AS_Level_English_General_Paper_Sample_digital

English General Paper for Cambridge International AS Level

David Towsey & Alexandra Lezark

Second edition with Digital access

We are working towards endorsement of this title for the Cambridge Pathway.

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How

How to use this series

This suite of resources supports students and teaching following the Cambridge International AS Level English General Paper syllabus (8021). The components in the series are designed to work together and help students develop the necessary knowledge and skills for this subject.

English General Paper

for Cambridge International AS Level

The Digital Teacher’s Resource provides everything teachers need to deliver the course. It is packed full of useful teaching notes, lesson ideas, with suggestions for differentiation to support and challenge students, ideas for assessment and home and project guidance.

A wide range of additional content, such as worksheets, PowerPoint slides, as well as answers for the Coursebook questions, is also available to help teachers save time and enrich their practice.

The Coursebook is designed for students to use in class with guidance from the teacher. It is divided into two parts: Reading and Comprehension, and Academic Writing and provides lots of opportunities for students to develop these skills through a range of engaging activities. Reading and Writing - tips offer different strategies to support students in enhancing these skills. Reflection and self-assessment features encourage students to think about their own learning. Each chapter ends with Practice Questions that help consolidate learning.

A digital version of the Coursebook is included with the print version and is available separately

English General Paper for Cambridge International AS Level

DIGITAL TEACHER’S RESOURCE

How to use this book

LEARNING INTENTIONS

Each chapter begins with a set of learning intentions to explain what you will learn in the chapter.

GETTING STARTED

A short starter activity explores what knowledge you already have before starting the chapter. This activity will introduce you to the concept covered in this chapter.

1 Activities help you to become better readers and writers. They encourage you to reflect not only on the content of what you are reading, but also on the important role of the writer. Exploring the deliberate choices writers make in their writing will help you to sharpen your skills of analysis and increase your enjoyment of the texts you study. Later in the book you will also be able to practise your writing skills. In addition, you will find example responses to questions.

READING TIP

These tips will help you to further enhance your reading skills.

WRITING TIP

These tips will help you to further enhance your writing skills.

LANGUAGE FOCUS

This feature focuses on the main grammar or language topics in the chapter. It helps you to deepen your understanding and knowledge of key concepts.

DISCUSSION POINT

These are questions or activities that you can use to reflect in pairs or groups on the skills that you have been learning in the chapter.

KEY TERMS

Key vocabulary is highlighted in the text when it is first introduced. An accompanying definition is given in the margin to tell you the meanings of these words and phrases. You will also find definitions of these words in the Glossary at the back of the book. Bold may be used elsewhere in the text for emphasis, but all key terms will have an accompanying definition in the margin.

TIP

These tips are helpful reminders or notes that will give advice on skills or methodology. They will also help you to avoid common errors.

PROJECT

Within each chapter, there are two to three projects that allow you to contextualise learning by applying your skills to a task. The project can be used as an extension activity to deepen your knowledge.

Checklist

Checklist boxes appear throughout the chapter and provide a quick reminder of important key points that have just been covered. Use this to reflect on your learning before moving on to the next section of the chapter.

SUMMARY

• This feature contains a series of statements which summarise the key learning points you will have covered in the chapter.

SELF-ASSESSMENT

REFLECTION

Reflection activities enable you to look back on your work and encourage you to think about your learning. You will critically assess the approach to your work, leading to self-awareness and improvement.

Each chapter ends with a grid showing ‘Now I can…’ statements which match with the Learning Intentions at the beginning of the chapter. You might find it helpful to rate how confident you feel about each of these statements when you are revising. In addition, you can check your progress with the accompanying ‘Prove it’ tasks.

Now I can…

Confidence rating (1–5)Prove it

Practice questions

Each chapter contains a set of questions which provide practice at responding to the types of tasks required by the syllabus.

Sample answer

Sample answers within activities and for practice questions encourage you to evaluate answers at different levels, enabling you to apply those evaluation skills to your own work, and to understand how you can answer questions successfully.

End-of-section practice questions

At the end of each section there is a chapter providing a full set of practice questions to help you prepare for assessment.

Introduction

This book is for students following the Cambridge International AS Level English General Paper course – and for anyone else who wants to develop their skills of analytical reading, academic writing and critical thinking.

Why is Cambridge AS Level English General Paper important?

This course will help you to be a better reader and writer, as well as teaching you to think critically about the world around you. It will equip you with the skills you need to ask questions about what you read and to write formal, academic essays. These skills are highly valued in school and college subjects, at university and by employers. They will also prove useful in the wider world throughout your life.

This course will also show the importance of understanding other people’s points of view and of expressing your own ideas clearly and effectively. As you develop your ability to read and write well, you will learn how to identify different perspectives on an issue. In turn, this will help you to express your own opinions clearly and to justify them convincingly. Explaining your own decisions while also acknowledging and understanding why other people think differently will increase the respect that others have for you and help you have a positive impact in the world.

What does this book cover?

The first part of this book focuses on reading comprehension. You will learn how to read and understand different texts and to use a variety of strategies to extract the right information from them. You will also explore how to work out what texts really mean by what they say, even when they do not state this directly. Finally, you will have the opportunity to use what you read to write texts that persuade others of your point of view.

In the second part of the book, you will extend your writing skills to academic essays. In doing this, you will master a form of writing that gives you the opportunity to present your own views and to respond to other views across many subjects at school, college and university. You will also develop and demonstrate your ability to use written English accurately and effectively at an advanced level. We hope you enjoy studying.

David Towsey & Alexandra Lezark

Chapter 2 Exploring the text

LEARNING INTENTIONS

In this chapter you will:

• learn the difference between explicit and implicit meaning and make inferences from texts

• explore different text structures and explain how they contribute to a writer’s message

• consider the writer’s purpose and look at the ways in which purpose can be identified

• investigate the style, tone and register of a text and the effects they have on the reader

• explore the writer’s use of language, including connotations, figurative language and emotive language, to understand its impact on the reader

• practise identifying the point of view and perspective from which a text is written and understand how this influences the message.

Introduction

The skills you explored in Chapter 1 – understanding individual words, identifying main and supporting ideas, and adopting a variety of reading strategies to focus on relevant information – are all important. However, to fully understand a text, and to clearly demonstrate that understanding, you need a toolkit of analytical skills to explore how different elements of a text work together and what they reveal. This chapter will equip you with those tools, showing you how to explore texts with depth and insight, to become a more analytical reader and interpreter of texts.

GETTING STARTED

Read Text 2.1, an extract from an article about tourism in Spain. Text 2.1

Has mass tourism gone too far?

London’s office districts have an eerie1 air to them at this time of year as workers pack off for their summer vacations. It’s a sure bet many of them will be in Spain – where tourists have been arriving in record numbers, but at a growing cost to local people.

The impact of short-term holiday lets on housing markets in places like Ibiza has caused chaos, forcing some hospitality workers to live in caravans2 and tents. Amid wider concerns about mass tourism, including the insensitive behaviour of some visitors, large protests have taken place in Spain’s big holiday towns.

There are fears demonstrations could soon extend across Europe. [Journalists] find growing disgruntlement3 among those living in the continent’s visitor hotspots, who want a better balance between mass tourism and its impacts.

‘Has mass tourism gone too far?’ by Graham Snowdon, www.theguardian.com

GLOSSARY

1eerie: strange and frightening

2caravans: vehicles equipped for living in, often used for temporary accommodation

3disgruntlement: a feeling of dissatisfaction or discontent

2 Exploring the text

CONTINUED

Discuss the following questions in small groups.

Surface meaning:

• What is the main idea of the article?

• What are some key details or facts included in the text?

Deeper meaning:

• What does the article suggest about the potential consequences of tourism in Spain?

• What concerns or challenges related to tourism does the writer mention or imply?

• What is the writer’s overall perspective on the current state of tourism in Spain? How do you know?

In your discussion, consider the following features:

• Purpose: Why do you think the writer published this article – what was their purpose?

• Style and tone: Describe the tone or attitude the writer seems to have toward tourism. What impression does this give you as a reader?

• Use of language: What specific words or phrases create a particular effect or reveal the writer’s perspective?

2.1 Explicit and implicit meanings

Critical thinking involves looking beyond the surface to consider hidden meanings in a text, like an iceberg that hides most of its mass below the water. To do this, you need to understand the difference between explicit and implicit meaning. Think of explicit meaning as the tip of the iceberg, visible above the surface. Implicit meaning is the vast, hidden part that lies beneath the surface.

You will come across explicit and implicit messages every day – probably without even realising it – in conversations, books, films and even through non-verbal cues. The ability to decipher these meanings enables you to communicate effectively, interpret information accurately and develop critical-thinking skills.

KEY TERMS

explicit meaning: ideas and details that a writer or speaker states directly

implicit meaning: ideas and details that readers or listeners have to work out for themselves

SAMPLE

Explicit meaning

Explicit meaning in a text is the information that a writer states directly – the literal meaning of the words. Being able to identify explicit meanings allows you to select relevant information and use it for a specific purpose, clearly demonstrating your understanding of a text.

2 Exploring the text

Identifying explicit meaning

Identify key words and phrases – the ones that convey the main ideas and supporting details.

Look for direct statements – sentences that clearly state facts, opinions or arguments.

Pay attention to any definitions or explanations that the writer includes. Note any examples or illustrations that clarify the writer’s points.

Look at this sentence: ‘Weaving, a traditional craft practised all over the world, allows people to express their cultural identity, to preserve historical techniques and to create beautiful, decorative textiles by hand.’

You can identify the following explicit information here:

• Weaving is used to express cultural identity.

• Weaving helps to preserve techniques used in the past.

• Weaving results in beautiful, decorative textiles.

1 Read Text 2.2, then answer the questions to identify explicit meaning. Text 2.2

Origami is the traditional art of paper-folding, in which a single sheet of paper can be transformed into many different shapes without the need for scissors or glue. This craft has been practised for centuries and originally had religious and ceremonial purposes. Today, it has evolved into a popular hobby and origamists – as practitioners are called – often create representations of animals, flowers and geometric designs. It is also a useful educational tool, teaching both creativity and precision, and is used in modern fields such as maths and engineering to model complex structures and to solve design problems.

a What is the main idea of this passage?

b What materials are traditionally used in origami?

c What are two modern fields that make use of origami?

Implicit meaning

Implicit meaning refers to things that a writer or speaker does not state directly, but which can be figured out by looking closely at the language they use and the details they include, and then considering what these things suggest. Implicit meanings enrich texts and speech in the following ways:

• They shape perceptions, subtly influencing how readers perceive characters, events and ideas.

