Apollon
ISSUE IX
2019
UNDERGRADUATE DIGITAL JOURNAL FOR THE HUMANITIES AT FAIRFIELD UNIVERSITY
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CONTENT “The Matter of the Mind in Mrs. Dalloway: How Woolf Reveals Gender Performativity Before Butler Reveals the Term” by Nicole Renna
pages 3-15 “Social Media and the Power to Effect Change: The Impact of the Digital Landscape on Achieving Equity Within Art Museum Leadership and Visitorship” by Olivia Melendez
pages 16-46 “Socially Unfit or Unfit Society?: Identifying Monstrosity in Medieval Scandinavian Literature” by Ryan Kamkar
pages 47-57 “Tres representaciones de sororidad y resistencia femeninas en la postguerra española en La voz dormida de Benito Zambrano” by Perla Jazmin Richerson
pages 58-70
2
“The Matter of the Mind in Mrs. Dalloway: How Woolf Reveals Gender Performativity Before Butler Reveals the Term”
by Nicole Renna
3
Introduction
producing an entirely authentic perfor-
Judith Butler, in her work “Gender
mance of life (rather than a parody) in
Trouble,” insists a need for a radial phil-
Mrs. Dalloway, its subversion of all con-
osophical movement towards the un-
ventions makes the consequential sub-
derstanding that gendered experience is
version of gender norms and binaries
internalized due to compulsory gender
completely logical. In considering the
actions and conventions, which pursue
major points of gender performativity
a completely derived and ultimately
outlined in Butler’s work, and then ex-
unachievable ideal. Yet, despite such a
ploring the concept of internal versus
claim, and ample discussion on how
performative identity in Mrs. Dalloway,
harmful and limiting this gendered ex-
this paper aims to indicate Woolf’s work
perience is, she introduces no solution
as the gender performance that Butler
for revealing or disrupting such gender
demanded, despite its predating Butler’s
performativity; though the comedic per-
gender theory, in the following way:
formance of drag is a promising compo-
Woolf, in Mrs. Dalloway, articulates the
nent in pushing the boundaries of gen-
simple truth of internal ambiguity in ex-
der norms in how it exposes the absurd-
perience, so that when those ideas apply
ity of idealized, distinct genders, Butler
to gender, and trickle in through the
asserts that it is hardly sufficient in
novel’s syntax and imagery, they are suf-
prompting a radical rethinking of such
ficient performance to reveal the discur-
norms because of its dependence on
siveness of gender, and essentially all
context, reception, and successful sub-
other conventions.
version of conventions. Butler wonders-and prompts her readers to wonder about--what other sort of performance
Mind over Matter: Gendering Performa-
could surge such a radical philosophical
tivity in Theory of Butler and Woolf
movement.
In “From Interiority to Gender Perfor-
Ironically, before Butler won-
mance,” from Judith Butler’s Gender
dered such things, before Butler’s gen-
Trouble, Butler proposes some major
der theories and her terms of gender
points about gender theory by consider-
performativity were even proposed, this
ing “the surface politics of the body” in
performance, and demonstration of
the context of gender identity (Butler
gender performativity, was, by Virginia
2547-2548). In distinguishing between
Woolf,
the
already
achieved.
Through
internality
and
externality
of 4
experience, she concludes that the ex-
recognizes that this comic disruption,
ternality of identity--such as “acts, ges-
entirely dependent on context, recep-
tures, enactments”--which can be un-
tion, and successfully imbuement of
derstood as a performance of identity,
what Butler calls “subversive confu-
when gendered, can be understood as a
sion,” is not sufficient in achieving a
gendered version of this performance.
necessary radical reappraisal of gender.
In other words, these “acts and ges-
Naturally, Butler then questions what
tures” are illusory representations of
performance would be sufficient to re-
some gendered “interiority or gendered
veal that rethinking. Specifically, she
core,” which is maintained by the “ob-
asks:
ligatory frame of reproductive heterosexuality,” and so is entirely discursive
“What performance where will invert
(2548-2549). In other words, our inter-
the inner/outer distinction and compel
nal consciousness is not, by nature, gen-
a radical rethinking of the psychological
dered; it is only through the external
presuppositions of gender identity and
cues obtained in human socialization,
sexuality? What performance where will
that we come to understand certain ide-
compel a reconsideration of the place
ological and personal qualities as gen-
and stability of the masculine and the
dered, and then adapt our behavior and
feminine? And what kind of gender per-
external persona accordingly to those
formance will enact and reveal the per-
molds. Butler asserts, then, that “if the
formativity of gender itself in a way that
inner truth of gender is a fabrication and
destabilizes the naturalized categories of
if true gender is a fantasy instituted and
identity and desire” (2551).
inscribed on the surface of bodies, then it seems that genders can be neither true
Yet, if one considers the majority of But-
nor false, but are only produced as the
ler’s assertions in the context of the
true effects of primary and stable iden-
work of Virginia Woolf, one finds that
tity” (2549).
her novels, especially Mrs. Dalloway,
Explaining how gender perfor-
although published in years previous to
mances, such like drag and cross-dress-
Butler’s work, can be read as that very
ing, are parodies of this identity, which
place that Butler wondered about.
reveal that the identity that gender fash-
The importance and deliberate
ions itself as some imitation of is with-
sketch of consciousness in Mrs. Dallo-
out
way, and the intention to remove the
origin,
Butler
nevertheless
5
construction of gender from the sketch,
blame for the meagerness of androgy-
is made clear in Woolf’s essay, “Androg-
nous minds, transcendent of the sort of
yny,” in which clear parallels to Butler’s
“fabricated inner truth of gender” But-
points already arise. In the essay, Woolf
ler describes. Woolf blames those that
explains her theory that there exists
brought about “sex-consciousness” for
both a masculine and feminine power in
the lack of androgyny in literature, in-
the minds of all people, yet in men the
sists that “the whole of the mind must
masculine is dominating and in women
lie wide open if we are to get at the
the feminine; she then asserts that “the
sense that the writer is communicating
normal and comfortable state of being is
his experience with perfect fullness,”
that when the two are in harmony to-
and explicitly states it her intention to
gether, spiritually cooperating” as when
do that in her own work (Woolf 904).
their fusion occurs “the mind is fully fer-
Since Woolf contends that she
tilized and uses all its faculties” (Woolf
herself is writing with both these minds,
901). She explains this adept mind, in
and recognizes that the acknowledge-
which this fusion occurs, as the “an-
ment of both minds is severely lacking
drogynous mind,” explaining how it is
in society, it makes sense that Mrs. Dal-
“resonant and porous,” “transmits emo-
loway outlines a clear distinction be-
tion without impediment” and “is natu-
tween the external experience of the
rally creative, incandescent, and undi-
character Clarissa Dalloway and her nat-
vided,” in contrast with “single-sexed”
ural conscious experience. Woolf pro-
minds; these points clearly align with
duces this through significant alterations
Butler’s notion that the “truth” of gen-
of syntax, grammar, and imagery, which
der is completely derived, and therefore
mirror the significant alterations of a
not the full, unrepressed, natural state of
need for gendered identity, between the
the interior mind. (Woolf 901). Moreo-
distinct internal natural state and exter-
ver, in the same way Butler contends
nal contrived one. This distinction,
that a sort of construction of what gen-
then, can be understood as the perfor-
der should be infiltrated the natural in-
mance Butler deems necessary for a
teriority of the mind to produce a “fab-
“radical rethinking” of gender, as it is a
ricated inner truth of gender,” Woolf
performance which necessarily inverts
contends that those that brought about
the “inner/outer distinction” of fabri-
“sex-consciousness,” and so the aware-
cated and fantasy gender, reconsiders
ness of discursivity of gender, are to
the “place and stability of the masculine 6
and feminine,” and reveals “the per-
observations about what modern gender
formativity of gender itself” through its
theorists, such as Judith Butler, are very
side by side outline of interior and exte-
preoccupied with: the existence of gen-
rior individual identity and experience
der as a construct of the external social
in an explicit way, rather than in the cir-
order, rather than an innate state of in-
cumventing and paradied way of some-
ternal being.
thing like drag.
The unique subversion of gender norms in Mrs. Dalloway, in contrast
Mind and Matter: Mrs. Dalloway at a
with all that came before it, is the em-
Glance
phasis on perfect internal androgyny
Mrs. Dalloway by Virginia Woolf details
paired with classical and mainstream ex-
a day in the life of the character Clarissa
ternal gendered performance; this insists
Dalloway, a lady of high society in post-
that instances of gendered subversion or
WWI London, as she makes prepara-
androgyny are not occurrences on the
tions for a party she is hosting in the
margins or in the minorities of society--
evening. The limited external plot, a
such as those of drag and/or LGBTQ
radical point of the novel, is an inten-
communities--but rather inherent truths
tional quality of the work, as the novel
to the identities of the full spectrum of
has a deeply interior perspective, travel-
class, wealth, and psyche. Clarissa Dal-
ing forward and back in time and in and
loway, in Mrs. Dalloway, is the image of
out of Clarissa’s and other characters'
a perfectly feminine and mannered Eng-
minds in order to portray an expansive
lish socialite, while her internal experi-
impression of Clarissa's life, mind, and
ence is as muddled, indefinable, and an-
identity in the span of a single day. The
drogynous as Septimus Smith, a men-
novel, allowing such a deep experience
tally-ill and war-traumatized man com-
of Clarissa’s internal experiences, cre-
pletely out of tune with high society.
ates a space of intrigue where the inter-
This allowance for seamless flow in and
nal musings of a high society woman--
out of the minds of different gendered
eternally dominated and restricted by
bodies, by way of their shared, un-
heteronormative social conventions and
bounded human experience as ungen-
patriarchal idealism of female image and
dered and underived persons, allows a
propriety--may be considered at its un-
transcendence from all cultural re-
filtered and unstructured basest. This af-
straints of externality, such as gendered
fords an opportunity to make key
performance, in a much more complex 7
way than a simple subversion of genders
and external performance through syn-
and gendered qualities, such like might
tax, grammar, and imagery. Over the
be seen in a work by Shakespeare. The
course of two pages, if the external rela-
presentation of the characters Clarissa
tions between part of the conversation
Dalloway and Septimus Smith, as exter-
between the characters is isolated, their
nally opposite by societal definitions of
interaction reads as follows:
class, gender, and sanity, but--through Woolf’s unique narrative composition
Clarissa: “‘Well, and what’s happened to
of human consciousness — internally
you?’”
fluid, figurative, and similarly unstructured, allows Woolf to paint a unique
Peter: “‘Millions of things!... I am in
and unprecedented picture of internal
love...In love..’”
sameness by way of a shared internal androgyny among all stations, and per-
Clarissa: “‘In love!’ she said...‘And who
formed identities, in external existence.
is she?’” she asked.
