FOREWORD
As the author of this report, I am proud to present my research on organic waste management in Koh Phangan. My name is Athina De Broe, as a HOGENT student I had the opportunity to do an internship with the non-profit organisation EcoThailand Foundation. During my internship period, I actively collaborated with the EcoThailand members, residents, businesses and governments. My involvement allowed me to learn about the culture and differences with Flanders.
With this report, I want to highlight the importance of organic waste management. I have specifically chosen this waste stream because its source is in the natural environment and it is an opportunity to repurpose this source back into nature, without causing further pollution. Because of my Thai roots, I found it deeply interesting to research this topic in a tropical Thai island. To get the expected information and participation for this research was a challenge. Therefore, I am immensely thankful for the welcome and support of EcoThailand's director, Jintamard Sinlapaprommard and codirector, John Fitton. Without their expertise and connections, completing this research would be difficult to achieve.
In collaboration with EcoThailand Foundation, I would like to specially mention Doungden Tiaviset, owner of Raitiaviset Organic Farm. I want to thank her for her time and knowledge she had to share with me. She has put me further in touch with other Thai communities, which have enriched my perspective on methods in Thailand.
In addition, I would like to thank the Tessabaan of Phet Phangan and Phangan for accessing exclusive information and willingness to participate in the interviews. Their insights helped to provide context and formulate my recommendations.
I would also like to thank the other members of EcoThailand, participated resorts and my fellow interns Natcha Ing, Namwan Premruedee and Marisa Sasaki for their contribution and translation.
Finally, I am grateful for the support and guidance of Wolf Depraetere throughout my internship, and HOGENT for giving me this unique opportunity for an internship abroad
ABSTRACT
Koh Phangan, an idyllic island in the Gulf of Thailand, known for its natural beauty and vibrant atmosphere. With its famous Full Moon Party, yoga centres and beautiful beaches, it attracts thousands of tourists every month. Over the years, alongside tourist growth, Koh Phangan has experienced a rise in the number of permanent residents to around 30,000. This growth has put pressure on the island's infrastructure and the delicate balance of local ecosystems.
Besides its paradise-like character, the island faces a less glamorous problem, namely waste management. With an increasing focus on the tourism sector, environmental issues fade into the background. When environmental protection is not made one of the priorities, it can have significant consequences for the island and the tourism sector. Waste, and in particular organic waste, is a source that we generate every day. It originates from nature, which makes it an obvious source to be recycled back into nature in a sustainable way
This study examines the complexity of organic waste management on Koh Phangan, a challenge that is becoming increasingly urgent. While analysing the context, it reviews from legislation to innovative recommendations. The information is based on a literature review as well as oral interviews. The applied thinking patterns can be found under the 'METHODOLOGY' section.
Every day, a significant amount of waste accumulates in restaurants, resorts, households and other businesses. The current waste treatment facilities cannot manage these quantities, so waste is often burned or dumped. Koh Phangan faces a lack of enforcement of environmental laws. Although there are three Tessabaan operating on the island, they fail to have a unified policy. Policies are managed in three different ways, making coordination difficult. Another obstacle is the limited space and resources for large-scale waste management facilities, which prevents the implementation of advanced technologies. Furthermore, the responsibility does not only lie with Tessabaan, but also with the residents themselves. There is inadequate sorting at the source, which makes the final step, the processing of the waste increasingly difficult. Despite large-scale actions being more effective, small inputs can contribute to a gradual transition to an improved organic waste management
To properly put organic waste management in context, the study focuses on legislation, processing techniques, environmental aspects and comparative studies. In a comparation with other surrounding islands, Surat Thani and Flanders, it reflects on their management and how they differ with the techniques applied on Koh Phangan. To address a practical situation, this study examines the organic waste management in the island's largest economic pillar, namely resorts. From questionnaires, responses can be divided into general challenges and differences by nationalities and region. The main aspect that emerged was that resorts have a greater need for more space for composting and a joint management
The report closes with recommendations and a general conclusion. These are divided under the roles of local communities and government. Both local communities and Tessabaan have the potential for improvement, in where efforts can be made to raise awareness and education, strengthen enforcement, investments in infrastructure and technology, and promote cooperation between local communities and authorities. By considering these recommendations, Koh Phangan can take a step closer towards a more sustainable future, supporting both the local communities, economy and environment.
4.2
4.3
5.2
7.2
RESULTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
Table 1: Current organic waste management in resorts by region: analysis of the number of resorts and their practices over a three-month period – Categorized by burning, composting and Tessabaan services
Figure 1: Diagram of control of Local Authorities by Interior Ministry..................................................15
Figure 2: Charcoal made of branches.......................................................................................................................23
Figure 3: Charcoal made of Coconut Shells..........................................................................................................23
Figure 4: Local burning of Coconut Shells at Coconut processing site in Baan Tai area
Figure 5: Compost
Figure 8: Biochar Generator given by EcoThailand Foundation with subproduct Wood Vinegar at
Figure 9: Wood Vinegar end product by Raitiaviset Organic Farm .....................................................27
Figure 10 : Layout of rills and table piles for an open-air composting process
INTRODUCTION AND OUTLINE
1.1 Description of the study
“Implementing sustainable waste management is NOT a WASTE of time”
This research focuses on organic waste management in Koh Phangan and provides an analysis of the wider context. It includes a study of Thai legislation, with a focus on the government agency Tessabaan. This section takes a closer look at the current waste management system and its challenges.
Following this, the possible treatment techniques are discussed and identified which of these are applied in Koh Phangan. In the subsequent section, various environmental aspects such as air, water, soil, odour and energy are linked to these waste management techniques to identify their impact.
This research includes two studies, namely a comparative study with similar islands, the mainland and Flanders. The second study includes a field study, focused on organic waste management in resorts.
This report is written from the perspective of an intern at EcoThailand Foundation, who was actively involved in organic waste management practices for three months EcoThailand Foundation is a non-profit organisation dedicated to environmental protection and conservation of natural resources. They mainly work around education and creating more awareness in the Thai Gulf Island communities Over the past year, they have worked in the context of bio-waste, by distributing free compost nets to local people and biochar plants to a few farmers in collaboration with The Canadian Fund for Local Initiatives (CFLI).
1.2 Objectives of the study
The objective of this research is to provide a deeper understanding of environmental protection on Koh Phangan, with a focus on organic waste. By analysing various aspects around organic waste, an answer can be formulated to the research question, "How can organic waste management on Koh Phangan be optimised, taking into account environmental protection and degree of feasibility".
An additional objective is to look for ways to ensure more awareness and optimisation opportunities. As this study interacts with government agencies, local residents and businesses, they can be alerted to these issues
In addition, at the request of the involved Tessabaan and resorts, this study is shared with them. In this way, they can gain insights into the comparative study, case study on resorts and conclusions. By sharing the recommendations with the local authorities and others, they can consider these options for better organic waste management.
METHODOLOGY
2.1
Scope of the study
To determine the scope of my study, I chose the theme organic waste because it aligns with my internship project at EcoThailand Foundation. My focus is mainly on biodegradable food -and garden waste Other components such as, wood, paper and cardboard I mention briefly, but these are outside my focus due to limited applications on Koh Phangan. For the comparative study with other islands, Surat Thani and Flanders, I limited the study to the same group of organic waste as Koh Phangan
2.2 Choice of research criteria
To define my research criteria, I started by making an overview of the essential key elements. I formed these elements with guidance from my research question and subquestions, starting from a holistic view, to further specify during my research. In my subquestions, I assessed the following: which Thai legislation applies, what the available methods are and which of them are applied on Koh Phangan, what the environmental consequences are, how similar locations deal with them and, what the biggest obstacles are with linked improvement possibilities. In this way, I was able to divide the following chapters into:
• Legislative framework of Thailand
• Methods for organic waste management
• Comparative study
• Field study Organic waste
• Results and recommendations
Afterwards, I divided each section into subchapters. For the legislative framework, I selected general provisions, including waste collection, transport, treatment, disposal and other legal documents. Furthermore, I went deeper into local governments’ current strategies and challenges.
For the processing methods of organic waste, I first made an overview of the generally available techniques. I listed the most commonly used methods, such as composting, digestion, biochar generator, energy recuperation and remaining unsustainable methods. Although biochar is not the most well-known technique, it is included in the study because it is common in Thailand.
From these techniques, I have made a selection of the methods currently used by Koh Phangan. Because Koh Phangan is more varied in its processing techniques, I have added 'repurposing into other products' and 'Processing methods of remaining organic waste'. In addition, I have mentioned Tessabaan’s processing methods to a limited extent, because this is discussed in the previous chapter. To determine the environmental impact of this, I have linked environmental themes to organic waste management. These themes includes air, water, soil, odour and energy.
To broaden the view on organic waste, I have chosen to conduct a comparative study between Koh Phangan and some comparable islands, the mainland Surat Thani and Flanders. This study aims to identify the differences and inspire Koh Phangan's management. In this section, I discuss in more detail the Flemish context, including legislation and methods used. I offer more of a focus on Flanders because it is my living environment and it is very different in culture and location from Thailand This section is closed with a reflection between the main differences with Flanders and Koh Phangan.
Following the comparative study, I dealt with a specific case study within the resort sector I chose resorts because it is the most important figure in Koh Phangan's economy. This section is divided into the importance of proper organic waste management and an analysis of the gathered data.
In the last chapter, I have divided my recommendations between two essential issues: the role of local communities and the role of Tessabaan. I have split these two issues because they mostly work separately and both of them have a major impact. I formulated these recommendations based on chapters three to six, with background information, case studies and interviews with stakeholders. Each recommendation was formulated based on the needs identified during the survey. These recommendations are ranked from most feasible and efficient to least feasible.
2.3 Data collection
Before I started my data collection, I first made a stakeholder analysis. I asked myself who I want to contact and what exactly I want to survey. The main stakeholders that I identified are: local authorities, residents/tourists, resorts, NGOs/volunteers, members of EcoThailand Foundation and agriculturalists The data collection can then be divided into two main methods: literature study and interviews
2.3.1 Literature study
During the first month, I conducted a comprehensive literature review. For this, I used online publications and assigned information from the EcoThailand database. I mainly used this database to gather information on the legislative framework of Thailand.
The online publications consisted of previous final works, which I accessed through Google Scholar. To better understand the environmental situation in Thailand, I used the reports of environmental institutes such as Thailand Environment Institute (TEI), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and Pollution Department Control (PCD). In each case, I translated these publications, by using the online tool Google Translate.
To obtain information on the comparative study, I consulted online publications, TEI's 12 islands case study and Eco Thailand’s director Jintamard. For the Flemish regulations and methods, I used the protected environment law book version 2021, together with the Emis Vito website and the official site of Flanders.
