Preview Cambridge International AS and A Level General Paper

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Chapter 3.1 Argumentative writing Dhaka, Bangladesh, 2016: A nearby industrial site is responsible for contaminating the Buriganga River with toxic waste, oil and chemicals. Residents are facing a severe water crisis. This chapter will feature information related to the key theme of Food, water and other essential resources.

learning objectives In this chapter, you will learn: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

what an argument is and how to appeal to an audience key differences between expository and argumentative writing how to develop a well-reasoned argument strategies for evaluating the credibility of other sources how to build your own credibility as a writer.

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Cambridge International AS Level General Paper

A Introduction In Chapter 2.2, you learned about the basic components of an essay in the context of expository essay writing. As you adjust your purpose for writing from explaining to arguing, however, these components will change in the way they sound and how they are organised.

Specifically, this chapter will help you to understand how an argument works and how this is different from writing to explain. At the end of the chapter, you will have an opportunity to write an argument of your own using the skills you have developed.

Persuasive writing offers a one-sided view of the topic or issue. Argumentative writing also favours one side, but unlike persuasive writing, it considers the opposite side of the argument too. Discursive writing eventually takes a side, but not until the very end, after every perspective has been considered. Therefore, how strongly the writer makes an argument determines where their approach will be on this spectrum.

An argument: •

introduces the main claim (thesis) and supports it with reasons

•

supports reasons with evidence

B What is argumentative writing?

•

Argumentative writing takes a clear position on an issue. It uses logical reasoning to support the thesis (often called the main claim in this type of writing). When you write to argue, your goal is to convince your audience to accept, or at least to appreciate, your point of view.

considers the opposing viewpoint instead of ignoring or attacking it

•

links evidence to claims. main claim / thesis | reasons to support main claim | evidence to support reasons | link between evidence and claims

KEY tERmS

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logical reasoning: expressing a point of view by offering reasons to support your main thesis. main claim: the thesis, or primary point, of your argument.

Argumentative writing can often be mistaken for persuasive writing, but there is an important difference between the two. Imagine that you are showing different ways to present an arguable point, using a horizontal spectrum; persuasive writing would be at one end and discursive writing (as its opposite) at the other end. This is because persuasive writing feels very strongly about one side of the argument, while discursive writing does not (initially) prefer either side. In the middle of these two extremes is argumentative writing, as shown in the diagram. discursive

argumentative

persuasive

‘Hey, think this through with me.’

‘Here’s my side, but I’m willing to give yours fair consideration.’

‘My side is the only side that matters.’

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addresses opposing viewpoints argues against opposing claims when possible; accepts them if necessary

KEY tERm

Argument: the process of using logical reasoning to convince an audience to accept your point of view.

One way to look at logical reasoning is like this: •

we base reasons on evidence; we don’t base evidence on reasons

•

we think up logical reasons but we collect factual evidence.

In other words, reasons are your opinion, evidence is your input, and how the two connect is your output.

KEY SKIllS

See Chapter 1.1 E Course content for a review of the terms ‘input’ and ‘output’.

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Chapter 3.1: Argumentative writing

An argument should consider different perspectives, even though it supports a specific side. An essay question may suggest a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ response through questions like: Is it fair ...? or Should we do X …?; however, you should still use logical reasoning to consider the issue and support the side you agree with, while being fair and reasonable in the process.

Argumentative appeals According to the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle: Of the modes of persuasion furnished by the spoken word, there are three kinds. The first kind depends on the personal character of the speaker; the second, on putting the audience into a certain frame of mind; the third, on the proof, or apparent proof, provided by the words of the speech itself.

From Aristotle’s Rhetoric

Appeals to authority (ethos) Ethos concerns the credibility of the writer. The audience will only believe you if you appear very knowledgeable the matter and seem trustworthy. If you are sympathetic to views that oppose your own – instead of ridiculing or ignoring them – your audience is more likely to trust you. By writing fairly, you are establishing yourself as an authority for the reader.

Your audience is more likely to believe you if your ideas support the views of someone well-known in the field. So mentioning a public figure, expert or other stakeholder who agrees with you can be helpful in building trust in your argument.