Matter over Mind: Exteriority as the
Peter: “‘A married woman, unfortu-
Performance in Mrs. Dalloway
nately...the wife of a Major in the Indian
Woolf introduces the notion of an outer
Army...She has... two small children; a
performance through the style of her
boy and a girl; and I have come over to
work, which insists that the external pic-
see my lawyers about the divorce (44-
ture of a person in the world is a filtered
45).’”
and spliced version of their internal
In these lines of dialogue, Woolf
truth. This performative role character
uses only declarative syntax, never using
Clarissa
externally,
conditional or figurative language; ques-
where conventions and expectations ex-
tions are posed, and answered immedi-
ist, is mirrored by Woolf’s style in ex-
ately and certainly in the following
pressing Clarissa in the outside world.
lines. Moreover, the phrases are succinct
For example, in conversations, such like
and factual; Peter expresses he is in love,
that when Peter, a previous love interest
that the woman he loves has two kids,
for Clarissa, comes over to speak with
and that he is going to speak to a lawyer
Clarissa while she sews her dress for the
about her divorce in short, direct sen-
party, Woolf draws a clear contrast be-
tences or fragments. This style, syntacti-
tween the style of the internal reality
cally brief and figuratively void, directly
Dalloway
plays
8
communicates the obligatory niceties of
course of these two pages of conversa-
catching up with a person basely. This
tion. While asking Peter her initial ques-
mimics perfectly the world of exterior-
tion of how he had been she is thinking,
ity that Butler insists frames and infil-
“So before a battle begins, the horses
trates our internal experience. In this in-
paw the ground; toss their heads; the
teraction, the fact that after years apart
light shines on their flanks; their necks
the topic of their conversation is heter-
curve. So Peter Walsh and Clarissa, sit-
osexual love, clearly falls thematically
ting side by side on the blue sofa, chal-
into the “obligatory frame of reproduc-
lenged each other,” the symbolic and
tive heterosexuality,” which Butler in-
metaphorical language, presenting the
sists compels our experience. Moreover,
energy and ferociousness of their en-
the fact that the language used to ex-
gagement, outside of the performed ci-
press this topic is direct and to the
vility of conventional interaction. While
point, and not at all representative of
Peter says he is in love, twice, Clarissa
their natural and incensed reaction to
simply parrots the phrase back, yet in-
being around each other, contrasts so
ternally her reaction is expansive be-
profoundly with their internal experi-
yond the two words; she thinks: “That
ence-- be it that Clarissa is over-
he at his age should be sucked under his
whelmed, reactionary, and emotional in
little bow-tie by that monster! And
her internal experience of this conversa-
there’s no flesh on his neck; his hands
tion, and the fact that they both have
are red; and he’s six months older than
very strong feelings for each other, be it
I am! Her eye flashed back to her; but
love, lust, regret, or resentment--makes
in her heart she felt, all the same, he is
the conversation, and her very brief re-
in love. He has that, she felt; he is in
sponses in it, definitely a performance
love (Woolf 45).” While, externally, the
which speaks to the domination of ex-
same simple concept of Peter’s love is
ternal conventional coherence
fixated on, and vocalized explicitly
over
what was internal and natural.
thrice, internally, Clarissa’s mind races
Such concise, clinical language in
through several vague and ambiguous
their relations implies a similar direct-
thoughts, without reiteration or expla-
ness and reductiveness to the society
nation: when Clarissa refers to “that
they operate in, especially when com-
monster!” does she mean the new girl in
pared to the internal expansiveness of
Peter’s life or love itself? What does she
Clarissa’s internal existence over the
mean by “there’s no flesh on his neck?” 9
why is she commenting that his hands
converse internal existence. This world
“are red” or that he is older than her?
is where the bell tower chimes every
What is she feeling when she thinks “he
hour in the chronology of her day,
has that, she felt...” Such external and
where she gets flowers to bring back for
internal distinctions as these character-
a party she is hosting, and where she
ize the interactions of the novel as a
converses explicitly with other charac-
whole, and are only supported more by
ters. The language which she can use in
other trends of external versus internal
it is similarly void of eccentricities, fig-
difference which serve to further frac-
urative language, and expansiveness.
ture the world of fluid and unbound in-
The fact that, through this role, she is,
ternal experience and conventional and
externally, developed to be the perfect
structured external performance.
picture of a female socialite, speaks to
Aside from the ambiguity of the
Butler’s world of gender performativity;
internal, Woolf also produces a lot inter-
she is the epitome of what is expected
nal inconsistency. Reacting further to
of the wife of a wealthy conservative
the knowledge that Peter is in love,
politician such as herself: a well-spoken
Clarissa thinks “all his life long Peter
and well-dressed heterosexual female,
had been fooled like that; first getting
conscious of her role in London high so-
sent down from Oxford; next marrying
ciety (Woolf). In fact, Woolf based the
the girl on the boat going out to India;
character off of a woman in her life who
now the wife of a Major in the Indian
was the proper type of society woman
Army--thank Heaven she had refused to
that Woolf was expected to be, Kitty
marry him!” which completely contra-
Maxse, who was the gentile wife of an
dicts
affluent
earlier
thoughts,
and
future
man
(Taylor).
Explicitly,
thoughts, in which she questions if she
Clarissa and other characters seem to be
made the right choice not marrying
aware of this truth of the external shal-
him--questions which, internally have
lowness and performance. Clarissa is de-
no and need no explicit answer like they
scribed as “the great hostess,” by an old
would in the external.
friend Peter, and reflects on herself,
This stylistic regard for the exter-
thinking, “since her people were courti-
nal versus internal experience is true to
ers once in the time of the Georges, she,
Clarissa Dalloway's experience. Exter-
too, was going that very night to kindle
nally, she exists in the world of conven-
and illuminate; to give her party”
tions and appearances, despite her
(Woolf, 16). In these lines, it is clear that 10
her external identity be it by description
in politics like a man; very dignified,”
of Peter or by familial obligation to
she describes her face as “pointed, dart-
Clarissa, is tied to the performance of
like, definite,” while Peter wields a
party giving. Moreover, she is described
pocket knife, she wields her own phallic
as someone whose “life was a tissue of
objects, needles to mend her dress
vanity and deceit,” by her daughter’s tu-
(Woolf 4, 8, 10, 37, 76, 44).
tor, and thinks of herself, “now this
Her internal experience of the
body she wore...this body, with all its
memories and interactions she has with
capacities, seemed nothing -- nothing at
women are, also, completely opposite to
all;” descriptions such as these assert
everything she experiences and puts
that the body in external life is a fabri-
forth in the world of men. Firstly, her
cation for Clarissa (Woolf 16).
memories of her childhood friend, Sally
Acknowledging this, it makes
Seton, are declared to be ones of “pu-
perfect sense that internally, where
rity” and “integrity” but she never simi-
things are allowed to be fluid, and am-
larly categorized her ones about men,
biguous, and indistinct, gender per-
including ones of her past love with Pe-
formativity would be lost and androg-
ter Walsh and her current husband
yny would follow. Clarissa’s perfor-
Richard
mance of the elitist feminine ideal is
Clarissa first saw Sally she thought:
Dalloway,
as
such.
When
completely void in her internal; in fact, there is a considerable amount of phallic
“‘...if it were now to die ‘twere to be
imagery which marks her abstracted and
most happy.’ That was her feeling -
true self-image, beyond the physical
Othello’s feeling, and she felt it, she was
show, and significant internal mono-
convinced as strongly as Shakespeare
logues which portray feelings of inti-
meant Othello to feel it, all because she
macy towards women beyond any ex-
was coming down to dinner in a white
pressed in the external performative
frock to meet Sally Seton” (36).
world. Clarissa’s internal self-image is described as both masculine and femi-
Furthermore, she remembers a kiss she
nine: on multiple occasions she “stiff-
shared with Sally, when she was but a
ens,” sitting upright, she cuts “like a
girl, as “the most exquisite moment of
knife through everything,” she thinks
her whole life” when “the world might
“if she could have had her life over
have turned upside down! The others
again...she would have been interested
disappeared...she uncovered, or the 11
radiance broke through, the revelation,
she had been given a present wrapped
the religious feeling!” (Woolf 35). Such
up, and told just to keep it, not to look
descriptions contrast starkly with her
at it....(35)”
life as “Mrs. Richard Dalloway” in which she is in a stable and unimpas-
Yet, at the party, as the elitist “Mrs.
sioned marriage, in which “not for a
Richard Dalloway” this moment of flu-
moment did she believe in God,” and
idity, this lapse in “cohesive coherence”
her heterosexual love with Peter Walsh,
and “obligatory frame of reproductive
whom “she had to break up with or they
heterosexuality,” to borrow Butler’s
would have been destroyed, the both of
terms, is completely subverted to exist
them ruined” (Woolf 29). The fluidity
in her external identity. When Clarissa
of her never having to name her love, or
sees Sally again, they stop to greet each
logically determine the sexual implica-
other, as women of their class do at par-
tions of such love in the internal, are
ties, with kisses on the cheek, as is cus-
what allows the impressions to rise and
tomary, and the flowers that are present
fall without consequence; the “exquisite
are those gifted and set in a proper bou-
moment” of her kiss with Sally, after all,
quet from Clarissa’s prominent hus-
simply rises to the surface in the early
band. Moreover, while kissing Sally as
pages of the novel and never explicitly
kids, before conventions and identities
arises again, or is otherwise analyzed.
are formed, the world fell away and they
The closest the special flash of
accessed a perfect intimate connection;
homosexual love between Clarissa and
however when they greet convention-
Sally ever comes to being relived is
ally the physical world is prominent and
when they have their reunion at the
present, from the full rooms, to the
party. The original moment was as fol-
“roar” of conversations, to the “cur-
lows:
tains.” It reads as follows:
“Then came the most exquisite moment
“The lustre had gone out of her. Yet it
of her whole life passing a stone urn
was extraordinary to see her again,
with flowers in it. Sally stopped; picked
older, happier, less lovely. They kissed
a flower; kissed her on the lips. The
each other, first the cheek then that, by
whole world might have turned upside
the drawing-room door, and Clarissa
down! The others disappeared; there she
turned, with Sally’s hand in hers, and
was alone with Sally. And she felt that
saw her rooms full, heard the roar or 12
voices, saw the candlesticks, the blow-
on some of the same ideas of androgyny
ing curtains, and the roses which Rich-
and gender performativity that Woolf
ard had given her (Woolf 171).”
does, in her apt and compelling argu-
The style in Mrs. Dalloway alternating
ment in Gender Trouble, she is not cor-
between factual and direct when pro-
rect to say that a proper example, a clear
ducing the external, and vague and ab-
portrayal, of the existence of gender
stract when producing the internal, per-
performativity and internal androgyny
fectly mimics the notions of interiority
has not yet emerged in such a way to
and exteriority which Butler distin-
revolutionize the subversion of these
guishes between in her argument about
norms. As expressed earlier in this essay,
gender performativity. As such, the mo-
Butler, after evaluating drag perfor-
ments of gender fluidity which inter-
mance as a powerful but insufficient
vene in characters’, such a Clarissa’s in-
mode of exposing the arbitrary and con-
ternal experience, make perfect sense in
trived nature of gender performance,
the performance of that world, and per-
contends the following:
fectly reveal the performative derivation of gender along with all other conven-
“What performance where will invert
tions outside of the natural and internal.
