Apollon
ISSUE VIII 2018
UNDERGRADUATE DIGITAL JOURNAL FOR THE HUMANITIES AT FAIRFIELD UNIVERSITY
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1
CONTENT “Hamas: Weaponizing Civil Society and Social Services” by Edwin Tran
pages 3-11 “Hypermasculinity and Fetishized Martyrdom in Angela Carter's "The Bloody Chamber"” by Rosalyn Stilling
pages 12-23 “Modern Heroes, Heroines, and Antiheroes: The External and Internal in Mrs. Dalloway” by Abigail Robinson
pages 24-37 “A Voice of Black America” by Rachael Malstead
pages 38-43
2
“Hamas: Weaponizing Civil Society and Social Services”
by Edwin Tran
3
The rise of militant jihadist or-
foundational perspective on the rise of
ganizations in the Middle East is often
Islamist organizations and the transition
thought of in simplistic and blanketed
in which many engage themselves to be-
terms. Unfortunately, diverse and dis-
come integrated into the political fabric
tinct groups, such as Hezbollah and
of their respective countries. Using
Hayat Tahrir al-Sham, are grouped into
Egypt as her primary case, Professor Ber-
a single category, and are often ex-
man asserts that recent trends in Islam-
plained in broad terms. This phenome-
ist-regime relationships have become
non arises in the case of Hamas; here,
dominated by a competition of power
many individuals identify the organiza-
between an incumbent regime and the
tion with qualities such as anti-Semitism
“revolutionary”
and suicide terrorism, and at the same
who seek to become more engaged in
time fail to recognize the nationalistic
the politics of the nation.2 She expands
nuances that exist in it.1 The formation
on this point further, noting that “this
and rise of Hamas cannot be simplified
stalemate… is largely a consequence of
in this way. Rather, understanding Ha-
Islamists’ ability to expand their pres-
mas’s popularity requires an examina-
ence in civil society… [and] is thus best
tion of the factors that contributed to its
understood as a sign of… profound po-
rise. Indeed, Hamas’s modern appeal
litical failure, and an incubator for illib-
and electoral popularity can be traced to
eral radicalism.”3 In other words, states
its early participation in Palestinian civil
are the primary caretakers of their peo-
society and in its emphasis in providing
ple and a key aspect in this is the provi-
social services for residents of the Gaza
sion of social services for a state’s citi-
Strip.
zenry. As states begin to fail in providing
Islamist
challengers
This emphasis on social service
citizens with functions such as hospitals
and civil society can be found in the the-
and food banks, an equivalent decline in
oretical framework established by Pro-
state capacity and state legitimacy fol-
fessor Sheri Berman of Columbia Uni-
lows. Citizens become disenfranchised
versity. In her article, “Islamism, Revo-
with the incumbent government and
lution, and Civil Society,” she posits a
must seek other sources for their needed
1
3
Jonathan Schanzer, Hamas vs. Fatah (Palgrave Macmillan: New York, 2008), xiii. 2 Sheri Berman, “Islamism, Revolution, and Civil Society,” Perspectives on Politics, 1 (2003), 258.
Ibid.
4
social services. This creates a situation
Schanzer of the Washington Institute for
that is exploitable by Islamist organiza-
Near East Policy, the Muslim Brother-
tions, causing many groups to quickly
hood began its first forays into the Pal-
mobilize in order to provide individuals
estinian territories between 1946 and
with these missing services.4 In this case,
1948, creating branches of the Brother-
the advancement of civil society should
hood in both the West Bank and the
be examined as a decrease in state capa-
Gaza Strip.7 The enterprise here, as ex-
bilities and, simultaneously, as an ex-
plained by Professor Michael Jensen of
pansion of revolutionary sentiment and
the University of Copenhagen, was to
governmental dissatisfaction.5 While her
develop charities and educational struc-
research focused on the case of the Mus-
tures while working closely with local
lim Brotherhood in Egypt, Professor
mosques.8 One particular group, the al-
Berman does make the declaration that
Mujama’ al-Islami, would emerge from
Egypt can be representative of other
the mind of Ahmed Yassin, a graduate
Middle Eastern countries, citing Hez-
of Al-Azhar University in Cairo and
bollah in Lebanon as another example
well-versed in the principles and tenets
of this phenomenon.6 It is possible,
of the Muslim Brotherhood.9 Founded
then, to transport this theoretical model
in the 1970s, Al-Mujama’ al-Islami fol-
and apply it to Hamas’s rise in popular-
lowed a path typical of many Brother-
ity.
hood-affiliates, focusing on the idea of An examination into the histori-
dawa, or charity. Indeed, many of the
cal context surrounding the organiza-
services provided by al-Mujama’ al-Is-
tion’s founding provides key insight
lami included small medical clinics,
into how Professor Berman’s social ser-
meal provisions, and youth clubs.10 This
vice analysis plays into Hamas’s preva-
focus reflected the official Muslim
lence. The organization began as a
Brotherhood tenets of non-violence and
branch of Hassan al-Bana’s Muslim
charity. Yet, it must be understood that
Brotherhood, with many mosques and
this organization was still barely a foot-
schools being affiliated with the entity.
note in the politics of the wider region.
As
For decades, a group from across the
4
noted
Ibid, 259. Ibid. 6 Ibid, 258. 7 Ibid, 258. 5
by
Professor
Jonathan
8
Michael I. Jensen, The Political Ideology of Hamas: A Grassroots Perspective (Palgrave Macmillan: New York, 2009), 15. 9 Ibid, 20. 10 Ibid.
5
Mediterranean Sea has been in the
Islamic Center to serve as a central hub
hearts and minds of many Palestinians.
for Brotherhood activities in the Gaza
Yasser Arafat’s Fatah was the foremost
Strip.15 Importantly, Ahmed Yassin and
figure of the Palestinian struggle, having
his group expanded on their charitable
fought against the Israelis for decades
services by creating a bureaucratic ad-
and being successful in promoting the
ministration focused on recruitment
resistance to a global
audience.11
Fatah
and the effective provision of social ser-
had become so recognized on both local
vices.16 Shortly after Yassin’s Israeli ap-
and international scales that “Arafat be-
proval, “the center boasted an aggres-
came the de facto head of the Palestin-
sive network of health services, day care,
ian people… [and] the PLO was recog-
youth activities, and even food services
nized as the unquestioned leader of the
that won the support and loyalty of the
Palestinian people.”12 As the 1970s came
destitute Palestinians living in Gaza.”17
ahead, there were new developments
Furthermore, the organization began to
that suggested a change in the dynamics
develop new schools, mosques, and
of the Palestinian political landscape.
even aided in the construction of the Is-
While Ahmed Yassin’s Al-Mujama’ al-Is-
lamic University of Gaza.18 These ac-
lami was not as glamorous as Fatah, the
tions were further compounded by an
Yassin’s focus on civil society and social
increase in funds given to the organiza-
service would prove essential in local
tion by many Gulf States, increasing the
recognition.13
group’s
A radical development in Ahmed
capabilities
and
potential
reach.19
Yassin’s al-Mujama’ al-Islami occurred
In contrast, we have the rather
in 1979, when the organization’s politi-
lax involvement seen in the actions of
cal and social branches were granted le-
Yasser Arafat and the Palestinian Libera-
gal licensing to operate openly in the
tion Organization. The PLO and its key
Gaza Strip.14 This legal allowance by the
group, Fatah, were residing in Lebanon
Israeli government gave Yassin the op-
from the 1960s to 1982, and were then
portunity to use his newly founded
exiled to Tunisia following the course of
11
15
12
16
Ibid, 19. Ibid. 13 Michael I. Jensen, The Political ideology of Hamas: A Grassroots Perspective, 16. 14 Matthew Levitt, Hamas: Politics, Charity, and Terrorism in the Service of Jihad (Yale University Press: London, 2006), 10.
Jonathan Schanzer, Hamas vs. Fatah, 20. Matthew Levitt, Hamas: Politics, Charity, and Terrorism in the Service of Jihad, 10. 17 Jonathan Schanzer, Hamas vs. Fatah, 20. 18 Michael I. Jensen, The Political Ideology of Hamas: A Grassroots Perspective, 16. 19 Ibid, 15.
6
the Lebanese Civil War.20 Arafat and Fa-
services of their own.23 On the other
tah were separated geographically and
hand, Ahmed Yassin and his organiza-
politically from the Palestinian territo-
tion were conducting grassroots opera-
ries. Arafat was unable to have any con-
tions that provided him keen insight
crete influence in both the West Bank
into the needs and struggles of the local
and the Gaza Strip, and ultimately, his
Palestinian populace. It is important to
organization’s actions were relatively in-
note that on the eve the First Intifada,
effective at changing the Israeli-Palestin-
Yassin had developed a web of schools,
ian conflict. On the other hand, Ahmed
charities, and mosques that would pro-
Yassin’s created a sense of solidarity and
vide the foundational backbone for Ha-
empathy between the peoples of the
mas to pivot off from.24 In short, “Ha-
Gaza Strip and Al-Mujama’ al-Islami.
mas was able to rapidly to take over…
Yassin’s organization was on the ground
precisely because it was not, in fact, a
and providing concrete social services,
new movement at all. Right from the
acutely aware of the fact that “both the
start, the organization had made use of
Israeli government and Palestinian lead-
the Islamist network and the institutions
ership [had] consistently failed to pro-
established many years earlier.”25
vide these essential services to the Pales-
This began in 1982, when Ahmed
tinian community.”21 The failure of the
Yassin founded the al-Mujahideen al-Fi-
state, which or lack thereof, gave Yassin
lastinun, an organization that focused
and the Muslim Brotherhood the oppor-
on a weapons procurement and other
tunity to come in and create their own
militant aims.26 Five years later, in 1987,
social service and civil society apparat-
the First Intifada broke out. The Muslim
uses.22 To add credence to this point,
Brotherhood in Palestine was initially
Sheri Berman’s description of the dele-
split on its course of actions. Some de-
gitimizing state can be applied to Yasser
sired to maintain the positions of non-
Arafat’s PLO, which at this time was far
violence, while a smaller group of
from the Palestinian territories and inef-
younger Brotherhood members wanted
fectual
to support more hawkish, military
at
providing
governmental
20
24
21
25
Ibid. Matthew Levitt, Hamas: Politics, Charity, and Terrorism in the Service of Jihad, 6. 22 Sheri Berman, “Islamism, Revolution, and Civil Society,” 258. 23 Matthew Levitt, Hamas: Politics, Charity, and Terrorism in the Service of Jihad, 10.