2.3.2 Interviews
After my literature review, it became clear that I needed information from local stakeholders. I had already determined my target group in my stakeholder analysis, where I prepared a separate questionnaire for each group. The majority of these interviews took place orally
To get a better understanding of the legislative framework, I surveyed local authorities. In collaboration with EcoThailand Foundation, I was able to interview two of the three Tessabaan, namely Phangan and Phet Phangan. I did not manage to interview Baan Tai Tessabaan due to limited contacts. I formed the questions in a way that it would give me answers on: current methods, educational background, biggest challenges and future strategies.
For the processing methods and comparative study, I took most of the information from the literature review. To get a more accurate approximation, I questioned EcoThailand members, local farmers and some individuals about this. I surveyed the first two groups locally and for the individuals I used an online survey. I published these questionnaires in both English and Thai in the Facebook groups. Additionally, I conducted an oral survey at the resorts, where I asked whether they are environmentally aware, what their current methods are and what challenges they face. All questionnaires can be found in the appendix
2.4 Methodological challenges
During my literature study and interviews, I realised that I faced some obstacles. The biggest obstacle was the language barrier, as only a small part of the island speaks English fluently. I lost a lot of time by going through the online documents to find the right translation. Despite the fact that I used Google Translate, most Thai characters would not translate. Most publications were scanned photos, which made translation even more difficult. For the interviews, I took a different approach and sought the help of my fellow interns as translators.
In analysing the data, it was challenging to rely on accurate information from the Thai people. Although they were open to my questioning, not all information was as accurate as I hoped for. Reticence caused me to have to double-check the information each time with EcoThailand members When it came to the Thai law, I experienced a few times resistance to ask questions as a foreign person to a Thai resident. It was a bit difficult to get this information because in most cases it is confidential and by asking questions it gives them a sense of criticism. I noticed this difference in questioning Thai and foreign people.
Chapter 3
LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK THAILAND
In order to answer the research question, it is necessary to delve deeper into Thai law. This chapter starts from the legislative framework in Thailand, analysing Tessabaan's policy and methods. The underlying role of the government as well as their current challenges regarding environmental management are illustrated. Chapter 4 will focus on general techniques, followed by a listing of techniques used on the island. Further sections expand the context by comparing the organic waste management with other islands, Surat Thani and Flanders’ policy and methods.
3.1 Organic waste legislation in Thailand
This section describes the legal context of organic waste. Although the legislation is quite concise, local government agencies are expected to follow the principle of good housekeeping by managing the organic waste as good as possible There is currently no legislation on valorisation techniques and how they should be managed in Thailand.
The Royal Gazette (Royal Gazette part 134, section 267 D, 2017) is the official publication organ of the Thai government. Part 134, section 267 D, published by the Ministry of Home Affairs describes the waste law, divided into: generalities, waste collection, transportation, treatment and disposal (Royal Gazette part 134, section 267 D, 2017, Article 4 to 14) The following sections indicate information from 267 D.
3.1.1 General provisions
The general provisions state that local public authorities should manage waste in accordance with the principles of sustainable development (Royal Gazette part 134, section 267 D, 2017, Article 4, § 1) This means that they should take into account fulfilling needs without harming future generations. They should obtain a balance between economic growth, social justice and environmental protection.
The local government will have to launch environmental and sustainability campaigns to raise the population's awareness. These campaigns should help reduce the volume of waste and promote recycling.
3.1.2 Waste collection and transport
Specific provisions in the law require waste collection and treatment to be carried out according to certain methods and standards. Local authorities must provide waste containers in public places, accessible to all. The collection sites must place one bin per waste stream, considering its capacity so that no bulging occurs. In doing so, these containers must be marked with a specific colour
The collection need to be done at a fixed time and routes must be communicated to the citizens. Waste collection must be done in watertight vehicles to avoid the risk of leakage. In addition, waste collection should not have any negative impact on traffic, hygiene,
environment and health of citizens. (Royal Gazette part 134, section 267 D, 2017, Article 6 to 10)
3.1.3 Waste treatment and disposal
The waste regulations state that it is forbidden for private individuals to process and/or dispose organic waste, in a way that is harmful to nature. Private individuals should handle according to the 3R principle (reduce, reuse and recycle) and manage it like a good housekeeper. According to the described principles, waste at the processing sites should be sorted by each stream (Royal Gazette part 134, section 267 D, 2017, Article 12 to 14) This principle may conflict with a specific section of the law, which states that processing units may determine the appropriate method themselves, on condition that it is in line with the physical characteristics of that material (Royal Gazette part 134, section 267 D, 2017, Article 11, §1). This can be called into question with what the perception of is ‘an appropriate’ method of that processing unit itself.
In section 267 D, Article 12, the law states that processing units should try to minimise their environmental impact. This article describes some methods that local authorities can follow to manage organic waste:
(1) Dumping in a hygienic way
(2) Fermentation process to make fertiliser or biogas
(3) Valorisation using heat energy recovery
(4) Fermentation method fuel energy generation
Despite the fact that these methods are included in the law, they are only recommendations and are therefore not mandatory.
3.1.4 Additional legislative documents
Besides the general law in the Royal Gazette, there are other legal documents that includes organic waste. The “Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality Act fundamental environmental law” is a fundamental environmental law in Thailand, which specifies some waste management principles. The most important aspect is described under section 6, which states that environment-related provisions should be strictly complied with. Thereby, waste management should also take into account improving and preserving environmental quality without further degrading it. (Enhancement and Conservation of National Environmental Quality Act, 1992, Article 6).
The "Public Health Act” focuses on enforcement of potentially infectious biological waste. It states that local authorities must keep an eye on maintaining the hygiene of collection, transportation and further processing of the waste. It stated that the local government has the power to prohibit: dumping, discharging, dumping, burning and burying waste in a public place or in nature. These methods are exceptional, only when the local government approves them (Public Health Act, 1992, Article 18 to 20) Chapter 15 of the Act imposes penalties with non-compliance with these laws, depending on the situation, it could be a six-month jail term or a fine of up to 100,000 baht (Public Health Act, 1992, Article 68/1, 73/1 and 73/2).
3.2 Decision-making authorities Tessabaan
This section emphasises the history and current methods of the different Tessabaan in Koh Phangan. It describes the policies for each Tessabaan and their common challenges for sustainable organic waste management.
3.2.1 Historical background
It is difficult to illustrate the policy and legislative framework of Thailand in detail. This is because Thailand's political system has historically been divided by previous decentralisation plans. This led to several area changes since 1932. The history goes back to the revolution of, which introduced democracy. After the revolution, several military coups took place, dividing power over Thailand's territories. Today, the organisation of the authorities is described in the scheme below.
Note: This is a figure on the hierarchy of local authorities with the following abbreviations clarified: The Department of Local Administration (DOLA), divided into The Department of Provincial Administrations (DOPA). Abbreviations under 'Province' are: The Provincial Administrative Organisation (PAO) and Tambon Administrative Organisation.
This figure is taken from Central-Local Government Relationship in Thailand by Fumio N, Tsuruyo F, Kazuhiro K (https://www.ide.go.jp/library/English/Publish/Reports/Jrp/pdf/147_2.pdf) . Copyright n.d.
Figure 1: Diagram of Control of Local Authorities by interior Ministry
This figure tells us that Koh Phangan falls under the district of Surat Thani, meaning that Koh Phangan's policies are run by the local government, called Tessabaan. These Tessabaan members are chosen every four years in the election. There are currently three Tessabaan operating on Koh Phangan, namely: Phangan, Baan Tai and Phet Phangan. They each have the same government roles and duties imposed by the provinces. The different Tessabaan are geographically divided by: Phangan in the south-west, Baan tai in the south-east and Phet Phangan in the north/north-west
Cooperation among the three governments has been difficult for years. This is because they each implement the obligations in their own way and find it difficult to agree on a uniform implementation policy. This challenge around collaboration between the three governments, originating from the historical division still applies.
3.2.2 Organic waste management by each Tessabaan
Waste collection
This Tessabaan, located in the central area of Koh Phangan, collects rubbish by using a daily collection system. The streets are provided with multiple bins, with each waste stream having its own bin. A truck comes to these collection points every day to pick up the waste, but despite having separate bins, all the waste is thrown together in the container. This is because only a small part of citizens effectively sort the waste in the bins. When it is clearly separated, the waste collectors keep it aside in the truck.
After collecting the waste streams, disposal services bring it to Phangan Tessabaan landfill This Tessabaan collects about 25 to 30 tonnes of waste a day. This is piled up at the landfill, where there are already 4,500 tonnes of mixed waste (Pollution Control Department, 2023). Meanwhile, this Tessabaan has managed to shut down the most polluting incinerator on the island.
Waste treatment
Phangan Tessabaan's processing method is to move the waste from the landfills by ship to the mainland. After collecting the various waste streams at the landfill, the recyclable material (plastic, cardboard and glass) are sold to recycling nests on Koh Phangan. After one and a half months, the remaining waste is transported to landfills in Surat Thani.
The long term plan of Surat Thani is to built an energy recovery plant to deal with the piles of waste. This plant is not currently being built, because they want to collect all the waste first. They are doing this to ensure continuous operation. For the processing technique of transporting waste to the mainland, the Tessabaan will have to allocate a budget of 22 million baht/year waste (Pollution Control Department, 2023)
Phangan Tessabaan plans to create an action plan for overall waste management in the future. This would include measures and targets focused on resorts and restaurants. The aim is to promote sorting and further application of organic waste (Source: interview with Phangan Tessabaan deputy mayor on 5 April, 2024).
I. Phangan Tessabaan
II. Baan Tai Tessabaan
Due to lack of contacts with Baan Tai, it was not possible to arrange an interview. Therefore, Information on waste collection and processing is limited. There is no overview of possible future plans for organic waste management on their site.
Waste collection
As for waste collection, Baan Tai has the same collection system as Phangan Tessabaan, where waste is picked up at collection points. After collection, the waste is taken to Baan Tai’s waste facility unit, where daily 15 tonnes of waste arrive. The main challenge for Baan Tai is managing their old stock of waste, which now accumulates in large quantities on the site. The current stockpile contains 28,000 tonnes of mixed waste (Pollution Control Department, 2023).
Waste treatment
The waste facility unit has one incinerator, operating since October 2021. When waste comes in, it is separated into the various waste streams, where the recyclable material is sold to recycling companies. Out of the three Tessbaan, only Baan Tai used composting techniques, using concrete rings. Although in a way it is a form of composting, it is not considered the most efficient way. The concrete rings do not provide sufficient ventilation, leading to methane emissions Other waste streams end up in these rings, causing organic waste to get mixed with plastic and residual waste. As for the remaining waste, it is burnt in incinerators or ends up in landfills
III. Phet Phangan Tessabaan
Waste collection
The waste collection processes are similar to those of the previous Tessabaan The streets are provided with a collection point, where each waste stream has a bin. This truck collects all waste streams together and keeps recyclable material (plastic and glass) separated as much as possible. For collection systems, Phet Phangan works with an external logistics company for transport. Every day, 20 tonnes of waste is collected and taken to the waste processing unit. This unit has one incinerator, which has been operating since October 2022 (Pollution Control Department, 2023).