the inner/outer distinction and compel a radical rethinking of the psychological
The Matter of the Mind in Mrs. Dallo-
presuppositions of gender identity and
way: How Woolf Presents Butler’s Gen-
sexuality? What performance where will
der Performativity
compel a reconsideration of the place
A consideration of androgyny and sub-
and stability of the masculine and the
version of gender norms in literature is
feminine? And what kind of gender per-
not novel; however, the expression of
formance will enact and reveal the per-
the internality of human consciousness
formativity of gender itself in a way that
in Mrs. Dalloway which, transcendent
destabilizes the naturalized categories of
and unconstrained, is liberated from the
identity and desire” (2551).
need to perform with respect to such norms of gender in order to expose, im-
Woolf’s work, Mrs. Dalloway, preced-
plicitly, the truth of androgyny and the
ing the work of Butler by years, through
derivativeness of gender associations, is
implicit and narrative means, does all
an unprecedented triumph in literature.
these
While Judith Butler touches, explicitly,
Woolf,
things in
that
creating
Butler similar
demands. images, 13
syntactical flow, and figurative liberty to
distinct and opposite personhoods, and
be fluid and vague, in both the minds of
therefore experience the world as one or
externally female and male characters,
the other (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt
does “invert the inner/outer distinction
1990; Woolf 1922).
and compel a radical rethinking of the psychological presuppositions of gender identity and sexuality;” Woolf, in creating clear distinctions between external and internal identity--and presenting the external world as being the place for constraints, labels, and societal norms of class, gender, and sanity, while the internal is unstable, unconstrained, and removed from all notions of social order--does “compel a reconsideration of the place and stability of the masculine and the feminine” as being entirely subject to the external world. As such, Woolf, in Mrs. Dalloway, is the “ kind of gender performance” that “will enact and reveal the performativity of gender itself in a way that destabilizes the naturalized categories of identity and desire,” because it presents, unequivocally, the existence of all such categories, labels, and impressions as beholden to the external world of identity and desire, not the internal. It makes sense then, that Mrs. Dalloway is described on its back cover as being an “inspired novelistic outline of human consciousness,” as it, implicitly, confronts the falsity of the cultural understanding of gender at the time that man and woman have 14
BIBLIOGRAPHY Butler , Judith. “Gender Trouble.” The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism, by Vincent B. Leitch, W.W. Norton & Co., 2010. Taylor, David. “The Real Clarissa Dalloway – TheTLS.” TheTLS, The Times Literary Supplement, 16 July 2015, https://www.the-tls.co.uk/articles/public/the-real-clarissa-dalloway/. Woolf , Virginia. “Androgyny .” The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism, by Vincent B. Leitch, W.W. Norton & Co., 2010. Woolf, Virginia. Mrs. Dalloway. First ed., Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 1990. Woolf, Virginia. Writer's Diary: Being Extracts from the Diary of Virginia Woolf. First ed., Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2003.
15
“Social Media and the Power to Effect Change: The Impact of the Digital Landscape on Achieving Equity Within Art Museum Leadership and Visitorship”
by Olivia Melendez
16
Introduction
visitorship, online phenomena have
Art museums in the United States are
demonstrated the ability for social me-
not exempt from the current social and
dia to realize museum diversification in-
political divisiveness of our times. Re-
itiatives. Through social media, those
cent events within the art world have re-
who have otherwise been excluded
vealed a call to action for museums to
from the art world are given a voice to
no longer be neutral institutions, but in-
challenge museums, promote activist in-
stead take a more active role in promot-
itiatives toward equity in the curatorial
ing social justice narratives, being the
field, and change the museum landscape
redistribution of power, influence, and
toward better and equitable representa-
value,1 in order to maintain relevance
tions, making museum spaces more ac-
within society and resolve a historic lack
cessible overall. Diversification within
of diversity. Controversies in the United
leadership and visitorship in American
States surrounding new curatorial hires,
art museums, therefore, can be actual-
discourse on representation, and shock-
ized through the utilization of the digi-
ing studies which reveal a lack of people
tal landscape.
of color visiting museums all demonstrate an immediate need for diversity
Visitorship: Demographics & Theories
initiatives. At the same time, barriers
Recent studies conducted by the Amer-
within the physical museum space and
ican Alliance of Museums (AAM) reveal
educational tracks further inhibit people
that “by 2033 people of color would
of color from proliferating as visitors
make up forty six percent of the coun-
and in obtaining curatorial leadership
try’s population, and yet they would still
roles. This call to action has resulted in
represent only nine percent of muse-
a reimagining of museums, their prac-
ums’ core visitors.”2 This projection re-
tices, and the roles of curators in order
veals that despite society itself becoming
to better serve the needs of an increas-
more incredibly diverse, and museums
ingly diverse society. Museums have
having an obligation to fulfill cultural
identified these systemic issues regard-
and societal demands, they are still ca-
ing diversity, however, no initiatives
tering to a traditionally white audience
have been able to successfully solve the
and putting their own relevancy as insti-
problem.
recently,
tutions at risk.3 White audiences cur-
where museums have historically strug-
rently account for the majority of art
gled to diversify their leadership and
museum visitors in the U.S. However,
However,
most
17
this is not because of a lack of interest
reveals how addressing representations
in museum going among minority
of people of color, or lack thereof, can
groups. For example, the National Mu-
benefit museum patronage greatly.
seum of African American History and
The National Endowment for the
Culture has seen unprecedented visitor
Arts (NEA) 2008 Survey of Public Par-
numbers, participation, and time spent
ticipation in the Arts revealed that non-
within the museum since opening its
hispanic white Americans made up 78.9
doors in 2016. Beginning with a well-
percent of art museum visitors, while ac-
planned social media strategy in 2012,
counting for just 68.7 percent of the
the museum targeted online audiences
U.S. population.8 Thus, display that
through Facebook lead-ads, and thereby
white visitors are overrepresented in to-
attributes much of their success upon
tal visitorship. Visitors identifying as
opening to their commitment to target-
Hispanic made up 8.6 percent of mu-
ing visitors online before they reached
seum visitors, and account for 13.5 per-
the front
doors.4
As a result of their rig-
cent of the total U.S. population. While
orous Facebook outreach, the museum
visitors identifying as African American
sold
tickets
makeup 5.9 percent of total visitors and
within an hour, and tickets were com-
11.4 percent of the country's population,
pletely sold out through the end of
revealing minority backgrounds were
2016.5 Visitors could be seen waiting
underrepresented respectively. In at-
outside as early as three a.m. with the
tempting to find cultural and social rea-
hope of securing a ticket,6 demonstrat-
sons behind these shocking and prob-
ing the desire for representation of the
lematic numbers, the survey attributes
African American narrative within his-
“historically-grounded cultural barriers
tory museums, despite low visitor rates
to participation that make museums feel
from this demographic within the arts.
intimidating and exclusionary to many
These staggering visitor and desirability
people”. It also goes on to state that:
rates, combined with the visitor stay pe-
“the lack of specialized knowledge and
riod of upwards of six hours (compared
a cultivated aesthetic taste (‘cultural cap-
to the forty-five-minute dwell time most
ital’) to understand and appreciate what
museums retain visitors for)7 show a de-
are perceived by many as elite art forms,
sire for the inclusion of narratives of
especially in art museums”9 contribute
people of color that are mostly missing
to the lack of minority representation
within art museums. It additionally
within visitorship.
out
opening weekend
18
Such historically-grounded cultural
presentation as revered but not neces-
barriers resulting in intimidation and
sarily comfortable icons”12 to attract
exclusion are evident in what museum
those audiences historically reluctant to
consultant and theorist Elaine Heumann
cross the threshold. Beyond a museum’s
Gurian terms ‘threshold fear’. Threshold
architecture, buildings must also be ge-
fear is the idea that there are both phys-
ographically convenient in order to
ical and programmatic barriers causing
achieve equity. Museums should “either
difficulty for people of color to initiate
incorporate or [be] adjacent to public
the museum experience. Once a term
transport”13 to be most successful. Addi-
used in the field of psychology, Gurian
tionally, as “mixed-use spaces providing
re-appropriates it to express the felt con-
exhibitions, programmes, restaurants
straints impeding individuals from en-
and cafes, shopping, and party spaces
tering the museum space. Physically, a
under one roof”14 museums would ap-
museum’s location and architecture
peal to a broader population and cause
heavily influence who enters and inter-
art museums to become less of tourist
acts with the space. When museums
destinations, which Gurian believes at-
have large, sophisticated architecture,
tracts traditional audiences, and more
they attract the “typical affluent edu-
integrated into their respective commu-
cated museum-goer who is much im-
nities.
pressed with the current architectural emphasis
of
museum
As civic spaces, museums close
buildings.”10
themselves off from the public in curi-
While recent architectural projects for
ous ways. In addition to physical barri-
cultural buildings favor ultra-modern,
ers, Gurian also attributes threshold fear
sophisticated, and structurally elaborate
to more latent barriers that go beyond
buildings to house their collections,
getting audiences through the door.
such as the Broad contemporary art mu-
Anxieties arise when one must enter the
seum in Los Angeles, they can intimi-
museum space and reveal personal in-
date visitors and foster a sense of exclu-
formation about themselves among a
sion. Museums should be “interested in
majority population of white visitors.
hospitable and less intimidating spaces,
Upon entering the space, visitors feel
a plethora of easily locatable human
that they must reveal that they “can af-
amenities, and wayfinding that is under-
ford the price of admission,” “dress and
standable.”11 Rather than “[asserting]
behave superficially in order to be al-
monumentality
lowed to remain in the building,” and
and
make
their
19
“if they visit during weekday hours, as-
of museum culture.”16 As a result, mu-
sumptions will be made that they are on
seums have become cultural symbols of
holiday, unemployed, retired, a student,
a self-serving system in which the upper
or somehow not in the workforce.”15 All
class elite attain the arts education, be-
of these factors contribute to minority
ginning in adolescence at school. Then
visitors’ reluctance to cross the thresh-
going on to fund and work within the
old of the physical museum space. The
arts institutions, making theirs the dom-
presence of security guards, small and
inant voice. The elite become the stew-
centralized entrances, limited hours,
ards of our cultural history through art,
and confusing self-navigation are all as-
giving them license to “dictate the val-
pects of the museum-going experience
ues of society,”17 despite museums being
that Gurian contributes to being “high
responsible for representing and being
threshold” and anxiety inducing for the
stewards of the cultural heritages’ of all.
unfamiliar visitor. Gurian suggests that
The
disparity
between
the
de-
museums should model themselves after
mographics of museum visitors and ac-
conventional shopping malls in order to
tual diversity within American commu-
better
visitors. This
nities calls into question the relevance
would allow visitors to enter inconspic-
and success of museums as civic spaces.
uously and anonymously through many
The American Alliance of Museums
different entrances with more covert
(AAM) identified “diversity, equity, ac-
surveillance, facilitate easy access to fa-
cessibility, and inclusion in all aspects of
miliar services (i.e. bathrooms) and be-
museums’
come welcoming to large multi-genera-
ming”18
tional groups in order to encourage so-
priority list in their 2016-20 strategic
cializing.