• They reveal hidden dimensions, conveying a character’s inner world, the complexities of a historical event or the details of scientific concept, for example, without explicitly stating every detail.

• They explain complex relationships, showing the dynamics between characters in a story, the cause and effect in historical analysis, or the interconnectedness of scientific concepts, for example.

• They offer personal perspectives and opinions on the events, themes or arguments in a text, inviting readers to engage in critical thinking and form their own interpretations.

• They make reading and listening an engaging experience – creating suspense, tension, humour and other emotional effects that grab and hold people’s interest.

To identify implicit meaning, you need to look beyond specific words and consider other features of the text that might give clues to what a writer means.

Identifying implicit meaning

Look for figurative language – metaphors, similes and other figures of speech can convey deeper meanings (see Section 2.4).

Consider the writer’s tone and specific word choices, as these can reveal their attitude or perspective.

Look at a speaker’s body language, or the actions attributed to a character in a text – these non-verbal cues can suggest someone’s emotions and motivations.

Note the structure and organisation of a text, which imply connections between ideas or emphasise certain points.

KEY TERMS

figurative language: words and phrases used not with their basic meaning but with a more imaginative meaning to create a special effect; figurative language techniques include simile, metaphor and personification

metaphor: a type of comparison that describes one thing as if it were something else simile: a type of figurative language in which one thing is compared to something else using the words ‘as’ or ‘like’ non-verbal cues: things that reveal someone’s feelings and thoughts without using words – for example, body language and facial expressions

SAMPLE

Read Text 2.3, then look at the notes below to identify each of the features in the Identifying implicit meaning checklist.

Text 2.3

Traditional Hopi art is rooted in everyday life, spirituality and storytelling – features that manifest in all stages of the pottery process. It’s mesmerising watching the old Hopi potter work. His hands move slowly around the clay, smoothing the surface, pulling the neck taller. The sides of the pot are very slightly uneven, like the mesas that are visible through the window behind him. The pot is not shaped to sit on a shelf, but nothing in nature is perfect either.

‘Will you paint the feather design?’ I ask quietly, reluctant to interrupt his work

‘Not yet,’ he replies. ‘I haven’t dreamt it.’

The clay will dry overnight. In the morning, he’ll start again – the same shape, the same earth, but maybe a different story. The lines aren’t decoration. They are memories. Wishes. A way to speak without noise.

Figurative language:

• ‘A way to speak without noise’: This implies that the art is more than visual –it is a form of quiet communication or expression.

• ‘The lines aren’t decoration. They are memories. Wishes.’: This suggests that each line has spiritual and personal meaning.

Tone and word choice: Words like ‘slowly’, ‘not yet’, ‘same earth’ and ‘wishes’ give the text a peaceful, thoughtful tone. It feels as though the potter is connected to the land and the tradition, and not in a rush to finish.

Non-verbal cues: The potter moves slowly, pauses before choosing a design and waits for a dream. These actions show that he takes the process seriously and sees it as more than just making something look nice.

Structure and organisation: The passage starts with the physical process (shaping the pot), moves to a quiet conversation, and ends with reflection. This mirrors how traditional Hopi art is ‘rooted in everyday life, spirituality and storytelling’ as the article states.

We are working towards endorsement of this title for the Cambridge Pathway.

2 Read Text 2.4, then answer the questions to identify explicit and implicit meanings.

Text 2.4

Kalamkari is an ancient Indian art form that involves hand-painting detailed patterns and pictures onto fabrics using natural or vegetable dyes. It has been practised for generations and often features mythological motifs that reflect the spiritual beliefs and traditions of specific communities. It is a painstaking, multi-step process that has been passed down through families, which includes:

• preparing the cloth

• drawing outlines with a bamboo pen

• applying dye in several stages.

While kalamkari retains a strong cultural and traditional symbolism, it has been adapted in the modern world into fashion items and home décor. This blending of heritage with contemporary tastes shows both the resilience and quiet evolution of traditional arts and crafts.

a What is the explicit meaning of this text?

b What does the passage suggest about the role of kalamkari in families?

c Why might the use of natural dyes and careful craftsmanship be important beyond simply how they make things look?

d What does the phrase ‘quiet evolution of traditional arts and crafts’ imply about how kalamkari has changed and developed?

READING TIP

In reading comprehension tasks, particular command words can often guide you on whether you should be looking for explicit or implicit information. For example, ‘give’ and ‘identify’ usually require understanding of explicit meanings, while ‘explain’ and ‘describe’ often require implicit understanding.

Making inferences

Inferences are conclusions that you draw based on the implicit information in a text. You use clues such as textual details, tone and word choice to work out what the writer or speaker really means. For example, if someone is constantly checking their watch, you might infer that they are anxious or impatient. What a writer implies can help you make inferences by providing hints to guide your thinking, by forcing you to analyse their words more deeply and by encouraging you to interpret ideas in different ways.

When you make inferences from a text, you should always back them up with evidence. Ask yourself: ‘Which words or phrases in the text make me think this is what the writer means?’ Explain what inferences you have drawn and why.

Look at this example:

At the meeting, she smiled, nodded and took notes. But when the proposal passed, she was the first to leave the room – quietly, without comment.

What does this suggest about the woman’s reaction to the proposal? You might infer the woman disagreed with the decision (even though this is not stated directly), but she chose not to speak up. Leaving the room silently shows she did not support the outcome.

DISCUSSION POINT

Have you ever had to guess what someone meant when they did not make their point directly? Or maybe you had to figure out what a story was really about without being told? Share your experiences with a partner and explain how you made inferences in that context and how this helped you understand the situation better.

LANGUAGE FOCUS: IMPLYING AND INFERRING

Implicit meaning and inference are not the same thing, although they are connected. The writer or speaker implies something, and the reader or listener decides what it means (makes inferences).

Imply

Infer

Who does it? Writer or speakerReader or listener Action Suggests indirectlyDraws a conclusion How it is done Through hints, cues, figurative language Through analysis, reasoning, context

Certainty May be intentional or unintentional May not be the only possible interpretation

KEY TERMS

infer: to work out a meaning by applying evidence and reasoning imply: to suggest something in an indirect way, without stating it explicitly

SAMPLE

Look at this statement: ‘It’s getting late, and I have an early meeting tomorrow.’ Here, the speaker implies that they need to leave soon, rather than stating it directly. The listener may infer that the speaker is tired and wants to end the conversation.

3 Read Texts 2.5–2.7, then answer the questions.

Text 2.5

In 1962, when I was 12, my parents gave me a set of [. . .] carving tools and some books on Māori carving. [. . .] I took to it like a duck to water –it was quite common to see me come home with an old tōtara fence post over my shoulder, to be cut up and carved. Then I started doing souvenirs for Paradise Valley. I was still at school and effectively I had a business running with my hobby – it just went from there.

My neighbour [. . .] was talking to dad over the fence one day. He heard this tap, tap, bang, bang in the shed and dad told him I was doing Māori carving. He hopped over the fence and had a look. “It’s not bad. I think you want a bit of help mate,” he said. “Meet me down at my kitchen Saturday morning, seven o’clock and I’ll take you out to the Buried Village.” So he used to take me out there and I learnt a lot about the business side of things. I started working there.

From Q&A with Clive Fugill, Māori master carver, Te Puia, New Zealand

Text 2.6

I started embroidering at a time when, I think, I was searching for a way to connect to my Palestinian heritage. [. . .] Having always been a crafty kid, doing things like origami and crochet, one of the first things I thought of with regards to something Palestinian was this kind of embroidery, which was ubiquitous in my family home growing up [. . .]. It just seemed like something fun and interesting to do, so I picked up a needle and thread and did a lot of research about the history and meanings embedded in this medium… and the rest is history. So, unlike 99% of the Palestinians that do this embroidery, I was not taught by my mother or grandmother. However, I still feel that the act of doing it is a very Palestinian act, as incorporating this practice into one’s daily life is something many Palestinian women do and have done for generations.

From ‘Threads of Identity: An Interview with Jordan Nassar’ by Sarah Messerschmidt, www.berlinartlink.com

2 Exploring the text

Text 2.7

Chihuly’s time in Murano would prove key to the progression of his career. After observing the Murano tradition of team-based glassblowing, Dale Chihuly began experimenting with his own methods of production. Soon, he incorporated the idea of teamwork into his own projects and was able to create sculptures far greater in size and quality than any previous creation of his.

SAMPLE

This was a notable turning point [. . .] and it was arguably the beginning of a new movement of glassmaking for the industry as a whole, as it marked a unique American-born approach to the art of glass. [. . .] His work reflects a fusion of cultures and nationalities. [. . .]

Through his travels [. . .] he has adopted the techniques of different countries and traditions. [. . .] The stunning glass chandeliers, that would later be hung over Venice’s canals and suspended in the Venetian piazzas scattered throughout the city [were] widely viewed [. . ] as [. . .] the artist’s token of appreciation to the city that he considered responsible for propelling his career through its history of traditional glassmaking.

Dale Chihuly – American Vision of Murano Glass, www.glassofvenice.com

a What is implied about the artists’ relationship with their work in each extract?

b What deeper message is the writer suggesting, even if it’s not said directly?

c Choose two of the three artists. How are their motivations similar or different? What does this show about how artists connect with tradition in different cultural contexts? Use evidence from the language, tone or imagery in the text to support your ideas.

2.2 Text structures

Text structures are the frameworks that organise information in non-fiction texts. Different structures help writers to present their ideas logically and help readers to navigate complex material. Understanding how a text is structured helps you figure out the writer’s purpose, identify key points and explain how ideas are connected. In your reading comprehension, you will often need to:

• explain how an argument develops

• identify connections between ideas

• evaluate how a writer organises their points.

Recognising text structures will help you follow the logic of a passage, support your answers with specific examples and explain why a writer presents information in a certain order. It will also improve your own writing skills by showing you a range of interesting structures that can be selected to suit your own purpose.

Common text structures

In your wider reading you will come across several different types of text structure. They have slightly different features and serve different purposes. You can often identify the type of text structure by scanning for particular transition words –the linking words that order the information, signalling a move between ideas in sentences and paragraphs.

StructureDescription

Chronological/ sequential Presents events or steps in the order in which they occurred or should occur.

Cause and effectExplains why something happens and its consequences.

Compare and contrast Examines similarities and differences between two or more subjects.