Appeals to emotion (pathos) Pathos concerns the writer’s ability to understand and draw upon the emotions of the audience to gain their support. For example, arguments concerning global warming often use pathos, because there are few actual facts about the issues. If you change how your audience feels, it is possible to changes their perspective.

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TIP

You may have your own experiences which have emotions attached to them, but you should avoid using personal anecdotes unless the essay question specifically calls for it.

They may be too narrow for a global audience to relate to and they are not generally acceptable in essay writing.

Appeals to logic (logos) Logos is the structure of the argument itself and the proofs within it. To appeal to your audience’s sense of logic, it is important to present your ideas in a rational order that the audience can follow, and to use reasons backed by evidence. Evidence can include numbers, statistics and other data as well as testimonial (i.e. eyewitness accounts or other ‘third party’ statements which serve as proof).

In other words, there are three ways to convince, or appeal to, your audience to accept what you say: •

appeals to authority (ethos)

•

appeals to emotion (pathos)

•

appeals to logic (logos).

The terms logos, pathos and ethos come from Ancient Greek.

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Additional appeal: kairos One other appeal is called kairos, which means an appeal to timeliness (the importance of doing something at the right time). A television commercial or an advertisement that provides a limited-time offer shows kairos in action. In the same way, if you indicate the urgency of an argument in your writing, you are appealing to the reader’s sense of time. If you can create the sense that accepting your view will have a significant and immediate impact, the audience may accept it.

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Use of appeals Remember that these four appeals are not necessarily exclusive of one another. If you use statistics as evidence, you may be appealing to your audience through a combination of logos and ethos. While this data serves as evidence for your line of reasoning, it may also build your credibility by using logic to support your argument.

While these appeals can be useful, you should be careful not to overuse them. An essay based entirely on emotion may do little to convince an audience looking for factual evidence. However, an argument that only contains facts and data may make your reader feel detached from the issue. To be effective, the appeals should work together to achieve your purpose.

TIP

To learn more about Aristotle’s ideas, watch Michael Sandel’s TED Talk, ‘The lost art of democratic debate’. You can search for this online.

ActIvItY 1

Read the following speech. Identify examples of the different types of argumentative appeal.

Water security – good governance and sustainable solutions 128

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This is what the people of Asia Pacific are saying about water: ‘The water is dirty.’ ‘I am not in school, my mother needs me to collect water.’ ‘There is sewage everywhere.’ ‘The factories use up so much water.’

Four different voices with a single message – lack of access to clean water. Today, some 1.1 billion people have inadequate access to clean water and 2.6 billion lack basic sanitation.

Water, the foundation of life, is at the heart of a daily crisis faced by millions of the world’s people – a crisis that breeds ill-health, destroys livelihoods and inflicts unnecessary human suffering. Overcoming the crisis in water is one of the great human challenges of the 21st century.

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Water is important for our livelihood. Here the focus is on water as an economic resource shared within countries and across borders, and on the capacity of governments to manage water equitably and efficiently including across borders.

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Good governance and sustainable solutions for water security have to address several issues simultaneously.

Firstly, it has to deal with persistent inequalities. In high income areas of cities, people enjoy access to several hundred litres of water per day delivered to their homes at low prices. Meanwhile, poor households in both rural and urban areas of the same countries have access to less than 20 litres of water per person required to meet basic human needs.

A similar imbalance exists in agriculture and industry.

These issues can be addressed by good public policies, partnerships, and investment in infrastructure. Political leadership matters in bringing these changes about.

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Secondly, the Asia Pacific region is vulnerable to climate change. Extreme weather events such as typhoons, floods and droughts threaten to wipe out much of our efforts in development and poverty reduction. Ironically while some parts of the region suffer from flooding, a greater part of the region is suffering from water shortages. We are reaching a critical stage where we do not have enough water.

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Countries like Tajikistan and Uzbekistan already draw more than 100 per cent of their renewable water sources, and countries like Pakistan, the Maldives and parts of Australia, China and India are close to that threshold. Even countries that have surplus water are likely to suffer short-term water insecurity because of climate change-induced droughts and floods. Given the threat of climate change we must change our development paradigm and adopt inclusive, green growth strategies, and other eco-efficient approaches to urban development.