plan. Following this strategic plan, the
attract
diverse
structure
and
program-
to be issues at the top of their
The second attribution to low visitor
AAM assembled a team focused on di-
rates as revealed in the NEA Survey is an
versity, equity, accessibility, and inclu-
issue concerning equity and access to
sion. Over a six month period, the
formal arts education. A lack of a sophis-
teams “examined the characteristics of
ticated arts education begins in most
effective museum inclusion practices
public schools, as “many members of
and considered what steps the field
the middle and working class are denied
could take to promote DEAI.”19 The
an understanding and appreciation of
AAM reported the following assertions
art that would allow them to be a part 20
to be central to promoting DEAI in
#museuminclusion,
to
which
there
every museum:
were over 485,000 Twitter responses.22 While it is evident that underrepre-
1. “Every museum professional must do
sented groups are reluctant to initiate
personal work to face their unconscious
the museum experience in the physical
bias
world, there is a growing online community of people of color who are in-
2. Debate on definitions must not hin-
terested in the art world. They are uti-
der progress
lizing social media platforms to create spaces in which they can view art that is
3. Inclusion is central to the effective-
reflective of their lived experiences,
ness and sustainability of museums
proving their interest in art viewing. This is an important phenomena that
4. Systemic change is vital to long-term,
museums must pay attention to and in-
genuine progress
corporate within their own spaces. Twenty-eight-year-old curator Kimberly
5. Empowered, inclusive leadership is
Drew,
user
@Muse-
essential at all levels of an organiza-
umMammy and social media manager
tion.”20
for the Metropolitan Museum of Art (MET), works to use social media to
While the report does not practically
connect audiences with contemporary
apply these DEAI initiatives and asser-
black artists, creating an almost living
tions, the group encouraged social me-
and breathing online exhibition of the
dia mobilization of museum profession-
black experience within art. She shares
als to share their responses to the follow-
with her over 233,000 Instagram follow-
ing questions: “What are you most
ers art that works to “[bridge] the gap
proud of in your work on diversity, eq-
between
uity, accessibility, and inclusion? What
voices and museum spaces.”[23]In 2011,
are your greatest obstacles to this work?
Drew launched Black Contemporary
What resources do you need? What does
Art, a blog dedicated to sharing works
success look like for the feld?”21 Profes-
by artists of color aimed at connecting
sionals attending the 2017 AAM confer-
people curious about black art. How-
ence were asked to respond to these
ever, they are incapable to find a cen-
questions
tralized outlet to do so with pieces that
using
the
hashtag
underrepresented
artistic
21
are relevant to their own lived experi-
public resources for a democratic soci-
ences. Drew recognized the need for
ety.”26
representation within museum space, and created an online resource to ac-
Curatorship: Education & Contempo-
complish this. As of 2016, Black Con-
rary Phenomena
temporary Art had over 200,000 active
Curation, always an integral yet for-
followers.24
It is clear, therefore, that
merly behind-the-scenes arts profession,
people of color want to participate in
has recently dominated popular culture
museum-going and art viewing, how-
and permeated the laypersons vernacu-
ever, the lack of representation they feel
lar. Within the profession itself, chal-
within traditional art museums makes
lenges to traditional educational path-
them reluctant to initiate the experi-
ways toward curatorial careers and a
ence. Instead, they have created online
mass marketing of a curatorial education
spaces that are representative of the art
are changing the intellectual landscape
that they wish to see.
of museology as a whole. Additionally,
When
considering
visitor
de-
the field has faced historical issues con-
mographics and the warranted reluc-
cerning a lack of diversity and its rela-
tance of minority visitors to initiate the
tionship with a museums intellectual au-
museum-going experience, the lack of
thority. The realities of pursuing a ca-
diversity and representation of people of
reer in art history and curatorship, being
color is dramatic, problematic, and
the high costs of degrees, small program
deeply concerning. Art museums can-
sizes, necessary unpaid internships and
not function as true civic spaces in ser-
meager salaries, favor the privileged. As
vice of their communities if they do not
a result, the profession tends to attract,
reflect the needs, values, and de-
if not serve entirely, those who are
mographics of the communities in
white and a part of the cultural elite,
which they serve. Therefore, art muse-
perpetuating historic traditions of who
ums within the United States must “seek
museums belong to and, in turn, who
to mirror the country’s demographic
they serve.
transformation and become fully inclu-
In the late nineteenth and twentieth
sive of the interests of their diverse com-
centuries, the idea and practice of exhi-
munities,”25 as this is “critical to the
bitions curated by academically trained
continued vitality of art museums as
art historians became the standard mode and context for viewing art, particular 22
artists, and entire collections. This
connection to art history, and displaying
changed the culture surrounding the
work.27
presentation and context in which art
Curating has developed into a career
was shown, creating the first instances
that requires intense academic and prac-
of what we now consider to be an act of
tical training, elevating the profession to
intellectual authority, which is now par-
be one of the most prestigious and im-
amount to the role of a twenty-first cen-
portant leadership roles within a mu-
tury curator. This intellectual authority
seum’s hierarchical structure. Most high
inherently shapes the way visitors expe-
ranking curatorial positions at medium
rience art within museums and the mes-
to large institutions require a PhD in art
sages they receive, while disseminating
history combined with years of practical
and dictating cultural narratives at large.
experience working in museums and/or
Acting as the caretakers and stewards
galleries, along with extensive contacts
of museum collections, curators are
of artists and other professionals for cre-
charged with the display of a museum’s
ating exhibitions and elevating the sta-
collection, how they should interact
tus of the institution they represent
with one another, how they should in-
overall. Now, however, universities are
teract with the viewer, and how and
changing the academic landscape of the
what the viewer should take from them.
career track in creating entire curatorial
In large institutions, as specialists in a
graduate programs in an effort to pro-
particular medium and period of art, cu-
vide students not only with an art his-
rators acquire, research, educate, and
tory background, but also with business
disseminate information for and to the
and administrative skills. Beyond the
public regarding the works within their
traditional rigorous academic scholar-
care, involving the creation of exhibi-
ship, most notably, and heavily mar-
tion themes and their presentation.
keted, are the networking opportunities
Famed curator Hans Ulrich Obrist, the
these programs promise to provide.
current the director at Serpentine Gal-
Although these new, exciting pro-
leries in London, sees himself as both a
grams have captured the attention of
partner to artists and utmost as a care-
many hopefuls seeking a career in the
taker. He attributes four things espe-
arts, institutions and seasoned curators
cially to successful curatorship: preserva-
in the field are skeptical, if not com-
tion,
pletely doutbful, of such programs.
selection
of
new
work,
a
These two-year curating MA programs 23
“on average... will set one back roughly
programs themselves. Eva Respini, the
$40,000 per academic year”28 in the
chief curator at the ICA Boston, sees cu-
United States, boasting a high cost for
ratorial MA programs as “money-mak-
what many consider to be a pay-for-net-
ing ventures to support PhD pro-
working program, rather than academi-
grams”34 rather than institutions com-
cally challenging intellectual work in
mitted to producing scholars in the field
the study of art history. As reported in
of art history. Their high price and per-
2017, with entry-level curatorial assis-
ceived exclusivity foster negative conno-
tant positions beginning at a meager
tations for many curators who believe a
$42,458 annual salary, assistant curators
strong art history program is key to suc-
positions at $55,999,29 and experienced
cessful curatorship.
art history college graduates reporting
The American Alliance of Museums
an 8.8 percent unemployment rate,30
recognizes diversity, equity, accessibil-
this tuition is largely inaccessible and
ity, and inclusion, with specific respect
unrealistic to many. While the network-
to museum’s internal leadership struc-
ing resources provided by curatorial
ture and influence on the institution’s
programs have helped many young cu-
intellectual authority, as being the most
rators, such as Ruba Katrib of the Sculp-
pressing issues in today’s diverse society.
tureCenter who attended the Bard Cen-
Due to the fact that curating shapes the
ter for Curatorial Studies,31 skyrocket to
shared cultural narrative through how
success post-graduation, most practicing
visitors interact with art and what art
curators assert that “if you want to suc-
they interact with, it is paramount for
ceed as a curator, you must begin with
museums to diversify the voices within
a solid grounding in art history.”32 Many
their curatorial staff to better serve their
professionals agree that technical, ad-
communities. Practices must be reex-
ministrative skills such as “how to write
amined and reimagined within current
an exhibition checklist or a loan agree-
social and political climate in order to
ment”33 are best learned on the job,
preserve the legacy and social function
with classroom time dedicated to under-
of museums as institutions entirely. A
standing the breadth of the art historical
survey conducted in 2015 by Ithaka S+R
canon and developing one’s specializa-
on behalf of the Andrew Mellon Foun-
tion. Skeptics of such programs not only
dation which studied the racial de-
question the academic capabilities of its
mographics of museum employees and
graduates, but also the intentions of the
found that among the aggregate of 24
institutions studied at the leadership
Curatorship has now come to in-
level (defined as Curators, Conservators,
volve activism and acts of social justice
Educators), 84 percent of employees
as society grows more and more diverse
identified as white (non-Hispanic), 3
and cultural needs shift. While recent
percent white (Hispanic), 0 percent
events within the arts have shed light on
American Indian, 6 percent Asian, 4
the need for diversity within the profes-
percent African American, 0 percent
sional world, curators and their exhibi-
Native Hawaiian, and 3 percent as two
tions have been stirring up controversy
or more races.35 These numbers vary
for decades. Curation, in practice, is
among job categories with the most di-
subjective in nature. One must be mind-
versity seen in the security and facilities
ful, cautious, and well-informed when
staffs, while curatorial departments were
creating an exhibition due to the inher-
reported to be approximately 90 per-
ent authoritative voice a curator as-
cent white. From these findings, it ap-
sumes. By deciding which pieces are
pears that more specialized departments
worth showing, which voices within so-
with higher educational requirements
ciety are most important and should be
are predominately white. These num-
given platforms, and judging what is and
bers also vary slightly in consideration of
is not good art, curators are inherently
age and birth year, as “younger em-
charged with creating our cultural artis-
ployee cohorts appear to be somewhat
tic narrative.
more diverse.”36 Among employees
Unsurprisingly, curators have mis-
holding leadership positions born in the
stepped in the process and misrepre-
1930’s, 20 percent accounted for un-
sented or taken an unwarranted voice in
derrepresented minorities while 80 per-
practice. Beginning in the 1960’s and
cent identified as white (non-Hispanic).
