean national territory and the Chuquicamata area as an emerging and safe alternative due to the deposit it houses.

without a structural urban order or a main administration, so their development is completely dependent on the operation.

Industrial mining

Due to the potential of the copper mining business, between 1905 and 1915, the North American company and the Chilean state took steps to promote the start of the industrial operation, such as the delivery of concession surface for the extractive company, purchase of mining companies by the North American investor and the development of low-grade mineral exploitation techniques, linking various efforts aimed at concretizing large-scale exploitation. Although these efforts are in an initial process, they are related to the ideas described by Arboleda (2020) regarding how the influence of capital and extractive logistics affect the territory and the supply network, also linking to what was described by Garner (1992) regarding the characteristics of the company town in relation to the link with the capital and the prioritization of the industry, and therefore, having a relationship with the structure of the settlement and its link with the territory.

In 1915, industrial exploitation formally began. The North American company inserts the company town typology as part of the formalization of its operations, building a housing camp that provides housing and service to workers, and allows it to maintain control over the operation. This company town defines an urban zone and an industrial zone, generating the Chuquicamata housing camp detached from the existing settlements, which led to the disappearance of these settlements as they were positioned in the operation area6 In Figure 5 it is possible to appreciate within the concession border the initial configuration of the urban

6 In accordance with the company's objectives, the disappearance of these places is an imminent condition associated with the company town typology and the dominance of the company and the operation over the settlement, linking to what was stated by Garnier (1992) regarding the dominance of capital as a characteristic of company town.

Figure 5 The first urban plan of the Chuquicamata camp. The coloured areas show the existing settlements. Image of the author based on files of the Central de Planos, R-8459, August 25, 1915

camp, recognizing two different separate housing areas. Paterlini de Koch (1992) indicates this typology in Latin American settlements, where a separation is made between the area destined for foreign administration and the area defined for local workers, generating a spatial differentiation and housing typology according to the hierarchical organization that defines the company, which also conditions life in the place.

In the area closest to the industrial area, the North American camp is located, which houses the company's administrative staff, building isolated houses, with gardens and leisure spaces, defining an urban fabric that follows the slope of the land. In the western sector, approximately 3 km away, the workers' camp is located, which corresponds to a surface of continuous houses in an orthogonal pattern, defining in the centre the space for common use as a plaza and community building, see Figure 6. These new facilities are linked to roads, railways, water, and electrical lines, which structure and organize the extractive business, allowing the work to operate and sustain the settlement in an isolated territory. As indicated by Martínez (1943), the development of technology and the success of the process for lowgrade metals managed to optimize operating prices and provide sustainability to the work, developing during the following years a process of adaptation and reorganization that affects the place, expanding its industrial facilities and constantly modifying the location, mainly carrying out new constructions to support the increase in population.

Figure 6 The image on the left corresponds to the workers' camp and on the right the North American camp. Image archive Central de planos, Chuquicamata.

Both housing sectors have grown and have greater density and order. In the workers' camp area, the civic centre is consolidated, with the central plaza and community service buildings around it, such as a church, theatres, sports club, schools, and shops. As the industrial activity develops, the housing settlement evolves, incorporating buildings and activities that are promoted by the company and that are related to the company town typology, where the company influences the daily life of the inhabitants based on the control that it requires for its operation, Finn (1998).

The expansion of the Industrial area is constant and begins to affect the eastern side of the settlement, causing urban growth to be in a western direction and beginning to unite the two residential areas. Operational needs require space for the deposit of wasteland and the territory begins to be modified with hills of inert earth, being reflected in illustration No. 5 with the eastern and central border curves. Large-scale production allows the prosperous development of the settlement and its facilities, increasing the number of homes, inhabitants, and workers, with the company having a welfare department that is concerned with the construction and maintenance of the urban camp and its inhabitants. As indicated by Martínez (1943), this is a direct concern of the business owner, which over time also becomes a social process linked to the community and unions through unionism, Finn (1998), reflecting that the operational theme, linked to production and to the organization, directly affects how the settlement develops.

In the years 1966 and 1971, the Chilean government carried out the process of nationalization of copper, generating the purchase and transfer of the North American company to the Chilean state and beginning a new period, now under the administration of the state company Corporación Nacional del Cobre, CODELCO Chile. This process has

Figure 7 shows the development of the housing camp in 1941, where the company has been consolidated, and the exploitation and commercial process is successful.

Figure 7 The planimetry shows the progress of the urban camp in 1941, with a more defined civic center and a greater number of houses in both residential areas. Image of the author based on files of the Central de Planos, R-13610, July 1941

repercussions on the settlement since it generates the construction of new homes and definitively integrates the residential areas. The progress of the industrial operation continues and during the decade of the 80s and 90s, the transfer of some buildings and construction of more housing and service equipment is carried out in the western sector of the settlement and in the city of Calama, generating the housing closure of the North American zone because the industrial zone and the pit of the mine reach that surface.