SAMPLE

first, next, finally, before, after, following

because, due to, as a result, therefore, consequently

similarly, unlike, in contrast, however, both, whereas

Problem and solution Identifies an issue and proposes ways to address it. problem, issue, solution, to address this, one way to solve

‘First, scientists conducted the experiment. Then, they analysed the results.’

‘Since pollution levels increased, many cities introduced air quality regulations.’

‘Unlike fossil fuels, solar energy is renewable and does not emit carbon dioxide.’

‘Plastic waste is a major environmental problem. One solution is switching to biodegradable materials.’

KEY TERM

transition words: words or phrases that show a reader the link between phrases, sentences or paragraphs in a text

2 Exploring the text

StructureDescription

Spatial order Organises information based on location, direction or physical arrangement of objects or places.

Transition words Example

next to, across from, to the left, behind, in front of, upstairs, downstairs

‘As you enter the museum, the gift shop is on your right, followed by a large sculpture hall. Upstairs, the painting galleries stretch along the west wing.’

Understanding how transition words work to connect ideas and structure a text is also very useful for your own academic writing. There is more information on this in Section 6.2.

Chronological order

Like a timeline of events, chronological order presents information in the order in which it happened. It is a natural way to tell a story, provide historical context, relate an event or explain a process – guiding the reader step by step from beginning to end.

A chronological structure makes it easy to follow the sequence of events and understand how they relate to one another, showing how events unfold over time and how one event can lead to another. This structure can also be engaging to a reader, by establishing a natural flow that keeps them involved in the story or process.

4 The following paragraph describes the process of making a cup of tea, but the sentences are out of order. Rewrite the paragraph to put the information in chronological order. Use appropriate transition words.

Finally, add milk and sugar to taste and enjoy your warm beverage. Next, pour the boiling water over the tea bag in the mug. First, boil some water in a kettle. Then, let the tea steep for a few minutes. After that, remove the tea bag and discard it.

SAMPLE

KEY TERMS

chronological order: an organisational structure in which events are presented in the sequence they occurred sequence: a series of related things or events and the order in which they follow each other

Cause and effect

Cause and effect is a text structure that explains how events or actions are connected –where one thing directly leads to another. Writers use this structure in various contexts to show relationships between causes (why something happens) and effects (what happens as a result). Cause and effect is also used in persuasive writing such as editorials, to argue for or against certain actions.

In science, cause and effect explains natural processes:

• ‘When water is heated to 100°C, it begins to boil.’

• ‘Deforestation leads to habitat loss, reducing biodiversity.’

In history, this structure helps analyse how past events shaped the present:

• ‘The invention of the printing press led to increased literacy rates across Europe.’

• ‘The Great Depression contributed to economic reforms and new financial regulations.’

In environmental studies, cause and effect shows consequences of human actions:

• ‘Burning fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide, which contributes to climate change.’

• ‘Overfishing disrupts marine ecosystems, leading to declining fish populations.’

In health and medicine, it explains the impact of behaviours on well-being:

• ‘A lack of exercise can lead to obesity and heart disease.’

• ‘Exposure to secondhand smoke increases the risk of lung cancer

In everyday life, cause and effect is commonly seen in simple actions and their outcomes:

• ‘If you forget to water a plant, it will start to wilt.’

• ‘Staying up late can make you feel tired the next day.’

You may find cause and effect a useful structure to use in your own persuasive and argumentative writing.

5 Look at this scenario:

A student stays up late playing video games.

Write a paragraph that explains the potential chain reaction of cause and effect that might result from this scenario. Use appropriate transition words to connect the events.

Compare and contrast

KEY TERMS

cause and effect: a relationship between events where one event (the cause) makes another event happen (the effect)

editorial: an article in a newspaper that expresses the editor’s opinion

SAMPLE

Compare and contrast is a text structure that explores the similarities and differences between two or more things. Writers use this structure for various purposes, such as helping readers make informed decisions (for example, comparing different products or  ervices) or analysing historical events (for example, comparing the leadership styles of two figures). It is also often used in science to examine different species, ecosystems or theories. Furthermore, in persuasive writing, compare and contrast can be a powerful tool for developing arguments by highlighting the advantages of one perspective over another (see Chapter 4).

Recognising the compare and contrast structure allows you to break down complex topics, weigh different perspectives and engage in critical thinking. By identifying key similarities and differences, you can better answer analytical questions about a text, support your interpretations with evidence and develop well-reasoned arguments in your own writing.

6 Select two popular social media platforms (such as Instagram and TikTok, Facebook and X, Snapchat and YouTube).

a Create a Venn diagram or a chart to compare and contrast these platforms. Consider the following factors.

i Target audience: Who uses each platform?

ii Features: What are the key features and functionalities of each?

iii Content: What types of content are typically shared on each?

iv Purpose: What are the main reasons people use each platform?

v Impact: How do these platforms influence communication, social interaction and information sharing?

Short-lived photo and video content

Long-form videos and curated channels Allows video sharing Snapchat YouTube

b Now analyse the similarities and differences. Based on your comparison, which platfor m do you think is more influential? Which platform has a greater impact on society? Explain your reasoning.

Problem and solution

The problem-and-solution text structure is a way of organising information that first presents a problem and then discusses ways to address it. Writers use a problem-andsolution structure for the following reasons:

• To analyse social issues: Newspaper articles and essays might explore problems such as poverty, inequality or environmental damage and propose solutions.

• To explain scientific discoveries: Scientific reports often present a problem or question and then describe the research and experiments conducted to find a solution.

SAMPLE

• To persuade readers to a particular point of view: Speeches and opinion pieces often use this structure to argue for a specific course of action to address a problem.

• To provide instructions or advice: Self-help books and manuals often use problem and solution to offer guidance on overcoming challenges or achieving goals.

KEY TERM

Venn diagram: a visual tool that uses overlapping circles to show similarities and differences

We are working towards endorsement of this title for the Cambridge Pathway.

7 Look at the following scenarios.

a Many students struggle to stay focused during online classes because of distractions at home.

b The spread of misinformation on social media makes it difficult for people to distinguish reliable news sources from false information.

c The increasing reliance on artificial intelligence raises concerns about job displacement and the need to retrain workforces.

Work in small groups to:

i identify the main problem in each of the scenarios

ii brainstorm at least three possible solutions for each problem

iii evaluate your solutions – which solution do you think is most effective and why?

Spatial order

Spatial order is a text structure that describes the physical location or arrangement of things, similar to how you might describe the layout of your bedroom to a friend. While spatial order is often categorised under descriptive writing, it specifically focuses on the organisation of details based on location and arrangement rather than other descriptive elements like sensory details or emotions.

SAMPLE

Writers use spatial order for various purposes, such as describing a place in a travel brochure, explaining the parts of a cell in a biology textbook, providing instructions for assembling furniture, or creating vivid settings in literature. Understanding spatial order is important because it helps you visualise the scene, organise descriptive details and understand the relationships between different parts of a whole.

8 Read the following short descriptions of rooms and identify whether they effectively follow the spatial order structure.

• If they do, select the words or phrases that indicate spatial arrangement.

• If they do not, rewrite them to improve their use of spatial order.

a The kitchen has modern appliances. The dining table sits near the windo To the left of the table is a wooden shelf with decorative items. Behind the counter, there is a refrigerator.

b My bedroom is comfortable. I enjoy reading books, and my bed is very soft. I like my cosy atmosphere.

c As you enter the library, the fiction section is directly ahead. To the right, rows of non-fiction books are neatly organised. In the far-left corner, a reading nook provides a quiet space for study.

9 Imagine you are designing your dream bedroom or study space. Write a paragraph describing the layout of your ideal room using spatial order. It may help to picture yourself giving a tour of the room and describing what someone would see as they walk through it. Use prepositions and directional words (‘next to’, ‘across from’, ‘to the left’, ‘in the centre’, etc.) to indicate the location of furniture and other features.

Identifying text structure

Look for transition words – certain words and phrases indicate how the information is organised.

Analyse the relationships between ideas. Ask yourself: Are events presented in a sequence? Is the text explaining a problem and solution? Does it compare two subjects?

Create a visual representation. Use graphic organisers to map out the structure, such as:

• flowcharts for cause-effect relationships

• timelines for chronological order

• Venn diagrams for compare-contrast

• Tables for problem-solution analysis.

10 Identify the text structure in each of the following statements.

a When pollution levels rose across the city, local leaders passed new clean air laws. As a result, the number of hospital visits for asthma dropped significantly.

b First, preheat the oven. Then, mix the dry ingredients and whisk the eggs. After combining everything, bake the cake for 30 minutes.

c Unlike Instagram, TikTok focuses more on trends and audio. However, both apps are used to share short videos and connect with audiences worldwide.

d To the right of the fountain is the rose garden. Behind the benches sits a large oak tree that provides shade in the afternoon.

e Rising global temperatures have led to increased extreme weather events. Flooding, droughts and wildfires are becoming more frequent as a result.

2.3

Identifying the writer’s purpose

Every writer has a reason for writing and every speaker has a reason for saying what they say – words always have an agenda! A writer or speaker may aim to inform, persuade, entertain or express an opinion or emotion, and exploring this purpose will help you better understand the message and meaning of someone’s words. Recognising this distinction will help you engage more critically with texts, ensuring that you understand not only what is being said, but also why it is being said.

Purpose and meaning are closely linked: a writer’s intent affects how they present ideas, what evidence and information they include and what language they choose, such as emotional or logical appeals. For example, if a journalist writes an informative piece about climate change, they might use statistics and expert opinions to present facts objectively. However, if their goal is to persuade their reader to adopt more sustainable habits or donate to a climate charity, they may choose emotive language and focus on human impacts to inspire action.

KEY TERM

emotive language: words chosen to evoke a deliberate emotional response in a reader

TIP

The idea of purpose or motivation can also be applied to speech – whether spoken or written down. For example, if you are asked to analyse a real-world scenario based on a conversation or an interview, you can consider what the ‘speaker’s’ motivations might be based on their language choices, their imagined audience, use of evidence, and so on.

DISCUSSION POINT

Think about the different ways you communicate with others, such as texting a friend, writing an email to a teacher, posting on social media or giving a presentation. Each of these has a different purpose. In pairs, discuss the following questions:

• How do you change your language and style depending on your purpose and audience?

• How can you tell what someone else’s purpose is when they communicate with you?

• Can you think of a time when you misinterpreted someone’s message because you did not understand their purpose? If so, tell your partner about this situation.

Reasons for writing

People write for many different reasons. They may want to:

• inform or explain

• persuade or argue

• entertain or amuse

• express thoughts or feelings

• inspire or motivate

There will often be clues in a text as to the writer’s purpose. Ask yourself the following questions to identify what this might be.