Waste treatment
Phet Phangan mainly engages in separating plastic and glass for recycling. Other waste, including organic waste ends up in landfill or incinerated with the other waste streams. Occasionally, Phet Phangan Tessabaan arranges a waste bank. It is a concept where citizens can hand in their waste at a payment per kilogram. These waste banks are currently only for plastic, metal, glass and cardboard
The future vision of this Tessabaan is to promote home composting. They plan to launch campaigns to reduce and valorise organic waste at source. In the future, they also intend to look into the possibility of supporting organisations, which are involved in organic waste management. (Source: interview with Phet PhanganTessabaan member on 9 April, 2024).
3.2.3 Challenges for Tessabaan
Tessabaan faces several challenges that make an effective approach difficult. From the interviews, it became clear that every Tessabaan faces the same challenges. Three key problems can be identified namely: separation at source, strengthening legislation and lack of infrastructure and financial resources
I. Separation at source
Despite having daily collection systems, there is room for improvement. Other waste streams such as plastic, cardboard and glass are collected and further transported for recycling, but this is not the case for organic waste. The problem starts at the source itself. Mixing the waste at the collection points, creates a huge overflow at Tessabaan's waste treatment units. This reduces the potential for further recovery, so more waste is to be burned or dumped at landfills
II. Enforcement of environmental laws and regulations
One of the main challenges is the lack of enforcement of environmental laws. Although Thai law contains some regulations and sorting rules, these are not always followed in reality. This makes further final waste treatment more difficult. There is still insufficient control for compliance by Tessabaan. As a result, organic waste is often incinerated with other waste streams instead of being properly separated and valorised. In principle, when environmental regulations are not respected, Tessabaan acts by delivering a warning, followed by a second check. Despite the warnings, enforcement remains difficult as today it is not difficult to avoid repercussions by turning a blind eye of the enforcement authorities.
Enforcement of environmental laws is further complicated by the presence of cultural diversity on the island. Koh Phangan faces a diversity of Thai, Burmese and international communities. These cultural differences and language barriers complicate enforcement as each community does not align its own rules with Thai regulations.
III. Deficits in infrastructure and financial resources
An additional obstacle is the lack of infrastructure and obtaining financial resources. Acquiring large plants or infrastructure such as central composting sites, anaerobic digestion systems and energy-generating plants require large investments. An important factor is that waste management is not currently the top priority within the various
Tessabaan. They are currently tackling more urgent challenges such as building water reservoirs or better roads, which also requires infrastructure and management.
To commit to better infrastructure, the Tessabaan would have to rearrange their priorities. However, this appears to be challenging due to lack of willingness for engagement and members with environment-related backgrounds. At the moment, only Phet Phangan Tessabaan has a member with a degree in the environmental field. The lack of expertise ensures that environmental issues are not considered urgent compared to other policy areas.
The process of getting fundings is an extensive procedure, requiring approval from higher authorities. This implies considerable paperwork and creates additional workload on Tessabaan members. In addition, the current tax rate for Koh Phangan citizens is insufficient to cover large investments. The tax rate is now 20-40 baht, equivalent to 1 euro (Source: interview with Phangan Tessabaan deputy mayor on 5 April, 2024). This low rate ensures only a very minimal contribution
METHODS FOR ORGANIC WASTE MANAGEMENT
4.1 General processing methods
Overall, several techniques have been developed, to deal with organic waste in an efficient and environmentally friendly manner. These techniques reduce the use of landfills and provide valuable reuse. This chapter first discusses general techniques and then focuses on the used methods on Koh Phangan.
4.1.1 Composting
Composting is a well-known technique in which organic waste is degraded into a material that can be used as a nutritious soil conditioner. It is a natural process where, under aerobic conditions (presence of oxygen), micro-organisms decompose the material into a humus-like substance, called compost. During this decomposition process, oxidation is formed, which causes heat production in the compost heap. Composting is an environmentally friendly method because it converts organic waste into valuable resources, instead of landfilling or burning it. Moreover, compost helps improve soil fertility and reduce chemical fertilisers. The duration to reach final compost material depends on the composition, on average it takes 2 to 4 months. The compost process can be applied at different scales, either in households or at a central location.
I. Influencing factors composting
To achieve a stable compost material, some factors have to be considered. The factors that can influence the process are: carbon/nitrogen ratio, oxygen, humidity and temperature. It is important to find a balance between, to achieve a quality final product.
o Carbon/Nitrogen ratio: Carbon is an essential energy source for microorganisms as it enhances their metabolic activities. This energy source is found in wooden materials such as: dry leaves, straw, wood chips, tea leaves, bark, etc. Carbon absorbs excessive moisture and promotes an aerated structure. If carbon is too high, it can hinder the growth of micro organisms by reducing moisture and heat retention. By losing valuable nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphor and potassium, it can lead to a decrease in compost quality
The other component is Nitrogen. Nitrogen ensures the growth and reproduction of micro-organisms. When it is present in sufficient quantities, it accelerates the decomposition of organic matter and contributes to a stable humus structure. Nitrogen is found in green waste such as plant residues, cut grass and shredded green garden waste. Excessive nitrogen supply can result in overactive microorganisms, which cause temperature fluctuations in the compost heap. On the other hand, it causes structure disruption, unpleasant odour production and accelerated decomposition.
o Oxygen: In order to keep micro-organisms active, sufficient oxygen is needed. This is because a balance in oxygen levels stimulates the decomposition process. Oxygen can be provided by turning the compost heap occasionally. If the compost structure is too wet, the decomposition of organic materials is slowed down, resulting in additional odour and methane production. In contrast, too much oxygen can lead to too rapid decomposition of the organic material. This causes overheating within the compost, where it can kill the active micro-organisms.
o Humidity: To support microbial activity, there is a necessity for a proportional water supply. If the compost heap is too dry, it can reduce microbial activity and slow down the process. On the other hand, a compost heap that is too wet can cause the production of unpleasant odours and risk of leaching. Leaching occurs when excess water leaves the compost heap. This causes the loss of nutrients and spreads pollution to soil, water and air. A balance can be achieved by adding more water in the drier months and covering the compost heaps during wet periods.
o Temperature: High temperatures are beneficial for decomposing organic matter and sanitising the waste. This process is also known as Thermophilic composting. In Thermophilic composting, microorganisms purify weed seeds, insect larvae as well as other plant and human pathogens. When temperatures vary too much, it can lead to dehydration and impair microbial activities.
By taking these factors into account, an ideal compost mix can be formed. The final composition consists of a dark, crumb-like structure. Once it has obtained its earthy structure, it can then be used as a soil conditioner.
4.1.2 Digestion systems
Digestion is a biological process, in which micro-organisms break down organic matter in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic conditions). During digestion, the organic matters are converted to simpler compounds such as hydrogen, methane and carbon dioxide. This conversion releases energy. The digestion process can serve as an energy source for biogas production, further processing of digestate (residue of digesting materials) or fermentation. Anaerobic digestion and biogas plants are further discussed under this section.
I. Anaerobic digestion
Anaerobic digestion is the biological process, in which micro-organisms decompose and convert organic matter into biogas and digestate. The remaining digestate can be used as fertiliser or compost. This material consists of various composites that contain a high concentration of nutrients. The decomposition reaction obtained is as follows:
Organic matter + H2O => CH4 + CO2 + residual gases (Emis Vito, n.d.)
In the digestion process, there is no evaporation of water but conversion to methane, carbon dioxide and residual gases. This methane production can be used for further biogas processing. Anaerobic digestion systems are usually operated on a large scale, this means there is a demand for large investments, maintenance costs and infrastructure.
In digestion itself, some parameters are crucial for optimal operation. These are: temperature, dry matter, pH value and organic load.
o Temperature: temperature can vary depending on the type of micro-organisms. High temperatures speed up the digestion system, producing more gas in a shorter time. At a high temperature, like composting, the micro organisms are purifying the biological pathogens. At a low temperature, it is the opposite and will slow down the process. The average temperature of a digestion system is between 20 and 50 degrees.
o Dry matter percentage: dry matter indicates the material remaining after the evaporation of water. In digestion, dry matter indicates the amount of organic material available to micro organisms. Optimal dry matter percentage ensures a good ratio of nutrients to water. This provides reinforcement in the growth of micro organisms. An excessive amount can lead to poor mixing, disruption of pumping systems and lower microbial activity
o pH value: the pH value is an indicator of acidity. Most microorganisms are active at a neutral pH level, between 6.5 and 7.5. When pH is too low (too acidic) or too high (too alkaline), the activity of micro-organisms decreases. An overly high pH causes an abnormality in methanogenic bacteria, which process fatty acids. In addition, a too low pH value reduces the quality of the biogas mixture by releasing more CO2 into the reactor. The pH level can be adjusted by adding or removing acidic biomass.
o Organic load: this parameter refers to the amount of organic material that is added to the digestion process. It is important to have a balanced supply to avoid accumulation. When accumulation occurs, the bacteria are put under pressure This can cause disruption and reduced gas production
II. Biofuel facilities
Biogas is a renewable product produced by the decomposition of organic matter by micro-organisms. The process is conducted by anaerobic digestion as earlier described. The organic materials used are: animal manure, garden -and food waste. The formed biogas consists of several components including methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2).
The gas obtained is considered a valuable resource because of its renewability and limited impact on the environment. Instead of decomposing the organic matter in landfills or in nature, it can be used to produce electricity, heat and fuel for vehicles. Moreover, utilising biogas can reduce methane emissions and make it a sustainable alternative for fossil fuels.
With anaerobic digestion, there is also the risk of leaching. The materials that can undergo leaching are nutrients, digestate, process water and gasses such as methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide and ammonia. The release of these substances can cause water, soil and air pollution.
4.1.3 Biochar generator
I. Biochar production
In a Biochar generator a carbon-rich material is produced, under the process of pyrolysis. This involves heating biomass such as wood chips, plant residues and agricultural waste to a high temperature of 350 to 700 degrees. This produces a stable dark organic material, known as Biochar. The process takes place in a closed system under controlled conditions, which keeps emissions to a minimum
II. Applications
The carbon-rich material can be used as a soil conditioner and increase soil fertility. Biochar contains features that reduce acidity, by increasing the pH level. In addition, Biochar can add nutrients such as potassium, phosphorus and micronutrients to the soil. Its porous structure helps retain water and nutrients and slowly release them back to the plants and soil organisms. Therefore, it can help reduce fertiliser and pesticide use in agriculture. The ability of Biochar allows it to absorb pollutants, which reduces agricultural pollution.