This period of Industrial Mining linked to the company town, represents the peak period of the mining business, where the urban settlement has a relevant development regarding housing, infrastructure, and community, also functioning as the base of the operational and commercial network that supports the company. Since the administration of the business is assumed by the state, and the market has become global, the company town typology has become obsolete with respect to the sustainability of the business, beginning to change more rapidly the relations between the operation, the settlement, and the inhabitants, presenting in a more concrete way the discard condition on the settlement.

Global mining

According to the study by Vilches (2018), in 1993 the last houses were built in the Chuquicamata urban camp, which is the result of the process of closing the North American camp that began in the 1980s. Figure 8 shows the growth of the settlement in the western sector, consolidating the civic centre and generating more housing for the administration. This shows that the initial structure of the camp that separated the two housing areas no longer exists, and the settlement is a unit that has changed over time. The business administration by the state of Chile maintains the characteristics of the company town, with the spatial order of the settlement based on the labour hierarchy and control over the inhabitants, being the owner of the facilities and responsible for the delivery of all services until the disposal and closure of the housing camp.

Figure 8 Planimetry No. 4 corresponds to the year 2003 and shows the state of the settlement prior to the definition of total closure of the housing camp. Author's image based on the CODELCO 2003 archive plan.

In accordance with the development plans of the operation, in 2007 the official closure of the Chuquicamata housing camp was carried out, which generated a plan to transfer its inhabitants to the city of Calama, which is reflected in figure 9. As reported by CODELCO, the process led by the company mobilized approximately 10,000 people over a period of 2.5 years. This process considered the construction of new homes, schools, and commerce, as well as improvements in roads, supply networks for water and electricity and the expansion of the airport, establishing new development projections for the city. Although Calama existed prior to the construction of Chuquicamata by the North American company, it had not achieved relevant development until the deposits were nationalized and the state company began to invest in it. This process of closing the Chuquicamata housing camp puts an end to the company town typology, eliminating the link of the settlement with the operation and the control of the company over the inhabitants. However, this new organization generates new incidents related to the operation, with the supply network and extractive logistics, which affects the urban settlement with a new scale linked to global mining.

The globalization and sustainability of the business are determining factors in the administrative changes that are generated in the company, influencing the extractive processes through commercial and market strategies that seek to optimize resources, and that has an impact on the disposal processes and abandonment generated in the settlement. The city of Calama has a different condition than the Chuquicamata housing camp in terms of the link with the extractive process and the monofunctional condition, where the administration of the place is no longer in charge of the business owner, this definition now forms part of the political and social administration established by the state. Under this parameter, the discard condition is modified and extended, not being determined only by the interests of the company and allows the consideration of other factors such as the environment, resources, or communities, which could have a role in the definition.

From the beginning of the artisanal exploitation to the implementation of global mining, the changes in the operation have affected the urban population, generating a dynamic of continuous transfer and adaptation, which in the case of Chuquicamata generates the closure of the urban camp. Currently, in the case of Calama, the discard condition is still applicable, however, it has a different dynamic regarding how it is generated and formalized. In the next chapter, this situation will be explored in depth, analysing the discard condition of the urban settlement.

Figure 9 The planimetry shows the locations of Chuquicamata and Calama, which are separated by 17 kilometers in a north-south direction. In color, the oasis area and the new areas associated with housing can be seen. Image of the author based on archives of the central de planos and CODELCO, the year 2007.

Chapter N° 6: Discarded city and mining operation

On September 1, more than 30,000 people attended the final act of final farewell to the Chuquicamata camp, which housed the miners for 92 years. The production of the pit will continue to generate copper since Codelco Norte will continue to be the pillar of the Chilean Copper Corporation and of the country's economy, said Sergio Jarpa, corporate vice president of Codelco Norte at the time of the farewell.

The process meant the transfer of more than 10,000 people to Calama. Economic, social, cultural, and environmental reasons were the cause of the definitive closure of the camp that for almost a century housed the dreams of the miners from the north of this country.

CODELCO (2007) Chuquicamata: 92 years of history

According to the definition of the Cambridge dictionary, the word discard means to throw something away or get rid of it because you no longer want or need it, establishing a condition of uselessness with respect to the element on which it is acted on. This definition establishes a review process regarding what is eliminated, where it is selected among available alternatives, allowing an element to be evaluated and selected because it is no longer useful or desirable. Under this concept, the present dissertation reflects on the connection between the place of disposal and the extraction logistics, considering that what is eliminated from the urban settlement is based on what is considered useless for the industrial extractive process, establishing a process that is so continuous as the changes in the operation, and that allows to take into consideration the participation of the elements before defining the total elimination.