Before reading:

• What type of text is this (article, blog, story, poem, advertisement, etc.)?

• Where was this text published (newspaper, magazine, website, textbook, etc.)?

• Who is the intended audience (general public, a specific age group, subject experts, etc.)?

During reading:

• What is the main topic of the text?

• What kind of language does the writer use (formal/informal, objective/subjective, emotional/neutral)?

• How is the text structured (chronological, cause and effect, compare and contrast, etc.)?

KEY TERMS

formality: the extent to which a piece of writing follows standard English conventions

objective: describing something that is based on facts, rather than being influenced by personal beliefs or feelings

subjective: influence by or based on personal beliefs or feelings, rather than being based on facts

• What kind of evidence does the writer use (facts, statistics, examples, anecdotes, etc.)?

• Does the writer express opinions or try to persuade the reader? After reading:

• What was the main point I took away from the text? What did the writer want me to learn or to do after reading it?

• How did the text make me feel (for example, informed, entertained, persuaded, inspired)?

• Can I summarise the author’s main point in one sentence?

READING TIP

A writer’s purpose and a reader’s feelings do not always align. For example, an article may be intended to inform, but a reader might feel angered or inspired by its content. Consider how your reaction relates to what the writer aimed to achieve.

The following table shows how the questions can be used to reveal the writer’s purpose. As you read a text, identify its key features (structure, language, evidence), then compare your findings to the table and decide which purpose aligns best with the text’s characteristics.

Purpose Text types StructureRegister/ language features Evidence

Inform/ explain article report email textbook chronological cause and effect spatial formal neutral objective clear explanations technical terms facts statistics expert opinions

Persuade/ argue article blog speech advertisement compare and contrast problem and solution argumentative (see Chapter 5) formal or informal (depends on audience) subjective emotional appeals rhetorical devices strong claims anecdotes opinions persuasive techniques

KEY TERM

anecdote: a short account of an interesting incident

KEY TERM

rhetorical device: language techniques such as rhetorical questions, repetition and figurative language that is designed to have a persuasive effect, to make people believe things

Purpose Text types

StructureRegister/ language features

Evidence

Entertain/ amuse story poem play novel chronological narrative informal vivid imagery dialogue figurative language engaging tone anecdotes plot events character interactions setting descriptions

Express thoughts/ feelings diary journal blog letter email chronological narrative informal first-person viewpoint personal reflections emotive language personal experiences opinions descriptive details

Inspire/ motivate blog speech self-help article problem and solution narrative informal encouraging tone motivational language direct address (‘you’)

anecdotes personal stories calls to action

2 Exploring the text

KEY TERMS

dialogue: the speech in a book, play or film call to action: a speech or a piece of writing that asks or encourages people to do something to deal with a problem

imperative: used to describe the form of a verb that usually used for giving orders

Instruct how-to guide manual recipe infographic sequential spatial formal direct commands (imperatives) simple, clear instructions diagrams numbered steps bullet points

READING TIP

Narrative texts are usually fiction, but some genres fall into the category of narrative non-fiction, including historical recounts, memoirs and travel writing. Narratives – whether fiction or non-fiction – may follow several different structures, including linear (chronological) or non-linear. They are often based on a classic five-part structure where the action builds to a climax and eventually reaches a resolution.

We are working towards endorsement of this title for the Cambridge Pathway.

Look at this short excerpt from a leaflet as an example:

‘First, we looked at the community’s main challenges: high rent, limited transit and lack of green space. Then we spoke to residents and developed a three-step plan for change.’

The clear structure here – problem, process and solution – helps the reader follow the logic of the message and understand that the plan is based on real concerns and input from the community.

11 Read Texts 2.8–2.12. Match each text to one of the following purposes:

to inform to persuade to entertain to express personal feelings to inspire

Text 2.8

The Amazon rainforest is often referred to as the ‘lungs of the planet’. This vast area of forest is essential in maintaining our planet’s climate balance. It absorbs significant levels of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, and releases oxygen, playing a substantial role in reducing the effects of global warming. However, this vital ecosystem is under threat from deforestation due to human activities such as mining, logging and agriculture. The continued existence of the Amazon is vital for Earth’s sustainable future and the preservation of our planet’s extraordinary biodiversity.

Text 2.9

Are you tired of feeling sluggish and unmotivated? Do you want to boost your energy levels and improve your overall health? Then join our 30-day fitness challenge! Our programme offers personalised workout plans, nutritional guidance and expert support to help you achieve your fitness goals. Sign up today and transform your life!

Text 2.10

The old, abandoned house stood on a hill overlooking the town. Its windows were boarded up, and the paint was peeling. As the wind howled through the broken panes, a sense of eerie mystery hung in the air. Legends spoke of a family that had vanished within its walls, leaving behind only whispers and shadows.

Text 2.11

They say that if you find a job that you love, you’ll never work a day in your life. So, keep searching – you will eventually find what you are looking for. Never settle for less!

SAMPLE

Text 2.12

I remember the day I first learnt to ride a bike. The feeling of freedom and accomplishment was exhilarating. The wind in my hair, the sun on my face and the world whizzing by – it was pure joy. Even now, years later, the memory brings a smile to my face.

READING TIP

As you read a text, always ask yourself ‘Why did the author write this?’ Look for clues in the language, tone and structure to uncover their purpose – to inform, persuade, entertain or express themselves.

PROJECT

Environmental issues – reading between the lines You are going to work in small groups to research a current environmental issue and analyse how it is presented in different types of text. You will create a booklet of your findings to put in a ‘class library’ of source material that you and your classmates can refer to for future research and writing.

Step 1: In your groups, decide on one of the following topics to research:

• fast fashion and waste

• plastic pollution in the oceans

• climate change and extreme weather.

Step 2: Use the internet and any other resources available to you to find three different sources about your topic. Make sure that at least one of your texts is persuasive or opinion-based. You could look for:

• a news article

• a climate organisation press release

• an advertisement

• a social media post

• a company website

• a transcript or video of a speech, podcast or documentary

• a transcript of an interview with an expert or activist.

CONTINUED

Step 3: Print out copies of your three sources. Work together to highlight and annotate them clearly to answer the following questions:

• What is the explicit meaning? (What is clearly stated?)

SAMPLE

• What is the implicit meaning? (What is being suggested? What inferences can you make and why?)

• Who is the target audience? How can you tell?

• What would you say the overall feeling of the text is? Does it feel neutral and objective? Emotional or angry? Do you think the writer or speaker is biased? If so, in what way and what makes you think that?

• What specific examples of language get the message across particularly effectively?

Step 4: Write two additional pieces of text for your booklet on separate sheets of paper.

• Introduction: This should explain the topic you have chosen, including the key facts and why the issue is important.

• Summary: This should be a comparison of the three texts, containing information about what each one says and what it suggests or implies. Include a reflection on which text you found most trustworthy and why.

Step 5: Assemble your sources and notes into booklet form. Include any pictures that contribute to your analysis. Put the Introduction at the front and the Summary at the back. Create a cover with your topic title and the names of your group members.

Step 6: Set up a shelf in the classroom to keep your research booklets. Read the booklets created by one or two other groups.

2.4 Use of language

Have you ever noticed that you change the way you speak depending on who you are talking to? You might use slang with your friends, formal language with a teacher and a playful tone with a younger sibling. In the same way, writers make deliberate language choices appropriate to the context. These help to shape meaning and guide the reader’s understanding.

The ‘voice’ of a piece of writing is reflected in its style, tone and register Style refers to the use of language, word choice, sentence structure and use of literary devices such as figurative and emotive language. Tone refers the words and details that show a particular attitude towards the subject matter. Recognising these features and being able to analyse them will help you to evaluate how well a writer achieves their purpose and creates particular effects.

KEY TERMS

slang: very informal language that is usually spoken rather than written

register: the level of formality in a piece of writing or a speech literary device: a technique or tool that a writer uses to convey their meaning or create particular effects, such as figurative or rhetorical language

Style

Style refers to the language and grammar choices that a writer or speaker makes to create specific effects, such as their word choice and sentence structure. Identifying the style of a text will help you to focus on how language has been selected for a specific purpose, audience and context.

Some writing styles include:

• Journalistic: A journalistic style presents information concisely, factually and objectively, often using neutral language. For example: ‘The Prime Minister announced a new policy to address climate change, emphasising the need for global cooperation.’

• Literary: A literary style often includes descriptive and figurative language to create imagery and to evoke emotions in the reader or listener. For example: ‘The towering trees whispered secrets to the rustling wind as golden leaves danced in the autumn air.’

• Technical: A technical style uses specialised vocabulary and precise explanations. It is often used in academic writing such as journals, or to give instructions. For example: ‘The photovoltaic cells convert sunlight into electricity by generating an electric field within the semiconductor layers.’

KEY TERMS

SAMPLE

You have probably come across the three main sentence structures before.

• Simple sentences have one main verb and express a complete thought. They convey information clearly and directly, often creating emphasis or a sense of urgency. For example: ‘The sun shone brightly.’

• Compound sentences join two simple sentences with a coordinating conjunction. They show relationships between ideas, create balance or contrast, and develop a logical flow. For example: ‘The sun shone brightly, but dark clouds loomed on the horizon.’

• Complex sentences combine a main clause with one or more subordinate clauses, which add information. Complex sentences allow for more nuanced and layered explanations. They also allow a writer to develop characters or settings and build atmosphere or mood. For example: ‘Although the sun was shining, the air was cool and crisp.’

imagery: literary devices, such as figurative and sensory language, that encourage a reader to form a picture in their mind of the way something looks, sounds or behaves

specialised: relating to a particular subject or activity, rather than being general

simple sentence: a sentence that just has one main clause compound sentence: a sentence that has two or more main clauses joined by coordinating conjunctions coordinating conjunction: a word such as ‘and’, ‘but’, ‘or’ that joins two words or two main clauses in a sentence

complex sentence: a sentence that has a main clause and one or more subordinate clauses, introduced by a subordinating conjunction

subordinate clause: a clause that cannot form a sentence alone, but which adds information to the main clause

LANGUAGE FOCUS: SENTENCE STRUCTURES AND THEIR EFFECTS

CONTINUED

Writers carefully select and combine different sentence structures to shape meaning, to control the pace of their writing and to create emphasis. Different sentence structures can also work well for particular purposes:

• Informative texts tend to use clear, structured sentences for precision.