Jonathan Schanzer, Hamas vs. Fatah, 21. Michael I. Jensen, The Political Ideology of Hamas: A Grassroots Perspective, 18. 26 Matthew Levitt, Hamas: Politics, Charity, and Terrorism in the Service of Jihad, 10.
7
ventures. In 1987, this cadre officially re-
Hamas’s predecessor. The charter high-
branded to become Hamas.27 While a
lights the fact that while Hamas may
more militant branch, the organization
have formed to distinguish itself from
maintained its connections with the
the Muslim Brotherhood, it would con-
wider Muslim Brotherhood and im-
tinue on with the principles of charity
portantly, never dropped the traditions
and social service. It affirmed Hamas’s
of social service and civil society. These
own role as being both a military organ-
sentiments were clearly expressed in Ha-
ization and as a revolutionary challenger
mas’s founding charter, published in
seeking to control the Palestinian terri-
August 18th, 1988. In Article 20 of the
tories.
charter, it is declared that “Islamic soci-
Thus, the official formation of
ety [Hamas] is one of solidarity… We
Hamas acts as a bookmark highlighting
face no escape from establishing social
the first real challenger to the legitimacy
solidarity among the people… so that if
of Yasser Arafat and the PLO. Fatah and
one organ is hurt the rest of the body
the PLO, in the wake of the First Inti-
will respond with alertness and fer-
fada, found themselves to be surprised
vor.”28 The diction in this statement is
by the organization.30 The anti-Israeli
key, as it links Hamas directly with the
revolts and uprisings that characterized
Palestinian people. This emphasis on
the First Intifada became ideological
solidarity creates an image of Hamas as
battlegrounds that split Palestinians be-
a protector or guardian of sorts. More
tween the long-standing PLO and the
emphasis on this social service aspect is
upstarts of Hamas.31 Hamas began to im-
addressed in a direct Islamic recitation
itate some of the PLO’s strategies, dis-
which is found within the charter:
tributing leaflets and using their previ-
“‘What a wonderful tribe were the
ously established social service networks
Ash’aris… [who] would collect all their
to mobilize support for the Intifada.32 It
possessions and then would divide them
soon became clear that the failure of Fa-
equally among themselves.’”29 This pas-
tah in producing any secure gains for
sage emphasizes the foundational ele-
the Palestinian people since its incep-
ment of social service that existed in
tion in 1959 was beginning to take a toll
27
29
28
30
Jonathan Schanzer, Hamas vs. Fatah, 24. “Hamas: Charter (August 1988),” in The IsraeliArab Reader, ed. Walter Laqueur and Barry Rubin (Penguin Books: New York, 2001), 343.
Ibid. Jonathan Schanzer, Hamas vs. Fatah, 23. 31 Ibid, 24-25. 32 Ibid, 24.
8
on the organization’s popular support.
combination of Hamas’s participation in
Indeed, during the course of the Inti-
civil society, as exemplified by their ac-
fada, “Hamas began to exploit the gen-
tions toward education, and in acts such
eral frustration in the Gaza Strip and
as the provision of welfare and charity,
West Bank, where many Palestinians
culminated in a significant rise in Hamas
were losing confidence in Arafat’s lead-
membership. Professor Jonathan Schan-
ership.”33
Here, Professor Berman’s
zer, for example, noted that “swelling
analysis of the group feels almost pro-
the ranks of Hamas supporters, to the
phetic. The “declining effectiveness and
surprise of Fatah, was the Palestinian in-
legitimacy” of the Palestinian-Arafat
telligentsia, including teachers, stu-
state was eroded by “the rise of revolu-
dents, doctors, lawyers, and account-
tionary movements and their attack on
ants.”38 It is understood by many schol-
the status quo.”34 In the case of Fatah,
ars that Hamas continues to maintain its
this declining legitimacy arose due to
strong roots with the middle classes of
Arafat’s inability in securing concrete
the Gaza Strip.39 In addition, Hamas’s
gains for the Palestinian people and for
focus on providing charitable services to
his recognition of an Israeli state.35 From
the lowest classes of Palestinian society
here, Hamas’s competition with Fatah
further contributed to their acceptance
seems to be a textbook case of Professor
amongst a wide socio-economic array of
Berman’s framework. Hamas would
Palestinians.40 As noted by a Palestinian
weaponize
so
named Nidal who had participated in
through its network of social services.36
the First Intifada, it became clear that
Ideological fronts opened in areas such
Hamas had reached a critical mass in its
as university campuses across the West
popular acceptance. In an interview, Ni-
Bank and the Gaza Strip.37
dal revealed that despite Hamas’s usage
civil
society,
doing
The holistic nature of Hamas and
of Islamist rhetoric, Palestinians were
its background under Al-Mujama al-Is-
flocking to the organization’s banner
lami resulted in massive popular support
because the end goal of the organization
amongst
was in line with that of the Palestinian
many
Palestinians.
The
33
37
34
38
Ibid, 26. Sheri Berman, “Islamism, Revolution, and Civil Society,” 259. 35 Jonathan Schanzer, Hamas vs. Fatah, 26. 36 Sheri Berman, “Islamism, Revolution, and Civil Society,” 259.
Jonathan Schanzer, Hamas vs. Fatah, 26 Jonathan Schanzer, Hamas vs. Fatah, 28. 39 Erased in a Moment: Suicide Bombing attacks Against Israeli Citizens, 64. 40 Michael I. Jensen, The Political Ideology of Hamas: A Grassroots Perspective, 6.
9
populace.41 It was possible, according to
the First Intifada, Hamas commanded a
Nidal, to look past the religious nature
huge amount of respect and loyalty, es-
of the organization in order to empha-
pecially amongst residents of the Gaza
size unity and national solidarity.42 In-
Strip. These factors provide key founda-
deed, scholars noted that by the end of
tional elements that highlight the rea-
1989, Hamas had secured, at the very
sons as to why Hamas has continued to
least, massive acceptance amongst the
have the popularity it maintains today.
Palestinian populace.43 Even to this day,
The story of Hamas and Fatah is a duet
Hamas has maintained its position as a
defined by the success of each organiza-
provider of social services; the destitu-
tion in garnering the support of the peo-
tion in which many Palestinians live are
ple. It was never about Islam, or culture,
key avenues for Hamas to build on in
or even Israel to a degree. It has, and
order to maintain its popularity.44
always will be about the will of Palestine
It becomes evident that the rise of Hamas, this jihadist organization,
and knowing the people’s needs, wants, and hopes
emerged not out of simplified terms like culture and religion. People did not join Hamas a desire to create a unified Islamic caliphate, nor did they join in order to eradicate the global Jewish population. Rather, the emergence, acceptance, and surging popularity of Hamas can be derived from its participation in civil society and its clever use of social services. Using Professor Sheri Berman’s scholarship as a framework, it becomes clear that in conjunction to this history of social service, the rise of Hamas was also dependent on the weakening legitimacy of Fatah. By the end of
“Nidal,” in Homeland: Oral Histories of Palestine and Palestinians, ed. Staughton Lynd, Alice Lynd, and Sam Bahour (Olive Branch Press: New York, 1994), 270. 41
42
Ibid. Jonathan Schanzer, Hamas vs. Fatah, 35. 44 Matthew Levitt, Hamas: Politics, Charity, and Terrorism in the Service of Jihad, 5. 43
10
BIBLIOGRAPHY Berman, Sheri. “Islamism, Revolution, and Civil Society.” Perspectives on Politics, 1 (2003). Homeland: Oral Histories of Palestine and Palestinians, Edited by. Staughton Lynd, Alice Lynd, and Sam Bahour. Olive Branch Press: New York, 1994. Jensen, Michael. The Political Ideology of Hamas: A Grassroots Perspective. Palgrave Macmillan: New York, 2009. Levitt, Matthew. Hamas: Politics, Charity, and Terrorism in the Service of Jihad. Yale University Press: London, 2006. Revolutionaries and Reformers, Edited by Barry Rubin. State University of New York Press: Albany, 2003. Schanzer, Jonathan. Hamas vs. Fatah. Palgrave Macmillan: New York, 2008. The Israeli-Arab Reader, Edited by Walter Laqueur and Barry Rubin. Penguin Books: New York, 2001.
11
“Hypermasculinity and Fetishized Martyrdom in Angela Carter's ‘The Bloody Chamber’”
by Rosalyn Stilling
12
Angela Carter’s “The Bloody
of the negative animus archetype—the
Chamber” is a touchstone of postmod-
ruler of a land of death who tortures
ern fairy tale revisions, deftly marrying
woman and cuts her off from life […]
the latent content of Charles Perrault’s
[he] murders life for her” (11).