The present chapter is oriented to the discarded condition, initially exposing the causes that generate the closure of the Chuquicamata housing camp, then it reflects on the condition of transfer and constant change of the settlement, and finally, the factors that determine the discard, expanding the concept that it can only be dominated by the company.

6.1.- Reasons for discarded Chuquicamata

The closure of the Chuquicamata urban camp was in 2007, which meant the transfer of all its inhabitants to the city of Calama and the consequent abandonment or destruction of part of the houses and existing buildings in the place. This process is generated by the company based on operating conditions that are related to the sustainability of the mining business and the continuity of the operation, generating three reasons that justify the closure decision:

1. Environmental reason. The company seeks compliance with national and international regulations regarding environmental policies. For this, it declares to advocate for the recovery and maintenance of the geographical environment and quality of life of workers through sustainable development7 related to the degree of

7 “The Sustainable Development Policy has guidelines for the protection of the environment, workers and communities related to the Corporation; and introduces the preventive principle into management, which aims to control environmental aspects and risks associated with all the surroundings of its activity, copper mining and by-products. “ Extract environmental policy declarations, source, Codelco Chile website www.codelco.cl, accessed Saturday May 27, 2006.

particulate matter contamination in the air. Because of this, the classification of the place is changed from a mixed residential zone to an industrial zone.

2. Operational reason: The growth of the mine requires space to dispose of the ballast obtained in the extractive process, generating Dump No. 95. Due to the spatial configuration and the optimization of the resources necessary for the transfer of this material, the company decided to use the surface occupied by the housing camp to dispose of the waste material.

3. Administrative reason: The company eradicates the paternalistic condition inherited from the company town typology, disassociating itself from the housing and maintenance responsibility it had with its workers.

These three reasons have a direct link with the objective of optimizing costs and safeguarding the viability of the extraction process and therefore making the company more competitive and sustainable within a globalized market, presenting the conditions exposed by Arboleda (2019) regarding the mining planet, where technological advances and administrative changes have generated a relationship with the territory and extraction logistics within a global scale system. Along with this, the globalization process exposed by Gordillo (2019) based on growing capitalism and the new communication technologies that have become widespread since the 1990s, are conditions that promote change and expansion of metropolises and businesses, exposing in the case of Chuquicamata, a line of development that is consistent with the context it has faced in accordance with the evolution of the business. These conditions reflect the concept of discarding, which seeks to eliminate conditions that are not desired or necessary, and which established that the company town typology ceased to be functional for the mining business and needs to be eliminated so as not to affect its sustainability. Under this perspective, the discard condition that generated the closure of the Chuquicamata mining camp corresponds to the way to give sustainability to the extractive process and maintain the operation of the business.

However, this process of closing Chuquicamata is not an isolated experience of discarding, and during the existence of the urban settlement, changes and transfers of areas and buildings were made continuously. A significant process occurred in the 1980s when the growth of the industrial zone and the open pit positioned themselves very close to the North American camp and forced the abandonment of the place, generating the construction of new houses in the western zone and the transfer of some buildings, such as the Chilex Club social club and Casa 20008 This process eliminated the North American housing area, and incorporated it into the industrial area, converting some houses into work quarters.

This constant transfer process allows a second reflection on the discarded and the condition of change, supporting that the transfer process exists from the beginning of the artisanal operation until the closure of the camp in global mining. The constant adaptations that the settlement received, whether linked to administrative or operational changes, had an impact on the development of Chuquicamata, generating a practice of constant change regarding the incorporation and/or elimination of buildings and infrastructure that had some incidence

8 Chilex Club corresponds to the social club for North Americans, which after the nationalization of copper allows the membership only of supervision and their family. Corresponds to a building with services for leisure and entertainment, such as lounges, restaurants, swimming pool, bowling alley, multi-purpose sports courts.

Casa 2000 or "The General Manager House" is a house built by a North American company at the beginning of the industrial camp under a design exported from North American haciendas, with an interior patio and galleries, which allowed the existence of vegetation and climate control. It was intended for the general manager and his family and was in the highest part of the settlement.