• Persuasive writing may use complex structures to develop arguments and short, direct sentences for impact.

• Stories (narratives) mix different sentence types to control pacing and build mood.

Recognising these structures will help you analyse texts effectively, and understand how a writer reinforces meaning, tone and argument.

12 Read Text 2.13, a speech given to graduating students at a university, then answer the questions.

Text 2.13

Look back over your shoulder fondly and say goodbye to act one of your life. And then quickly look forward. Act two begins today. It’s your turn to reach out and take the baton.

You enter the world at a time of great challenge. [. . .]

Our planet is warming with devastating consequences—and there are some who deny it’s even happening. [. .]

And yet we are not powerless in the face of these problems. You are not powerless to fix them.

No generation has ever held more power than yours. And no generation has been able to make change happen faster than yours can. The pace at which progress is possible has accelerated dramatically. Aided by technology, every individual has the tools, potential, and reach to build a better world.

That makes this the best time in history to be alive. Whatever you choose to do with your life . . .

Wherever your passion takes you.

I urge you to take the power you have been given and use it for good. Aspire to leave this world better than you found it.

I didn’t always see life as clearly as I do now. But I’ve learned the greatest challenge of life is knowing when to break with conventional wisdom.

Don’t just accept the world you inherit today.

Don’t just accept the status quo.

KEY TERM

pace: the speed at which something moves or with which something happens or changes

SAMPLE

No big challenge has ever been solved, and no lasting improvement has ever been achieved, unless people dare to try something different. Dare to think different.

From American businessman Tim Cook’s commencement speech at Duke University in 2018

a Note down the main idea in this text, then make some additional notes to record the emotions that this idea evokes.

b How does the speaker use different sentence types (simple, compound and complex) to build his argument and connect with his audience? Find one example of each sentence type and write down why you think it is particularly effective in conveying the message or creating a specific effect. Make sure you comment on the impact of the message. Look back to the list of questions you should ask before, during and after reading in Section 2.3 to help you.

c Rewrite the first paragraph of the speech to change the sentence structures. For example, combine short sentences into longer ones, or break down complex sentences into simpler ones. How do these changes affect the clarity, flow and impact of the paragraph?

13 In small groups discuss the following questions:

a How does the use of different sentence types contribute to the power and persuasiveness of the speech in Text 2.9?

b What effects do different sentence structures create (for example, emphasis, clarity, emotion, rhythm)?

c How does understanding sentence types help you appreciate the impact of Cook’s words?

Tone

Tone refers to a writer’s or speaker’s attitude toward the subject, and it is reflected in word choice, sentence structures and level of formality. Tone shapes how a reader perceives the message of a text. Some common tones include:

• Serious: A serious tone is most often found in formal or academic contexts to present important issues. For example: ‘The consequences of climate change are dire and require immediate action to prevent irreversible damage to the planet.’ Here, the use of strong language (‘dire’, ‘irreversible damage’) conveys a sense of urgency.

• Humorous: A humorous tone is light-hearted and entertaining, often using wordplay, exaggeration or informal expressions. For example, ‘Going green is all the rage these days! Even my grandma is composting and driving a hybrid car.’ Here, the use of colloquial language (‘all the rage’) and anecdote makes the writing feel playful and engaging.

SAMPLE

• Optimistic: An optimistic tone is founded on the language of hope, solutions and positive outcomes. For example: ‘With innovation and collaboration, we can create a sustainable future where technology and nature coexist in harmony.’ Here, the use of positive language (‘sustainable future’, ‘collaboration’) encourages a forward-thinking perspective.

• Objective: An objective tone is neutral and fact-based, avoiding emotional language. For example: ‘The study indicates that global temperatures have risen by an average of 1.2 degrees Celsius over the past century.’ Here, the use of precise language and statistical data creates an unbiased tone.

KEY TERM

colloquial language: informal words or expressions that are more suitable for use in speech than in writing

• Concerned: A concerned tone might express worry or alarm about an issue, often to raise awareness. For example: ‘The increasing frequency of extreme weather events is a stark reminder of the urgent need to address climate change.’ Here, the use of cautionary language (‘urgent need’, ‘stark reminder’) highlights the seriousness of the situation.

SAMPLE

Register

The register of a piece of writing or a speech is its level of formality, which usually depends on purpose and audience. In some ways it can be seen as a feature of style – a deliberate choice by the writer or speaker about the language they use.

• A formal register is used in serious or official contexts, such as academic essays, scientific reports, legal documents and speeches. It features precise vocabulary, an objective tone and sophisticated sentence structures to convey information clearly and professionally. For example: ‘Scientific studies indicate a correlation between prolonged exposure to air pollution and respiratory diseases.’

• An informal register is used in casual or familiar situations like conversations between friends, personal emails, text messages, or blog posts. It features simpler language, a conversational tone and personal expressions, making the writing more relatable. For example: ‘Did you know that breathing in polluted air for too long can mess up your lungs?’

• A neutral register is used in situations where clarity and straightforward communication are important, such as manuals, instructions, news reporting or public announcements. It avoids emotional tone or highly formal language and focuses on delivering information in a clear, factual way. For example: ‘The city’s public transport system will be suspended for three days due to scheduled maintenance.’

In reality, a text or speech may be very formal (such as academic papers or speeches to parliament), very informal (such as casual conversations) or anywhere in between.

TIP

Both style and register relate to how a writer uses language, but they focus on different aspects:

• Style refers to the way a writer crafts their writing using word choice, sentence structure and tone to create a particular effect. It is about the technique and expression used.

• Register refers to the level of formality, which depends on the purpose and audience. It is about how appropriate the language is for the context.

14 Read Text 2.14, then answer the questions.

Text 2.14

It took many years of hard work to finish that task. There was not one new element, there were several of them. But the most important is radium, which could be separated in a pure state. Now, the special interest of radium is in the intensity of its rays which [are] several million times greater than the uranium rays. And the effects of the rays make the radium so important. If we take a practical point of view, then the most important property of the rays is the production of physiological effects on the cells of the human organism.

These effects may be used for the cure of several diseases. Good results have been obtained in many cases. What is considered particularly important is the treatment of cancer. The medical utilization of radium makes it necessary to get that element in sufficient quantities. And so a factory of radium was started to begin with in France, and later in America where a big quantity of ore named carnotite is available. America does produce many grams of radium every year, but the price is still very high because the quantity of radium contained in the ore is so small. The radium is more than a hundred thousand times dearer than gold.

But we must not forget that when radium was discovered, no one knew that it would prove useful in hospitals. The work was one of pure science. And this is a proof that scientific work must not be considered from the point of view of the direct usefulness of it. It must be done for itself, for the beauty of science, and then there is always the chance that a scientific discovery may become like radium a benefit for humanity.

From a speech by Marie Curie about the discovery of radium, 1921

SAMPLE

a What is the overall tone of this passage?

b What is its register – is it for mal, informal or neutral?

c Does it express excitement, persuasion or logical reasoning?

d Does the speech use simple or complex sentence structures?

e Which two of the following best describe the word choices in this speech? Identify words or phrases from the text that support your choices.

precise

technical emotional

f This speech was delivered in the formal, academic setting. How would the language need to be adapted if the speaker were sharing these ideas in a personal letter or a classroom discussion instead? Use examples from the text to support your ideas.

15 Summarise Text 2.14 using the following styles, tones and registers:

a Casual/conversational: Rewrite the passage as if you are explaining Curie’s discovery to a friend or social media audience. (Hint: Use simple sentences, contractions and everyday language.)

b Inspirational/motivational: Rewrite it as a speech encouraging young scientists. (Hint: Use powerful language, rhetorical devices and an uplifting tone.)

c Historical narrative: Rewrite the passage as if it were part of a historical biography or documentary. (Hint: Keep it factual but make it engaging, as if telling the story of her discovery.)

LANGUAGE FOCUS: SYNTAX

Syntax refers to the set of rules that govern how words are arranged in a sentence. For example:

• Standard order: The teacher explained the concept clearly. (subject-verb-object)

• Inverted order (for emphasis or stylistic effect): Clearly did the teacher explain the concept. (Placing ‘clearly’ at the beginning shifts emphasis.)

• Deliberate emphasis: Never had the students been so engaged in a lesson. (Placing ‘never’ at the beginning intensifies the statement.)

Syntax choices interact with style, register and tone, reinforcing purpose and level of formality. Varying syntax allows a writer or speaker to:

• enhance clarity, ensuring messages are easily understood

• create emphasis, placing key information in positions of prominence

KEY TERM

logical reasoning: a thinking process that uses established rules or principles to draw conclusions and solve problems

SAMPLE

• reflect tone and register – for example short, simple sentences may create a direct or informal tone, while longer, complex sentences may convey a formal or academic register.

For example, in journalistic writing, short, active-voice sentences create a sense of urgency, whereas in literary writing, longer, more intricate sentences build mood and detail.

KEY TERM

syntax: the grammatical arrangement of words in a sentence

CONTINUED

Look at this extract from another speech and the notes below: We cannot delay action any longer. [1] Climate change is not a distant threat – it is here, now, shaping our weather, displacing communities and disrupting food systems. [2] While some still argue over policies, the science is clear, and the need is urgent. [3] It is our responsibility – not tomorrow, but today – to act decisively for the sake of future generations. [4]

[1] Short, urgent sentence. The syntax is simple and declarative, and the effect is to create a sense of urgency and determination, setting the tone as serious and persuasive. The register is formal but accessible, suitable for a speech.

[2] Longer compound sentence with a list. The syntax is a parallel structure with commas and dashes, with the effect of emphasising the immediacy and scale of the problem. The tone is urgent and assertive. The purpose of this sentence is to persuade the listener by presenting logical evidence (appeal to reason).

[3] Complex sentence with a dependent clause. The sentence starts with a subordinate clause that introduces contrast; this syntax acknowledges opposing views but quickly shifts attention to the speaker’s main point. It makes the argument sound balanced and thoughtful, which helps build credibility. The formal and reasoned tone is appropriate for persuasive writing, such as speeches, commentaries, or public advocacy pieces.

[4] Sentence with interruption for emphasis. The use of dashes adds a deliberate pause to highlight the contrast between ‘not tomorrow’ and ‘today’, and this syntax draws attention to the urgency of the message. It encourages the reader to reflect and reinforces the speaker’s call to immediate action. The tone is inspiring and persuasive, with a moral appeal that emphasises collective responsibility.

16 Rewrite the following sentences as described.

a The children quickly completed their homework.

(Rewrite to emphasise a different part of the sentence.)

b She had never felt so happy in her entire life.