The good news, ladies and gentlemen, is that water security is achievable if we address the following. The first set of issues deals with inefficient use of water.

In many countries of the region some 30 to 70 per cent of drinking water is unaccounted for. Part of the loss is due to old and leaking distribution systems.

Moreover, much of the water that is accounted for is wasted by inefficient water use by households, industries and agriculture.

To minimise wastage and increase efficiency in water use we need to introduce progressive pricing policies that on the one hand recognise the basic need of water for human existence and on the other, progressively charge those who over-use or waste it. This would encourage households, industries and agriculturists to be more eco-efficient in using water.

The other set of issues is related to management and governance of water in an uncertain future brought about by climate change. IPCC reports indicate

that 93 percent of the impact of climate change will be on water-related issues. With climate change, all countries of the region are likely to face increased frequency and severity of droughts and floods. At this very moment while I am speaking to you, 2.4 million people from southern China are now suffering from severe flooding, while Vietnam is suffering from a drought. Both droughts and floods have a huge economic costs.

We need to make our water resource management more adaptive and responsive to unforeseen and rapidly changing situations. Active measures such as better watershed management would go a long way in this regard.

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One final set of issues we need to address is waste management. As many of you know, the UN Secretary General’s Advisory Board on Water and Sanitation will hold its meeting tomorrow, and I have been invited to speak on this matter.

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While water security is first and foremost the responsibility of our Member Countries, we at ESCAP remain committed to assisting countries in addressing the issue. In our endeavour to assist countries in improving their water security we recognise the important role played by the Asia-Pacific Water Ministers’ Forum and look forward to further strengthening our close collaboration.

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ActIvItY 2

sewage: waste water and waste from toilets

Search online for the TED Talk ‘Teach every child about food’ by the British chef Jamie Oliver. Make a list of the various appeals he uses to argue his point. Be prepared to present these to the class.

livelihood: the way a person earns money for living

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From a speech by Noeleen Heyzer at the Asia-Pacific Water Ministers’ Forum in Singapore, June–July 2010

ARtIclE GlOSSARY

sanitation: a system for protecting people’s health by removing dirt and waste

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paradigm: typical model leaking: allowing water to escape when it should not IPcc: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change watershed: the area of high ground from which water flows down EScAP: Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific

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Context in argumentative writing Though the importance of context is no different when writing argumentatively, there are a few important things to keep in mind. Context is an important component of an argument because it has a direct effect on how the evidence is perceived.

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Cambridge International AS Level General Paper

Context can be established by explaining what is happening around or outside the issue. This lets the audience know why the topic matters to them so they will want to read more.

Arguing versus explaining: key differences

greater CONTEXT surrounding the issue

•

tone

•

thesis statement development

•

counterargumentation strategies (strategies for expressing opposite viewpoints)

•

line of reasoning

•

concluding remarks.

argument

For example, imagine a famous sports figure is on trial for violence. The defendant is a member of a minority in the community because of his race and/or religion. The argument is whether or not he is guilty. How might his community’s perception of his religion or race influence the outcome of his trial? Is it possible for preconceived ideas or underlying values to influence the way the jury sees the evidence in the case?

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The influence of context is difficult to avoid, but it is something you should be aware of in your argumentative writing.

Extract 1 Where does modern corn on the cob come from?

Well-informed diners will know the answer: Latin America. But what they probably don’t know is that it never grew there naturally. Humans created it. Six to 10 thousand years ago, some innovative Mesoamerican farmers noticed that whereas most varieties of teosinte grass produced lots of branches with a few edible kernels on each, others produced fewer branches. So they started breeding grass that produced good kernels with grass that didn’t produce as many branches. The result: enormous, delicious, modern corn.

Extract 2 There is, so far, no good evidence that GM crops are unhealthy - which is striking when you consider for how long and how widely they have been used.

American consumers have eaten them for decades, whereas Europeans haven’t. Yet the National Academy

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There are several important differences between argumentative writing and writing to explain. These differences are found mainly in:

tone Unlike an explanation, which aims to inform, an argument seeks to convince. In writing argumentatively, there is more at stake because you are doing more than just educating the audience; you are trying to win their approval. For this reason, your tone is more commanding than before.