70’s, people of color began to challenge
This sector grows slightly more diverse
large institutions’ commitment to repre-
in later decades, as in the 1980’s and 90’s
sentation and their relevance, looking
underrepresented minority groups grew
specifically at well-respected Western
to around 30 percent. Leadership roles,
collections. The infamous “Harlem on
therefore, are slightly more diverse
My Mind: Cultural Capital of Black
among younger generations, however,
America, 1900-1968” exhibition at the
only most recently by a 10 percent mar-
MET in 1969 became a catalyst for this
gin.
and for the accountability of those in roles of cultural stewardship. In this 25
exhibit, photographs of life within the
percent of artists represented by [45
largely African American, Harlem com-
New
munity were exhibited; however, no
white,”38 demonstrating the need for
black artists were represented. It was an
black representation within the art be-
exotification of the lived experiences of
ing shown. The 2017 Whitney Biennial
an already marginalized community,
sparked a major controversy when cura-
and the MET, rather than showcasing
tors chose to display the workOpen Cas-
black artists from Harlem, exhibited
ket by Dana Schutz, a painting based on
large photo murals of an outsider's per-
a famous photograph of Emmett Till, a
spective of Harlem. The exhibit was im-
black boy who was lynched in Missis-
mediately criticized in the press and by
sippi in 1955 for being falsely accused of
the Harlem community for not only be-
accosting a white female. Till’s mother
ing a misrepresentation, but also for be-
chose to have an open casket at her sons
ing a blatant reinforcement of the power
funeral to showcase the brutality of the
structures favoring the white perspec-
racism that existed within America, and
tive within the arts. At the time, the
the subsequent photos of Till’s open cas-
MET’s director, Thomas Hoving, called
ket published by the press became a key
the exhibition an “error in judgement,”
catalyst for the Civil Rights Movement.
but this could not reconcile the deci-
Over 50 years later, this painting of the
sions made by the curator cultivating
famous photograph done by a white, fe-
such a patronizing and ethnocentric
male artist did not sit well with many
show, taking the power away from black
attendees of the Biennial, their main
artists to tell their own stories.
criticism being that the painting ex-
York
City]
galleries
[were]
Although curators have since used
ploited black suffering and that the art-
the MET’s unfortunate exhibit on Har-
ist, not being a member of the black
lem as a cautionary tale, institutions still
community, had no right to comment
continue to repeat the same mistakes
on the event. Unlike “Harlem on My
when it comes to representing people of
Mind”, critics of this event turned to so-
color, both as artists and as subjects
cial media to voice their concerns, and
within art. Since 2008, “2.4 percent of
the event itself soon went viral. The Bi-
all acquisitions and gifts and 7.6 percent
ennial was now on the public’s radar,
of all exhibitions at 30 prominent Amer-
and everyone could have a say in the
ican museums have been of work by Af-
conversation surrounding whether or
artists.”37
not the painting should continue to be
rican American
In 2016, “80.5
26
displayed. Once again, the public saw
presentation” in order “to respond to
curators and institutions showcasing and
societal issues”41 through the creation of
giving attention to art that tells a narra-
exhibitions.
tive of the black community from an
The role of curator as activist is a re-
outside perspective. Thus, in favor of
cent phenomenon stemming from both
one that told a patronizing, exotifying,
societal needs and museums no longer
and sensationalizing for the profit and
seeing themselves as neutral institutions.
benefit of another, all while taking op-
Curator and arts writer Maura Reilly
portunities away from real black artists.
sees curatorial activism as being “the
This time, however, their voices could
practice of organizing art exhibitions
not be ignored.
with the principle aim of ensuring that
In consideration of the role of the
certain constituencies of artists are no
curator being one committed to show-
longer ghettoized or excluded from the
ing new artists, one can see how this can
master narratives of art,”. She believes it
prove to be a contentious decision if the
focuses “almost exclusively on work
art itself and the artist’s message does
produced by women, artists of color,
not reflect society's needs. The curator,
non-Euro-Americans, and/or queer art-
therefore, is no longer simply an objec-
ists”42 toward
tive tastemaker. Jamillah James, curator
challenging
at the Institute of Contemporary Art in
erasure, promoting the margins over the
Los Angeles, describes her role as a cu-
center, the minority over the majority,
rator as being more aligned with activ-
as well as positing curatorial “strategies
ism, stating that her, “commitment is
of resistance,” provoking intelligent de-
still very much to giving voice to artists
bate,
of color, women and queer-identified
knowledge, which, in the end, offers up
artists within institutions, and fore-
signs of hope and affirmation.”43 This
grounding their contributions in art his-
new phenomena of curatoratorial activ-
torical discourse.”39 James sees using the
ism both seeks to challenge and repair
“curatorial platform for advocacy and
the prevailing white, Western male
activism”40 as both a responsibility and
viewpoint found in the art historical
an honor that has great influence on so-
canon while uplifting and giving plat-
ciety. James sees potential in playing
forms to those historically underrepre-
“the liaison between the public and art-
sented and marginalized voices.
ists by
way
of interpretation
and
“leveling
hierarchies,
assumptions,
countering
disseminating
new
and 27
Not only must the curator see themself as an activist, but they must be rep-
structural inequality leading to a lack of representation in the professional field.
resentative of the communities in which they serve. In 2017, the Brooklyn Mu-
Social Media & The Digital World: Ac-
seum faced backlash for hiring a white
cess & Equity
female as their new curator of African
Art museums, in recent years, have
art. The activist group Decolonize This
quickly adapted to the social media
Place said in a letter to the museum that
landscape in order to broaden their
the hire “reflects deeper structural flaws
reach and appeal to younger audiences.
within this museum’s culture in partic-
Boasting high follower rates, many large
ular and in the field, more generally.”44
institutions
This incident went “viral” on social me-
methods in order to best utilize social
dia, and created a dialogue among peo-
media. For example, since 2011, the Art
ple of color surrounding the best prac-
Institute of Chicago has experienced a
tices of museums in telling their history
boom in their social media presence, as
and who should have that voice. It
“their Facebook followers jumped to
brought attention to issues of diversity
around 447,000 from 55,000… on Twit-
in the arts at the professional level, and
ter, followers have increased to 159,000
social media activism allowed groups
from 25,000… [and they have] over
who otherwise would not to have a
100,000 Instagram followers.”46 Com-
voice. The largely negative response on
munication, connection, and interac-
social media by museum professionals,
tion with the public has grown im-
visitors, and laypersons alike was not a
mensely through the utilization of social
target at this particular individual, but
media platforms. In larger institutions,
rather at the historic institutional struc-
museums have hired communications
tures which allow for a lack of people of
professionals for social media leadership
color within the profession to assume
roles in which strategic methods are em-
these positions. In an interview with
ployed to capitalize on this social phe-
Newsweek, Steven Nelson, an African
nomenon.
are
employing
strategic
and African American art history profes-
While it is clear that museums strug-
sor at the University of California, Los
gle to promote diversity and an inclu-
Angeles, revealed that “the field of Afri-
sion of voices within their internal lead-
can art history in the U.S. is largely
ership and service of the public, there is
white and
female,”45
demonstrating a
no lack of diversity online and through 28
social media. As online communication
the public. In 2018, seventy-two percent
becomes “democratized,” “the power
of Americans identifying as Hispanic
has been taken from those in marketing
and 69 percent of Americans identifying
and public relations by the individuals
as African American use at least one so-
and communities that create, share, and
cial media site, Facebook and Instagram
consume blogs, tweets, Facebook en-
being the most frequented and popu-
tries, movies, pictures, and so forth…
lated platforms, both of which allow for
communication about brands happens,
free and direct interactions between us-
with or without permission of the firms
ers, including direct messaging, liking
in question.”47 The museum, therefore,
posts and commenting. Urban popula-
no longer holds the solitary authorita-
tions, also largely underrepresented in
tive voice. Their followers dictate the
the physical museum space, account for
content they wish to see and hold direct
the largest geographic and socioeco-
communication with the institution
nomic groups of social media users,
through the digital world. Most re-
with seventy-five percent of the urban
cently, this can be seen in instances of
population using Facebook versus sixty-
museums being held accountable for
seven percent within the suburban sec-
their hiring and exhibition decisions. In
tor.49
consideration of the interplay between
The ways in which people of color
the institution and the public on social
are using social media drastically differ
media, the public at large now has a
from that of the white American popu-
greater stake in museum practices.
lation. A survey conducted by the Pew
Social media has allowed for un-
Research Center reveals that “black so-
derrepresented audiences in particular
cial media users (68 percent) are
to have a voice where they historically
roughly twice as likely as whites (35 per-
have not. Due to the fact that sixty-nine
cent) to say that at least some of the
percent of Americans use at least one so-
posts they see on social networking sites
cial media platform, a drastic increase
are about race or race relations,” and
from five percent in 2005,48 social me-
within their own posting “among black
dia is generally representative of the ac-
social media users, 28 percent say most
tual American population. While people
or some of what they post is about race
of color are largely underrepresented in
or race relations; 8 percent of whites say
the physical museum space, racial equity
the same”. While only “roughly two-
can be seen in social media use among
thirds (67 percent) of whites who use 29
social media say that none of things they
excellent example of the ways in which
post or share pertain to race.”50 People
cultural institutions can use social media
of color are turning to social media as a
to promote inclusion. The museum’s
tool for voicing issues within their com-
sixty-seven-million-year-old
munities, forming bonds, and activism.
saurus rex specimen, Sue, has always
With public and institutional social me-
been a celebrity in their own right due
dia users dramatically increasing in re-
to being the largest specimen of their
cent years, these platforms “have pro-
species ever found. However, in recent
vided new arenas for national conversa-
years Sue has become a personified
tions about race and racial inequality.”51
Twitter phenomenon, perhaps becom-
Platforms such as Twitter and Facebook
ing the first museum artifact turned
have provided online spaces to discuss
online celebrity. Boasting over 47,600
the intersection of race and cultural
followers, her official account uses in-
phenomena. This reveals the relevancy
formal jargon, online humor, and, most
of social media as a space to have open
importantly, activism to appeal to her
and public discussions surrounding ra-
followers. Breaking the traditional ex-
cial inequality to promote social equity,
pectations of formality for official mu-
a tool museums may utilize to help solve
seum press, @SUEtheTrex utilizes gifs,
historical issues of representation within
memes, emojis, and other informal
their collections and practices.
modes of internet humor to inform and
tyranno-
Museums are using social media ac-
educate her followers on topics rooted
counts to directly communicate with
in history and science, demonstrating
and connect to the digital public, estab-
the successful interplay between online
lishing personalized contact between
communication
the institution and individual followers
goals of a museum.
and
the
traditional
and increasing transparency. These ac-
Most notably, Sue is not neutral in
counts can be purely informative in na-
regards to social activism. Sue uses gen-
ture or specified in their voice and ap-
der-neutral pronouns and lists their pre-
proach. Additionally, the social activism
ferred “they/them” in their Twitter bio.
seen on social media has pushed muse-
Named after the scientist that discov-
ums to no longer have a neutral voice
ered them, Sue’s gender has not been
and to engage in dialogues surrounding
able to be identified by scientists, and
social justice. Although not an art mu-
the Field Museum used this as an oppor-
seum, the Field Museum has become an
tunity
to
bring
social
issues
and 30
dialogues into their framework as an in-
accessibility make museum going possi-
stitution. Sue, as an official representa-
ble for groups unable to reach the phys-
tive of the museum, often engages in di-
ical space. Many museums, small and
alogues with fans surrounding their pre-
large, have created digital open-access
ferred pronouns and corrects those who
platforms in which objects from their
mis-gender them. The Field Museum, as
collections have been digitized with
an institution, confirmed Sue’s pre-
contextual information and scholarship.