with the operation, such for example, the construction of the first settlements in the mediumsized mining area (Placilla, Banco Drummond and Punta de Rieles) and later their complete elimination during the industrial mining process, related to administrative and operational conditions of the North American company, since these were found on the mining deposit and not be part of the domain of the administration.The discard condition under this operation is associated with a selective process, where the elements that hinder the business are partially eliminated, and a new development network is configured that is linked to the existing one, however, always associated with the business sustainability over the location. Discarding modifies or eliminates physical conditions of the place, which are no longer useful for the operation, generating a process that prioritizes extractive logistics to give continuity to the business. Based on this, it is argued that the discard is not an isolated event but rather is part of a continuous and permanent process that links physical development with operational modifications. Under this, the new settlement is configured in a condition of service, generating spaces that support the continuity of the operation, either through the development of infrastructure that facilitates the circulation of products and people, with spaces for exchange that promote relationships commercial and/or social and with a housing offer that should support the operational variations that the work presents. The discard condition presents variations over time with respect to who defines it, initially being a condition applied by the managing company, which defines it according to its interests and particular objectives, however, as the operation has a greater incidence in the territory, it is beginning to regulate the operation with other agencies in control. The discard condition is modified, and new approaches begin to appear regarding what should condition the operation, such as what was exposed by Svampa (2019), in relation to environmental sustainability and community relations. At the time that Chuquicamata became part of the administration of the state of Chile, and especially when the urban camp of Chuquicamata was closed, these implications began to have greater preponderance, and the company CODELCO Chile has been implementing sustainability reports since 1999 that seek to accredit international standards regarding the extractive operation and the steps it takes to maintain proper functioning. As indicated by Gordillo (2019), the participation of different entities in the control and supervision of the efforts is an alternative that can allow a development that does not depend on the creation of sacrifice zones or in this case, discard settlements that they seek to respond to a single interest.

As an example, it is possible to mention that, in 2016, CODELCO Chuquicamata dispatched concentrated copper material through hopper trucks bound for the Port of Antofagasta. Due to environmental conditions regarding the emission of materials on the way and to the citizen demand of the city of Antofagasta under the campaign "This dust kills you", the dispatch and transportation process was modified regarding the mode, incorporating the use of rota containers, and changing the dispatch port to the city of Mejillones, which has the port far from the residential area, See figure 10 and figure 11. This meant a change in the logistics process both within the operation, as well as on the way to the port, requiring contractual, operational, and even administrative modifications, which also requires physical adjustments in the settlement and in the territory for this new system. In short, the participation of other entities, such as environmental or community organizations, allows us to open our eyes regarding the discard condition that was initially only dominated by the company and provides other analysis perspectives that must be calibrated for the sustainability of the place.

Figure 10 New copper concentrate cargo dispatch process, under environmental regulations regarding the emission of particulate matter. The image on the left corresponds to Antofagasta 2016. Community campaign "This dust kills you" in protest the transport of copper concentrate on the city roads. Internet source. The image on the right corresponds to an Articulated truck with container equipment in Chuquicamata Mine 2016. Image by the author.

Figure 11 Loaded truck route from extraction to port. The orange line is the route from Chuquicamata to Puerto de Antofagasta. The red line is the route of the new rotacontenedor equipment system from Chuquicamata to Puerto de Mejillones. Cargo moves through the Pacific Ocean. Image by author, based on truck and ship routes.

Chapter N° 7: Continuity of urban settlement

This structural project is transforming the century old Chuquicamata open pit mine, the largest in the world, into a large-scale, modern underground operation using the block caving method of exploitation, extending the life of the division by at least 40 years.

Underground Chuquicamata Project

The objective of this chapter is to investigate the continuity of the urban settlement, related to the urban city after discarded, the evolution of the typology and the incidences of extraction logistics and the supply network for an operation on a global scale. In the first part, conditions related to the current global-scale operation that affects the development of urban space in the city of Calama and how they affect discarded will be exposed, and it will end with an analysis of the factors that have incidence in the sustainability of the settlement, considering needs and requirements for the place and his continuity

The change in the perception of the urban indicated by Brenner (2020) regarding the link between the urban and the rural, based on the expansion of the territory is a condition that is evident in the operations of the extractive business, where the movement of goods and products requires an infrastructure that links different parts of the process, establishing an extraction logistics developed in the territory, from the place where the raw material is located, through storage points, enhancement and distribution, until it reaches the hands of the consumer. In this journey, a network is generated that involves intermodal and commercial conditions that require a development space, which is based on service activities to maintain fluidity in the network.

7.1.- New settlement in the city of Calama

The process of enabling the city of Calama generated investment in road infrastructure, services, and transportation, in addition to the construction of buildings linked to the mining business, community service, and housing, generating large-scale urban development in a short time, which is part of the network of circulates products Figure 12 shows the construction of new infrastructure, which especially impacted the eastern side of the city. Within this infrastructure is the generation of a two-way ring road, which serves to transport mining products. This infrastructure is connected to the airport, the main roads, and access to the city, in addition to being connected to industrial areas and the different mining operations that currently exist in the area.