(Invert this sentence by placing ‘never’ at the beginning.)

c The storm raged with incredible fury.

(Rewrite this sentence to shift the emphasis to ‘with incredible fury’.)

Word choice

Style, tone and register are all linked to the language a writer or speaker uses. Specific words (diction) are carefully chosen to shape the meaning and message of a text or speech, to create certain effects and to make the reader or listener respond in a particular way.

Writers use language and word choices to:

• create tone, mood, or atmosphere (for example, tense, optimistic, humorous)

• show emotion or attitude (for example, frustration, regret, enthusiasm)

• persuade or influence others (for example, to suggest solutions or frame people positively/negatively)

• suggest motives, assumptions or bias (for example, exaggeration or selective phrasing)

• give insight into a speaker’s personality or priorities.

By analysing word choice, you can explain what a speaker’s tone suggests, why they made a particular comment or what their word choice reveals about their motives or feelings. Additionally, you will be able to evaluate how persuasive or emotional the language is, and how it reflects the writer’s purpose or point of view.

Text 2.15 shows two text types that exemplify of some of these effects.

Text 2.15

Part 1: Journal entry

Tuesday, 6 February

Honestly, today just confirmed what I’ve been thinking for weeks. We’re expected to do everything, smile about it, and say thank you for the opportunity. I don’t mind stepping up when needed, but this? Another week of ‘volunteering’ for lunch clean-up just because I didn’t say no fast enough?

I overheard Ms Patel saying I’m ‘such a dependable student’. Translation: someone who won’t argue back.

I stayed behind after class to speak up, but of course I chickened out. Just nodded and said, ‘I’ll manage.’ Why is it so hard to just say what I mean?

Part 2: Dialogue excerpt (the next morning)

Jordan: You doing that clean-up thing again today?

Zara: (shrugs) Yeah. Guess so.

KEY TERM

diction: the choice and use of words in speech and writing

SAMPLE

Jordan: You don’t even like it. You told me last time it was exhausting.

Zara: I know. But Ms Patel already wrote my name down.

Jordan: So what? Tell her to cross it off. You’re allowed to say no.

Zara: (quietly) I wish I could.

We are working towards endorsement of this title for the Cambridge Pathway.

Note the following features:

• Diction: Phrases such as ‘I’ll manage’, ‘chickened out’ and ‘I wish I could’ suggest Zara’s internal conflict. These words reflect a passive, hesitant tone that hints at her discomfort with confrontation, even though she feels taken advantage of.

• Tone and emotion: The journal entry opens with ‘Honestly, today just confir med what I’ve been thinking for weeks’, which conveys emotional exhaustion.

• Syntax: Short responses like ‘Yeah. Guess so.’ and ‘I know.’ in the dialogue highlight her reluctance and discomfort. These fragmented sentences suggest avoidance or a desire to shut down the conversation.

17 Read Text 2.16, then answer the questions.

Text 2.16

Part 1: Excerpt from a conversation between two students, Priya and Lewis

Lewis: You’ve seen the final Project Week shortlist, right?

Priya: Yeah. ‘Future Me’ or ‘Sustainable Solutions’. And now everyone’s in a panic about what to vote for.

Lewis: I just think we should be using the time for something bigger than writing mock CVs.

Priya: Wow. Harsh. Some of us don’t have a clue what we want to do after school – a little guidance wouldn’t hurt.

Lewis: It’s not that I don’t get it. But we’re constantly told to ‘think about the future’. What about learning to change something now?

Priya: Change is great, but not everyone wants to spend the week being lectured on waste bins.

Lewis: It’s not about bins. It’s about action. Planning something real. Not just reflecting and moving on.

Part 2: Extract from the Project Week voting form

Year 12 Project Week: Voting form

Sustainable Solutions

Work in teams to identify a real environmental or community challenge and design an actionable solution. You will:

• research local issues, develop campaigns, or propose new systems

• present findings and a pitch to a review panel of staff and community partners

• focus on critical thinking, teamwork and practical impact.

Future Me

Explore what life after school might look like and how to prepare for it. You will:

• attend career and education workshops, mock interviews and life-skills sessions

• create a personal portfolio and post-school action plan

• focus on self-reflection, goal setting and confident communication

Students must vote by Thursday 3 p.m.

Project Week will run Monday to Friday, and your selected theme will guide all activities.

a How does Lewis’s way of expressing his opinion shape the reader’s impression of him? Refer to a specific sentence or phrase that stands out in how it is phrased.

b How does the conversation between Priya and Lewis help us understand the contrast between their priorities? Explain how their responses to each other build that contrast.

c Look at the description of ‘Future Me’ in Part 2. What kind of experience is being presented, and how does the wording influence how the reader might feel about it? Choose one phrase or sentence to support your answer.

d The Project Week voting sheet includes headings, lists and bullet points. How do these choices affect how information is communicated to students? What does this structure suggest about the writer’s purpose?

e Consider Lewis’s final line: ‘It’s about action. Planning something real. Not just reflecting and moving on.’ What do these short phrases suggest about how he feels? Why do you think the speaker uses this rhythm and structure?

f Both texts present different ideas about what students should gain from Project Week. How does each text communicate these ideas to influence the reader? Use examples from both to support your view.

g Imagine you are reading this as a student deciding how to vote. What parts of the language might shape your decision? Support your answer with evidence from one or both texts.

Connotations

Two words might have similar definitions according to the dictionary (their denotation), but they can create very different feelings or impressions when read or heard. This is because even similar words can have different connotations For example, both ‘home’ and ‘house’ refer to a place where someone lives. However, ‘home’ suggests warmth, belonging and personal connection, while ‘house’ feels neutral – even impersonal. All the effects explored above are created by choosing words with the right connotations, so recognising and understanding different connotations is useful not just for analysing texts, but also for your own academic writing, to ensure you get your message across in the way you want.

It is tempting to think of connotations as simply positive or negative, but they are often more complex than that. The meaning of a word may vary depending on context, perspective and intention:

• Who is using the word? A journalist, a poet and a politician might all use the same word differently.

• What is the tone of the text? A word like ‘stubborn’ might be negative in a workplace setting but suggest admirable qualities in a story about perseverance.

• How does the word affect the reader’s perception? Choosing between ‘brave’ and ‘reckless’ can entirely change how someone’s actions are viewed.

KEY TERMS

denotation: the main meaning of a word, not including any feelings or ideas that people may associate with it

connotations: the ideas, feelings and associations that a particular word evokes in a reader, in addition to the main meaning of the word

The following table gives some examples of how similar words carry different connotations.

Word

thin

DenotationConnotationsExample

Having little body fat

Neutral, possibly positive (fit, healthy, slender)

gaunt Extremely thin, possibly due to illness or suffering Negative (exhausted, malnourished, haunted)

economical Careful with money Positive, resourceful, wise, responsible

The dancer’s thin frame moved gracefully across the stage.

After weeks stranded at sea, his gaunt face was hollow and his eyes sunken.

My grandmother was economical, always finding ways to save money and make the most of her resources.

cheap Low in priceNegative, possibly of poor quality, lacking value

confident Sure of oneselfPositive, assertive, self-assured, capable

The furniture was cheap and poorly made, falling apart after only a few months.

The confident speaker captivated the audience with her clear voice and compelling arguments.

arrogant Having an exaggerated sense of one’s own importance

determined Possessing firm or unwavering resolution

SAMPLE

stubborn Having or showing determination not to change one’s attitude or position

Negative, haughty, conceited, overbearing

Positive, resolute, persistent, tenacious, strongwilled

The arrogant CEO dismissed his employees’ suggestions, believing that he knew best.

Despite facing numerous setbacks, the determined entrepreneur never gave up on her dream of starting her own business.

Negative, inflexible, obstinate, unwilling to compromise

The stubborn child refused to eat his vegetables, even though his parents pleaded with him.

18 Copy and complete the table to identify the denotation and connotation of each word, then give an example of the word in context.

Word DenotationConnotationExample curious nosy brave reckless generous extravagant assured conceited assertive aggressive

READING TIP

Words are like onions – they have layers! Exploring the connotations of words will uncover the subtle shades of meaning and help you to understand the writer’s attitude, tone and purpose.

Figurative, sensory and emotive language

When people write or speak they may use certain types of words and phrases for particular effect:

• Figurative language includes many different devices, including simile, metaphor and personification, that take words beyond their literal meanings. Sayings like ‘As quiet as a mouse’ or ‘As brave as a lion’ are examples of simile.

• Sensory language uses words to create vivid imagery and appeal to the reader’s five senses. Descriptions such as ‘the sweet aroma of freshly baked bread’, ‘the deafening roar of the thunder’ or ‘the velvety softness of the cat’s fur’ create a more immersive and engaging reading experience.

• Emotive language is used to evoke specific emotions. Words such ‘joyful’, ‘heart-breaking’, ‘infuriating’ or ‘inspiring’ can directly trigger emotional responses in the reader or listener.

Although these language devices are very common in literary texts, they are also used in persuasive texts and speech, and indeed any material that aims to elicit a specific response from the reader or listener, whether that is empathy, anger or excitement. Understanding these language uses will help you to read beyond the literal meaning of words and recognise deeper messages and meanings within a text.

SAMPLE

KEY TERMS

personification: a literary device in which a nonhuman object or idea is given human qualities or characteristics

sensory language: words chosen to appeal to a reader’s senses: sight, sound, touch, taste and smell

LANGUAGE FOCUS: SIMILE, METAPHOR AND PERSONIFICATION

The three most common types of figurative language you are likely to come across in your wider reading are simile, metaphor and personification.

• A simile is a comparison between two things using the words ‘like’ or ‘as’ (for example, ‘The snow fell like soft feathers.’)

• A metaphor is a direct comparison between two things (for example, ‘The city is a concrete jungle.’)

• Personification is when a writer gives human qualities to non-human things (for example, ‘The wind howled through the trees.’)

Figurative language is more than just decoration – it shapes how a reader interprets the meaning, mood and message of a text. For example, saying ‘the wind howled through the trees’ gives the wind human attributes, making it seem alive and menacing. This choice might reflect the writer’s intention to create a tense or foreboding atmosphere in a story or to highlight the impact of a natural disaster.

Similarly, comparing a city to a ‘jungle’ suggests chaos, unpredictability, or even danger. The connotations of these comparisons help reveal a writer’s perspective: Is the city a vibrant, untamed ecosystem or a lawless and overwhelming place?

Analysing these language choices will help you to uncover not only the emotions a writer wants to evoke but also their viewpoint on a subject.