ferred pronouns in an official press re-
The anonymity, convenience, and lack
lease and asserted that the specimen be
of intervention of a physical space make
addressed as such. This resulted in posi-
digital collections appealing to students,
tive feedback from the non-binary com-
researchers, and young people who may
munity, as they saw this as an act of in-
not have a formal arts education and
clusion and increased representation for
therefore feel uncomfortable in the ritu-
them in cultural spaces. Additionally,
alized museum space. In 2009, the MET
the Field Museum took major steps in
established their Digital Media Depart-
promoting
within
ment, for which “websites were built,
their staff, offering workshops and train-
collections were digitized, apps were
ing sessions for employees to better “un-
launched, digital content was produced,
derstand the importance, develop com-
social media accounts multiplied.”53
fort with using gender-neutral pro-
Similar digital departments can be seen
nouns” while creating “empathy for
at other art institutions comparable in
nonbinary colleagues and patrons.”52
size, and their range of initiatives is ro-
Twitter activism, therefore, became a
bust. These departments incorporate ed-
catalyst for actualized inclusion initia-
ucators, curators, communications ex-
tives within the museum space and their
perts, and other professionals to create
internal hierarchical structure, revealing
an interdisciplinary team of profession-
the importance of social media for social
als working to bridge the gap between
equity within the museum space.
the digital and real world. Museums are
gender
inclusion
Increasingly, museums are attempt-
now seeing the internet “as a thing that
ing to broaden the reach of their collec-
annihilates place, making it possible to
tions through the use of digital plat-
be
forms to showcase their collections. Re-
Through their digital collections, the
cent initiatives to digitize museum col-
MET aims to make their world re-
lections
nowned collections as accessible as
in
an
effort
to
increase
here,
there
and
everywhere.”54
31
possible to anyone in the world. Their
people of color (African, Latin, Asian,
Chief Digital Officer affirmed in an in-
Middle-Eastern, Native American and
terview with the New York Times that
Pacific Island descent),”57 has created a
“most of the people who are interested
robust online and in-person community
in art aren’t going to get on a plane and
of museum professionals working to-
come here. It would be great if they
ward
came. But it’s O.K. if what we’re doing
events such as tours, workshops, and
is reaching them in just a digital way.”55
mixers work to create “meaningful ex-
The United States Census Bureau re-
periences for people of color in muse-
ported in 2015 that “62 percent of
ums and other cultural enclaves.”58
American households had ‘high connec-
Most notably, however, the community
tivity,’ meaning they had three key
built by Museum Hue has extended into
computer and Internet items: a desktop
the digital world in a meaningful way.
or laptop, a handheld computer or
With Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram
smartphone, and a broadband Internet
platforms, each respectively boasting
subscription.”56 Therefore, such efforts
followers in the thousands, the organi-
by major institutions like the MET to
zation posts about important issues con-
digitize their collections prove to make
cerning diversity in the arts in an effort
art more accessible to the public
to promote representation and inclusion
through how prevalent the digital world
at the leadership level. Museum Hue’s
is in most American’s lives.
Facebook group is comprised of “750
diversity
initiatives.
In-person
Internet and social media have also
members around the country” and is
proven to be important vehicles for mu-
“geared toward helping people of color
seum professionals to connect and build
find jobs, residencies, artist resources,
community amongst themselves. A tra-
and opportunities in the field.”59 The
ditionally insular and niche profession,
group has created a successful “net-
the establishment of online communi-
working and support group that offers
ties by and between museum profes-
members timely information on job of-
sionals has helped strengthen bonds and
fers as well as savvy career coaching, in-
form alliances between curators and
cluding résumé editing and counsel-
museum leaders around the world, con-
ing”60 for those interested in diversify-
necting them and their shared initiatives
ing the museum field. Monica Mont-
toward diversity. Established in 2015,
gomery, co-founder of Museum Hue
Museum Hue, “an arts platform for
and director at the Lewis H. Latimer 32
Historic Houseand the Museum of Im-
accessibility and for professionals in the
pact, credits “ the successful hire of be-
field to build community. Translating
tween 10 and 12 people at museums or
this into physical participation is a chal-
arts organizations”61 to the Facebook
lenge for museums, however, social me-
group. In addition to Museum Hue,
dia activism has proven that minority
online communities of museum profes-
visitor groups desire for representation
sionals exist across almost all social me-
within the museum space and see social
dia platforms. The Reddit subgroup Mu-
media as a comfortable and useful way
seumPros hosts 4,700 followers, posting
to promote social justice initiatives. Ad-
on a range of topics concerning mu-
ditionally, museum professionals have
seum best practices, career and higher
utilized the internet to create online
education advice, and even issues of di-
communities in which initiatives and
versity within the professional field. Us-
goals can be shared, while working to-
ers have inquired about the neutrality of
gether to diversify the field in providing
other museums and the ethics of apply-
others with job advice and assistance.
ing to a curator of African Art position
Social media, the internet, and the digi-
as a white individual, among other is-
tal landscape as a whole, therefore, have
sues concerning diversity within mu-
proven to be a powerful tool for the
seum leadership structure. These online
public, professionals, and institutions at
cohorts have proven to provide profes-
large to work together toward diversity
sionals with an equitable space to dis-
and better representations of people of
cuss their own personal challenges, en-
color within the art museum space.
gage in discourses on best practices, provide opportunities for one another,
Solutions, Resolutions & Conclusions
and most importantly establish a unified
While issues of diversity both at the
front concerning issues of diversity
leadership and visitorship level within
within the arts.
American art museums have been long
One can see how social media, the
discussed, studied, and theorized, there
internet, and the digital landscape have
has not yet been a clear solution to the
all been powerful tools for the public to
problem. Museums have historically
hold museums responsible for their
struggled to diversify the staffing of their
staffing and collections, as they pertain
leadership, particularly within the cura-
to issues of diversity and equity. As well
torial field. This is patrially due to the
as pressuring museums to increase
socioeconomic
barriers
preventing 33
people of color from obtaining the
people,”63 aimed at strengthening “the
changing educational requirements nec-
pipeline to leadership roles.”64
essary for leadership roles. Pressure from
In 2018, the Walton Family Founda-
societal needs for representation within
tion awarded Spelman College a 5.4
the museum field and current efforts to-
million-dollar grant toward establishing
ward diversification in the workplace
the Atlanta University Center Collective
within society as a whole have recently
for the Study of Art History and Curato-
expedited efforts to provide students of
rial Studies. In conjunction with schol-
color with fair opportunities to a cura-
arships awarded at Morehouse College
torial career. The Walton Family Foun-
and Clark Atlanta University, “the new
dation, the Ford Foundation, and the
initiative will result in the creation of an
Andrew Mellon Foundation have been
Art History major and Curatorial Stud-
influential in promoting fair opportuni-
ies minor at the Atlanta University Cen-
ties through substantial financial contri-
ter.”65 The initiative, aimed to “foster
butions to higher education institutions.
innovation and create an educational
In consideration of the DEAI initiatives
pipeline into art museum leadership
established by the AAM, these founda-
that is more representative of our na-
tions are thinking forward toward estab-
tion's increasing diversity,”66 will allow
lishing a diversified professional field, in
these historically black colleges to be-
particular hiring people of color for
come “[incubators] of African-American
leadership roles, that reflects the needs
museum professionals in the United
of society and reevaluates the art mu-
States.”67 Additionally, in 2013 the An-
seum as a civic space. In 2015, the Wal-
drew Mellon Foundation created the
ton Family Foundation and the Ford
Mellon Undergraduate Curatorial Fel-
Foundation awarded the Minneapolis
lowship in response to the curatorial
Institute of Art (Mia) a major grant to-
field being unreflective of the demo-
ward their “diversity, equity, and acces-
graphic changes in the United States.
sibility initiative, which aims to diversify
This fellowship, aimed at diversifying
the museum’s leadership and generally
the curatorial ranks, follows fellows
ensure the museum is an accessible and
from a one-week summer program for
inclusive place.”62 This grant helped to
undergraduates at one of six pilot muse-
establish three year-long fellowship po-
ums located “in areas of the country
sitions at the Mia which “targeted to-
with ethnically diverse or rapidly diver-
ward people of color and indigenous
sifying populations,”68 to a two-year 34
paid fellowship at a partner institution,
periods in American history.”70 Even
and eventual mentorship in the process
more remarkable than the exhibition’s
of earning a PhD. This comprehensive
content itself, which focuses on “the un-
approach to strengthening the curatorial
just
pathway for undergraduates of color in
Americans, such as Faith Ringgold’s
order to foster diversity within the field
painting featuring a “bleeding” flag and
has proven successful for the Mellon
Emory Douglas’s graphic images of be-
Foundation. According to Mellon.org:
leaguered Black city life,”71 is the cura-
“as of early 2018, twenty students have
tor behind the exhibition, Ashley James,
participated in the fellowship, and thir-
who is the Assistant Curator of Contem-
teen alumni have either enrolled in
porary Art at the institution. James is a
graduate programs or are working in the
young African American woman, and in
arts to gain more experience that could
her first lead exhibition at the Brooklyn
place them on a path toward curatorial
Museum showcases over two-hundred
positions in a
museum.”69
social
conditions
facing
Black
Financial
works by more than sixty Black artists,
contributions from private foundations
demonstrating the importance of hiring
toward diversification efforts within the
curators who are interested in displaying
curatorial profession are helping to
those
make a career in the arts more equitable
voices within the museum space.
historically
underrepresented
for students of color, resulting in in-
What curators choose to put on the
creased ownership over the shared
walls in their charge shapes cultural nar-
voices within an institution.
ratives. Art, as a reflection of society and
While missteps have been taken in
the respective historical moment the
hiring decisions at the Brooklyn Mu-
work was created within, tells viewers
seum, small but powerful leaps forward
what is beautiful, who is powerful, and
can be seen across other departments.
what stories matter. In choosing the
The influence of people of color work-
most exemplary works, curators have
ing within curatorial departments is ev-
the authority telling viewers what or
ident through their exhibition, “Soul of
who in society qualifies as beautiful and
a Nation: Art in the Age of Black
powerful, and the viewer, in their inter-
Power,” which showcases a “broad
action with the piece, decides how they
spectrum of Black artistic practice from
fit in in relation to this. Former presi-
1963 to 1983, one of the most politically,
dent Barack Obama and First-Lady
socially, and aesthetically revolutionary
Michelle Obama historically selected 35
Kehinde Wiley and Amy Sherald respec-
Representation is powerful and needs to
tively to paint their portraits for the
be addressed, considering the 2017 Cul-
Smithsonian National Portrait Gallery, a
ture Track Report found that “people of
tradition for every president when exit-
color were 82 percent more likely to
ing their tenure. Not only was the
cite ‘cultural activities as not reflecting
Obama’s choice to commission black
people of all backgrounds’.”73 In the
artists, (both of whom discuss themes of
case of Parker Curry, social media and a
historical modes of power and social jus-
viral post sparked national discussions
tice), significant and groundbreaking,
surrounding representation of people of
but the actual display of the paintings
color on museums’ walls, the impact it
took on a new life and meaning for the
has on social narratives and the ways in
representation of black people within
which one’s experiences viewing art
the museum space. Some months after
shape their perceptions of the world.