Besides the application as a soil conditioner, biochar is used in the cosmetics industry. Activated charcoal is used for this purpose, as it can absorb impurities from the skin. It is often added to cleansers, scrubs, masks and even food. The process of activation, as with Biochar, happens with limited oxygen and heating to high temperatures of 800 to 900°C. The multifaceted nature of activated carbon can also be applied in the use of gas filters, water and air purifiers
Figure 2: Charcoal made of branches
Figure 3: Charcoal made of Coconut Shells
The environmental advantage of Biochar is that it can be considered a carbon-neutral approach. It helps capture carbon from the atmosphere and store it in the soil. This ability can play an important role in the challenge against global warming. By capturing the concentration of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2), it can provide reduction. Biochar plants can differ in scale depending on the amount of organic matter. Small-scale plants can be used in farms, resorts and restaurants. Whereas large-scale plants are used for industrial applications.
4.1.4 Power generation (CHP)
In energy generating facilities, the remaining organic material -mixed or not- can be used in further thermal processing. This method can take place through normal thermal processing or through a cogeneration plant (CHP). A cogeneration plant is only useful when there is both energy and heat demand. The advantage is that it can result in savings in overall energy costs while reducing harmful emissions (soot, CO2, NOX...).
In a cogeneration plant, materials are burned with the released heat being used to boil water to steam. This steam drives the turbines that generate electricity. When the input consists exclusively of organic material, it can be considered a valuable way of valorisation. Another environmental benefit is that combustion reduces dependence on fossil fuels. Although cogeneration like normal thermal processing offers some advantages, it releases pollutants into the atmosphere. Combustion releases pollutants such as, particulate matter, carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur dioxides (SO2) and others.
Depending on energy needs, these plants can be organised on both large and small scales. On a small scale, CHP plants are used, for example in agricultural businesses, local communities and food industries. In practice, these plants are more likely to be operated on a large scale, which is more cost-efficient in the long-term.
4.1.5 Dumping, burying and uncontrolled burning
Besides the methods previously discussed, less sustainable approaches are also used for organic waste disposal. When recycling and repurposing are not possible, unsustainable methods can be considered as a last option. Despite the fact that these methods are extremely unsustainable, they are still used in many countries. By unsustainable methods, I speak of landfilling, burial and uncontrolled burning in public places or nature.
Dumping, burial and uncontrolled burning of organic waste are methods that are already banned in most legislations, due to the serious environmental damage. This applies to both Thai and Flanders legislation, where Flanders will be discussed in a later section. Dumping and burial in public places or open nature leads to soil and water pollution. On the other hand, uncontrolled burning causes air pollution and further dispersal of contaminants to soil and water. It is important to emphasise that these methods are not only harmful to nature, but also threaten public health.
4.2 Current methods of processing organic waste on Koh Phangan
This section provides an overview on current processing methods applied on Koh Phangan. The methods discussed are combustion, landfilling, composting, biochar, repurposing into other products and Tessabaan processing systems. Following this, the methods for the remaining organic material are briefly mentioned. To better contextualise the environmental impact, some environmental aspects are linked to organic waste management. These are the aspects: air, water, soil, odour and energy
4.2.1 Combustion
The method of local incineration is mainly used on the island. This is because incineration is seen as the fastest and cheapest way to get rid of their organic waste. This mainly includes garden and wood waste. Koh Phangan has about 30,000 Thai residents, so imagine if at least half of this population burned their waste in their gardens. This would have a serious impact on the environment and, lead to an even greater increase in air pollution.
In addition, several communal burning sites are also operated on the island. Since Koh Phangan is known as “the coconut island", a large number of coconuts are consumed every day. This significantly contributes to the amount of organic waste. An example of such communal burning sites are the coconut processing sites
There are several sites on the island to keep large quantities under control. These locations receive daily hundreds of shells from restaurants, resorts and other businesses. To process these coconut shells, they are burned in the open air. These sites do not use any advanced techniques and burn the shells directly on the ground.
Figure 4: Local burning of Coconut Shells at Coconut Processing Site in Baan Tai area
4.2.2 Dumping, burying and landfill
Another simple, unsustainable waste disposal technique is uncontrolled dumping and stockpiling of waste. This is done by burial in gardens, roadside dumping or at Tessabaan landfills. Dumping waste and allowing it to decompose in nature can cause several problems. It can lead to additional methane (CH4) production, which contributes to global warming. Dumping waste in one place can also cause leakage of water, nutrients or gasses into the soil, air, or water. The uncontrolled degradation processes may release harmful micro-organisms, disrupting soil life.
4.2.3 Composting
Composting is a technique that is becoming more accessible on Koh Phangan. In Thailand, there are three different methods of composting, namely: by a net or fence, green cone or triangle composting.
• Composting nets or other fencing: This method is the most common in Thailand. This is an aerobic method where the compost is kept in a designated area, which makes management a lot easier. The compost pile is marked off with netting or surrounded by other types of fencing, such as bamboo. An advantage in demarcating the compost heap is that it protects from animals while maintaining heat and humidity in the compost heap.
• Green cone composting: this is a system where the compost is managed in a cone-shaped structure. This green cone is partly buried in the ground and sealed with a lid. In the lower part, microorganisms decompose the food, while the sun heats the upper part. This heating process accelerates the decomposition. The design ensures good airflow, absorption and removal of moisture through the soil. This system is beneficial because it forms compost with minimal maintenance required. Another benefit is that the lid reduces odour emission and keeps pests away.
• Triangle composting: this composting technique is built in a pyramid-shaped structure. This design is mainly used at agricultural sites in Thailand. Triangle composting creates a compact structure, making it easier to access. Due to the high temperatures in Thailand, the compost can be produced within 2-3 months.
These composting methods are mainly supported by Ecothailand Foundation. They distributed 350 compost nets and some green cones, in collaboration with The Canada Fund for Local Initiatives (CFLI). They achieved this by establishing a local network, identifying three central posts. Raitiaviset organic farm, Kohpost and
have united a network to promote sustainable organic waste management together. In this way, the technique of composting is becoming more common for local communities. This method is not only used in private gardens, but also in resorts and restaurants
(Fitton John, n.d.)
4.2.4 Biochar plant
On Koh Phangan, there is no large-scale use of Biochar plants. These installations are used on a small scale at farms including Raitiaviset organic farm, เกษตรหลังบ้าน
and some resorts. The Biochar plants at Raitiaviset and เกษตรหลังบ้าน
have been supported by EcoThailand Foundation's CFLI project. The Biochar generator burns biomass such as fruit peels, plant residues, agricultural waste and coconut shells under controlled conditions. During combustion, charcoal is formed, with wood vinegar as a byproduct.
Figure 5: Compost net
Figure 6: Green Cone composting Figure 7: Triangle composting
Figure 8: Biochar Generator given by EcoThailand Foundation with subproduct Wood Vinegar at
Figure 9: Wood Vinegar end product by Raitiaviset Organic Farm
Wood vinegar is a mixture used in agricultural applications as a natural pesticide. It can be sprayed on plants to repel insects and bacteria. It is also utilized as a soil conditioner, due to its organic composition to promote crop growth. In other cases, it finds application in beauty products, because of its fragrant characteristics, or it is incorporated into animal feed to strengthen animals' stomachs.
In addition to Biochar generators, the island also uses the in-situ pyrolysis technique. This method offers a simpler and more cost-efficient way to produce biochar on site. The biomass is placed in the ground, where it is afterwards heated. This method is used at private homes, restaurants, resorts and charcoal burning plants. However, this form of pyrolysis can lead to negative effects on the environment. It releases pollutants into the atmosphere, contributing to air pollution. It may also lead to disruption of soil structure and loss of soil quality. In some cases, the in-situ pyrolysis technique results in incomplete conversion of biomass to Biochar. This causes a decline in the quality of the final product and reduces its effectiveness for end uses.
4.2.5 Repurposing into other products
Besides technical methods, there are people who make individual commitments to repurpose organic waste. One popular approach involves using it as animal feed. Some farmers on Koh Phangan collect food from restaurants, resorts and the 7-Eleven chains. This not only helps farmers save on expenses of purchasing animal feed, but also contributes to reducing the volume of waste
On the other hand, bio-waste is used to produce 'Effective Microorganisms (E.M.), a wellknown processing method on Koh Phangan. It involves mixing bacteria with organic matter and sugars. This mixture is made from different types of organic waste, such as banana stalks, seafood leftovers, fruit scraps and general food waste. These material are combined in a closed container together with water and Molasses (a syrupy substance from sugar production). After a few weeks, the organic material turns into a dark substance, which can be used in optimising the composting process.
Some individuals employ creative methods in processing waste into new products. This results in items such as hair and body oil, fragrance products, laundry products, home accessories and more. For instance, Raitiaviset Organic farm produces a range of products including body, laundry, hand soap and other fragrance bars. For this process, they utilize fermentation. Fermentation is a biochemical process in which sugars are converted into a new product by micro-organisms, under anaerobic conditions. To create fragrance products and body or hair oil, Raitiaviset uses the peel of fruits and vegetables known for their strong scent
4.2.6 Tessabaan processing services
Tessabaan processing methods have already been discussed in Chapter 3 'Legislative Framework Thailand'. The government department is responsible for collecting and processing the island's waste. If local residents or businesses do not compost, burn or dump their waste themselves, they put it outside for collection by the Tessabaan services.
4.2.7 Processing methods of the remaining organic waste
The previous methods are mainly focussed on processing biodegradable food and garden waste, due limited management of wood, paper and cardboard waste. Wood waste, whether processed or not, is burnt locally or collected by Tessabaan collection services. After collection, this wood often ends up in landfills or incinerators.
The same applies to paper and cardboard waste. When this waste is not burnt locally, it is taken to the Tessabaan collection sites. Depending on the Tessabaan, the paper and cardboard waste is sold to recycling services on Koh Phangan or transported by ship to the mainland for further processing. The mixed waste is incinerated with the other waste streams or deposited in landfills.
4.3 Environmental aspects linked to organic waste management
Organic waste management is a wide-ranging topic, involving various aspects in our living environment. To formulate recommendations, it may be relevant to create a representation of environmental impact. By discussing environmental topics such as air, water, soil, odour and energy, a broader overview of its impact on our environment and health can be created
4.3.1 Air emissions
Improper organic waste management has a direct negative impact on the environment, through the obtained air emissions. When organic material is landfilled, the material naturally decomposes, releasing methane. This is a greenhouse gas that contributes 2030% to global warming. Uncontrolled burning, absence of filters or no emission restrictions lead to a release of harmful gases into the atmosphere. Combustion produces particulate matter, carbon dioxide (CO2), sulphur dioxide (SO2) or other pollutant gases. This release causes a decrease in air quality, which in turn can have negative effects on our health.
Thailand faces a serious air pollution problem due to PM 2.5 particles in the atmosphere. These are ultrafine particles, which are smaller that 2.5 micrometres. These particles can penetrate deep into the lungs and if exposed can increase the risk of cardiovascular disease. Dispersion is mainly caused by agricultural combustion, household combustion and the use of polluting incinerators by Tessabaan
These air emissions can be reduced in digestion and composting systems by providing a closed system with extraction and treatment of residual gases. Other measures can be taken to prevent emissions, such as: controlled transport, adequate aeration and humidification of materials, controlled burning in public areas and revision of polluting incinerators.