ActIvItY 3

Read extracts 1–4 from an article about growing genetically modified (GM) food. For each extract, determine whether the purpose is to explain or to argue by identifying words and/or phrases that contribute to its tone.

study concludes that European and American trends for cancer, obesity, gastrointestinal tract illness, kidney disease, autism or allergies do not differ in any way that could be explained by GM crops. Something could still emerge – science rarely gives guarantees – but these Frankenfoods have been around longer than many powerful modern medicines that we take with abandon. Clearly, their ill-effects have been vastly exaggerated.

Extract 3 Over the past 30 years, GM crop use has spread from the US to most of South America, Asia and Australia.

The vast majority of the plants, ranging across 14 crops from soybeans to maize and cotton, are modified to be more resistant to insects or pesticides.

A few newer varieties have been created to have a longer shelf life, or not to turn brown when cut, though they are not yet widespread.

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Chapter 3.1: Argumentative writing

Extract 4 A new generation of GM crops is now being developed using mind-boggling techniques, like accelerating tiny bits of DNA-covered gold into cells. In some cases, new methods will blur the line between selective breeding and GM, so our regulation will have to evolve in response. But rather than

ARtIclE GlOSSARY

innovative: new and original kernels: seeds, inner parts Gm: genetically modified Frankenfoods: a negative reference to genetically modified foods, referring to the fictional character Frankenstein who created a monster with abandon: in a completely uncontrolled way mind-boggling: difficult to imagine blur the line: make the difference less clear between two things shunning: avoiding

shunning the modern wonders that help farmers feed a hungry world, we should marvel at them. And, in our shopping habits and our public policy, we should be guided by science, not superstition.

Adapted from ‘We must end our superstitious objections to genetically modified food’ by Juliet Samuel, The Telegraph, May 2016

c Argumentative thesis development Earlier in this chapter, you learnt that the thesis statement in an argument is sometimes called a main claim. When discussing the elements of an argument, the phrase ‘main claim’ is usually more appropriate. This is because when you argue, your main idea / thesis transforms into an opinion you want others to believe, or what you ‘claim’ to be true. Remember that these terms are similar and therefore perform the same function in an essay.

The purpose of argumentative writing is to argue. Your main claim (thesis) should therefore: •

be debatable (i.e. be open to other points of view)

•

support one point of view.

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It should also: •

focus on the key words of the question

•

introduce the perspective that you will argue.

TIP

It can be helpful to pose your main claim / thesis in the form of a ‘because’ statement. For example, ‘X is beneficial/ harmful because …’.

How can people be persuaded about the arguments for and against growing GM crops?

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Take a look at the following example to see how an argumentative thesis: •

adopts a more forceful, aggressive tone

•

becomes wider in scope (introduces lenses instead of specific reasons).

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KEY SKIllS

KEY SKIllS

Lenses are broader categories or themes (e.g. politics, environment) that global issues fall into. See Chapter 2.1 A Generating ideas for your essay to review lenses and how they can help you organise ideas when writing.

A discursive essay should explore both sides of an issue, so you should avoid listing reasons in the thesis. Chapter 3.2 will help you develop a discursive thesis.

tone is more aggressive The sale of bottled water should be banned because it has serious ethical and environmental consequences. uses lenses to introduce idea as opposed to specific reasons

Read the sample argumentative thesis statement.

Based on the criteria we have discussed, evaluate its effectiveness: If you send foreign aid to developing countries, those who receive it are more likely to suffer from inflation, fluctuations in currency, corruption and civil disorder; so it is doing more harm than good and should therefore be stopped.

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What advice might you offer for revising this statement?

The writer suggests that the provision of care does not help struggling countries, so we know which side they will be arguing. When addressing the reasons (sub-claims) why, however, the thesis starts to lose its focus by listing so many individual reasons. One strategy to improve this is to use broader ideas (lenses) to group these reasons.

For instance, inflation and currency fall under the broader category of ‘money’ while corruption and civil disorder are ‘social issues’. The term ‘socio-economic’ could therefore cover all of the reasons listed: Sending foreign aid to developing countries is doing more harm than good because of the negative socio-economic impact on those who receive it, so it should be stopped.