the official reveal of the portraits, an im-
Curators of color are not only begin-
age of an African-American girl standing
ning to find a voice, but so are visitors.
entranced in front of Michelle Obama’s
The quick mobilization of voices in re-
portrait was shared by another museum
action to controversial events within the
patron on Facebook. The post went vi-
art world, as published on social media,
ral and the original photo has now
have not only held museums accounta-
amassed over 27,000 likes, 1,700 com-
ble for diversity initiatives, but have also
ments, and over 36,000 shares across the
prompted museums to act quickly to
social media platform. This image of the
best utilize and disseminate these voices
young girl, later identified as two-year
to ensure their credibility and relevance
old Parker Curry, staring open-mouthed
as cultural spaces. The rise and necessity
at the portrait that towers over her,
of social media presence for museums
demonstrates the psychological and
has birthed new roles within the mu-
emotional impact showcasing works de-
seum staff specifically targeted at utiliz-
picting people of color in positions of
ing this phenomenon to its fullest po-
power has on visitors, most importantly
tential. Directors of digital content, so-
young, impressional visitors. Parker
cial media specialists, and liaisons be-
Curry's mother said in an interview with
tween the digital landscape and mu-
CNN
believed
seum alike are being established at light-
Michelle Obama was a “queen” and
ning speeds within institutions small
too.72
and large across the United States. JiaJia
that
her
daughter
wanted to grow up to be a queen,
36
Fei, former associate director of digital
Aldrich’s mission in supporting contem-
marketing at the Guggenheim, was ap-
porary artists,” through the use of “a
pointed in 2015 as the first Director of
combination of channels to reach as
Digital for the Jewish Museum. With
many demographics as possible.”76 In
goals to “[empower and collaborate]
running the social media platforms for
with every dimension of the museum to
the Aldrich, Monachino has made keen
harness the enormous potential of digi-
observations regarding how social me-
tal to reach new audiences,”74 Fei and
dia users themselves are driving the con-
her established Instagram following of-
tent they wish to see. “I’ve noticed that
fer the museum a way to reach new, un-
social media sometimes takes a life of its
tapped audiences. In an interview with
own and trends develop unintention-
ArtNet News at the close of her first year
ally,” Monachino says, “for example, we
in this position, Fei revealed that the
started to notice that many people were
“digital space opens up unprecedented
posting images of their shoes on David
access to our holdings, but also invites
Adamo’s chalk installation in Objects
an entirely new and global audience
Like Us on Instagram – from that we
who may never be able to visit us in per-
were able to develop the #WalkOn-
son,”75 further emphasizing the ways in
Chalk hashtag.”77 Monachino observes
which social media can provide a con-
that, “I find that Facebook tends to be
tact point with the museum without the
more communicative though, this is
intervention of a physical space, making
where people often post questions and
collections more equitable.
offer their feedback and comments.
One museum professional working
Both platforms–Facebook and Insta-
in a social media strategist role is Caitlin
gram–act as hubs for the public to inter-
Monachino, Digital Media Coordinator
act.”78 The result of audience-driven
at the Aldrich Contemporary Art Mu-
museum content allows the public to
seum in Ridgefield, Connecticut. As
gain a sense of inclusion that has other-
digital media coordinator, Monachino
wise been historically missing. “The so-
utilizes social media to promote the mis-
cial media channels give the museum a
sion and further the reach of her institu-
presence outside of its walls where we
tion. In an interview, Monachino states
can engage with people and give them a
that the goals of social media at the Al-
sense of inclusion to the Aldrich com-
drich “are to regularly engage with the
munity, and the art world as a whole,”
public and consistently promote Larry
observes Monachino, “this is important 37
because many people often feel ex-
reporting using social media channels
cluded from that realm. We always want
onsite during their visit between 2016-
to make the Museum feel as accessible
2017,83 it is paramount museums utilize
as possible.”79 This inclusion and sense
this technology to encourage visitorship
of shared ownership over a museum
and reshape how visitors experience the
cannot be achieved in any other context
gallery space. Many museums, in reac-
as democraziting as social media. Mon-
tion to the proliferation of cell phones
achino attributes increased social media
within society, have created “apps that
audience
to
allow visitors to seek out additional in-
hashtag “campaigns”, as in the David
formation,”84 changing the expectations
Adamo installation, but also to “behind-
for how one should or must interact
the-scenes
–
with artworks. These apps not only
which gives the Museum a greater sense
make information more accessible, but
of
also the museum going experience a
engagement
not
only
documentation/footage
transparency
greater public
and
consequently
interest.”80
Monachino
more comfortable one. Many museums
asserts that “people like to really know
have incorporated GPS technology into
what’s going on at the museum and see
their apps which make wayfinding
it in action, not just posts that look like
through galleries easier and, in turn, in-
advertisements.”81
crease visitor anonymity. Individuals no
Museums are increasingly reconsid-
longer have to identify themselves as
ering their relationship with digital me-
museum-going novices by using bulky
dia in order to retain and increase visi-
maps or asking staff for help, assuming
torship. By incorporating and encourag-
there is no language barrier. By encour-
ing social media use within the museum
aging cell phone use and creating infor-
space, institutions are working to chal-
mationally and experientially compre-
lenge traditional expectations of mu-
hensive apps, unfamiliar museum goers
seum-going behavior and rituals that
no longer feel the anxieties brought
have historically marginalized unfamil-
upon by traditional barriers and exclu-
iar visitors. In 2011, the MET, upon rec-
sions of historic museum-going rituals.
ognizing “that cellphones are omnipres-
Overall, the use of social and digital
ent in modern society, and fighting
media by institutions, visitors, and mu-
them is a losing battle,”82 stopped dis-
seum professionals has proven to make
couraging cell phone use. With 52 per-
museum going, as a whole, more de-
cent of visitors to cultural organizations
mocratizing.
“One
of
the
great 38
advantages of social media is the cou-
for students of color in order to diversify
pling of its very low barrier to entry and
the field. Practicing curators are also
its far reach. Hopefully by presenting a
solving issues of diversity through creat-
feed where people can learn about who
ing online cohorts in order to discuss
we are and what we do, they will not
and implement initiatives in support of
only become interested and want to visit
people of color working in the field and
the Museum, but will also feel person-
building community in a traditionally
ally welcomed before they even show
insular career. Museum professionals
up at the door,” believes Monachino,
like Kimberly Drew and the Museum
“utilizing social media is a diversity ini-
HUE co-founders who recognize needs
tiative in itself, in a way, because it is out
within their communities are creating
there for all to see. It isn’t a mailer that
online platforms to serve the needs of
is being sent to certain neighborhoods,
the minority community within the arts.
or a poster that’s only visible in certain
Furthermore, it is clear that social
places; it’s everywhere all at once, for
media has become a powerful tool for
everyone.”85 By utilizing the democra-
solving historic issues of diversity within
tizing power of the digital landscape,
art museums at both the professional
museums can successfully solve historic
and visitorship levels. American art mu-
issues concerning a lack of diversity that
seums must quickly and wholeheartedly
have long been identified, yet have re-
adapt to the digital landscape in order
mained largely unsolved.
to maintain relevancy and best serve
Additionally, issues concerning di-
their communities. Visual art is power-
versity within the professional world, in
ful in shaping our shared cultural narra-
particular the curatorial career, are be-
tive. Solving historic issues of represen-
ing solved through a reexamination of
tation
the educational track and online com-
within the arts is not only important for
munity building. While most recently
museums to maintain their relevance,
art history higher education has become
but also for equity within society as a
clouded by curatorial MA programs
whole. Social media, digital media and
aimed at networking that are largely in-
the internet are democratizing and do
accessible to students of color, private
not discriminate, making them the per-
foundations are working to help give
fect entry point for museums to solve
educational opportunities to and create
historic issues of diversity.
concerning people
of
color
comprehensive fellowship experiences 39
BIBLIOGRAPHY "About." Museum Hue. https://www.museumhue.com/about-us/. Agrawal, Nadya. "Curator Kimberly Drew on Black Art, Social Media, and Taking Selfies in Museums." Broadly. November 25, 2016. https://broadly.vice.com/en_us/article/evgd9e/kimberly-drew-museummamm-interview. Anderson, Monica, and Paul Hitlin. "Social Media Conversations About Race." PewResearch Center: Internet, Science & Tech. August 15, 2016. http://www.pewinternet.org/2016/08/15/social-media-conversationsabout-race/ "Art in America: Supporting a New Generation of Curators." Mellon.org (blog), June 2018. https://mellon.org/resources/shared-experiencesblog/developing-next-generation-curators/. Boucher, Brian. "What's the Best Path to a Top Museum Job? We Analyzed the Training of 100 Curators to Find Out." Artnet News. April 02, 2018. https://news.artnet.com/art-world/curator-schools-contemporaryart-1257305. Carnevale, Anthony, Ban Cheah, and Jeff Strohl. Hard Times: College Majors, Unemployment and Earnings. Report. 2010. 40
https://cew.georgetown.edu/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Unemployment.Final_.update1.pdf. David, Carol. “Elitism in the Stories of US Art Museums: The Power of a Master Narrative.” Journal of Business and Technical Communication, Volume 13, Issue 3, pp. 318 - 335, 1999. "Demographics of Social Media Users and Adoption in the United States." Pew Research Center: Internet, Science & Tech. February 05, 2018. http://www.pewinternet.org/fact-sheet/social-media/. Elbaor, Caroline. "Getting a Master's Degree in Curating Is All the Rage. But Is It Worth It?" Artnet News. July 05, 2017. https://news.artnet.com/art-world/are-masters-degrees-in-curating-worth-it-98090. Embuscado, Rain. “Good Luck Getting Into the National Museum of African American History and Culture Before Winter.” ArtNet News. September 16, 2016. https://news.artnet.com/art-world/national-museum-ofafrican-american-history-64940 Embuscado, Rain. "Interview With Jewish Museum Digital Director JiaJia Fei." Artnet News. October 11, 2016. https://news.artnet.com/artworld/jiajia-fei-interview-jewish-museum-672887. Facing Change: Insights From the American Alliance of Museums' Diversity, Equity, Accessibility, and Inclusion Working Group. Report. Arlington, Virginia: American Alliance of Museums. 2018. 41
Farrell, Betty, and Maria Medvedeva. Demographic Transformation and the Future of Museums. Report. Washington D.C.: AAM Press, American Association of Museums. 2010. https://www.aam-us.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/Demographic-Change-and-the-Future-of-Museums.pdf. Fleenor, S.E. "How a T. Rex Named SUE Became a Non Binary Icon." Them. May 04, 2018. https://www.them.us/story/sue-the-t-rex-is-a-nonbinary-icon. Gilbert, Sophie. "Please Turn On Your Phone in the Museum." The Atlantic. September 13, 2016. https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2016/10/please-turn-on-your-phone-in-the-museum/497525/. Giridharadas, Anand. "Museums See Different Virtues in Virtual Worlds." The New York Times. August 07, 2014. https://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/08/arts/design/museums-see-different-virtues-in-virtual-worlds.html_r=0. Greenberger, Alex. "'Simply Not a Good Look': Activist Group Criticizes Brooklyn Museum's Hiring of White Curator for African Art Department." ARTnews. April 6, 2018. http://www.artnews.com/2018/04/06/simply-notgood-look-activist-group-criticizes-brooklyn-museums-hiring-white-curator-african-art-department-open-letter/. Gurian, Elaine Heumann. Threshold Fear. www.egurian.com. PDF.