4.3.2
Water emissions
The water aspect finds a link with organic waste due its potential for causing water pollution and the phenomenon of eutrophication. Water pollution can be caused by the leaching of nutrients to both ground and surface water. The leaching and infiltration of the untreated organic waste can lead to eutrophication, indicating an excessive presence of nutrients in the water. The problem of eutrophication is that it causes algae growth, creating turbidity and oxygen deficiencies in the water. Consequently, it causes disruption to aquatic life, fish mortality and a decline in water quality. However, this is less of a problem in Thailand than in Flanders, due to less agricultural activity and limited fertiliser application. To maintain water quality, the digestion and composting systems can be equipped with a liquid-proof floor and a retention basin to collect the wastewater
4.3.3
Soil emissions
Repurposing the waste can improve soil structure, fertility and plant and crop growth. In this way, the organic waste can serve as a valuable resource for the soil. This can be achieved through composting or biochar, where additional nutrients are added. With improper management, where for example the waste is dumped, it can lead to possible soil contamination. At landfills, contamination can occur through leakage of harmful substances, chemicals or heavy metals. When these substances enter the soil, they can seriously damage soil quality. To avoid this, as with the environmental aspect of water, an impermeable floor can be used to avoid the possibility of leakage.
4.3.4
Odour emissions
The decomposition of organic waste can lead to unpleasant odour emissions. It is important to conduct odour monitoring at landfills or during treatment techniques to reduce inconvenience. Most odour emissions are released during composting and anaerobic digestion systems. Unpleasant odours can attract pests and insects, which can consequently bring pathogens and cause infections.
Odour emissions can be avoided, as in the case of the aspect of air, by installing filters. These filters ensure that emissions of residual gases are minimised. In composting, odour can be reduced by adding dry material such as dry leaves.
4.3.5
Energy
Organic waste can be a valuable resource when it comes to renewable energy. The waste can be converted into biogas or incinerated for energy recovery. One environmental aspect that can be linked to this are finite resources. Petroleum, natural gas and coal are fossil fuels on which we currently depend on for energy production. These raw materials are limited, so finding renewable sources is essential to ensure sustainable energy production. Biogas can further be used in heating and cooling systems, digester reactors, green electricity and fuel. After all, producing renewable energy helps reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
COMPARATIVE STUDY
5.1 Organic waste management in similar islands
To gain a deeper understanding of Koh Phangan's current situation, a comparison can be made with similar islands and regions. This comparative study can inspire Koh Phangan for improvement opportunities. To create a picture, I chose Koh Phangan's two neighbouring islands, Koh Tao and Koh Samui because their principles are similar to Koh Phangan. In addition, I made the selection between two islands Koh Yao Noi and Koh Yao Yai in Phang Na bay, based on TEI 12 Islands case study. To increase the focus, it seemed interesting to investigate international areas such as Perhentian island and especially Santorini island, because of the big difference in culture, approach and location.
Furthermore, sections 5.2 and 5.3 discuss the context of mainland Surat Thani and Flanders. In Flanders, both legislation and applied techniques are reviewed.
5.1.1 Islands in Thailand
I. Koh Tao
Koh Tao is a neighbouring island, located 42 kilometres north of Koh Phangan. The island profiles itself as an environmentally conscious destination, due to its importance to the marine life and diving industry. Like Koh Phangan, Koh Tao has a challenge with organic waste management due to the overflow of tourists in a small area.
Currently, 27 tonnes of mixed waste is daily collected by the collection services. This waste ends up in the island's landfill, with a stockpile of 5,000 tonnes (Pollution Control Department, 2023). This landfill includes both an incinerator and open-air storage. The PCD report presents a new waste management guideline for Koh Tao to improve in the future. This directive includes partnering with an external waste management company to reduce stockpiling. They will achieve this through composting and storing leftover parts on landfills The aim of this guideline is to close the incinerator and raise awareness among residents.
II. Koh Samui
Koh Samui is located south of Koh Phangan and covers an area of 228 square kilometres. Among islands in the Gulf of Thailand, Koh Samui is known for its challenges around waste management. Its waste is burnt, landfilled, buried and composted locally. Like Koh Phangan, the island has local communities committed to sustainable organic waste management. A practical example is the collaboration between Raitiaviset organic farm and Baan Laan Len. They are exchanging information to establish a similar site of Raitiaviset on Koh Samui.
The organic waste is currently collected at waste collection points and taken to the landfills for further processing. According to the PCD report of 2023, there is an accumulation of 200,000 tonnes of waste.
Managing both new and old stockpiles poses a huge challenge for Koh Samui. To deal with this problem, 60 tonnes of the old stock and 160 tonnes of the new stock are brought to the mainland every day (Pollution control department, 2023). This waste will be collected by Surat Thani and used for energy regeneration in the future.
III. Koh Yao Noi and Koh Yao Yai
Koh Yao Noi and Koh Yao Yai, are islands located in Phang Nga province, with about 20,000 inhabitants. These islands have 4 local government agencies, which are responsible for efficient and sustainable waste management. Various organisations run campaigns to reduce waste and also promote its segregation. This group of islands operates waste separation plants and incinerators. Some of the organic waste is burnt locally, buried or collected at landfills. They try as much as possible to process their organic waste into fertiliser or repurpose it as animal feed (Thailand Environmental Institute, 2023) In practice, this is difficult due to the lack of separation of waste at source.
This archipelago, as well as Koh Tao and Koh Samui are very similar to Koh Phangan. They try to follow principles to reduce waste, but are still using unsustainable practices or transportation to the mainland.
5.1.2 Islands other than Thailand
I. Perhentian, Malaysia
Perhentian is a group of islands located in Malaysia, situated east of the South China Sea. Organic waste is not managed by the government, but by the resorts and restaurants themselves, where they burn it or bury it in the ground. In other cases, the waste is collected and taken to the mainland by ship with the other waste streams. Recently, these unsustainable practices have caused the government to take action. The government has been intervening by preparing a questionnaire to test residents' willingness for beneficial waste management. This would include treatment techniques such as: composting and recycling programmes for plastic, glass and cardboard. In response, the government drafted a waste management plan to commit to the 3R (reduce, reuse and recycle) principle (Thailand Environmental Institute, 2023) Perhentian's approach is similar to Koh Samui, in the way that they process or dump waste locally and transport it to the mainland. Different from previous islands is that there is less quantitative information available.
II. Santorini, Greece
Santorini is a popular Greek island with an area of 91 square kilometres. This island is managed by the local Greek government, which takes measures through a different mindset compared to previous islands. One of these measures is to reduce waste by limiting the number of visitors and their travel time.
To manage waste, it used to be sorted, collected, burnt or dumped in a small landfill. Since 2022, a project has started around building better waste management facilities. This was done in collaboration with the public and private sectors. In this project, they built a new landfill, where composting facilities were provided and are used till the present. Like
Perhentian Island, fewer details on organic waste management were available. The notable difference with Koh Phangan is that tourism restriction measures are out of the question. Being an island with a vibrant atmosphere, their biggest income is mainly tourism so the Tessabaan would not be likely to apply this measurement
5.2 Organic waste management on mainland
5.2.1
Surat Thani
Besides the comparison with the islands, it may be interesting to consider the differences with the mainland. Surat Thani is a province, located about 140 km from Koh Phangan. Like Koh Phangan, organic waste is collected by the Tessabaan collection services. These collection services only operate in areas where a lot of waste is generated. Tessabaan makes a prior selection of regions, where organic waste is collected. Among private individuals, there is no daily collection system, but collection points as on Koh Phangan.
As Surat Thani does not have its own incinerator, the waste is taken to another processing site. The material is sorted, with the recyclable material being sold to recycling companies. Currently, the residual waste, including mixed organic waste, is accumulating at the landfills. To process this waste, they plan to build an energy recovery plant in the future.
Unlike Koh Phangan, Surat Thani makes more effort to enforce environmental laws. This is because Surat Thani receives more funding for their waste management. The funding system is handed out according to the number of permanent residents, which is much higher in Surat Thani than Koh Phangan. Tessabaan promotes citizens to compost, sell or otherwise valorise waste. For violations of environmental laws, the local government takes stricter action, by imposing warnings, follow-up checks and fines. As the Tessabaan has more members with environmental backgrounds, its priorities are different from Koh Phangan's Tessabaan
5.3 Organic waste management in Flanders
5.3.1
Legislative framework in Flanders
In Flanders, the legislation on waste is described in the VLAREMA (Flemish Regulation on the sustainable management of material cycles and waste). The VLAREMA regulates the procedures related to waste collection, processing and permit conditions for installations. Within Flemish waste policy, there is also the Materials Decree. This decree focuses on the sustainable use of materials and reducing waste by encouraging reuse, recycling and prevention. The competent authority in Flanders is OVAM, the Public Waste Agency of Flanders (Environmental law, 2021, Waste, article 3, §1 10°).
VLAREMA lists some prohibitions applicable to organic waste namely:
1. Landing waste, spreading waste on the soil.
2. Waste injection into the deep underground
3. Compounding of waste in the open air
4. Mixing waste with one or more materials
5. Leaving waste materials in nature
(Environmental Law, 2021, Waste section 4.4, article 4.4.1, §1 and 4.4.2, §1)
It is mandatory to separate waste materials and collect them separately. Both private individuals and companies must separate organic waste under: vegetable, fruit and garden waste, paper and cardboard and wood waste. A rate is then set per municipality for the collection of the waste streams. These waste streams are collected on different days, depending on the collection calendar for each municipality (Flanders, n.d.)
For collection, organic waste must be properly packaged and offered separately. After collection of a particular waste stream, it is mandatory that the transportation vehicles are cleaned internally and externally to avoid mixing (Environmental Law, 2021, Waste section 6.1, Article 6.1.1.1., §1). After collection, the organic waste is taken to the appropriate licensed facility. Before reaching the licensed facility, the compostable material must be reported to a central reporting point (Environmental Law, 2021, Waste section 4.4, article 4.4.4 §1and section 2.3, article 2.3.1.3., §1)
A principle used to achieve waste reduction is the Lansink waste hierarchy. This hierarchy was incorporated into the European Waste Framework Directive in 2008. This principle forms a ladder structure with:
(1) Waste prevention
(2) Reusing waste
(3) Recycling waste
(4) Incineration with energy recovery (converting the generated heat during the incineration into electricity)
(5) Landfilling or incineration without energy recovery
(Environmental Law, 2021, Waste article 4, §3 1°)
5.3.2 Extension of legislation and used techniques in Flanders
In Flanders, various methods are used to treat organic waste. The methods depend on the nature of the material. A differentiation is made between food, garden, paper, cardboard and wood waste. Additional legal provisions are briefly described for each method.