19 Read the following sentences. Each one uses emotive or sensory language to influence the reader. For each example:

• Identify one or two specific words or phrases that create a sensory or emotional effect.

• Explain what the effect is and how it might shape the reader’s understanding or reaction.

a ‘The air was thick with smoke, coating the back of your throat like ash. Sirens rose and fell in the distance, their cries fraying the edge of silence.’

b ‘Is it fair that some children go to bed hungry while leftovers are thrown away? This isn’t just a crisis – it’s a call to action.’

c ‘Each drop of rain hit the tin roof like a ticking clock – slow, steady, impossible to ignore.’

Emotive language and sensory language often work together. Sensory details can enhance the emotional impact of a scene, while emotive language adds depth and meaning to sensory descriptions. In speeches, advertisements and opinion articles, these techniques are often used to influence the audience’s feelings and perceptions. For example, a charity campaign might use sensory language to describe the harsh conditions of people in need (‘freezing winds, hollow cheeks and trembling hands’), while also employing emotive language to provoke empathy and urgency (‘No child should have to endure such suffering. Act now to save a life.’). Politicians and activists also use these techniques to sway public opinion, painting vivid pictures of problems that need immediate attention or appealing to values such as justice, freedom or security.

20 Read Text 2.17, then answer the questions.

Text 2.17

Have you ever been at sea in a dense fog, when it seemed as if a tangible white darkness shut you in, and the great ship, tense and anxious, groped her way toward the shore with plummet and sounding-line, and you waited with beating heart for something to happen? I was like that ship before my education began –only I was without compass or sounding-line and had no way of knowing how near the harbor was. ‘Light! Give me light!’ was the wordless cry of my soul, and the light of love shone on me in that very hour.

From The Story of My Life by Helen Keller

a Find three examples of emotive language. What emotions do they evoke?

b Identify three examples of sensory language (sight, sound, touch, smell, taste). How do they create a vivid scene?

c How do these techniques work together to shape the overall tone and impact of the passage?

21 Read Text 2.17 again, then rewrite it in two different ways.

a In a neutral, factual tone. Remove all emotive and sensory language. Make it as plain and objective as possible, like a report.

b With heightened sensory and emotive language. Keep the meaning of the passage the same but intensify the emotional and sensory elements to make it even more vivid.

Now read Text 2.18, and extract from an article about ice diving in the name of science. As you read, consider all the skills you have explored in this chapter so far: explicit and implicit meanings, text structure, writer’s purpose and use of language.

Text 2.18

There is a 70cm-thick (28in) layer of ice capping the surface of this lake, in a remote corner of Lapland, northern Finland. Gathered around a hole cut into the ice is a group of around 20 people, peering down into the inky depths with some trepidation. The seemingly lifeless water below the ice has a temperature only slightly above 0 degrees Celsius (32 degrees Fahrenheit). Some of them are about to jump down there to venture under the ice.

Sophie Kalkowski-Pope is one of the divers preparing to visit this strange, upside-down world where she will swim below a ceiling of smooth ice. The marine biology graduate from the University of Queensland, Australia, is part of an ice-diving training party that has gathered here. She is wearing a dry suit and anticipating the initial cold shock when that frigid water will hit the exposed skin on her face.

It’s so numbing in these Arctic waters that, even with thermal clothing and special insulating gloves, divers find it hard to use their hands after just 30 minutes underwater. There are other dangers, too, so strict safety protocols are in place. Divers are tethered to the surface using a safety rope, with a handler on the surface communicating with the diver via rope signals. One tug for ‘ok’, two tugs for ‘stop’, three for ‘come back’.

A standby diver waits nearby in full gear, ready to enter the water if there’s an emergency. And there are two holes cut in the ice next to each other so there are two exit points.

The lines of rope linking divers back to the surface could become entangled in submerged branches or logs, other debris, or even the diver’s own equipment such as fins or tanks.

The training here on a frozen lake is practice for work that will be done out on the sea ice of the Arctic and Antarctic, where there are added dangers – large seals sometimes gather at the dive holes, preventing divers from leaving the water.

With one final check of her equipment, Kalkowski-Pope puts her breathing apparatus in her

We are working towards endorsement of this title for the Cambridge Pathway.

22 a What text structure does this article use? Choose from the following and justify your choice with examples from the passage.

A chronological

B cause and effect

C description

D problem and solution.

b The main purpose of this article is:

A to encourage readers to try ice diving

B to inform readers about the experience and safety of ice diving

C to highlight the dangers of ice diving and persuade against it

D to explain how climate change affects Arctic diving.

c Using context clues, which word could replace ‘trepidation’ in line 4?

A confidence

B hesitation

C confusion

D excitement.

d Which sense does the phrase ‘inky depths’ (line 4) engage? Why?

e How does the phrase ‘shock of the temperature sending ripples up her spine’ help the reader understand the physical impact of the ice dive? What does the writer’s choice of wording suggest about Sophie’s experience?

f What effect does the comparison ‘twinkling lights are like beacons’ have on the reader’s understanding of the underwater setting? How does it reflect the diver’s perspective or emotions(line 40)?

g Identify one example of emotive language and explain how it influences the reader’s perception of ice diving.

h Imagine this article was rewritten for a tourism advertisement rather than a science feature. How would the tone, language and content change?

2.5 Point of view

and perspective

When reading texts, especially non-fiction texts such as news articles, interviews, opinion pieces or speeches, it is important to think about who is speaking, what they believe, and how they might be connected to the issue. There are two main things consider:

• Point of view: This means who the ideas and information are coming from. Different sources can affect how a message is shaped or received.

• Perspective: This refers to how a person’s background, beliefs or experiences influence what they say. Two people might talk about the same issue but have very different views depending on what matters to them.

By thinking about point of view and perspective you can better understand why a text is written in a certain way, what the writer wants the reader to believe, and how different people might see the same topic differently.

Point of view

Point of view refers to the source of the information – who is speaking or writing, and how their position shapes what that they include, what they emphasise and what they leave out. It focuses on the source of the voice or opinion in the text: the person, group or organisation sharing ideas, facts or arguments.

Common examples of point of view that you may come across in non-fiction texts include:

• a scientist writing about environmental policy

• a government official delivering a public address

• a teenager sharing a personal experience in a school newsletter

• a charity organisation issuing a public appeal.

Each of these reflects a different position or role, and this shapes what kind of information is shared and how readers interpret it.

When identifying the point of view in a text, look for:

• Who the speaker or writer is (What role do they hold? What experience might they have?)

• What language they use (Is it for mal, emotional, persuasive or neutral?)

• What information they focus on or leave out (Do they highlight facts, opinions or specific groups?)

23 Read the four extracts a–d. For each one answer the following questions:

• Who is likely to be speaking or writing?

• What clues help you decide?

• How does the point of view affect what they say or how they say it?

a We’ve seen first-hand how rising sea levels are affecting coastal communities. Urgent changes to policy are needed if we want to avoid irreversible damage.

b I was so nervous before the performance, but it was pleased with it in the end. Sharing my poem with the whole school helped me feel more confident.

c The government is investing an additional $2 million into green energy projects across the country, supporting both innovation and job growth.

SAMPLE

d Just $3 a month could help us to provide clean water to children in need. Your donation could change a life today.

KEY TERMS

fact: something about which there is information that cannot be challenged; something that is known to have happened or to exist opinion: a thought, belief or judgement about an issue or a person

Perspective

Perspective is related, but it refers to how the speaker’s or writer’s background, values or experiences shape the way they present their message. Understanding perspective helps you:

• identify whose voice is shaping the message

• understand why certain ideas are emphasised or left out

• compare how different sources approach the same issue. Two people with different roles or experiences may view the same issue very differently even if they are talking about the same facts. For example, when considering whether or not school uniforms are a good idea:

• The teacher’s point of view is that of an educator working in a school. Their perspective might emphasise discipline, learning and professionalism.

• The student’s point of view is that of someone experiencing the rules. Their perspective might focus on self-expression, comfort or fairness.

SAMPLE

Both are expressing their views on the same topic, but their background and role influence what they choose to focus on – this is the difference between point of view (who) and perspective (how).

Readers and listeners also bring their own perspective, based on their experiences, knowledge and beliefs. This shapes how they interpret information. When analysing and evaluating texts, you need to think beyond your own perspective and consider how others might view an issue based on their own – different – background and experiences. For example, imagine a government introduces a new policy designed to reduce car usage in cities to lower pollution:

• A scientist might focus on the environmental benefits, offering data on improved air quality and reduced carbon emissions.

• A commuter who relies on their car for work might see it as an inconvenience and advocate for better public transportation.

• A business owner in the city centre could have concerns about how reduced car access might affect customer foot traffic.

• A government official might consider the economic impact and how to balance environmental goals with public needs. For example, look at this statement:

‘We need to stop delaying. Government funds should go towards building more public transportation – not expanding highways. As a daily train commuter, I know how unreliable current services can be. Investing in rail will not only cut pollution, but also make life easier for thousands of working families.

’You could identify the following about the perspective of this short piece:

• Who is speaking? A train commuter – someone who uses public transportation daily.

• What is their perspective? They want more investment in rail, and they view it as essential for reducing pollution and improving daily life.

• What clues show bias or persuasive intent? The phrase ‘We need to stop delaying’ suggests urgency and frustration. ‘Not expanding highways’ dismisses an alternative without exploring its benefits. ‘Make life easier for thousands of working families’ appeals to empathy and shared values.

• What does this tell us? The writer’s personal experience shapes their argument. Their perspective supports public transport, but the emotional and selective language shows a clear bias – they are trying to persuade the reader to agree.

24 Read the statement below, then answer the questions.

‘Everyone’s talking about how fitness trackers help teenagers stay active – but we’re not asking the right questions. These devices collect constant data: heart rate, sleep patterns, even location. Who sees that information? And how long is it stored? We wouldn’t let someone follow our children around all day with a clipboard, so why are we okay with a watch doing it? Until stricter privacy laws are in place, wearable tech should stay out of schools.’

(Alicia Rowe, child data privacy advocate)

a Who is the speaker, and what is their point of view?

b What parts of the text reveal the writer’s perspective or personal priorities?

c Identify one phrase that shows bias or persuasive language. How does it affect the reader?

25 Read Text 2.19 about a city dweller and his hobby. Pay attention to the people and groups involved and their perspectives.