On the other hand, due to globalization and the value of capital in extractive work, especially since the 1990s, functional ways have been implemented for the workers that affect the way of operating. The incorporation of the subcontracting model and work per site analysed by Leiva (2013), to increase productivity and make costs more flexible, has also had an impact on the way the settlement is organized, incorporating the floating population condition, which uses the place for a limited and non-permanent period, which conditions the services and requirements that the place requires. Along with this, during the last 20 years, the company CODELCO has reduced the number of its personnel, generated retirement plans, and condensed its staff, betting on multifunctionality, which is reflected in the data presented by COCHILCO9 in his statistics yearbook (2021). See Figure 13. This condition reflects that the El Loa de Calama airport, after the country's capital, is the one with the highest number of national flights per year, according to statistics provided by the Civil Aeronautics Board, of the Ministry of Transportation and Chilean Telecommunications (2022). This condition was reinforced in 2007, during the process of closing Chuquicamata and rehabilitating Calama, where the company CODELCO made investments to improve the infrastructure of the city's airport.

Figure 12 Planimetry city of Calama. It shows the investments in housing, public buildings, airport, and highway made through the Chuquicamata transfer plan. Image of the author based on the CODELCO 2003

9 COCHILCO is the Chilean Copper Commission. Corresponds to a technical body that advises the Chilean government on material related to the production of copper and by-products. It audits and evaluates the management of mining companies associated with the state.

Employment in the Mining Sector Yearly Average

Another associated condition is related to what is established by CODELCO regarding work shifts. In December 2013 the 7x7 and 4x3 shift10 was implemented for all the supervisory workers of the Chuquicamata Division, which modified the historical way in which this class worked on site. This modification in an operational manner corresponds to a legal contractual change in the workers, but it generates a modification in the way in which the inhabitant relates to the urban settlement, opening the possibility of modifying their permanence in the place and generating new relationships and developments with the urban settlement. At the time that the company disseminates this decision, the mayor of the city of Calama expresses his disagreement considering that this change will negatively affect the city, a condition that is reflected in the local press. In 2020, the change of working hours is made to all workers in the Division, initially starting as a measure associated with the Covid pandemic, but finally leaving it formally established for all workers in the company, and therefore, to many citizens.

The incidences of the extractive operation that are exposed by Lopes de Souza (2020), regarding how the incidence of capital and maintenance of the business has segregated other factors that are relevant regarding the sustainability of the place, not only as a commercial space but also as a diverse space that must incorporate local factors, such as the environment and community. Although the examples mentioned correspond to changes in the organization of the company, they are specific business situations that affect the configuration of the settlement and that are part of its evolution process. Currently, the conditions that affect the operation are not only related to the management of obtaining the product but also how this is executed, incorporating factors that previously had no participation in the definition of discard conditions. This generates a multiplicity of participants

10 Historically, the supervision of Chuquicamata works in a 5x2 shift, which considers eight working hours a day from Monday to Friday, with rest on Saturday and Sunday. The change of working hours is a request from the company that seeks to optimize its resources and establishes twelve working hours a day and distributes it into two new shift working days. The 7x7 shift considers the work of seven consecutive days and the rest of the following seven days, starting on Wednesday and ending on the following Tuesday. The 4x3 shift corresponds to four working days and three rest days, starting on Monday and ending on Thursday, with Friday, Saturday, and Sunday as rest days. These shifts are widely used in the mining market.

Figure 13 Employability graph in the mining sector. Image of the author based in information obtained from the COCHILCO annual report. Shows the annual percentage variation with respect to own workers and contractors. The level of contract workers has increased over the last 20 years.

Owner Contractor

that affect the place, and that seek to have an impact on the settlement, either through the modification of what exists and/or in the projection of new development alternatives

The objective of this is that the permanence of the place is not only conditioned by the extractive business, but that it manages to combine with the global sustainability of the place, giving participation to environmental, community, social conditions, etc. that today they have managed to reaffirm their importance and participation for sustainable development, and not based only on the economic factor that supports the operation For this, it is important to incorporate the local factors of the place, establishing control and participation in his development, which would allow updating the settlement and giving it conditions of permanence and adaptability according to the changes that are generated in the logistics of extraction. This incorporation of local factors establishes a discarded process that analyses the action from various perspectives, ensuring that its application does not reduce the continuity of the place.

Conclusions and reflection

This dissertation addressed the condition of discarding the settlement linked to the mining operation, considering the influence of extractive logistics and the changes generated in the operation regarding the development of the market and the capital network that currently operates on a global scale. For this, the case of the Chuquicamata mining camp in Chile was investigated, reviewing its history and link with the typology of the company town and its evolutionary process associated with the scales of operation in which the mining extraction process has been developed.

One of the first stands of this study establishes that the understanding of the evolution of the company town typology, in addition to the history and evolution of the urban settlement, must be analysed from the changes generated in the industrial operation. This is due to the influence of the capital market and mining business that operates in the place, which supports the basic characteristics that define the typology of the settlement linked to capitalism, investment, and prioritization of the industry. Therefore, the evolution of the urban settlement is directly influenced by the development of the operation and the extraction logistics, and they affect the discard condition that affects the place.