If you want to keep your argument clear and focused, a broader approach is effective. Although you know from the start which side you plan to argue for, your evidence may lead you to feel more, or less, certain. It is acceptable to preview your main reasons in your thesis statement, but just make sure they are the same at the end!

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ActIvItY 4

Read the thesis statements. Determine to what extent each statement follows the guidelines for writing an argumentative thesis/claim: 1 Fast food is bad for you so fast food restaurants should be banned.

2 Urban farming is a new way of providing access to healthy food.

3 Access to clean drinking water should be a human right because of the economic and cultural complexities that come with selling it as a commercial asset.

4 Water should be commodified* because it is too expensive to control and manage it otherwise; this would allow for more equal distribution and would reduce international tensions over water. (*A commodity is a raw material that can be bought or sold. To commodify water means to put a price on it.)

5 In countries where access to healthy food is scarce, alternatives such as cricket farming should be pursued because this can improve the quality of life for people living there.

6 Being an ethical consumer has lots of benefits.

Counterargumentation To appear reasonable, your argument should give consideration to viewpoints other than your own. Clearly not everyone thinks the same way, so it is important to recognise that other views exist. Sensitivity to different viewpoints can build trust and credibility with a potentially sceptical audience (i.e. an audience who may not believe you). They are more likely to accept your ideas if you have taken time to consider alternative ways of looking at the issue.

If you mention an opposing viewpoint, and follow this up with reasons to support or challenge it, then you are using a counterargument (also called rebuttal) strategy.

However, it can be difficult to talk about the opposing side of an argument without sounding as if you agree with it, especially when a strong point is raised.

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Chapter 3.1: Argumentative writing

KEY tERm

Thesis:

counterargumentation: a strategy of considering arguments that go against your thesis or main claim, and dismissing or minimising them (countering them) in order to strengthen your own point.

Opposing point: Lifestyle decisions should be made by the consumer, not the government.

Your counter:

The most effective counterarguments attempt to show that the opposite viewpoint is: •

faulty

•

only partly true

•

misguided

•

true, but with limitations.

When used effectively, this strategy can strengthen your argument, rather than weaken it. An important strategy in countering an opposing view lies in the use of tone, and careful choice of words. There are two basic elements to the wording of a counterargument: •

the opposing point

•

your counter to that point.

The government should put penalty taxes on products like sugary drinks.

A local health institute reports a high cost of care for people suffering from diabetes; both patients and taxpayers suffer.

The next section will provide you with a framework for drafting counterarguments.

How to write a counterargument First, you should acknowledge the opposing view by using an appropriate transition phrase/word, such as the following examples: •

This argument may look/sound/seem convincing ...

•

Some might think/believe that ...

KEY SKIllS

•

Some/many/plenty of supporters think that ...

Transitions are important for establishing the tone of a counterargument. For a full list of transitional words and phrases, see Chapter 2.2 E Using explanation to communicate: the expository essay.

•

It may be logical to assume that ...

•

It may be true that ...

•

The common belief is that ...

•

It may appear/seem that ...

•

It is easy to think/imagine/claim that ...

•

Some evidence suggests that ...

•

There are some who think/believe/claim/say that ...

•

It is reasonable to think that ...

•

Admittedly ...

•

Granted ....

•

Of course ...

ActIvItY 5

Read the following thesis and the information about an opposing viewpoint and a counterargument. How might a counterargumentation statement sound if it were applied to the argument below? What words you would need to use to effectively deliver your counterargument?

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Then shift the focus from the opposing view back toward your own by using a clear, contrasting transition, such as:

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•

However ...

•

But ...

•

Still ...

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Nevertheless ...

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Alternatively, instead of using a transition in the middle of your counterargument, you could use one at the start. For example:

true but with limitations It does not take into account …

•

It does not consider …

•

While some might argue ...

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It is still worth considering …

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Although X might seem true ...

•

It encourages/discourages …

•

Though X is admittedly accurate ...

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It does not change the fact that …

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Despite the perceived notion that ...