“Bluebeard” with her entrancing and
The Bluebeard mythos, typified
opulent prose. She boldly addresses the
by scholar Cheryl Renfroe as a “miso-
sexuality, gender relations, and biblical
gynistic tale frame,” exists on the fringes
comparisons inherent in Perrault’s tale
of popular fairy tale types, riding the
in her prose, particularly by blending al-
line between gothic narrative, rife with
lusions to Judeo-Christian figures with
medieval manors and horrific violence,
sadomasochistic practices. Carter ex-
and morally driven folk literature,
pands upon these elements present in
aimed to inform an audience’s social
“Bluebeard,” while keeping her focus
practices (83). In Charles Perrault’s
on the representation of villainous Blue-
French folktale “La Barbe Bleue,” a
beard and his abuses towards the inno-
young woman marries a mysterious and
cent bride. In reimagining “Bluebeard”
wealthy widower with strange azure
within “The Bloody Chamber,” Carter
whiskers and moves to his remote castle,
enhances Bluebeard’s god-like omnipo-
relating to the medievalism present in
tence and his fetishistic approach to fe-
the gothic and fairy tales. After they are
male mutilation to turn the tale’s sanc-
married, the story follows the plot struc-
tioning of patriarchal traditions on its
ture of the Garden of Eden from the
head. Carter’s blending of Roman Cath-
Book of Genesis in the Bible. Bluebeard
olic symbols and practices with the erot-
gives the bride the keys to his entire cas-
ics of sadomasochism and the all-con-
tle, a veritable Eden of material riches,
suming male gaze shows that the true
requesting the she refrain from explor-
problem of the story is destructive hy-
ing one specific chamber, acting as the
permasculinity rather than the feminine
fairy tale’s forbidden fruit from the bib-
disobedience displayed in the Bluebeard
lical Tree of Knowledge.
mythos. Carter transforms Perrault’s
Overcome with Eve-like curios-
Bluebeard, a symbol of absolute patriar-
ity, the bride disobeys Bluebeard’s
chal rule, into her character named The
wishes and, knowing the dangerous
Marquis, an icon of the hubristic and all-
consequences, enters the chamber to
consuming male gaze, described by
find the decapitated corpses of his pre-
critic Kari E. Lokke as “the quintessence
vious wives, a gothic reimagining of the 13
fruits of Eve’s sin. As the bride realizes
women.2 Cheryl Renfroe asserts that
these are the victims of disobeying Blue-
Carter’s
beard’s orders, he catches her in her
open[s the way] for individual revision
“sinful knowledge” and plans to kill her,
of traditional attitudes toward women
expelling her from the Eden of his lavish
rooted in Judeo/Christian creation my-
gothic castle and from life itself. The
thology,” noting Carter’s representation
bride’s brothers, the deus ex machina of
and critique the Christian “doctrine of
the gothic fairy tale, dash into the cham-
original sin” (82-83).
ber and behead Bluebeard, a narrative
“postmodern
Carter
critiques
retelling[…]
the
god-like
move away from the biblical plot struc-
power within the patriarchy by tracing
ture and back towards gothic narra-
its development to its source: the glut-
tives.1
tonous male gaze present within the Aware of the shocking gothic el-
Marquis. Reflected even in the “lush,
ements in a story aimed at a wide audi-
erotic, rhythmic prose” of Carter’s writ-
ence, Perrault tried to moralize the tale
ing, the Marquis’ material decadence
by claiming it as a cautionary one, warn-
pervades the story from his ancestral
ing against innate womanly curiosity,
mansion to his extravagant gifts to the
handed down from Eve. However, in
narrator (Lokke 8). Passed through his
much the same manner as the Bible,
noble heritage, the Marquis has inher-
Perrault’s moral uses the wife, or the
ited a sea-bound “Eden,” filled with all
Eve-figure, as a scapegoat to avoid con-
the riches and amenities one could de-
demning or questioning male avarice.
sire. Tucked in the bosom of the sea, the
Perrault sidesteps the darker, more po-
Marquis’ ancestral and “amphibious”
litical undertone of the story—the hor-
home sits on a large rock surrounded by
ror that patriarchal systems, such as mar-
the ocean with a small highway that ap-
riage, allow for abuses of the power
pears when the tide goes out, essentially
granted to men over women, originat-
isolating the space from cosmopolitan
ing in the totalitarian power of God over
society (Carter 9). This ancestral abode
powerless Eve in Genesis, manifesting in
is the epicenter of his sense of entitle-
physical and sexual violence against
ment and narcissistic self-deification,
1
directly mentioned because he has no analogous character within the story.
Gothic narratives often depict a daring and nearly impossible rescue of the heroine at the eleventh hour. 2 Adam also exercises power over Eve, but for the purposes of this comparison, Adam will not be
14
granting him temporal power through
me in the gilded mirrors with the as-
his title but also passing on a tradition
sessing eye of a connoisseur […] I’d
of misogyny; Carter notes that his ances-
never seen […] the sheer carnal avarice
tors used to hunt women in the village.
of [lust]” (Carter 11). In addition to con-
The Marquis now “hunts” in Parisian sa-
necting avarice and violence with lust,
lons for fresh meat, leading him to find
Carter creates layers of sight within this
the story’s narrator (33). His family his-
scene to a nearly cloying degree, inten-
tory of female objectification, a nod to
sifying the Marquis’ gaze, multiplied by
patriarchal sanctioning of female abuse,
the gilt mirrors. The manifold gazes
foreshadows the coming struggles of the
heighten the visual and erotic intensity
narrator as his wife and also hints at the
of the moment, punctuated violently by
importance of sight in the Marquis’ vio-
the gleam of blood-red rubies. When
lent perversion. Keen sight is essential to
fixed around the young girl’s pale neck,
a successful hunt, and the Marquis’ gaze
the ruby necklace, as red as virgin’s
plays a central role in his perversions
blood or a slit throat, is a physical sym-
and fetishes, aimed to seek out his
bol of the girl’s transformation into a vi-
young victims.
olent scopophiliac’s sex object, fore-
The Marquis’ newest conquest is
shadowing her impending doom.
the story’s narrator, a poor girl living in
The ruby choker comes to repre-
a small apartment with her widowed
sent the inception of the male gaze
mother. When she encounters the Mar-
physically upon the narrator, all carnal-
quis, he comes to represent everything
ity and rooted in the physical. Male
she is without: financial security, power,
power within “The Bloody Chamber” is
sex, and the glamour of luxury. After
correlated with sight, for the only other
she is engaged to the worldly and expe-
male character is the blind and poor pi-
rienced Marquis, he begins lavishly dot-
ano tuner Jean-Ives, who offers no threat
ing upon her, a preview of the riches she
to the narrator because he cannot see
will inherit by their union. These luxu-
her. The Marquis, however, is entirely
ries, though, come with a price—the ig-
threatening in the power of his gaze. In
niting of his lustful gaze. When he
“Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cin-
places a decadent ruby choker around
ema,” Laura Mulvey posits,
her throat, seeming a “precious slit
Pleasure in looking has been split
throat […] bright as arterial blood”, the
between active/male and passive/fe-
young bride notes, “I saw him watching
male.
The
determining
male
gaze 15
projects its phantasy on to the female
After the bride enters the infa-
figure, which is styled accordingly. In
mous chateau, the Marquis’ tendency
their
role,
toward aesthetic decadence, a product
women are simultaneously looked at
of his gluttonous gaze, becomes clear.
and displayed, with their appearance
Aside from the lavish adorning of his
coded for strong visual and erotic im-
young bride, his gothic, sea-bound man-
pact[…] women displayed as sexual ob-
sion is a physical manifestation of his in-
ject is the leitmotif of erotic spectacle
satiable visual lust. His intense voyeuris-
(841).
tic urges are encapsulated in his home,
traditional
exhibitionist
Following Mulvey’s theory, the
and the rooms of the castle are over-
Marquis, in assuming the power of his
flowing with decadent and exotic amen-
position in the patriarchy, captures the
ities, even down to the smallest details.
narrator’s body within his gaze so he can
A bathtub becomes a work of art in the
form her passive body into the image
Marquis’ chateau, complete with gold
that aesthetically and sexually pleases
taps in the shape of dolphins with eyes
him most, dressing her in satin lingerie
made of turquoise. He owns hordes of
and decadent jewelry. She is no longer
ancient tomes, and within these books,
the poor Parisian girl because as a
the narrator stumbles upon a direct in-
woman, she is made passive by the ac-
stance of his voyeuristic fetishism, the
tive and consuming male gaze, chang-
intersection
ing her identity to fit the male’s desires.
with viewing-pleasure-as-power.
of
viewing-for-pleasure
In accepting the choker, she naively re-
The bride finds a collection of
nounces her sentience to the Marquis,
pornographic prints, the first labeled
becoming the passive object of his active
“Reproof of curiosity,” depicting a
gaze, inciting his desire for power over
young naked girl, sobbing while being
her assumed through viewing pleasure.
whipped by masked men with large
The narrator can only have a sense of
blades and erect phalluses; the girl’s
agency around the blind piano tuner
genitalia is red like a “split fig” (Carter
Jean-Ives because he cannot assume
17). The imagery is a graphic display of
power over her identity and body with
the entwining of innocence lost, vio-
his gaze; Jean-Ives, however, is no
lence, pain, the submissive female form,
match for the power of the Marquis’
and masculine dominance within the
gaze.
Marquis’ sexual fantasies, extending far into sexual perversion; the image’s 16
name also suggests a sense of relishing
(Carter 17). She initially protests to day-
in the punishment of this young girl’s
time intercourse, but the Marquis sala-
curiosity by sexually humiliating and
ciously comments on the advantage of
harming her.3 For the Marquis, sex is a
sunlight saying, “All the better to see
space of dominance, discipline involv-
you” (Carter 17).4 His comment is a bla-
ing physical repercussions, and the gain-
tant nod to fairy tales as well as an indi-
ing of pleasure through the pain of a
cation of the overwhelming presence of
girl’s loss of innocence highlighted in
the male gaze within Carter’s tale—even
the pornography. When the Marquis
her allusions are related to the destruc-
finds his young wife viewing his private
tive and consuming power of the active
pornography, he takes her into the bed-
gaze. The gilt looking-glasses work in
chamber to consummate their marriage,
the same manner as the mirrors of the
further tying his sexual fetishism to the
Parisian salon, multiplying and height-
taking of innocence. Specifically, he
ening the Marquis’ decadent and over-
harnesses the visual pleasure of watching
whelming gaze. Physically experiencing
her view the porn, watching her look of
the narrator’s body is not enough to sate
horror over the images, and watching
his sexual gluttony; he must see himself
her look of shock as he initiates sex. The
conquering her over and over again, a
consummation of their marriage also
veritable clown house of male domi-
links god-like dominion to the power
nance, power, and visual arousal. He
he takes over the young wife in sex.
takes his bride when he decides in the
When the Marquis finally has sex
situation that he desires, unconcerned
with the narrator, days after their wed-
with her experience. His gaze in this
ding, he does so in the light of day sur-
moment, omnipotent in its clownish
rounded by mirrors. The young bride
duplication within the bedchamber’s
looks within the dozen gilt mirrors that
various mirrors at various angles, trans-
surround the bed and notes that it
lates into an assuming of god-like power
looked as if she were amid a harem of
over the girl’s body and fate.
women simultaneously "impaled" by
The Marquis assumes god-like
their husbands in the bright of day
control over his wife’s life and body,
For more information about perversity in “The Bloody Chamber,” see Becky McLaughlin’s scholarship. 4 Carter is referencing the Big Bad Wolf’s infamous line in “Little Red Cap” or “Little Red Riding Hood,”
which is critically viewed as a tale type depicting a girl’s loss of innocence and virginity to a “wolfish” man.