Under this operational dynamic, the discarded condition of the settlement was reviewed, considering the constant physical changes made in the place with the removal of buildings or the abandonment of the residential area due to extractive logistics needs. It is established that the condition of transfer and disposal in Chuquicamata was permanent during its 92 years of existence, ending with the closure of the housing area and the transfer of its inhabitants to the new city in Calama. In this new stage, the urban settlement continues to operate under the discarded dynamics and influence of the mining operation, establishing that the urban development of the city remains conditioned by extractive logistics and its repercussions on the supply network.

Regarding Chuquicamata, it is indicated that the company town typology defined the urban organization of the settlement, arranging the buildings and way of the growth of the place, however, the typology ceases to exist at the moment the housing camp is closed, and the link between the industrial area and the residential area. Due to the technological development and the implementation of commercial strategies of the mining business, the limits between extraction and manufacturing are broken, implementing a network of supplies and infrastructure that open the edges of the operation and disconnect it from the place of extraction, affects its permanence and promoting the development of the territory on a global scale

Despite the end of the company town typology, the discarded condition remains in force, affecting the settlement according to how the operation evolves, not only concerning spatial and/or construction requirements but also in conditions administrative that affect the organization of the place, such as operational shifts or type of contract for mining workers. The settlement is affected by these definitions and requires coordination and organization that allows it to support those needs. In short, it is necessary to understand the needs that the operation generates to incorporate them into the place, generating spaces that respond to the requirements and can evolve according to the need for the service, understanding the demands that its inhabitants make.

The development of the new settlement must consider the incidents of the supply network and the implementation of service infrastructure, generating spaces that allow the updating of the operation and the movement of goods and people. Given this, what is stated by authors such as Danyluk, Gordillo, Lopes de Souza, or Svampa is validated, who indicate a sustainable growth strategy to consider the influence of the global scale, but above all to consider the requirements of the local scale, which contributes to development. sustainability of the place concerning the community and the environment. Under this condition, the organization of the communities and local governments takes on an important relevance concerning the growth of the place, establishing influences that can condition how the place develops, which could be promoted through the development of public space that allows the convergence of these actors, finding spaces for inclusion and expression that encourage their participation.

The scope of this dissertation is related to extractive settlement, which has the condition of discarding in relation to the development of extraction logistics, reflecting on the origin and incidences of this elimination action, be it buildings, areas, or the total settlement, however, it is also applicable to other points of the supply network, such as ports or product exchange spaces, since the influence of the network also affects and defines them

Due to the length of this dissertation, this research does not delve into the social and/or community conditions of the inhabitants of Chuquicamata regarding the discarded condition, since this requires an analysis that cannot be covered in the length of this dissertation. This theme could be developed in future research since it is complementary and will support the condition of local influence.

As a reflection, it is indicated that, according to the analysis of the history and development of the mining settlement, it is considered that the discarded action is an opportunity to update the place, allowing this dynamic of constant change to insert new requirements that give sustainability to the place. For this, it is necessary to incorporate different points of analysis and influences, from the local scale to the global scale, considering the multiplicity of factors that participate in the network. For sustainable and permanent development of the settlement, it is necessary not only to safeguard the sustainability of the economic business and the capital but also to consider the sustainability of the settlement and its community, since as evidenced by the typology of the company town, in this complementary and symbiotic relationship of 92 years, a successful and continuous development was achieved in the Chuquicamata mining camp.

List of Figures

Figure 1 Abandoned dependencies of Chacabuco town, located in the Antofagasta Region, Chile. General view of the offices and administration year 2015. Image obtained from the internet (Source: elpatrinopiocomplejo.blogspot.com, 2023: online) 5

Figure 2 Configuration diagram of the company town typology. Image made by the author. 11

Figure 3 Planimetry of Saltaire in the England and Pullman in the United States. First settlements of the company town typology. The housing and operational areas are shown. Image made by the author based on plans of the places.

Figure 4 The initial organization of artisan exploitation. In colour the areas destined for mining properties pertenencias, the location of the copper vein, and the concession area for a North American company. Image of the author based on archives of the Central de Planos, Plan R-8459, and Plan pertenencias 1915.

Figure 5 The first urban plan of the Chuquicamata camp. The coloured areas show the existing settlements. Image of the author based on files of the Central de Planos, R-8459, August 25, 1915.

Figure 6 The image on the left corresponds to the workers' camp and on the right the North American camp. Image archive Central de planos, Chuquicamata.

Figure 7 The planimetry shows the progress of the urban camp in 1941, with a more defined civic center and a greater number of houses in both residential areas. Image of the author based on files of the Central de Planos, R-13610, July 1941...............