Text 2.19

Mr Garcia, a bustling city apartment building resident, had a peculiar passion: urban gardening. He transformed his tiny balcony into a miniature farm, complete with rows of vegetables, fragrant herbs, and even a small chicken coop. While Mr Garcia enjoyed fresh eggs and homegrown produce, his neighbours had mixed reactions. Mrs Rodriguez, who lived next door, loved the fresh coriander Mr Garcia shared, but she was less enthusiastic about the early morning cockerel calls. The building’s landlord worried about the structural integrity of the balcony with the added weight of the soil and chicken coop. Local officials were concerned about potential health and safety violations. Animal rights activists questioned the ethics of keeping chickens in a confined urban environment. Meanwhile, Mr Garcia’s friends admired his resourcefulness and dedication to sustainable living.

a Who expresses a perspective in this text? List each person or group mentioned and briefly describe what they think or feel about Mr Garcia’s garden.

b Choose two different perspectives. What do their opinions show about their values, concerns, or priorities? What might have influenced their views?

c Which perspective do you find most reasonable or convincing? Why?

SAMPLE

DISCUSSION POINT

Why do different groups have varying perspectives on the same issue? What factors might shape their viewpoints. Think about personal experiences, cultural background or professional expertise. Discuss your ideas in small groups.

Now, shift your discussion to a particular scenario: the impact of a natural disaster (for example, a hurricane, wildfire or earthquake).

• How might different groups – such as residents, emergency responders, government officials, scientists, and business owners – view the event differently?

• What concerns might each group prioritise?

• How do personal experiences and responsibilities shape their perspectives? Finish your discussion by reflecting on how understanding different perspectives can help in decision-making and problem-solving in real-world situations.

26 Read Text 2.20 carefully, then answer the questions.

Text 2.20

Background

At Northley Sixth Form College, the administration is considering whether to install facial recognition technology at building entrances to improve security and monitor attendance. Two representatives – one from the college’s leadership team and one from the student body –were asked to submit written statements for a meeting next week.

Extract from Mr Khan’s statement (Vice Principal for Student Welfare)

In recent years, schools and colleges have faced increasing challenges: unauthorised visitors, late arrivals, even student safety during emergencies. Facial recognition systems are already being used at airports and concerts. If these tools can help protect thousands in highrisk spaces, surely they can make a positive difference in our college too.

The system we are exploring would not store images beyond daily use. It would not track students’ movements within the building, only confirm that they’ve arrived and match their identity to our internal record. This is no different to scanning an ID card – but faster, more secure, and less prone to misuse.

Above all, we must ask: what matters more – convenience or collective safety?

Extract from Sadia Lewis’s statement (Student Council Chair)

Facial recognition in a school? That’s not safety – it’s surveillance.

The moment we normalise this kind of monitoring, we stop questioning what’s being done with our personal data. How long is it stored? Who has access to it? And if a system misidentifies someone, what happens to them?

I’m not saying safety isn’t important – it is. But there are other ways to handle it: a staffed front desk, secure ID cards, or even a rotating sign-in team. Our school shouldn’t feel like a testing ground for tech companies. When did being a student mean giving up your right to choose how your face is used?

a According to Mr Khan, what is one benefit of facial recognition technology in schools?

b What do Mr Khan’s comments in paragraph 2 suggest about how the system would work in practice?

c What is the effect of the rhetorical questions used in paragraph 2 of Sadia Lewis’s statement?

d What impression does the reader get of Sadia Lewis’s attitude in paragraph 3? Support your answer with a phrase from the text.

e Compare the views of Mr Khan and Sadia Lewis. In your own words as far as possible, explain how their perspectives differ and what each one believes is most important.

REFLECTION

Looking back at the different texts and voices in this chapter, which techniques helped you most in identifying the writer’s message or point of view? Was it the word choice, tone, structure or something else? How did your awareness of perspective or bias change the way you interpreted a text? Choose one example and explain how the writer’s choices shaped your understanding of their purpose.

PROJECT

The power of language in media

You are going to work in small groups to apply your understanding of how language can be used for effect by writing a script and recording a short voiceover for a media piece. This could be an advertisement, documentary clip, or public service announcement.

Step 1: Select one of the following visual prompts:

• a silent commercial or advertisement

• a nature documentary clip (muted)

• a news segment without audio

• a historical or fictional image (for a narrative voiceover).

Step 2: Plan your voiceover:

• Define the purpose: What do you want the audience to feel or understand?

• Choose a register and tone: Will your voiceover be formal, dramatic, informative, persuasive or humorous?

• Decide on key language features: use sensory details to make the description vivid; incorporate emotive language to enhance audience engagement; select precise word choices to shape tone and mood; choose words whose connotations add depth to the message. For example:

• A PSA about climate change might use urgent and serious language (‘the ice is vanishing before our eyes, an irreversible catastrophe’)

• A travel commercial might use excitement and wonder (‘Breathtaking landscapes, crystal-clear waters, and golden sunsets await you’)

• A historical documentary voiceover might be formal and descriptive (‘In the harsh winter of 1914, soldiers endured unimaginable conditions in the trenches’).

Step 3: Write the script for your voiceover. It should last one to two minutes and should include:

• a strong opening that hooks the audience

• vivid descriptions using sensory and emotive language

• a well-structured narrative that complements the visuals

• a powerful closing statement.

CONTINUED

Step 4: Practice reading your script aloud, adjusting for:

• pacing – is the delivery engaging?

• clarity – are words easy to understand?

• emphasis – are key words given appropriate weight? Then record your voiceover, either as a single speaker or with multiple voices. Add background music or sound effects for impact, if appropriate.

Step 5: Present your voiceover to the class. Those listening should give feedback based on the following questions:

• How effectively did the language enhance the message and emotions?

• Did the voiceover match the tone and intent of the visuals?

• How did word choices shape audience perception?

Step 6: Reflect on this project:

• What challenges did your group face in making the voiceover impactful?

• How did your use of language influence the way the audience understood the visuals?

• If you had to adjust the voiceover for a different audience (for example: younger children, professionals, a global audience), what would you change?

SUMMARY

• Explicit meaning is the information that a writer states directly.

• Implicit meaning is what the writer suggests or implies through tone, word choice, and text structure.

• Writers structure texts in different ways to create specific effects. Common structures include chronological order, cause and effect, compare and contrast, problem and solution, and spatial order.

• There is a difference between implying and inferring: the writer implies; the reader infers.

• A writer’s tone reflects their attitude and can influence how a message is received.

• Style and register vary depending on the purpose, audience and formality of the text.

• Point of view and perspective shape how a subject is presented and can affect what is emphasised or left out.

Practice questions

Read the material before answering the questions.

Background

A local council has begun testing delivery robots in residential areas. The battery-powered robots are designed to carry parcels or food orders directly to people’s doors.

Text A: News brief – Delivery robots on trial

The Council has finally launched its much-anticipated automated delivery programme. Supporters say the battery-powered robots reduce traffic, lower emissions and allow contact-free delivery.

However, not everyone is convinced. Some residents say the robots clog narrow pavements and force pedestrians –especially people with wheelchairs or pushchairs – to step into the road. Others worry that the machines are recording video without permission.

The council has limited the trial to two districts and says it will monitor feedback before deciding whether to expand the service.

Text B: Council notice to residents

Delivery Robot Pilot Scheme – Community Feedback Requested

As part of our sustainability and smart-transport strategy, the city council is piloting autonomous delivery robots in two neighbourhoods from April to June.

The aim is to test whether these systems can support local delivery services while reducing traffic and emissions.

All robots are GPS-tracked, limited to pavement routes and programmed to stop when they detect a person or obstacle.

Residents can report issues or leave comments via the council website until 30 June.

Text C: Public comment (online forum)

‘I support new technology, but these robots are a hazard. My son, who has mobility challenges, was nearly knocked over when one passed too close on the pavement. And they beep constantly – it’s stressful, especially for anyone with sensory issues. If this is progress, it shouldn’t come at the expense of people’s well-being.’ (Nadia M., local resident)

Text D: Survey results (visual)

Title: Resident opinions on delivery robots – initial survey (n = 200)

1 According to Text A, what are two reasons supporters give for using delivery robots? [2]

2 What impression does the phrase ‘not everyone is convinced’ (Text A) give about public response? Explain your answer using your own words. [2]

3 What concerns does the resident raise in Text C, and how does her tone influence the way the message is received? [3]

4 Look at the survey results in Text D. How do the figures reflect the mixed opinions shown across the texts? Support your answer with references to at least two of the texts. [3]

5 What is the overall purpose of Text B, and how does the writer’s use of tone and structure support that purpose? [4]

6 What do the texts suggest about how different people define ‘progress’? Compare the views expressed in at least two of the texts, using your own words. [6]

7 Compare how the writers of Text A and Text C present their views on delivery robots. In your own words, explain how each writer uses tone and language to influence the reader. [6]

Sample answer

Compare how the writers of Text A and Text C present their views on delivery robots. In your own words, explain how each writer uses tone and language to influence the reader. [6]

The writer of Text A uses a balanced and factual tone. They present both the benefits and concerns, using phrases like ‘supporters say’ and ‘others worry’ to show different sides. This helps the reader understand the issue without forcing an opinion. In contrast, the writer of Text C expresses a strong personal viewpoint. She uses emotive language, such as ‘nearly knocked over’ and ‘stressful,’ to highlight the danger robots pose for her son. Her use of first-person language and examples makes the reader sympathize with her situation. Together, the two texts show different styles: Text A informs the reader with neutral language, while Text C tries to persuade through emotion and personal experience.

2 Exploring the text

SELF-ASSESSMENT

How confident do you feel about what you and learnt and practiced in this unit? Rate yourself a from 1 (not confident) to 5 (very confident), then answer the question to prove it.

Now I can…

Confidence rating (1–5)Prove it understand the difference between explicit and implicit meaning and identify implicit meanings in texts XXXX recognise different text structures and explain how they contribute to a writer’s message

identify and explain a writer’s purpose

analyse the style, tone and register of a text and the effect they have on the reader

analyse a writer’s use of language, including connotations, figurative language and emotive language, and explain its impact on the reader

SAMPLE

identify the point of view and perspective from which a text is written and explain how this influences the message

What type of text structure is used in the passage analysed? How does it affect the way information is presented?

What is the purpose of the passage? Provide evidence from the text to support your answer.

Identify the tone of the passage. What words or phrases contribute to this tone?

Choose a word from the passage with a strong connotation. What impression does it create? Would a different word choice change the meaning?

Find an example of sensory or emotive language in the text. How does it impact your reader’s perception?

What point of view is the passage written from? How does it shape the reader’s understanding?