3
17
which becomes apparent when he
bedchamber, but his sense of entitled
moves from lavishing her with his riches
godhead manifests in his interactions
to lavishing her with sexual attention
with his young bride. He fetishizes her
aimed at his pleasure. When his gaze is
innocence, dragging his young “nun”
translated to sexual viewing pleasure,
into a visual and pornographic pilgrim-
Carter begins alluding to the Catholic
age that ends with worshipping his
Church and the power of God over
whims in the bedchamber.
women, particularly nuns and virgin
The cathedral-like bedchamber is
martyrs, setting the Marquis as patriar-
abounding with lilies, which are perhaps
chal godhead above his wife. The por-
the most critically discussed symbol
nographic print foreshadows the young
within “The Bloody Chamber.” Lilies
bride’s impending loss of innocence at
have myriad symbolic connotations, all
his hands, for when the Marquis finds
of which Carter weaves decadently and
her viewing the images, he mocks her
intentionally together. Flowers are gen-
innocence, saying, “My little nun has
erally praised for the pleasure that
found
she?”
comes from viewing their beauty, so
(Carter 17). “Little nun” is a mocking
flower symbolism initially relates to the
pet name, not meant to simply belittle
idea of “gazing for pleasure,” a major
her but to totally subjugate her to his
motif of the work. The bride notes that
patriarchal and god-like power. The
the Marquis has the skin of white fune-
analogy of the Marquis as equivalent to
real lilies, denoting his alignment with
the Catholic-Christian godhead begins
death while mocking a lily’s association
to fall into place in this comment; if the
with sexual anatomy and purity (Lokke
Marquis’ wife is “his little nun” viewing
10). Lokke notes that within the image
“prayerbooks” of sadomasochistic por-
of the lily, “death and phallic sexuality
nography, he is then a god to be wor-
are one,” alluding to the lily’s shape. In
shipped through the female sacrifice of
a
submission to sex and violence. In the
McLaughlin explores the “kaleidoscopic
world of his castle, his creation, he is as
quality” of lily imagery in “The Bloody
a transcendent divinity, and his wife is a
Chamber”:
the
prayerbooks,
has
similar
manner,
scholar
Becky
nun devoted to the service of his godly needs. The Marquis’ scopophilia is evi-
One moment the lily represents life and
denced in his opulent home furnishings,
the next moment, death. Because of the
stash of pornography, and mirrored
lily’s lush, white petals, it seems bloated 18
with fecund[ity][…] and yet lilies are
sexual knowledge, taking the lily’s im-
known as burial flowers[…] One mo-
agery full circle back to its sexual con-
ment the lily looks female and the next
notations.5 Carter also calls upon the
moment, male. At first glance, for ex-
lily’s connection to the divine chastity
ample, the lily appears to be a female
and purity of Christ, often used in Cath-
receptacle, its stamen a clitoris, and the
olic iconography to link the purity of a
serpentine stem a phallus. On second
saint to the purity of Christ. Carter
glance, however, the penile shape of the
aligns the narrator with the patron of
lily begins to suggest the contours of the
music, the virgin martyr Saint Cecilia,
phallus and the coiled stem and all-en-
who is often portrayed in Catholic art as
compassing vaginal “maw.” This vaginal
wearing a crown of lilies to signify her
“maw” doubles as the mysterious pale
purity and virginity (Giorgi 83).
from which life emerges and that dark
The virgin saint is introduced
abyss into which man fears falling [and
into the narrative when the Marquis
never returning] (404).
gifts the narrator with a painting of St. Cecilia as a recognition of his wife’s mu-
McLaughlin artfully addresses the mani-
sical talent as a pianist. St. Cecilia is
fold connotations of the lily, from sex to
revered in Catholicism as a virgin martyr
death to the origin of life; however, she
beheaded during the Christian persecu-
fails to mention the lily’s Christian asso-
tions of Rome. St. Cecilia spurned the
ciations.
marriage bed with her husband because
In addition to resembling sexual
she had already devoted her virginity to
anatomy, Carter plays upon the dual na-
God (Giorgi 83). In the association of
tures of lilies in Catholic iconography
the narrator with St. Cecilia and her im-
and art. Lilies at once represent death
pending martyrdom at his hand, the
and rebirth as Christ dies and then rises
Marquis fetishizes taking her virginity
from the dead. Carter notes that lilies, a
and sees himself as the godhead to
common funeral flower, crowd the bed-
which she devotes her virginity. He
chamber like a funeral parlor, mourning
physically takes her virginity into his
the death of the narrator’s innocence
sense of hedonistic supremacy just as
while also implying the promise of re-
Cecilia symbolically gives her virginity
birth and new life as a woman in her
to God. With the Marquis as the divinity
5
Lokke and McLaughlin note this connection in their respective works.
19
looming over his pianist-bride, he is the
bodies preserved in strange ways relat-
ruler of her life just as God guided St.
ing to their eccentricities. For example,
Cecilia’s life and actions. Essentially,
an Iron Maiden contains the fresh
within this comparison, God led St. Ce-
corpse of Carmilla martyred in the vam-
cilia to her slaughter because a devotion
piric way of having thousands of teeth-
to Him kept her in direct contrast to
like needles pressed into her flesh to
Rome’s rule. Likewise, the Marquis
bleed her dry, showing the Marquis fet-
leads the narrator to the edge of death
ishizing her unique heritage. The Mar-
to satiate his fetish for virgin sacrifice.
quis fetishizes the conquering of these
The Marquis sets his nun in his chateau-
women’s exquisite abilities and quirks,
turned-Garden of Eden, rife with temp-
for their talents lie in the ethereal. His
tation, to test her faithfulness to him, in
only talent is that of looking, hoarding,
the hopes that leading her to sin will ul-
and consuming, rooted in the physical.
timately lead him to pleasure in assum-
Their martyrdoms allow him to conquer
ing God-like power over her body and
their feminine sensibilities encapsulated
fate.
in their uniqueness and beauty, hoardAs in Eden and “Bluebeard,” the
ing more “objects” he finds aesthetically
Marquis tests the narrator by giving her
and erotically pleasing. The chamber, a
the keys to the chateau, demanding that
veritable charnel house, exists as a se-
she avoid the chamber of his inferno or
cret, infernal chapel of fetishized mar-
“enfer” (Carter 21). His forbidden
tyrdom to honor the Marquis’ sadistic
chamber likened to a circle of hell in
sovereignty and godhead.
Dante’s Inferno, contains the previous
As if he could sense her transgres-
spoils of the martyrdom of his other
sion, the Marquis finds the bride in her
wives. Carter notes that this bloody
transgression nearly directly following
chamber contains a rack, urns, and a
her “sin” of entering the chamber,
spiked wheel, devices associated with
seeming to appear as an omnipotent and
the deaths of other virgin martyrs like
omnipresent deity. The young narra-
St. Catherine, St. Justa, and St. Rufina.
tor’s misstep allows him to exercise his
The Marquis’ previous two wives had
final desire, which is to punish her curi-
the otherworldly qualities of song and
osity just as the young girl in his por-
model-esque beauty, and his third wife,
nography is punished. The narrator has
Carmilla, was a descendent of Dracula.
no hope of survival at this point, for
His forbidden chamber includes their
Jean-Ives, a worshipper of the narrator’s 20
musical talent and her only hope of sal-
phalluses. This grotesque scene is his ul-
vation is rendered powerless in his
timate fantasy nearly made reality.
blindness, a direct foil to the Marquis’
He is ultimately unsuccessful in
power through his gluttonous gaze.
his final fantasy enactment, however.
Carter relates his character to the yew
The narrator’s mother, operating on her
tree, common in English churchyards,
feminine intuition, storms his castle
and as these ancient trees keep watch
right before he tries to kill her daughter
over graves, Jean-Ives’ only ability is to
and shoots him dead. The mother
keep
the
proves that the Marquis’ divinity is a
doomed girl before her execution.6 He
self-propagated myth, for she easily kills
is powerless to intervene, just as yew
him as one fells a sapling oak. From atop
trees are fated to stand as the land
a stallion, she coldly lodges a bullet in
around them fills with the dead.
his skull, foiling the close range, inti-
an
overnight
vigil
with
On her execution day, the Mar-
mate decapitation he planned for her
quis disrobes the girl, a pornographic
naked daughter. The Marquis was so ob-
display of his fantasies and power, and
sessed with empty pleasures, void of
demands she wear the ruby choker on
love, that he had not considered that fa-
her death march. The ruby choker be-
milial love could spoil his fantasy. The
comes a gaudy display of irony, for it
mother’s intervention, a reference to
not only initially foreshadowed the girl’s
the conflict between patriarchal sky god
fate but its original intention—to de-
and matriarchal earth mother, ends his
marcate noblewomen who survived the
reign of terror through cycles of mar-
French Revolution—can now be dis-
riage, sex, and violence, allowing the
honored by the Marquis. He desires to
narrator to leave the sordid castle and
symbolically sacrifice her to his over-
marry Jean-Ives, a more suitable hus-
whelming masculine desires of sexuality
band.
and violence, his sword becoming the
mother’s use of a gun represents a
guillotine of the French Revolution.
woman using phallic power against an
The Marquis wishes to martyr the narra-
abusive man by “submit[ting him] to
tor by the sword, aligning the decapita-
the phallic function” in the single true
tion of St. Cecilia with the pornography
strike of the bullet (416). His hubris and
of masked men with swords and
corrupted,
6
McLaughlin
argues
Id-driven
that
the
masculinity
His name is French for “yew tree”
21
ultimately cause his downfall, for he is
In “The Bloody Chamber,” Carter ques-
brought to his doom by a symbol of the
tions and critiques patriarchal society by
virile masculinity that ruled his exist-
showcasing the way in which traditions
ence.