Figure 8 Planimetry No. 4 corresponds to the year 2003 and shows the state of the settlement prior to the definition of total closure of the housing camp. Author's image based on the CODELCO 2003 archive plan. ...................................................................

Figure 9 The planimetry shows the locations of Chuquicamata and Calama, which are separated by 17 kilometers in a north-south direction. In color, the oasis area and the new areas associated with housing can be seen. Image of the author based on archives of the central de planos and CODELCO, the year 2007. ...................

12

15

17

18

19

20

21

Figure 10 New copper concentrate cargo dispatch process, under environmental regulations regarding the emission of particulate matter. The image on the left corresponds to Antofagasta 2016. Community campaign "This dust kills you" in protest the transport of copper concentrate on the city roads. Internet source. The image on the right corresponds to an Articulated truck with container equipment in Chuquicamata Mine 2016. Image by the author. 25

Figure 11 Loaded truck route from extraction to port. The orange line is the route from Chuquicamata to Puerto de Antofagasta. The red line is the route of the new rotacontenedor equipment system from Chuquicamata to Puerto de Mejillones. Cargo moves through the Pacific Ocean. Image by author, based on truck and ship routes. 25

Figure 12 Planimetry city of Calama. It shows the investments in housing, public buildings, airport, and highway made through the Chuquicamata transfer plan. Image of the author based on the CODELCO 2003 27

Figure 13 Employability graph in the mining sector. Image of the author based in information obtained from the COCHILCO annual report. Shows the annual percentage variation with respect to own workers and contractors. The level of contract workers has increased over the last 20 years. 28

List of Bibliography

Arboleda, M. (2020). Planetary mine: Territories of extraction under late capitalism. Verso Trade.

Arboleda, M (2020) “From Spaces to Circuits of Extraction: Value in Process and the Mine/city Nexus,” Capitalism Nature Socialism, 31(3), pp. 114–133. doi: 10.1080/10455752.2019.1656758.

Arboleda, M. (2018). Extracción en movimiento: circulación del capital, poder estatal y urbanización logística en el norte minero de Chile. Investigaciones Geográficas, 56, 3-26. https://doi. org/10.5354/0719-5370.2018.48475

Arboleda, M (2015) “Financialization, Totality and Planetary Urbanization in the Chilean Andes,” Geoforum, 67, pp. 4–13. doi: 10.1016/j.geoforum.2015.09.016.

Arias Martín, Atienza, M. and Cademartori, J. (2014) “Large Mining Enterprises and Regional Development in Chile: Between the Enclave and Cluster,” Journal of Economic Geography, 14(1), pp. 73–95.

Brenner, N., & Katsikis, N. (2020). Operational landscapes: Hinterlands of the Capitalocene. Architectural Design, 90(1), 22-31. Chatterton, P., & Pusey, A. (2020). Beyond capitalist enclosure, commodification and alienation: Postcapitalist praxis as commons,

Brenner, N. (2017) Critique of urbanization: selected essays. Gütersloh: Bauverlag (Bauwelt Fundamente, v. 156). Available at: INSERTAR URL FALTANTE (Accessed: 2023).

Brown, K 2012, A History of Mining in Latin America: From the Colonial Era to the Present, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque. Available from: ProQuest Ebook Central. [20 April 2022].

CODELCO (2007) Traslado de Chuquicamata a Calama una nueva forma de vida para los mineros [Online] [Accessed on 24th March 2023] Traslado de Chuquicamata a Calama una nueva forma de vida para los mineros | (codelco.com)

CODELCO (2007) Chuquicamata: 92 años de historia [Online] [Accessed on 24th March 2023] https://www.codelco.com/sustentabilidad/publicaciones/informe-sustentable/chuquicamata-92anos-de-historia

CODELCO (2013) Formalizan histórico cambio de jornada laboral en Chuquicamata [Online] [Accessed on 24th March 2023] Formalizan histórico cambio de jornada laboral en Chuquicamata | (codelco.com)

CODELCO (2020) Medida Covid-19: División Chuquicamata inicia jornada 7x7 en todas sus operaciones y procesos [Online] [Accessed on 24th March 2023] Medida Covid-19: División Chuquicamata inicia jornada 7x7 en todas sus operaciones y procesos | (codelco.com)

CODELCO (2022) Proyecto Chuquicamata subterranea [Online] [Accessed on 24th March 2023] https://www.codelco.com/proyectos/chuquicamata-subterranea

Cowen, D. (2010) “A Geography of Logistics: Market Authority and the Security of Supply Chains,” Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 100(3), pp. 600–620.

Danyluk, M. (2019). Fungible space: Competition and volatility in the global logistics network. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 43(1), 94-111.

Danyluk, M. (2021) “Supply-Chain Urbanism: Constructing and Contesting the Logistics City,” Annals of the American Association of Geographers, 111(7), pp. 2149–2164. doi: 10.1080/24694452.2021.1889352.