I. Composting
Compost is considered a valuable product because of Flanders’ agricultural intensity. Although composting is a well-known and common method, this does not mean that everyone participates in it. Citizens who do not have space or do not compost for other reasons can have their waste collected by collection services. Composting processes are treated in both open air and closed systems
1) Composting in open air
This is the most common technique for composting waste on a small scale. This method is done in households, businesses and agriculture. The used techniques do not differ much from the methods used on Koh Phangan.
Open air composting can be classified into triangular heaps (rills) and trapezoidal heaps (tables). The guidelines for triangular heaps are that they should be 2.5 metres high and up to 3 metres wide. This method requires regular turning and aeration to achieve sufficiently high temperatures. On the other hand, table heaps require a height of 3 metres and a width of at least 10 metres (Vlaco, n.d.). Trapezoidal heaps, compared to triangular heaps, offer more beneficial management, hygiene and resistance to weather conditions.
According to legislation, the compost must be adequately ventilated and moistened during aerobic composting. Ammonia emissions must also be kept under control by monitoring the C/N content. In addition, plants larger than 10 m³ must have a liquid-proof floor and a drainage system (Environmental Law, 2021, Waste section 5.2.2, article 5.2.2.3.5., §4).
2) Composting in closed systems
Most large-scale plants use closed composting systems such as hall and tunnel composting. Hall composting is done in an enclosed area, where the compost heaps are 2 to 4 metres and are equipped with aeration floors. With the use of blower ventilation, air, heat, moisture and CO2 enter the hall. The process is operated automatically through conveyor belt systems. Each time the material is turned, it moves to the next phase. In this phase, a separation is made between the different compost heaps by placing them in strips. In these strips, the material is gradually converted into rich compost.
Figure 10 : Layout of rills and table piles for an open-air composting process (Vlaco, n.d.)
Tunnel composting takes place in rectangular tunnels. These tunnels consist of concrete material, which are closed with an insulated door. Supplying compost material is done by a wheel ladder or an automatic conveyor belt system. In Tunnel Composting, the compostable material is aerated through a bladder aerator, which is controlled by a computer-controlled climate system (Emis Vito, n.d.).
After the compost material is formed, affinage or post-processing follows. In this process, unusable parts are further treated by sieving out. The sieved out material can be reused in the starting phase. The remaining part is disposed for further waste processing.
In closed systems, legislation focuses on ammonia emissions. Ammonia emissions must be minimised with acid washing and the installation must be equipped with a biofilter. This biofilter is capable of removing the ammonia odour.
Moreover, some target percentages are also provided for the compost. For instance, the optimum moisture content is between 35 and 65%. This percentage must be followed to avoid leakage. The second parameter is porosity. For sufficient oxygen supply, this percentage is from 25 to 35%. In the initial phase of composting, the carbon to nitrogen ratio (C/N) should be around 20-30/1. The composting process reaches its optimum temperature at 50 to 60 degrees (Emis Vito, n.d.). In both open and closed systems, the operator should have a diary, with temperature measurements and dates of converting and harvesting (Environmental Law, 2021, Waste section 5.2.2, article 5.2.2.3.4.).
II. Digestion
To achieve the transition to a more sustainable Flanders, production and research into green energy are strongly encouraged. Several biogas plants are increasingly operating in Flanders. Biogas is produced by concentrating methane bacteria in large digesters. The digestion process undergoes a pre- and post-treatment. There are four treatment techniques to undergo the process, namely: hydrolysis (reaction with water), acidogenic phase (formation of acids), acetogenic phase (acetic acid formation) and methanogenic phase (methane formation).
The collected biogas is purified of contaminants by removing water drops and solid particles from the biogas. This purified gas is burned in a heating and steam boiler or combined with a CHP plant. To store the quantities of biogas, the plants are equipped with a biogas storage facility. In post-treatment, the digestate is used for composting or drying. This residue will have to meet the standards applicable in the VLAREM (Flemish Regulation on Environmental Permits).
With the legal provisions concerning digestion and biogas production, the permit of the classified establishment must state the biogas production capacity. If these exceed 100 Nm³/h, conditions are imposed regarding closure and truck entry and exit (Environmental Law, 2021, Waste subsection 5.16.2.2., article 5.16.2.2.2). In addition, biogas plants must be equipped with overpressure protection, odour treatment and drainage system (Environmental Law, 2021, Waste subsection 5.16.2.2., article 5.16.2.2.3., §1 and article 5.16.2.2.6.). For biogas production, the classified establishment must have an emission limit value, which it must comply with (Environmental Law, 2021, Waste subsection 5.12.2.2., article 5.16.2.2.7)
III. Thermal processing
Thermal processing in Flanders is similar to the method described in chapter 4. Both conventional thermal processing and a CHP installation are used. For green waste, thermal processing is provided with a small-scale CHP installation. The other organic material such as paper, cardboard and wood waste also undergoes thermal processing, but with cover-burning in cement ovens.
Emis Vito describes the treatment techniques the incinerators undergo, which are the following:
• Oven combustion: the techniques used for oven combustion include: combustion boilers, fluidised bed, grate, cement and pyrolysis furnaces. This methods ensures the complete oxidation of waste materials. Gasification, on the other hand, involves the decomposition of organic materials, leading to the evaporation of water and volatile heavy metals. This process effectively reduces the volume of residues.
• Energy recovery: the released heat produces steam, which drives electricity turbines. The generated electricity can then be fed into the electricity grid to provide power for other users.
• Flue gas purification: the purpose of this process is to remove the concentration of volatile heavy metals and inorganic material in the solid waste. Flue gas purification allows to reduce further release of emissions to the environment.
Moreover, some legal provisions have to be taken into account. To obtain energy recovery, the operator must take the necessary precautions to limit the impact on the environment and pollution of air, soil and water. The operator must also dispose of required documents containing data on: sampling, waste categories, locations, thermal capacity and released emissions. Regular checks on this documentation and possible contamination must be carried out at these facilities (Emis Vito, n.d.).
IV. Material recycling
Besides the previously mentioned techniques, there are specific material recycling methods for the other organic waste. As for paper, cardboard and wood, the extensive recycling process is described through Emis Vito (Energy and environmental Information system for Flanders).
The recycling process for paper and cardboard starts by suspending cellulose fibres in water. This mixture is cleaned, deinked and bleached to remove impurities for further recycling. Recycling is strongly promoted because it is an important industry in Flanders.
For wood waste, the materials undergo a process of chipping, drying, sorting and gluing before being compressed. Untreated and treated wood must be processed separately because of the presence of harmful substances. The treated wood can be further processed into chipboards, MDF boards, biomass for energy generation and others. By using recycled materials, natural resources can be conserved and environmental impact reduced.
For paper, cardboard and wood waste, the general waste law provisions discussed under 5.3.1 apply. Both aspects are subject to environmental conditions, which are further described in VLAREM II. In Flanders, both waste streams fall under the principle of the take-back obligation. This means that waste collection is done by the organisations FostPlus (for households) and Val-I-Pac (for commercial packaging).
5.3.3 Reflection on Koh Phangan
The point of this comparison lies in identifying differences between an European country with consistent enforcement and Koh Phangan's strategies. For instance, it shows that the legislative framework around organic waste management is significantly different between the two locations. In Thailand, regulations provide general enforcement measures and recommendations to authorities. This mainly mentions the importance of collection, sorting, treatment and disposal, without providing regulations for the specific techniques and emission norms. In contrast, the Flemish legislation is more technical in its approach. As in Thailand, it provides standards for collection, sorting and processing, but VLAREMA clearly describes prohibitions and penalties for non-compliance, as well as tariff provisions, consistency of transport and the processing techniques themselves.
The only similarity between Koh Phangan and Flanders is the use of composting. However, Flanders uses more advanced techniques, aiming at optimal beneficial uses. This difference can possibly be linked to the differentiation in legal provisions, enforcement and knowledge.
Besides the difference in legislation, the listed techniques show that Koh Phagan is more engaged in simpler and less regulated methods. Composting mainly takes place in open air without extensive emission control and thermal processing is done without significant energy recovery or emission regulations.
Moreover, this comparison highlights the advantages of a structured and strict legal framework combined with advanced processing methods. It can be observed from the implementation in Flanders that this results in a higher level of environmental protection As a result, Koh Phangan could gain benefits by strengthening legislation and implementing advanced techniques. Of course, this needs to be aligned with appropriate knowledge and training. Before this can be implemented, the differences in economy, climate and environmental awareness between Flanders and Koh Phangan must be taken into account.
FIELD STUDY ORGANIC WASTE
To examine how organic waste management can be optimised in a specific sector, I focus on a practical situation. This case study focuses on the management within several resorts. Since the resort sector is one of the main economic pillars of the island, it is important to study their contribution to the amount of organic waste.
Conducting this case study will help address the challenges facing this sector The sections below discuss the importance with an analysis of the survey results.
6.1 Importance of organic waste management in resorts
The main reason for this case study is to express the importance of organic waste management within the resorts, including their restaurants. By investing in proper management, resorts can reduce their carbon footprint and set an example to others. This includes practices such as composting, separation, biochar production or other repurposing that do not produce further emissions.
Sustainable waste management does not only contribute to the environment but also gives it a competitive advantage. Koh Phangan attracts numerous young tourists every month because of its famous full moon party. Among this generation, it is noticeable that they attach more and more importance to the environment. With growing environmental awareness, sustainable resorts can be more attractive to this group of tourists. Resorts can act on this aspect, using their sustainable waste management as a marketing tool.
Resorts can encourage local communities to take action. By creating environmental awareness about organic waste management, it can inspire locals. Most resorts have a large staff team, where the resorts' sustainability practices can encourage the staff themselves to apply them at home.
6.2 Analysis of current methods within resorts
From the resort surveys, some conclusions can be drawn about differences in organic waste management. The information is divided into four main findings. The first discussed topic are the general challenges, followed by differences in nationalities and location.
I. Challenges of sustainable methods
One of the main difficulties is keeping pets and other animals away from the compost. This is aggravated by the odour emissions from the composting process. From the survey it appears that teaching and monitoring the staff is a challenge. This is because the majority of staff is not familiar with the concept of composting, biochar production and the environmental benefits of source separation. Language barrier is also an issue here, due to the recruitment of Burmese people.
Another challenge that often came up is the lack of space for placing compost, shredders and biochar plants. The limited space hinders participation in sustainable organic waste management. Even the resorts that already participate in these practices experience the same problem, mainly because of the large quantities of the biowaste they produce. When they cannot dispose it through animal feed or other application, they are forced to place remaining parts outside for Tessabaan collection services.
The final argument emphasised by some resorts was that the problem of mixed waste already exists in the bungalows themselves. This is especially the case with resorts consisting of long-term rental bungalows. In the rooms, waste is already mixed, which makes sorting in the final step and use for composting more difficult.
II. Difference in nationalities
When analysing the responses, there was a clear difference between Thai and Western resort owners. Resorts with western owners, appeared to be using sustainable techniques. These resorts were all involved in composting, some of which also had a shredder and biochar plant. This is because they have grown up with the concept of environmental protection and have become familiar with certain sustainable methods in their own countries.