like marriage and religion centered on The Marquis, a man whose figure
male pleasure and mobility allot space
and form seem untouched by the hands
for abuse against women. She does not
of time as “a stone on the beach whose
demonize marriage, for the narrator en-
fissures have been eroded by successive
ters a relationship with Jean-Ives. In-
tides,” essentially exists as an icon of the
stead, Carter upholds marriages of
destructive capabilities of patriarchal
equality, untainted by patriarchal con-
culture—an effigy of
hypermasculin-
structs like power through the male
ity—rather than an actual person with a
gaze. “The Bloody Chamber” shows
past, present, and future (Carter 9).
that systems and cycles that perpetuate
McLaughlin notes that the Marquis’
hypermasculinity, ranging from mar-
“waxen” visage functions as a mask,
riages of inequity to patriarchal religious
reminiscent of Gaston Leroux’s masked
traditions which demonize women,
and perverse Phantom in The Phantom
must be obliterated for women to be
of the Opera, but the Marquis’ waxen
free of sexual slavery and violence and
mask of a face hides the horror of years
for the sexes to engage in healthy, ful-
of female objectification, sadism, and vi-
filling, and meaningful relationships.
olence (414). The Marquis is simply characterized by his gaze, his lust, and his violence, his waxen face hiding his inner corruption from the narrator. Her attempt to understand her husband, as Eve desires to be closer to God, by entering his forbidden chamber, brings her to the precipice of obliteration. In this instance of disconnect between the sexes, only death and discord can follow inequality and violence of men to women.
22
BIBLIOGRAPHY Carter, Angela. "The Bloody Chamber." The Bloody Chamber. 1979. New York: Penguin, 1993. 7-40. Print. Giorgi, Rosa. "Cecelia." Saints in Art, 2002. Los Angeles: Getty Museum, 2003. 83. Print. Lokke, Kari E. "'Bluebeard' and 'The Bloody Chamber': The Grotesque of Self-Parody and Self-Assertion." Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies, vol. 10, no. 1, 1988, pp. 7-12. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3345932. McLaughlin, Becky. "Perverse Pleasure and Fetishized Text: The Deadly Erotics of Carter's 'The Bloody Chamber.'" Style, vol. 29, no. 3, 1995, pp. 404-422. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/42946295. Mulvey, Laura. "Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema." Feminist Film Theory. Ed. Sue Thornham. New York: New York UP, 1999. 58-69. Print. Perrault, Charles. "Bluebeard." Folk and Fairy Tales. Ed. Martin Hallett and Barbara Karasek. Peterborough: Broadview, 2009. 223-226. Print. Renfroe, Cheryl. "Initiation and Disobedience: Liminal Experience in Angela Carter's 'The Bloody Chamber.'" Marvels & Tales, vol. 12, no. 1, 1998, pp. 82-94. JSTOR, JSTOR
23
“Modern Heroes, Heroines, and Antiheroes: The External and Internal in Mrs. Dalloway”
by Abigail Robinson
24
Modernity is a concept, period,
modern features, such as the cosmopol-
idea, etc., that has been explored ad
itan crowd and new technology, are the
nauseam. Defining it seems to be an im-
heroes of modernity in the Benjaminian
possible task; scholars have been debat-
sense. Septimus Warren Smith, in con-
ing when it began and when it ended (if
trast, is the antihero of modernity. He
it even ended at all) for at least 100
stands apart from the crowd while out
years. The term itself first appeared in
in the city, grappling with meaning that
the mid-nineteenth century in the writ-
is not actually there, and struggles to un-
ings of Baudelaire (Childs 16). He de-
derstand the new technology that the
fined modernity as “a way of living and
other characters marvel over. Yet Septi-
of experiencing life which has arisen
mus’s lack of engagement with the
with the changes wrought by industrial-
modern world is more than made up for
ization, urbanization and seculariza-
by his thoughts. He is overly emotional
tion” that involves “new understandings
and in tune with his own perceptions,
of time and space: speed, mobility, com-
which marks his rich inner life. Unfor-
munication, travel, dynamism, chaos
tunately for him, modernity is primarily
and cultural revolution” (Childs 16). His
concerned with the external, not the in-
definition, for the most part, has per-
ternal, which is why his suicide is not an
sisted over the years.
act of cowardice but an act of defiance
In this essay, I would like to ex-
against the pressure that modernity
plore the way that Baudelaire’s concep-
places on him to give up his inner life
tion of modernity manifests in Virginia
and engage with the modern world. Alt-
Woolf’s Mrs. Dalloway. In the novel,
hough Woolf is an avid proponent of
Woolf shows that to live in modernity
modernity, she is also aware of its costs.
requires one to embrace the new fea-
Her ambivalence highlights the com-
tures of the modern city, even if it
plexities that modernity brings to the in-
comes at the cost of one’s internal life. I
dividuals living through it.
will draw from Walter Benjamin’s the-
Benjamin’s conception of the
ory about the modern hero, as seen in
hero in Baudelaire is a crucial compo-
the flâneur in Baudelaire to think about
nent of my reading. The immediate
the relationship between modernity and
problem though is that Benjamin is un-
Woolf’s characters. Clarissa Dalloway,
clear about what exactly his conception
Peter Walsh, and the other characters
of the hero is. In “Paris of the Second
who successfully engage with London’s
Empire
in
Baudelaire,”
Benjamin 25
explains the hero in several ways, which
scholars, the significance of the flâneur
suggests that the hero manifests in a
as a hero (or, in Septimus’s case, the an-
number of forms. He provides an array
tihero) remains unexplored. Michael H.
of figures whom he considers the hero:
Whitworth, in his discussion on histori-
“Baudelaire patterned his image of the
cal approaches to Mrs. Dalloway, notes
artist after an image of the hero,” the
that “thinking about the urban space of
flâneur’s fragile existence “displays the
Mrs. Dalloway and Woolf’s other Lon-
structure which is in every way charac-
don novels has developed through ex-
teristic of Baudelaire’s conception of the
tensive dialogue with the writings of
hero,” “the fencing slave in the proletar-
Walter Benjamin” (141). He argues that
ian” has a “heroic constitution,” “the
Benjamin’s flâneur, who is “a detached
ragpicker” is akin to the heroic poet,
observer of city life who enjoys the an-
“the lesbian is the heroine of la moder-
onymity of the crowd,” has become an
nité,” “the hero appears as a dandy,”
increasingly important concept in the
and so on (Benjamin, “Paris of the Sec-
scholarship on modernity. Janet Wolff,
ond Empire” 39, 42, 44, 48, 56, 59).
Rachel Bowlby, and Raphael Ingelbien’s
The definition of the hero emerges from
studies on the modern flâneur support
what these figures have in common. As
this claim. Their works on the concept
Angeliki Spiropoulou put it in her book
of
on Benjamin’s conception of history
groundwork for understanding its man-
and modernity in Woolf’s works, these
ifestation in Mrs. Dalloway; however,
figures are the “certain representative
the connection between the flâneur and
human types” that “become emblems of
the hero, as well as the implications of a
the dialectical tension between what is
hero and antihero in the text, are barely
new and what is lost in modernity” (29).
addressed.
flâneurie
form
the
theoretical
That is, Benjamin’s “hero” is a person
Wolff’s article “The Invisible
who represents the pressure between
Flânuese: Women and the Literature of
the gains and the losses of modernity.
Modernity” deals specifically with the
The flâneur/ flâneuse, who appears as
relationship between the flâneur and
Peter and Clarissa in Mrs. Dalloway, is
gender roles. She asserts that “the flâ-
one variation of this hero.
neur is the modern hero” but does not
Although the relationship be-
delve further into a definition or theory
tween Benjamin’s flâneur and Virginia
about the role of the hero in modern lit-
Woolf has been discussed by previous
erature (Wolff 146). Wolff’s central 26
argument is that Benjamin’s under-
Clarissa Dalloway’s wanderings as that
standing of Baudelaire’s flâneur, alt-
of the flâneuse show that Woolf may
hough an important and interesting
have been subverting Benjamin’s mas-
concept in modernity, only applies to
culine conception of the flâneur in her
men (146). Women as flâneuses are in-
novel.
evitably left out because “such a charac-
However, it is really Ingelbien
ter would be rendered impossible by the
who thinks about the flâneur and flâ-
sexual divisions of the nineteenth cen-
neuse within the larger framework of
tury” (Wolff 154). In other words, social
Mrs. Dalloway. Ingelbien’s article “They
conditions in the nineteenth century
Saw One They Knew: Baudelaire and
made it impossible for the flâneuse to
the Ghosts of London Modernism” pri-
exist, which is why it is absent from
marily focuses on the similarities be-
mid-century modern literature. Since
tween ghosts, modern London, and
Wolff
problematically
Baudelaire’s Paris, but nonetheless ar-
equates the hero with the flâneur, it is
gues that the characters who thrive in
presumable that she believes the heroine
Mrs. Dalloway are flâneurs and flâ-
is inevitably left out as well.
neuses, while the struggling Septimus is
somewhat
Although Woolf does not apply
the anti-flâneur. Like Bowlby, he recog-
her theory to any works beyond Baude-
nizes that for the women in the novel,
laire in her essay, Bowlby picks up
“London is a place of opportunity, and
where she left off. Bowlby applies
an alternative to domesticity” (Ingelbien
Wolff’s ideas about the flâneuse to her
55). While Clarissa, Peter, and others
reading of Mrs. Dalloway in the article
flourish as flâneurs and flâneuses, “Sep-
“Walking, Women, and Writing.” Alt-
timus remains the anti-flâneur from
hough she primarily focuses on “Street
whom the surface of London is decep-
Haunting” in modern literature in her
tive” (Ingelbien 56). Ingelbien notes
article, Bowlby argues that Woolf pre-
that Woolf “could…recoil from her be-
sents the flâneuse and subverts the flâ-
loved London,” which suggests that
neur in the novel. She argues that Woolf
Septimus “is the doppelgänger who
may be “readjusting the dominant nar-
voices her repulsion, and who exposes
ratives of the street” to “make way for
the fragility or even the vacuousness of
something like a female flâneurie”
the flâneurs and flâneuses' response to
(Whitworth 142). Her reading of Peter
the city” (56). Put another way, Septi-
Walsh’s city escapade as a parody and
mus represents Woolf’s criticism of 27
modern city experience: the mindless
losses of modernity. The antihero,
wandering, the emphasis on the exter-
therefore, lacks this tension. Instead of
nal, the shallow response to experience.