Dinius, OJ, & Vergara, A (eds) 2011, Company Towns in the Americas: Landscape, Power, and Working-Class Communities, University of Georgia Press, Athens. Available from: ProQuest Ebook Central. [20 April 2022].

Dubowitz, D. and Jackson, J. (2015) “Megalomania: Fordlandia, Brazil,” Mirko Mayer doi: https://mmu.on.worldcat.org/oclc/1367178504

Finn, J. L. (1998) Tracing the veins: of copper, culture, and community from Butte to Chuquicamata. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Garcés Feliú Eugenio, O'Brien, J. and Cooper, M. (2010) “From Mining Settlement to Continental Space. Chuquicamata (chile) and the Contribution of Mining to the Territorial Configuration and Social and Economic Development of the Antofagasta Region during the 20th Century,” EURE, Revista latinoamericana de estudios urbano regionales, 107(107), pp. 93–93.

Garner, J (ed.) 1992, The Company Town: Architecture and Society in the Early Industrial Age, Oxford University Press, Incorporated, Cary.

Gordillo, G. (2019) The Metropolis: The Infrastructure of the Anthropocene. In Kregg Hetherington, ed. Infrastructure, Environment and Life in the Anthropocene. Pp. 66-94. Durham: Duke University Press.

Gutiérrez-Viñuales, A. (2008) “Chuquicamata: Patrimonio Industrial De La Minería Del Cobre En Chile,” Apuntes: Revista de Estudios sobre Patrimonio Cultural - Journal of Cultural Heritage Studies, 21(1), pp. 74–91.

Jerez, B., Garcés, I. and Torres, R. (2021) “Lithium Extractivism and Water Injustices in the Salar De Atacama, Chile: The Colonial Shadow of Green Electromobility,” Political Geography, 87. doi: 10.1016/j.polgeo.2021.102382.

Latcham, Ricardo A. (Ricardo Antonio), 1903-1965. Chuquicamata estado yankee : (visión de la montaña roja) . Disponible en Memoria Chilena, Biblioteca Nacional de Chile

http://www.memoriachilena.gob.cl/602/w3-article-9765.html . Accedido en 22/2/2023.

Leiva, S. and Campos, A. (2013) “Movimiento Social De Trabajadores Subcontratados En La Minería Privada Del Cobre En Chile,” Psicoperspectivas, 12(2), pp. 51–61. doi: 10.5027/psicoperspectivas-Vol12-Issue2-fulltext-293.

Lopes de Souza, M. (2020) ‘Sacrifice zone’: The environment–territory–place of disposable lives, Community Development Journal

Martínez, G (1943). Orígenes y desarrollo de Chuquicamata bajo la Chile Exploratión Company . Disponible en Memoria Chilena, Biblioteca Nacional de Chile http://www.memoriachilena.gob.cl/602/w3-article-80777.html . Accedido en 22/2/2023.

Matamala A. and Vitalich P. (1996) Chuquicamata, evocación minera. Codelco-Chile, División Chuquicamata, Chuquicamata. Universidad Católica del Norte. Chile.

Paterlini de Koch O. (1992) ´Company town of Chile and argentina´. In Garner, J (ed.) The Company Town: Architecture and Society in the Early Industrial Age, Oxford University Press, Incorporated, Cary. pp. 207-232.

Perez-Busatamante L. and Vilches V. (2015) Chuquicamata: crónica de un desalojo / cierre, despedida y últimos años de funcionamiento Concepción: Ediciones Universidad del Bío-Bío & CYTED.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326410029_Chuquicamata_cronica_de_un_de salojo_cierre_despedida_y_ultimos_anos_de_funcionamiento

Rodríguez D. (2000). Provincia El Loa. Recopilación de valores patrimoniales, culturales y geográficos. Fundamentos para la formulación de topologías Arquitectónicas y del paisaje. Editorial ProCobre. Chile.

Svampa, M. (2019) Las fronteras del neoextractivismo en américa latina: conflictos socioambientales, giro ecoterritorial y nuevas dependencias. Bielefeld: Bielefeld University Press (Afrontar las crisis desde América Latina, 2). doi: 10.14361/9783839445266.

Tapia G. (2001), Chuquicamata, historia con nostalgia, Ediciones Parinas, Antofagasta, Chile. Vilches V. (2007) Chuquicamata: evolución resi dencial en el campamento nuevo, Concepción: Universi dad de Concepción (Facultad de Arquitectura, Urban ismo y Geografía).

Weinberg, M. (2021) “Cuerpos De Cobre: Extractivismo En Chuquicamata, Chile,” The Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Anthropology, 26(2), pp. 200–218. doi: 10.1111/jlca.12545.