On the other hand, it was notable that more and more Thai resorts are involved in composting and making effective micro-organism (E.M.) from waste. These resorts repurpose waste through mutual cooperation and mainly use it as animal feed, product creation and donate it to others who do compost. However, the majority of Thai resorts place the waste outside for Tessabaan or burn it.
Overall, there has been an increase in environmental awareness around waste management. Even the resorts that do not participate in composting are aware of the impacts but are hindered by the challenges mentioned in point I.
III. Difference in regions
When classifying different regions, there was a slight difference in the approaches to organic waste management. The figure below summarises the regions: Phangan, Phet Phangan and Baan Tai area. In this sample, 30 resorts were surveyed, of which 10 per each region.
METHODS IN DIFFERENT TESSABAAN REGIONS
Table 1: Current Organic waste management methods in Resorts by region: analysis of the number of Resorts and their practices over a three-month period –categorized by burning, composting and Tessabaan services
• Phangan: This area covers resorts in central Koh Phangan. The results show that half of the resorts use both composting and Tessabaan collection services Among the resorts using Tessabaan collection systems, two also combine this with local incineration.
• Baan Tai: In this region, a division can be made with central Baan Tai and 'Haan Rin', the region known for the Full Moon Party. The resorts located in Haad Rin indicate that they face specific challenges due to the significant amount of waste generated in a short period of time. The Haad Rin area is located on the far right of Koh Phangan, which complicates cooperation with local farmers and sustainable processing units. However, the two surveyed resorts in this area use composting. The resorts located in central Baan Tai area use both composting and the Tessabaan collection systems, with three resorts combining Tessabaan collection systems with local incineration.
• Phet Phangan: This is the western area of the island, known for its focus on personal growth and yoga. The data shows that the majority of resorts in this area use composting. Only two of the surveyed resorts use the Tessabaan service, with one of them combining it with local burning. It could be possible that this area is more environmentally conscious than other parts of the island, but this has not been definitively established.
Overall, this figure indicates that composting is taking the upper hand in the applied methods. This may be due to a combination of factors discussed previously, along with increased environmental awareness. Apart from this, it is possible that some resorts have been influenced by their collaboration with EcoThailand Foundation on biowaste management
IV. Future for resorts
It is clear from this case study that there is a growing need for sustainable processing methods. By recognising the challenges, Tessabaan or local communities can respond to these needs. Comparing different regions highlights the need to pay more attention to less accessible areas. For example, a system can be developed for the Haan Rin area to address difficult accessibility and large amounts of waste.
To ensure sustainable organic waste management at resorts in the future, an efficient approach is required. This includes raising awareness among staff and owner, encouraging community cooperation and investing in more infrastructure. In addition, it is important for Tessabaan to develop regulations that promote and support sustainable processing methods at resorts.
RESULTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
After analysing the broader context of Koh Phangan, I was able to form observations that are relevant for further recommendations The main results from previous chapters highlight challenges in the lack of law enforcement, awareness and infrastructure The case studies reveals useful insights between the differences of Thai and international regions. While other Thai islands run similar practices to Koh Phangan, Surat Thani's effective enforcement of Thai policies can serve as a model for Koh Phangan Additionally, the case study of resorts reveals that there is more need for sustainable practices on a smaller scale.
These observations form the basis for the following recommendations in 7.1 and 7.2. These recommendations are divided into two main groups: the role of the emerging local initiatives and public authority Tessabaan. This division was made because both groups have the potential for a significant positive impact. The recommendations are ranked from most effective and feasible to least feasible.
7.1 Role of emerging local initiatives
The island is increasingly experiencing the emergence of local initiatives that prioritize sustainability and environmental protection. Organisations such as Raitiaviset organic farm, EcoThailand Foundation, and Trash Hero are working with individuals, who are also taking action themselves to manage organic waste. Their efforts can then inspire others to take action themselves. This can reduce the long-term impact of organic waste on the environment. For the majority of these recommendations some examples already exist, but the focus lie on further expansion and promotion.
7.1.1 Mutual knowledge sharing and cooperation
By sharing experiences and knowledge among locals, sustainable practices can be further expanded. Partnerships can lead to innovative solutions that reduce organic waste. Currently, some private communities are already exchanging information through online platforms and individual meetings.
To promote this, accessible platforms such as workshops, meetings and online information can be established. Although some online platforms already exist, there can be a specific focus on organic waste. In addition, networking events can be organized to provide opportunities for organisations, sectors, residents and experts to meet and exchange ideas for potential cooperation. This approach can address the demand for composting, animal feed, soil, soil improvers and financial resources.
7.1.2 Community composting
Community composting offers a sustainable solution for managing organic waste, especially for individuals without their own composting space. By providing local composting sites, it can reduce the amount of organic waste in landfills. These sites can be equipped with additional facilities such as shredders or biochar plants.
An emerging initiative for a central composting site, is Kohpost. It is an initiative resulting from its collaboration with EcoThailand Foundation and The Canada Fund for Local Initiatives (CFLI). Currently, Kohpost operates a small-scale composting site with plans to expand to a larger site, with several composting nets and shredders. The new site aims to set up a logistics system to transport biowaste, produce and sell compost and create soil conditioners for landscaping.
Although it is still in its start-up phase, it is showing promising results through its efforts to engage with Phangan Tessabaan. Kohpost would unite with this Tessabaan to ensure that resorts and restaurants are required to compost or send their organic waste to Kohpost. Emerging businesses like Kohpost can motivate others to get involved with their organic waste. Moreover, Koh Phangan could commit to establishing several central composting facilities in each region.
To realise community composting on a large scale, it is essential to have adequate infrastructure, logistics, knowledge and financial resources. To manage this, there is a need for a strategic approach. In the case of Kohpost, the initiative is led by knowledgeable people with business skills, supported by Ecothailand Foundation and other external partners.
7.1.3 Small-scale installation by foundations
By identifying places that generate a lot of organic waste, it provides an opportunity to apply a location-based approach to improve waste management. Previous case study indicated that resorts have more need for uniform and sustainable organic waste management. This can be addressed by providing these resorts with technical facilities or collection services for composting or animal feed. Besides resorts, significant amounts of organic waste are generated in restaurants, temples and schools. In the case of temples, where a lot of food is prepared, they could consider using biochar as an alternative cooking fuel and local composting for the area. This would be beneficial as it would reduce the pressure on Tessabaan services.
Several steps are required to implement small-scale facilities. Expertise is needed to select the right infrastructure that is also cost-effective. Besides expertise, there is a need for financial resources. Obtaining financial resources through Tessabaan is a complicated and long process. To secure this funding, it is possible to collaborate with external non-profit organisations that have access to international foundations. A well-known example of a non-profit organisation working with international foundations is EcoThailand Foundation.
7.1.4 Community gardens
Starting community gardens, as well as a central composting site, can help reduce organic waste. Unlike a central composting site, where waste is processed by an organisation, community gardens involve people composting on a shared piece of land. In these gardens, individuals can use their own organic waste for gardening. Community gardens provide an opportunity for people or businesses without space to grow their own crops in a sustainable way. In addition, it also reduces the ecological footprint through decreased transport and local food production.
Contrary to previous recommendations, there are no recognized community gardens on Koh Phangan. Establishing community gardens requires available land and financial resources. However, obtaining land is currently a challenge due to the high prices and increasing population density. To participate in community gardening, there is a need for a management system, including the exchange of information on composting.
7.1.5 Opportunities for entrepreneurship
Creating opportunities for entrepreneurship offers a promising approach to waste management. By establishing collaborative systems such as sales networks or local communities, businesses can benefit from the reuse of waste. This exchange stimulates local economies and create new opportunities for sustainable development. Reusing waste aligns with the concept of circular thinking, closing the carbon cycle and minimising environmental impact.
There are numerous creative opportunities to turn waste into marketable products. For example, Raitiaviset organic farm processes waste into washing products or effective micro organism (E.M.). Another example is the Butterfly Farm on Koh Samui, which processes larvae from organic waste into protein-rich animal feed.
To achieve successful entrepreneurship, a well-thought-out business plan is needed. This plan should include financial resources, infrastructure, raw materials, logistics, necessary permits and expertise. Developing such a plan requires dedication, but with a solid business model, both profitability and a positive contribution to the environment can be achieved.
7.2 Recommendations Tessabaan
In the pursuit of effective organic waste management, Tessabaan plays an active role in developing sustainable solutions and enforcing environmental laws. As local authorities, they are responsible for ensuring the health and well-being of their communities. In terms of waste management, this includes reducing waste at the source, encouraging reuse, repurposing waste as soil improvement or energy and promoting other sustainable practices.
Previous chapters have explored the different Tessabaan and their specific challenges in more detail. The following recommendations are based on that information, with a ranking from the most effective and feasible method to the least
7.2.1 Awareness campaigns and education
Government campaigns can actively raise community awareness about the importance of organic waste management. Currently, awareness campaigns mainly take place on online platforms by Westerners. Tessabaan has the key role to attract a larger audience in both Thai and international communities. The importance of awareness campaigns is to strive for long-term positive behavioural change.
To accomplish this, Tessabaan can first focus on their own employees. This approach appears to be effective in Surat Thani, where Tessabaan members are more aware of negative impacts and more actively enforcing environmental laws. Since Surat Thani is not far from Koh Phangan, Tessabaan on Koh Phangan may try to pursue a similar system. This can be achieved by engaging environmental experts, who can educate the Tessabaan team on various environmental issues. These experts can be organisations such as United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning (ONEP) and Pollution Control Department Thailand (PCD). By prioritizing environmental issues, Tessabaan can focus on the most urgent and environmental concerns
For residents, the Tessabaan can work with campaign videos distributed through social media or public screens, such as during elections. In addition, infographics or brochures can be created and distributed in public places. To ensure active participation of residents, information sessions can be held where citizens are invited to ask questions. Tessabaan could also focus specifically on education in local schools. Educating children about environmental issues can have a lasting impact, as they grow up with a greater awareness and responsibility towards waste management.
7.2.2 Action plan and monitoring for waste management
Establishing an action plan, inclusive targets and monitoring systems can help Tessabaan improve their current waste management. A structured action plan should include guidelines, measures, measurable objectives and concrete steps that Tessabaan can take. By creating an action plan, each Tessabaan can create an overview of the actions that are feasible for their specific situation.
The drafting can be done in collaboration with stakeholders and assistance from environmental experts. This collaborative approach ensures that problems and achievable targets are identified from different perspectives. It is also important to set up monitoring systems to track progress and make adjustments if necessary. This can be measured by Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) such as tracking data on organic waste production and composting on both small and large scales. To promote transparency and establish potential partnerships, Tessabaan can implement annual reporting. This would not only provide insight into their progress, but also build trust and collaboration with other organisations and communities.