striking a balance between the pros and
This is similar to Childs’s depiction of
cons of the modern world, the antihero
Septimus as “unable to bring the inter-
finds himself lost in one or the other.
nal and external aspects of his experi-
Bowlby and Ingelbien demonstrate in
ence together” (173). While Childs ar-
their analyses of flâneurie that Clarissa
gues that Woolf is critical of Septimus’s
and Peter function as a flâneuse and a
inability to bring these elements to-
flâneur, so with Benjamin’s conception
gether to form a unified self, Ingelbien
in mind, I will argue that they function
reads Septimus’s resistance to the exter-
as a hero and a heroine. Septimus, as the
nal as Woolf criticizing the external ele-
anti-flâneur, is the antihero who shows
ments of modernity itself. Indeed, he as-
only the losses that modernity brings.
serts that Septimus’s character suggests
When read in this light, Clarissa,
“a rejection of the modernity that Ben-
Peter,
and
Septimus
demonstrate
jamin located at the heart of Baude-
Woolf’s ambivalent feelings about the
laire’s experience of the city” (Ingelbien
gains and losses of modernity. Randall
56).
Stevenson details Woolf’s comprehenAlthough Ingelbien’s argument
sive understanding of modernity as both
is compelling, it does not factor in the
fascinating and problematic. In his read-
function of the flâneur as the hero. For
ing of To the Lighthouse, he discusses
the rest of this paper, I would like to
how the novel is often read as “modern-
shift from Ingelbien’s emphasis on the
ist resistance to modernity” but this
flâneur, flâneuse, and anti-flâneur to the
does “not do full justice…to Woolf’s
manifestation of Benjamin’s hero in
view of modernity” (Stevenson 156). He
Mrs. Dalloway. Although the two are
says that “any view of modernism’s rela-
closely linked for Benjamin, it is the
tions
hero who is “the true subject of la mo-
acknowledge that these were almost in-
dernité (“Paris of the Second Empire”
variably complicitous” (Stevenson 157).
44). The flâneur/flâneuse, when read as
In other words, Woolf is fascinated with
representative of the hero/heroine, rep-
motor cars, aviation, film, and other
resents more than just an observer who
new technologies but also wary of their
is at home in the crowd: he/she repre-
implications (Stevenson 156-157). Her
sents the tension between the gains and
presentation of the modern self “may
to
modernity
needs
to
28
have resulted as much from the new
“In people’s eyes, in the swing, tramp,
thrills as from the new threats moder-
and trudge; in the bellow and the up-
nity provided” (Stevenson 157). Woolf’s
roar; the carriages, motor cars, omni-
ambivalent feelings towards the modern
buses, vans, sandwich men shuffling and
world help explain her presentation of
swinging; brass bands; barrel organs; in
Clarissa, Peter, and Septimus. Although
the triumph and the jingle and the
Woolf was fascinated with new technol-
strange high singing of some aeroplane
ogy and science, she also saw the ills of
overhead was what she loved; life; Lon-
these
don; this moment in June.” (Woolf 4)
gains
(Stevenson
157,
159).
Amongst other things, she was concerned about the lack of connection in
Clarissa is describing a distinctly mod-
modern times, which she explores
ern scene. Her warm depiction of the
throughout Mrs. Dalloway. Her wari-
people of the crowd “in the swing,
ness becomes particularly vivid when
tramp, and trudge” suggests that she
she aligns the heroine Clarissa with the
finds “the spectacle offered by the
antihero Septimus after his suicide. Her
crowds in big-city streets intoxicating,”
representation of modernity in the
much like Benjamin’s flâneur (“Paris of
novel is overall a complex and ambiva-
the Second Empire” 33). Airplanes and
lent depiction—surely one that Benja-
cars, which were not yet present in Bau-
min, with his cryptic and often contra-
delaire’s Paris, are modern as well:
dictory ideas, would have approved of.
Clarissa marvels at the “motor cars” and
From the beginning of the novel,
“the strange high singing of some aero-
Woolf presents Clarissa as the hero of
plane overhead.” For her, “the cabs
modernity. The gains of modernity are
passing” are “absolutely absorbing” and
clearly represented in her thoughts. As a
“Bond street fascinated her” with “its
flâneuse, “the street becomes a dwelling
shops…one roll of tweed…a few pearls;
place” for Clarissa (Benjamin, “Paris of
salmon on an iceblock” (Woolf 8, 11).
the Second Empire” 19). That is,
Clarissa takes in her surroundings “at a
Clarissa feels at home while out and
glance,” much as storefronts in the ar-
about in the city, which is new to mo-
cades of Baudelaire’s mid-19th century
dernity and wonderful to Clarissa. She
Paris provided the hero with a visual ar-
describes what she loves about London:
ray of commodities (Benjamin, “Arcades Project” 40). In the London of the early 20th century, though, the visual 29
display of the arcades has shifted to a
153), that was prevalent in pre-modern
street known for its shopping. Clarissa’s
life has given way to “the obliteration of
joy whilst absorbing all of this testifies
the individual’s traces in the big-city
to her success as a modern hero. Addi-
crowd” (Benjamin, “Paris of the Second
tionally,
nineteenth-century
Empire” 23). As a flâneuse in the streets,
Paris, new technologies become an in-
Clarissa is intoxicated by the external
creasingly important component of the
modern experience, but the tension be-
modern experience in the twentieth
tween the gains of external experience
century. Clarissa embraces the cars and
and the loss of internal experience be-
modern technologies that are part of the
comes evident when she returns home.
flâneuse experience in the 1920s. Alto-
Clarissa has a message that Mr. Dalloway
gether, her depiction of “what she
has been asked to lunch with Lady Bru-
loved; life; London” represents the gains
ton. Immediately, the thrill of being in
of modernity; she is able to experience
the crowd vanishes. Clarissa feels “sud-
the crowd and new technology as a glee-
denly shrivelled, aged, breastless, the
ful observer.
grinding, blowing, flowering of the day,
unlike
However, Clarissa’s position as a
out of the doors, out of the window, out
heroine reflects not only the newness of
of her body and brain which now failed”
modernity but also the tension between
(Woolf 31). In other words, the pleasure
the gains and the losses. Her experience
that comes from being alone in the
with the losses become evident when
crowd, an observer of modernity, dissi-
she returns home after her morning out
pates when she is presented with the loss
and about in London. According to
of connectivity that accompanies the
Benjamin, the crowd is “the latest nar-
modern. The isolation that is central to
cotic for people who have been aban-
her experience in the street makes her
doned” (“Paris of the Second Empire”
felt disconnected from her husband.
31). This is true for Clarissa, who hopes
When she says that she is “alone for
to connect with others throughout the
ever,” Clarissa is relaying the idea that
novel but repeatedly to make the con-
she feels disconnected from Mr. Dallo-
nection. Her difficulty marks the inter-
way (Woolf 47). Her sense of loss,
nal loss of modernity; the sense of con-
which follows her joy in being a part of
nection, or of the feeling that “an un-
a new modernity, highlights the tension
seen part of us…be recovered somehow
that exists within the modern heroine.
attached to this person or that” (Woolf 30
Peter Walsh also functions as a
hero as the “adventurer” arises from the
hero in Mrs. Dalloway. The “leisurely”
modern scene. Curiously, Peter follows
flâneur/modern hero “strolls about eve-
the woman even as “other people got
rywhere in the city” (Benjamin, “Paris
between them in the street” and imagi-
of the Second Empire” 19). Peter em-
nes himself as “an adventurer, reck-
bodies this hero when he submits “to
less…swift, daring, indeed a romantic
the monotonous, fascinating, constantly
buccaneer” (Woolf 53). Here, Peter has
unrolling band of asphalt” that defines
reimagined the modern crowd as an
the new modern city (Benjamin, “Ar-
ocean to be navigated by a “buccaneer”
cades Project” 519). Peter’s relationship
like himself as he seeks his treasure in
to London is specifically defined in
the woman he is following. His fantasy
these terms when he leaves Clarissa’s
reveals the parallel between the “task”
house. He feels that “he had escaped!”
of the modern hero—“to give shape to
and that he is free “from being precisely
modernity”—and that of the ancient
what he was” as he stands “at the open-
hero, who gave shape to antiquity
ing of endless avenues, down which if
(“Paris of the Second Empire” 49). That
he chose he might wander” (Woolf 52).
is, Peter gives shape to the function of
In other words, he sees the possibility of
the crowd as a flâneur; his presence, as
being a part of the new modern city and
a wanderer of the city, transforms the
the modern crowd as he observes Lon-
crowd into a significant feature of mo-
don. Peter’s joyful, poetic language sug-
dernity that provides refuge and free-
gests that modernity offers “a refuge for
dom. The way that the ancient “springs”
the hero” (Benjamin, “Paris of the Sec-
from modernity in Peter’s escapade,
ond Empire” 39). Its externalities, in-
therefore, posits Peter as the modern
cluding the crowd, provide Peter with a
hero, a flâneur giving shape to modern
sense of freedom that he warmly em-
London, who inherits the heroic form
braces.
from antiquity. Peter’s heroism is exemplified
Although Peter marvels at and
when he pursues the unknown woman.
gives shape to London as a modern
In
“antiquity
hero, the external features that he rel-
[springs] suddenly from an intact mo-
ishes are in tension with the internal fea-
dernity” (Benjamin, “Paris of the Sec-
tures that are lost in modernity. Fasci-
ond Empire” 53). During Peter’s esca-
nating as the city is, Peter senses the loss
pade, the ancient conception of the
of internal connection that accompanies
the
modern
crowd,
31
it. He reflects on this when he reaches
“the soul must brave itself to endure”
his hotel after strolling through the city.