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It may be the only/best/most effective/last option …

Finally, introduce your evidence to undermine or dismiss the opposing view: Faulty or misguided

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•

TIP

•

This is wrong/false/untrue/inaccurate/irrelevant because …

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This view is mistaken because …

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In reality …

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It could actually …

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This is not the case because …

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It fails to consider …

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It ignores the fact that …

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It is impractical to assume …

Make sure you always present your reason followed by evidence as part of your counterargument. A statement that says, ‘Some believe X but that is not true’, without the evidence to prove the point, is not enough to convince the reader!

D Recognising weaknesses in your line of reasoning So far, you have learnt two strategies to convince your audience:

Partly true

•

appeals

•

It is also possible that …

•

counterargument.

•

There are other issues that …

•

There remains the problem of …

•

It is more practical to …

•

The benefits/drawbacks outweigh the benefits/ drawbacks …

ActIvItY 6

1 Copy the table, adding at least six extra rows.

3 Read them to a partner to make sure they sound right.

2 Practise organising point–counterpoint statements by creating eight or more generic counterargument sentences like examples 1 and 2 in the table.

HINT: only use one transition per sentence (either in front or in the middle).

(transition) 1 2

While

Acknowledge opposing point

(transition)

Introduce your evidence

Some evidence suggests X

but

this is wrong because …

many claim X,

they ignore the fact that …

3 4

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When used well, these can be effective in convincing your audience to believe you. What happens, however, when these strategies are used incorrectly? For example: •

an argument that relies only on emotional appeal to win your approval;. why would this be unfair?

•

an argument that attacks the opponent himself/herself rather than his/her views;. how might this change your mind about the argument?

In this section, you will learn how to identify defective reasoning so you can learn to avoid it in your own writing.

While there are dozens of names for the different fallacies, you will learn some of the most common ones. These are the ones you will need to be aware of – and avoid – when you are writing essays for this course. In order to fix a logical error in your essay, though, it is much more important to know why the reasoning is faulty rather than what it is called. Complete Activity 7 to see if you can identify logical errors. We will then learn the names of the fallacies.

ActIvItY 7

Read the following statements. With a partner, talk about what is unfair or illogical about each of them.

1 My favourite celebrity has just tried a new diet and it worked, so I am going to try it, too.

2 If solar panels are working in remote areas in Canada, then we should obviously use them in sub-Saharan Africa.

How should we convince someone who holds a different view from ours?

In both cases, the arguments contain defects (faults) in the line of reasoning, called logical fallacies. It is not reasonable to make someone feel guilty in order to persuade them to listen to you, or to attack an opponent’s character just because he/she has a different view. Yet mistakes like these can easily be made, especially when the writer or speaker is passionate about the issue. If the conclusion you are working toward seems obvious to you, you are more likely to just assume it is true without taking the logical steps to prove that it is. This is how fallacies are formed.

KEY tERm

logical fallacy: a defect in the line of reasoning, which weakens the argument.

DID YOU KNOW?

Aristotle (see also B What is argumentative writing? earlier in this chapter) was the first person to study fallacies systematically. In his work De Sophisticis Elenchis (Sophistical Refutations), he identified and named the first thirteen of these (though there are hundreds!).

Many fallacies have Latin names since Latin was a core subject for Greek philosophers like Aristotle.

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3 According to a recent study conducted in eight European schools, learning was better in singlesex classrooms than mixed-gender classrooms.

Therefore, single-sex schooling should be the international standard.

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4 Supporting the death penalty means we do not respect life. If we do not care about life, we are more likely to commit violent acts ourselves, and this will lead to the end of our own civilisation. Banning the death penalty is therefore necessary.

5 The farmlands to the east have not been used for three years. Either we make the move to build a commercial site there or we will lose money altogether.

Here is a list of the most common fallacies you may come across when writing to argue during this course: Ad populum When the arguer takes advantage of most people’s desire to ‘fit in’ by going along with what others do, say or believe; ad populum is also similar to the bandwagon fallacy, which is an appeal to new ideas held by the masses.

Example: We have always done it this way, so since the group agrees it is right, well, it should be so, then.

Hasty generalisation Jumping too quickly to conclusions before considering all the facts;. hasty generalisations usually happen when the

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