7.2.3 Collaboration and community strengthening
Establishing partnerships and community strengthening can help Tessabaan enhance their waste management policies. This involves encouraging collaboration between local communities, businesses, experts, volunteers and other government agencies By investing in collaboration, bonds within communities can be strengthened and problems can be solved together.
Partnerships can take different forms such as, joint use of shredder systems through a rental system. Efforts can also be made here to organise meetings and workshops to connect stakeholders. Tessabaan can further strengthen the community by promoting small-scale installations, although this is challenging for Tessabaan due to the approval process and workload of higher authorities.
Community empowerment could play a role in enforcing environmental laws. An earlier given example is the cooperation with Kohpost, where Phangan Tessabaan is trying to get more enforcement by addressing resorts and restaurants first. Generally, if Tessabaan were to cooperate with companies responsible for valorisation or logistics, there could be better control over financial transactions and management of waste flows. The competition among the Tessabaan can also serve as an incentive for cooperation. When one Tessabaan achieves a successful cooperation, it can inspire the other Tessabaan to establish similar systems.
7.2.4 Possibility of optimising collection and recycling systems
Improved collection and recycling systems would be a very effective way to optimise organic waste management. Effective collection can increase the collection rate, while reducing pressure on current landfills. This includes reviewing the existing waste collection, sorting and recycling systems. One reason why optimisation is necessary is that at central collection points, people are more likely to put waste into different bins than take time to separate it correctly.
A possible strategy would be door-to-door collection like in Flanders. This would involve providing a calendar showing the collection days for each waste stream. The aim is to collect a specific waste stream on different days to promote separation at source. To make this approach more feasible, Tessabaan could first implement this at the biggest waste sources such as resorts and restaurants. If this model proves efficient, they can implement it at households, replacing the current waste collection points.
Another option for Tessabaan is to establish a waste bank for organic material Citizens can deposit their organic waste and receive rewards in return. Some Tessabaan already use a similar system for plastic and cardboard, but not for organic waste. Contributions for organic waste could be rewarded with supermarket discount vouchers, event tickets, animal feed or cash. This model ensures that Tessabaan receives pure organic material, which they can be used for further recovery.
Implementing these concepts requires maximum commitment and financial resources. A first, simpler step is to place more bins at the collection points, as they are often overflowing. Instead of only one bin per waste stream, they could provide more closed bins or containers per waste stream. The accumulation of waste at these collection points can lead to leakage, causing emissions penetrate the soil. To avoid littering, Tessabaan could also place more bins in public places.
7.2.5 Investing in infrastructure and technology
Another method for more optimal management would be to invest in better infrastructure and technology. This approach involves investing in modern facilities such as measuring devices, composting and digestion systems and others. Modern facilities contribute to better management, which ensures a healthier environment and more beneficial outcomes. Recycling facilities helps to recover valuable raw materials and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Before these investments can be realised, a prior analysis should be done to estimate the necessities. This could be done in collaboration with the action plan. To install such facilities, financial resources, labour force and piece of land are needed. Tessabaan's financial resources come from higher authorities, so they will have to prepare a detailed project proposal for approval. In addition, obtaining land is a challenge on Koh Phangan, due to increasing construction activity. To manage these installations, there is also a need for trained staff and monitoring. Since large-scale installations are proving difficult for Tessabaan to realise, they may start promoting or financing small-scale installations, which do not require a new piece of land.
7.2.6
Taxation and law enforcement
For the final recommendation, it is suggested to increase the tax rate and enhance law enforcement. Raising the tax would create more responsibility for communities to reduce their organic waste. One possibility is to operate on the 'polluter pays' principle, where the biggest polluters would pay more for their produced organic waste. This could be implemented through a bin bag system, similar to Japan or Flanders, where different waste streams are given a corresponding colour. These bags would only be available at Tessabaan or local supermarkets, where the collection services will only allow these rubbish bags for collection. Again, this system could be introduced first at resorts and restaurants.
Another option is to increase the general tax. Currently, the tax is 20-40 baht, equivalent to about one euro (source: interview with Phangan Tessabaan Deputy Mayor on 5 April, 2024). Increasing this tax would allow for additional investment in logistics for door-todoor collection and additional staff. This will be a difficult task for Tessabaan as it will not make them popular in the run-up to the elections.
An alternative is to introduce a tourist tax. A similar concept, already applied on Koh Phangan in the national parks and on Koh Tao, where visitors pay a fee at the entrance to preserve the areas. When tourists arrive on Koh Phangan, an environmental tax of about 50-100 baht could be charged. Around 50,000 tourists arrive monthly, where in most cases a tax of 50-100 baht is a small effort compared to their home taxes. This would provide an alternative source of revenue for the Tessabaan for better environmental management. Unlike imposing a tourist restriction like Santorini island, this could negatively impact Koh Phangan's vibrant tourism and economy, therefore a tourist tax is a more feasible option.
For a more consistent law enforcement Tessabaan can be take an example of Europe’s legislation or the Flemish legislative framework. This can involve new regulations and fines for violations. An effective enforcement system is important to ensure that taxes are applied fairly and violations are minimised. For this enforcement, Tessabaan should invest in additional trained personnel and monitoring mechanisms.
However, it is important to emphasise that taxation and law enforcement will be the most challenging issues. Phangan Tessabaan has already increased the tax by 20 baht. Although they have applied a tax increase, it will take a long time to reach the tax levels seen in Flanders The current tax increase is still far from the levels of taxation in Europe, and achieving a similar impact will require significant time and effort.
CONCLUSION
To address the research question "How can organic waste management on Koh Phangan be optimised, taking into account environmental protection and the degree of feasibility?", the following conclusions can be made. The main objectives were to assess the current situation in comparison with relevant legislation, methods and comparative studies, and formulate further recommendations.
Analysis showed that Koh Phangan faces significant challenges in organic waste management. The three Tessabaan have different policies, leading to inefficiency and lack of coordination. However, surveys show that each of them faces similar challenges, such as limited infrastructure, financial resources, education and maintaining consistent legal compliance. Moreover, comparative studies show that the methods used on Koh Phangan mainly result from habit for convenient processing methods and lack of space. Although the population and processing units are aware of the environmental impacts, they maintain these methods, which may indicate the lack for participation in behavioural change. Consisted with the implications at Tessabaan and local residents, the same conclusions can be drawn within the resort sector. The obtained responses highlight the need for sustainable management.
These observations suggest that there is a need for action to improve waste management on the island. The lack of a unified approach or consistent individual approach to Tessabaan and the limited waste management infrastructure are identified as the biggest obstacles. By investing in better infrastructure and opting for long-term actions, rather than short-term solutions, Koh Phangan can reduce its environmental impacts, and also support its economy by making Koh Phangan more attractive.
From the literature review and gathered information, recommendations varying in feasibility have been formulated. These focus on both local communities and Tessabaan. I present the three most feasible techniques for both areas:
1. Promote awareness campaigns and education among schools, tourists, residents and within the Tessabaan members.
2. Action plan and monitoring, with the aim of change in collection and recycling systems
3. Collaboration and community strengthening to share knowledge, where community composting can be implemented
By following the recommendations made in this study, Koh Phangan can take a step closer to the transition to a more sustainable future, where both environment and economy can benefit. The combined efforts of governments, communities and businesses are essential to achieve this transition. With the right approach, Koh Phangan can not only preserve its natural beauty and vibrant character, but also become a model for other island tourist destinations.
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Wikipedia contributors. (2024, January 21). Ko pha-ngan. Wikipedia. Accessed on 17 March 2024, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ko_Phangan?fbclid=IwAR19WRUvEYAqBS86Fmau5EI5e9x6GpsymKRe5eVAkomUZw5C8gGqQG9Juo
WUR eDepot (2021). What to look out for when composting? WUR eDepot. Accessed on 13 May 2024, from https://edepot.wur.nl/546737#:~:text=There%20can%20be%20too%20little%2 0air,dry%20and%20too%20hot%20to%20get
- Pollution Control Department. (June 1, 2022). Pollution Control Department-Tasks, roles and general missions. Accessed on 20 March 2024, from https://www.pcd.go.th/pcd_structure/26020
II. IMAGE PUBLICATIONS
Fitton, J.E.F. (n.d.). Bio waste management & composting [Image]. EcoThailand Foundation. Accessed on 10 May 2024, from https://ecothailand.org/composting/
Fumio N, Tsuruyo F, Kazuhiro K. (n.d.). Diagram of Control of Local Authorities by interior Ministry (since October 2002) [Illustration]. Accessed on 18 March 2024, from https://www.ide.go.jp/library/English/Publish/Reports/Jrp/pdf/147_2.pdf
HOGENT. (n.d.). Corporate identity: types of brands and logos [Image]. HOGENT. Accessed on 18 May 2024, from https://www.hogent.be/dit-is-hogent/huisstijl/huisstijlsoorten-merken-en-logos/
Vlaco. (n.d.). The professional composting process [Image]. Vlaco. Accessed on 10 May 2024, from https://vlaco.be/compost-gebruiken/wat-is-compost/hetprofessionele-composteringsproces
I. Stakeholder analysis
II. Questionnaire EcoThailand members
▪ What are Ecothailand foundation's main objectives and priorities? Why Koh Phangan?
▪ How do you work with local communities (how do you choose who you fund...)... do you also work with Tessabaan or the government since it is complex?
▪ Have there been any significant changes (positive) over the years (through increased awareness) or decreased due to tourism?
▪ What is the specific role of the different Tessabaan? What are they achieving in terms of organic waste management and how do they stand against it?
▪ How is the organic waste managed on Koh Phangan compare with other areas you have worked in (both in Thailand and internationally)?
▪ Are there any success stories that Tessabaan have done in terms of organic waste management? (for example closing one of the incinerators..)
▪ What are the main reasons why Tessabaan cooperation is difficult on Koh Phangan? I have already heard from John that it is mainly on power/force and money?
Organic waste management
Local government= Tessabaan (3)
Local residents
Companies = Resorts
NGO's, volunteers
EcoThailand members
Agriculturali sts Tourists
III. Questionnaire local residents
IV. Questionnaire Tessabaan
▪ Can you tell me about the operation within the Tessabaan in terms of environment. How are these issues dealt with? Is there a person responsible for each issue or all of them together?
▪ What is the main background of study of the people within your Tessabaan district? Are there many with an environmental studies background?
▪ What methods are currently used by your department to manage the organic waste? What happens after collection of organic waste (garden waste, biowaste: food...) from collection points?
▪ What are the biggest challenges your department faces in the management of organic waste?
▪ Would Tessabaan be willing to invest in techniques or optimisations regarding organic waste? e.g. large-scale shredder for coconut shells, biochar generator, central composting site...
↳ What would be the limitations for not implementing?
▪ Are there any current proposals on a new strategy or future suggestions on how to better manage organic waste?
V. Tessabaan processing units
1. Phangan Tessabaan
2. Phet Phangan Tessabaan
3. Baan Tai Tessabaan