(Woolf 164-165). His cold, focused lan-
Peter remembers him and Clarissa “go-
guage suggests that connection is diffi-
ing on top of an omnibus” through Lon-
cult for him as the modern hero. The
don,
scenes,
tension between the modern technol-
names, people” (Woolf 152). He recalls
ogy and crowds versus the struggle to
how they “had a theory in those
connect, the gains and losses of moder-
days…to explain the feeling they had of
nity, is manifest in this scene.
“spotting
queer
little
dissatisfaction; not knowing people; not
While Clarissa and Peter thrive as
being known” (Woolf 152). Here, Peter
modern heroes, Septimus Warren Smith
faces the tension of the modern hero: on
functions as the antihero. Septimus is
one hand, modern London, with its
ironically an actual hero: he fought in
buses and crowds, is fascinating, but on
World War I, “had won crosses,” and
the other, there is the sense that connec-
was promoted “to a post of considerable
tion is lost. The juxtaposition between
responsibility” (Woolf 88). In the mod-
Peter watching the “scene, names, peo-
ern city, though, his shell-shock posits
ple” of London and thinking about
him as the antihero. The war, which in
failed connection between individuals
many ways was a product of modern na-
suggest that modernity gave rise to
tionalistic ideas and new modern tech-
those
Peter’s
nologies, has left Septimus mentally ill
thoughts turn to the loss of interper-
and thus resistant to modern London.
sonal
enters
While the modern hero finds himself
Clarissa’s party. After happily observing
caught between the gains and the losses
the crowds and cars of London as a flâ-
of modernity, Septimus is horrified by
neur on the walk over, Peter braces
the external newness of the modern.
himself for an attempt to connect with
The shell-shocked soldier is unable to
Clarissa at the party. He notes that “the
deal with the London crowd, which
cold stream of visual impressions failed
contrasts with the modern hero who
him” as he enters her home (Woolf 164).
finds “a place of refuge” in the city
In other words, his fascination with the
streets (Benjamin, “Paris of the Second
external visuals of modernity dissipates
Empire” 42). As he walks through Lon-
as he braces himself for the struggle to
don, he feels that he is “blocking the
connect. He thinks that “the brain must
way” and “being looked at and pointed
wake,” “the body must contract,” and
at” (Woolf 15). Here, Septimus feels that
thoughts. connection
Similarly, when
he
32
he is apart from the crowd, unlike the
technology. Ingelbien points out that
heroic flâneur who marvels at this new
“starting motor-cars are pistols firing or
phenomenon. When a crowd gathers to
shells exploding” for Septimus (56). In
watch the car, Septimus sees the “grad-
other words, technology represents hor-
ual drawing together” of the crowd and
ror or deception to him. Septimus
perceives it “as if some horror had come
thinks that “the throb of the motor en-
almost to the surface and was about to
gines sounded like a pulse irregularly
burst into flames” (Woolf 15). This sug-
drumming through an entire body”
gests that Septimus is terrified by the ap-
(Woolf 14-15). His cold, mechanical lan-
pearance of the crowd. Further, Ingel-
guage points out the fact that technol-
bien points to the fact that “every noise
ogy is far from marvelous to him. Septi-
or sight conceals a hidden meaning” for
mus also struggles to understand the
Septimus (56). The shell-shocked sol-
place of technology in the modern
dier hears “a child [cry]” and “far away
world. Septimus believes that “they are
a horn [sound]” and believes that “all
signaling to me” when he sees the writ-
taken together [they mean] the birth of
ing from the airplane and randomly re-
a new religion” (Woolf 23). Septimus,
marks that “the upkeep of that motor
thus, is not fascinated with and drawn
car alone must cost him quite a lot” after
in by the modern crowd as Clarissa and
his visit with Sir William (Woolf 21, 98-
Peter are. Instead, he feels apart from it
99). His paranoid misread of the air-
and perceives it as “deceptive” (Ingel-
plane and his disengaged comment
bien 56). Modernity is terrifying for
about the car signifies that Septimus is
Septimus; he believes it is full of mean-
unable to comprehend modern technol-
ing that is not actually there, feels dis-
ogy, which further emphasizes his role
connected from it, and cannot properly
as the antihero.
relate to its features.
While Septimus is at odds with the modern city and modern technolo-
In addition to his lack of engagement
gies, he is deeply submerged in his in-
with the crowd, Septimus also fails to
ternal feelings and thoughts. Unlike the
connect
technologies.
other characters, who sense that their
Whereas Clarissa and Peter are fasci-
ability to connect has diminished in the
nated by the technology that they see
face of the externalities of modernity,
and experience, Septimus does not
Septimus feels overwhelmingly con-
properly
nected to the world but cannot relay it
with
new
understand
modern
33
to others. His connection to the world
external, turns connecting with others
is exemplified throughout the novel.
into a challenge.
Septimus has received “revelations”
Septimus feels out of place in the
from the world, such as “men must not
modern world as the antihero, where
cut down trees,” “there is a God,”
the external dominates and its heroes
“there is no crime,” “there is not death”
can balance both the gains and the
(Woolf 24-25). In the daily scene, he
losses. His suicide, read in this light, was
finds that “all of this, calm and reasona-
a heroic act in that he took a stand
ble as it was, made out of ordinary
against the “resistance that modernity
things as it was, was the truth now;
offers” to one’s will (Benjamin, “Paris of
beauty, that was the truth now. Beauty
the Second Empire” 45). That is, Septi-
was everywhere” (Woolf 69). In these
mus was acting in defiance of the con-
passages, Septimus believes that the
ditions of modernity that hinder him
world is transmitting meaning to him.
from expressing his connectivity to the
He feels overwhelmingly connected and
world and prevent him from reaching
wishes to communicate this to others.
others. Although Benjamin is reflecting
Septimus thinks that he has been “called
on the suicides of factory workers in
forth in advance of the mass of men to
mid-nineteenth century Paris in his es-
hear the truth, to learn the meaning”
say, the overwhelming loss that they ex-
and must relay “the supreme secret” to
perience in modernity is akin to the
others (Woolf 67). However, the loss of
sense of loss that Septimus feels in Mrs.
connectivity that accompanies moder-
Dalloway. Like the workers, his suicide
nity makes this impossible. During his
is “not resignation but heroic passion”
meeting with Sir William, he feels that
(Benjamin, “Paris of the Second Em-
“human nature is remorseless” and
pire” 45). Septimus, as seen in earlier
wonders whether Sir William will “let
paragraphs, is full of passion for the
him off” if “he communicated,” but
world. His death can thus be read as
finds himself unable to share his vivid
“the achievement of modernity in the
internal life with the doctor (Woolf 98).
realm of the passions” (Benjamin, “Paris
His failure to communicate is a symp-
of the Second Empire” 45) In other
tom of the modern: as the antihero, Sep-
words, Septimus preserves his rich inter-
timus is filled with internal connections,
nal life by committing suicide. Right be-
but modernity, with its emphasis on the
fore Septimus jumps out of the window, he reflects on how the “tiresome, the 34
troublesome, and rather melodramatic
Septimus (Woolf 186), signaling that
business of opening the window and
Woolf might have more sympathy with
throwing himself out” was the doctors’
the antihero, who is submerged in the
“idea of tragedy, not his” (Woolf 149).
losses of modernity, than the hero and
His thoughts suggest that he does not
heroine. Clarissa reflects on Septimus’s
view his suicide as a tragedy as the mod-
death and how there was “a thing…de-
ern doctors do; rather, it is an act of her-
faced, obscured in her own life, let drop
oism. Septimus feels that he does “not
every day in corruption, lies, chatter”
want to die” (Woolf 149). This thought
(Woolf 184). Here, Clarissa is thinking
aligns him with the Baudelarian concep-
about what is hidden in her life. As a
tion of suicide, for whom suicide was
hero, she stands on the threshold of mo-
not about dying but about performing
dernity, able to observe what is there
“the only heroic act still available” in
and what it lost with a sense of wonder.
modernity (Benjamin, “Paris of the Sec-
However, she senses that there is a cer-
ond Empire” 45). Thus, although Septi-
tain tragic element in failing to connect
mus is the antihero of modernity in Mrs.
due to the “corruption, lies, chatter” of
Dalloway, his suicide gives him a heroic
the period. She thinks that “death was
quality. It is particularly ironic that
defiance” and “an attempt to communi-
Holmes cries “the coward!” as Septimus
cate” (Woolf 184). Indeed, Septimus was
jumps, because the suicide is not an act
acting in defiance against the internal
of cowardice for Septimus but an act of
losses of modernity and trying to com-
heroic defiance against the way moder-
municate his resistance to the period
nity—with the emphasis on crowds,
through his suicide. Clarissa’s ability to
technology, and other external fea-
understand this aligns her with Septi-
tures—diminishes the internal life of
mus: she “does not pity him” and feels
connectivity that Septimus cherishes.
“somehow very like him” (Woolf 186).
Although modernity is depicted
In bringing them together in this way,
throughout the novel for both the posi-
Woolf hints at her own ambivalence
tives and the negatives it brings, Woolf’s
about modernity. She was fascinated
ambivalence towards the period be-
with the modern external world but
comes most vivid when Clarissa learns
sensed that it came with its own costs.
about Septimus’s death. Clarissa, the
Septimus represents those costs, and
heroine who balances the new and the
Clarissa’s alignment with him shows
old,
that Woolf was as concerned about the
ultimately
feels
“very
like”
35
losses as she was fascinated with the
complexities that accompany the indi-
gains.
vidual in modernity. In creating this Thus,
modernity,
to
put
it
work, Woolf demonstrates that she too
lightly, is presented as a complex con-
is a heroine, “for the modern hero is no
cept throughout Mrs. Dalloway. The
hero; he is a portrayer of heroes” (Ben-
characters who represent the hero, her-
jamin, “Paris of the Second Empire”
oine, and anti-hero give shape to both
60).
the characteristics of the period and to the novel’s depiction of the modern, much as the hero gave shape to modernity in Baudelaire’s poems. However, it is worth noting that although Benjamin identifies the flâneur as one of the many significant heroic figures that Baudelaire depicts and embodies, his interest is really in Baudelaire as an artist. It is Baudelaire who “patterned his image of the artist after an image of the hero” and “imposed upon him as his very own” the task of giving shape to modernity (Benjamin, “Paris of the Second Empire” 39). That being said, it is reasonable to assume that Benjamin would have read Woolf herself, as the artist and chronicler of modernity, as a heroine of modernity. Her depiction of the modern, with all its gains and losses, is masterfully done in this novel. Woolf attempted to show “an ordinary mind on an ordinary day” (Woolf 474), but specifically situated that mind in modernity, a fact that should not be overlooked when reading the text. Mrs. Dal-
loway
is
a
rich
portrait
of
the 36
BIBLIOGRAPHY Benjamin, Walter. The Arcades Project. Ed. Rolf Tiedemann. Trans. Howard Eiland and Kevin McLaughlin. Cambridge, MA: Belknap, 1999. Print. ———. "The Paris of the Second Empire in Baudelaire." Walter Benjamin: Selected Writings. Ed. Howard Eiland and Michael W. Jennings. Vol. 4. Cambridge, MA: Childs, Peter. Modernism. London: Routledge, 2008. Print. Ingelbien, Raphael. "They Saw One They Knew: Baudelaire and the Ghosts of London Modernism." English Studies 88.1 (2007): 43-58. Routledge. Web. 30 Nov. 2016. Spiropoulou, Angeliki. Virginia Woolf, Modernity and History: Constellations with Walter Benjamin. Basingstoke, England: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010. Print. Stevenson, Randall. "Virginia Woolf and Modernity." Virginia Woolf in Context. Ed. Bryony Randall and Jane Goldman. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2012. 149-58. Print. Whitworth, Michael H. Virginia Woolf: Mrs Dalloway. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015. Print. $1991. 141-56. Print. Wolff, Janet. "The Invisible 'Flâneuse': Women and the Literature of Modernity." The Problems of Modernity: Adorno and Benjamin. Ed. Andrew E. Benjamin. London: Routledge,
Woolf, Virginia. Mrs. Dalloway. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1990. Print. ———. "Modern Fiction." Modernism and Literature: An Introduction and Reader. Ed. Mia Carter and Alan Warren. Friedman. New York: Routledge, 2013. 472-76. Print.
37
“A Voice of Black America” by Rachael Malstead
38
Langston Hughes chronicled the
forbidden baby, Jessie dies, leaving
spirit, fervor, and intensity of the Har-
Cora,
lem Renaissance as only an artist can. In
wretched with grief. At Jessie’s funeral,
his short story collection, The Ways of
in the midst of a quiet ceremony, Cora’s
White Folks, Hughes concerns himself
screams rupture the prose, ‘They killed
with the downtrodden, the poor and
you and your child. I told ‘em you loved
lonely, the black and oppressed. The
it, but they didn’t care. They killed it
transcendent insight into the human
before it was…”
condition that crafts this anthology is
away by Jessie’s white relatives (Hughes
unique to an author of genius. Hughes
17). Cora, the only person who truly
imagines stories from differing class and
cared for Jessie, is silenced by the very
color perspectives, revealing distinctive
people who are responsible for Jessie’s
personhood and complex individuality
murder. Hughes depicts this scene of in-
through the lens of racial adversity set in
humanity to expose the consequences of
early
America.
interfering with white female sexuality.
Hughes intertwines threads of female
Jessie and her lover are subjected to an
sexuality and racial divide to create a
unmerciful end at the Puritanical discre-
tapestry of black and white tragedy nu-
tion of long-entrenched persecution
anced by injustice and relational com-
concerning race and sexuality.
twentieth
century
plexity.
her
Later
beloved
on
black
servant,
until she is dragged
in
the
collection,
The collection begins with a tur-
Hughes offers his readers a different per-
bulent story titled ‘Cora Unashamed.’
spective on white female sexuality. A
Hughes explores the restrictions that
white
cause relationships between white fe-
Briggs is middle-aged and unmarried,
males and men of color to be destroyed
without family or friend, she has ‘no-
in this tragedy. White female sexuality is
body at all’ (Hughes 163). Yet she is sat-
a commodity to be violently protected;
isfied with her life, even more so when
its sanctity outweighed the importance
a little dog catches her attention in a
of familial relationships or humane
store window, and she brings home a
treatment. After Jessie, a young white
fluffy, white companion. A routine is
woman, is found carrying the child of a
settled upon that includes the janitor of
non-Caucasian man outside of wedlock,
the building Miss. Briggs lives in bring-
her mother forces her to have an abor-
ing bones for her canine friend thrice a
tion.
week. Life proceeds much as before
Following
the
death
of
the
businesswoman
named
Miss
39
until a new janitor replaces the old one,
musician named Roy returns to a little
and begins bringing bones for her little
town in America, ill and dying from his
dog to eat every day. Miss Briggs begins
disillusionment with life after his musi-
to fall in love with him, hungry for the
cal stint abroad. Roy is affronted with
kindliness she perceives in his ‘softly
racial discrimination. When a woman he
beautiful voice’ and ‘big kind face’
knows enters into polite conversation
(Hughes 168, 171). Yet her love is for-
with him on the street, a violent escala-
bidden in every way; the man is married
tion ensues that ends in Roy’s death
with a wife and children, and above all,
when some ‘white young ruffians with
he is black. Miss Brigg’s misbegotten
red necks’ decide Roy is ‘—insulting a
longing for this man unnerves her to the
White Woman—attacking a WHITE
extent that she moves to a different part
WOMAN—RAPING
of the city, and is quickly ‘forgotten’ by
WOMAN’ (Hughes 47, 48). Hughes il-
all who were acquainted with her
lustrates the absurdity of ingrained rac-
(Hughes 175). The sense of loneliness
ism that this story of tragic injustice un-
exuding from this story titled ‘Little
derscores. Roy, as a black man, was
Dog’ is palpable evidence of Hughes’
lynched for nothing more than greeting
ability to describe the painful con-
a white woman. Such is the flammable
straints surrounding white female sexu-
state of white female sexuality in prox-
ality. Miss Brigg’s is unable to explore
imity to a black man. It is a sexuality so
sexual affection, and even admit her
guarded and confined that even an un-
own longings to herself, because she is
founded suspicion of offense can lead to
inhibited by racial conventions. She de-
murder.
A
WHITE
sires the love of a black man. The only
Time and time again, the vast
socially acceptable way for her to deal
reservoir of human kindness remains
with this love is to remove it from phys-
untapped when the color divide dams
ical existence. Accordingly, loneliness
its reserves. Even well-meaning white
becomes not only a personal state of be-
folk are unable to surmount their racial
ing but a damning sentence, proclaimed
prejudice in several of Hughes’ stories.
by a white, racist culture.
‘Poor Little Black Fellow’ relates the
Similarly, racial injustice rears its
confinement of a black adoptee in a
ugly head throughout the pages of the
wealthy, white ‘Christian’ family. Ar-
collection. In a story incongruously
nold is treated ever so kindly by the
called
white small-town community as he
‘Home,’
a
celebrated
black
40
grows up but is prohibited the company
In accordance with this tangible
of young white ladies as he reaches ado-
color-line, ‘Passing’ tells the story of a
lescence. When traveling abroad in Eu-
light-skinned man who hides his Negro
rope, Arnold’s loneliness emboldens
bloodlines to live amongst white folk.
him to knock on the door of a Negro
His ability to pass in white society as a
musical group in Paris. They receive
Caucasian earns him a job and a white
him with open arms and he meets a
fiancée at the cost of ending association
lovely Romanian girl. Arnold’s white
with his black family. Yet his choice to
parents—The Pembertons, are aghast at
disguise his race and pass for white en-
their black son’s blossoming relation-
tails a personal and communal loss of
ship, and judge Vivi the young Roma-
identity. He must abandon his mother
nian, to be a prostitute as the only
and siblings to adopt a false identity that
means of explaining her relationship to
hangs in an ever precarious balance. At
a person of color. Though said to be
any time he could be found out and im-
loved and cherished by the Pembertons,
prisoned—or worse. Historically, this
Arnold’s surrogate father flies into a rage
white disguise had profoundly tragic im-
at his adoptee’s audacity. Mr. Pember-
plications. Ties of culture, family, and
ton cannot help but view Arnold as an
personal identity had to be severed to
inferior person. Hughes describes this
better one’s material prospects as a
white man’s offensive internalization
black person living in a world con-
when he communicates, ‘in the back of
trolled by white injustice.
his mind was the word nigger,’ as Ar-
Hughes was one of the most sig-
nold is expunged from their family
nificant artistic voices of the Harlem Re-
(Hughes 158). Even though Mr. Pem-
naissance. His writing gave voice to
berton has tried to be kind to Arnold,
black people during this time of change.
his good intentions are poisoned by rac-
He aimed to portray realistic black
ism. Years of familial relationship could
American life by capturing cultural in-
not tear down or even slightly diminish
fluences and exposing the repercussions
the color divide between Arnold and
of racism. Perhaps the most inscrutable
the Pembertons. The racial abyss be-
contender to black freedom of expres-
tween white and black folk was exca-
sion was the entrenched ways of white
vated and deepened by the former and
folks. Though Hughes voiced racial di-
gapes incredibly difficult to cross by the
lemmas particular to the turn of the
latter.
twentieth century, the deeply riven 41
relationship between white people and black people in America that began with slavery still haunts the reality of today. Hughes collection can be read as material that fuels and necessitates movements like Black Lives Matter. Racial injustice rears its ugly head on a day to day basis, often making headlines, continuing to affect the lives of black people on a profound level. These stories that Hughes penned so long ago are the stories people need to read today to understand the ingrained nature of racism in America, and how its effects linger on, through cultural heritage and unconscious assimilation of racial beliefs. Hughes short story collection depicts the long reinforced ethos of racism in America, especially in terms of sexuality and relationships between black and white people. To partake in The Ways of White Folks is to be given an intimate communion with characters who speak of a sorrow ridden past.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY Hughes, Langston. The Ways of White Folks. New York: Vintage Books, 1990. Print.
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