42
Halperin, Julia. "African American Artists Are More Visible Than Ever. So Why Are Museums Giving Them Short Shrift?" Artnet News. September 19, 2018. https://news.artnet.com/market/african-american-research-museums-1350362. Hannon, Kerry. "Museums, the New Social Media Darlings." The New York Times. October 28, 2016. https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/30/arts/design/museums-the-new-social-media-darlings.html. "How Onsite Social Media Use Impacts Visitor Satisfaction (DATA)." Colleen Dilenschneider. August 16, 2017. https://www.colleendilen.com/2017/08/16/onsite-social-media-use-impacts-visitor-satisfaction-data/. Irish, Anni. "The Curator as Advocate: Spotlight on ICA LA's Jamillah James." ArtSlant. October 24, 2016.https://www.artslant.com/ew/articles/show/46676-the-curator-as-advocate-spotlight-on-ica-las-jamillahjames. Judah, Hettie. "Has the Art World Had Enough of 'Curators'?" Artnet News. November 15, 2016.https://news.artnet.com/opinion/has-the-artworld-had-enough-of-curators-746885. Kaplan, Isaac. "37% of Art Museum Visitors Don't View Them as Culture-and Other Takeaways from the 2017 Culture Track Report." Artsy. October 16, 2017. https://www.artsy.net/article/artsy-editorial-37-art-museum-visitors-view-culture-takeaWays-2017-culture-track-report.
43
Kietzmann, Jan H., Kristopher Hermkens, Ian P. Mccarthy, and Bruno S. Silvestre. "Social Media? Get Serious! Understanding the Functional Building Blocks of Social Media." Business Horizons54, no. 3 (February 5, 2011): 241-51. doi:10.1016/j.bushor.2011.01.005. Levitt, Peggy. “Museums Must Attract Diverse Visitors or Risk Irrelevance.” The Atlantic, Atlantic Media Company. November 9, 2015. www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2015/11/museums-must-attract-diverse-visitors-or-risk-irrelevance/433347/. Monachino, Caitlin. E-mail interview by author. November 23, 2018. Munro, Cait. "Instagram Sensation JiaJia Fei to Jewish Museum." Artnet News. April 22, 2016. https://news.artnet.com/art-world/jiajia-fei-jewishmuseum-387506. Neuendorf, Henri. "Study: 80% of Artists Represented at NYC's Top Galleries Are White." Artnet News. June 02, 2017. https://news.artnet.com/art-world/new-york-galleries-study-979049. Obrist, Hans Ulrich, Stuart Jeffries, and Nancy Groves. "Hans Ulrich Obrist: The Art of Curation." The Guardian. March 23, 2014. https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2014/mar/23/hans-ulrichobrist-art-curator. O'Malley, Tim. "Case Study: Reaching New Audiences in the Digital World." AAM Online (audio blog). 2017. Aam-us.org.
44
Provost, Nam. "Art Museums Have Struggled to Diversify- What Will It Take to Change That?" Medium.com. August 28, 2018. https://medium.com/minneapolis-institute-of-art/art-museums-have-struggled-to-diversify-what-will-it-take-to-change-that-63bb268710a3. Reilly, Maura. "What Is Curatorial Activism?" ARTnews. November 7, 2017. http://www.artnews.com/2017/11/07/what-is-curatorial-activism/. Rodney, Seph. "The Group Working Behind the Scenes to Diversify Museum Staffs." Hyperallergic. February 18, 2016. https://hyperallergic.com/273059/the-group-working-behind-the-scenes-to-diversify-museum-staffs/. Russell, Adrianne. "Making BlackLivesMatter in Museums." AAM Online (audio blog), 2017. Aam-us.org. Ryan, Camille, and Jamie M. . Lewis. Computer and Internet Use in the United States: 2015.Report. September 2017. https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2017/acs/acs-37.pdf. Schonfeld, Roger, Mariët Westermann, and Liam Sweeney. The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation Art Museum Staff Demographic Survey. Report. July 28, 2015. https://mellon.org/media/filer_public/ba/99/ba99e53a48d5-4038-80e1-66f9ba1c020e/Awmf_museum_diversity_report_aamd_728-15.pdf. Shah, Parth. “At African-American History Museum, Visitor 'Dwell Time' Is Off The Charts.” NPR. November 3, 2016.
45
https://www.npr.org/2016/11/03/500560162/new-smithsonian-africanamerican-history-museum-overwhelmed-with-visitors. Sit, Ryan. "Museum Appoints White Woman as African Art Curator, Sparks Outrage." Newsweek. March 29, 2018. https://www.newsweek.com/white-woman-named-curator-african-artbrooklyn-museuM-865522. "Soul of a Nation: Art in the Age of Black Power." Brooklyn Museum. https://www.brooklynmuseum.org/exhibitions/soul_of_a_nation. Tallon, Loic. "Digital Is More Than a Department, It Is a Collective Responsibility." Blogs: Now at the Met. October 24, 2017. https://www.metmuseum.org/blogs/now-at-the-met/2017/digital-futureat-the-met. Zaru, Deena. "Little Girl Awestruck by Michelle Obama's Portrait Believes She's 'a Queen'." CNN. March 05, 2018. https://www.cnn.com/2018/03/03/politics/michelle-obama-portrait-girlparker-curry/index.html. 2017 Salary Survey.Report. 2017. https://aamd.org/sites/default/files/document/2017 AAMD Salary Survey_0.pdf.
46
“Socially Unfit or Unfit Society?: Identifying Monstrosity in Medieval Scandinavian Literature”
by Ryan Kamkar
47
The term “monster” defines an in-
monstrosity has been regarded as taboo
dividual who has an unusual or unac-
throughout history. Labels that sug-
ceptable behavior or appearance.1 With
gested monstrosity, such as “troll” and
this definition, the word is used by soci-
“witch,” were often equivalent to con-
ety as a label to alienate those who do
temporary derogatory slurs as ways to
not fit into its criteria of normalcy. As
insult an individual and undermine their
such, it seems natural for monsters to
social merit.2 The status of a monster
strive to dismantle the oppressive soci-
was fundamentally low and often indic-
ety and establish a new social order–one
ative of someone who offered little to
in which they would no longer be de-
no value to society. Such devaluation re-
fined as monsters. This brings into ques-
sulted in the dismissal of this class as un-
tion what a monster truly is within the
fit for society, along with social rejec-
context of society, and under what cir-
tion to the extent of avoidance and even
cumstances one may be able to escape
fear. Indeed, labelling an individual as a
from such discrimination. Upon dissect-
monster would successfully warrant
ing the role of monsters in medieval
their expulsion from society.
works including a cursed werewolf in
Given the profound capacity of me-
Bisclaretz Ljo∂, a family of rebellious
dieval society to discriminate against an
trolls in Ála Flekks Sagaand a domesti-
individual through the criminalization
cated beast in The Little Flowers of St.
of monstrosity, some underlying mo-
Francis of Assisi, we may then gain in-
tives of this prejudice should be investi-
sight into the foundation of contempo-
gated. As independent, unrestrained
rary Western society’s battle against
creatures, monsters are recognized as
monstrosity.
anti-Christian symbols of evil and sin,
In order to contemplate the tenets of
and thus serve as a foil to the righteous-
social monstrosity, we must seek to
ness of religion and civilization.3 Conse-
elicit the underlying mechanisms of hu-
quently, members of society fixate on
man judgment that lead to the regular
this nonconformity and ostracize these
discrimination of monsters. With its im-
individuals in order bolster their own
plicit
self-image of rectitude. Furthermore,
repulsiveness
and
inferiority,
“Merriam Webster Online.” Lindow, “Medieval Trolls,” 39. 3 Classen, “The Monster Outside and within: Medieval Literary Reflections on Ethical Epistemology. 1 2
From Beowulf to Marie de France, the Nibelunglied, and Thüring von Ringoltinger’s Melusine,” 525.
48
humans detach themselves from mon-
son of the king and can thereby change
sters by categorizing these beings with a
the society that rejects them. Further-
sense of “otherness.”4 People exclude
more, Jotunoxi, one of Blue-tooth’s
monsters in order to develop a closer
brothers, performs a similar stunt in
connection to their own community
pursuit
and gain a sense of self-identity, as they
maiden-king.6 Such marriages not only
define morality and civilization to be
prevent Ali and Thornbjarg from pro-
against the nature of the monsters. By
ducing heirs, but they also secure a val-
regarding monstrosity as an evil entity
uable element of humanity into the oth-
to be antagonized, humans create a
erwise socially worthless family of mon-
common enemy which allows them-
sters. The objective of the family of
selves to form closer relationships with
trolls to marry a currently esteemed
others who also adhere to their own
leader of society exemplifies the ambi-
standards of normalcy, thus establishing
tion of monsters to create a new society
a more cohesive society.
in which they are unconditionally in-
of
marrying
Thornbjarg,
a
Monsters are, by definition, those
cluded. Essentially, they aim to normal-
who are excluded. Therefore, they at-
ize themselves by establishing a new in-
tempt to uproot the current social struc-
tegrated social order in which they are
ture in order to gain more inclusion and
integrated, such as by kinship to a pre-
acceptance, as shown in various medie-
vious leader. If the family of trolls were
val Scandinavian works. Most notably,
to successfully create a new society with
in Ála Flekks Saga, Blue-tooth is a troll
norms in accordance to their own ac-
who segregates prince Ali, a member of
ceptance, then nobility from the former
royalty, from his kingdom and coerces
society may be potentially unwelcome.
him into marrying one of her siblings in
This would result in the vicious cycle re-
her troll family.5 In this example, Blue-
peating, in which a new group of indi-
tooth aims to dismantle society by iso-
viduals is labelled as monsters, accord-
lating an important leader of the king-
ing to their inability to conform to the
dom and forcing him into matrimony
new social standards.
with a troll. Blue-tooth’s motivation for
We now realize that the term “mon-
attacking Ali lies in the fact that he is the
ster” is subjective depending on the
4
6
Classen, 539. Bachman and Erlingsson, “Six Old Icelandic Sagas,” 45.
Bachman and Erlingsson, 56.
5
49
society to which it is being applied. One
Although monstrosity refers to one’s
great example of this phenomenon is il-
relative lack of social merit, we will eval-
lustrated in the Pixar film Monster’s
uate whether physical abnormalities
Inc., which portrays a society wherein
serve as harbingers of those who are
individuals whom humans would per-
classified as monsters. This will, in turn,
ceive as monsters are normalized and
signify whether an unusual physical ap-
humans themselves are
formidable.7
In
pearance can be acknowledged as a tell-
this apparent parallel universe, the labels
tale sign to identify a monster. In Ála
of “monster” and “citizen” have inter-
Flekks Saga, Ali is overwhelmed with
changed according to the counterintui-
horror and dread as he is forced to
tive standards that were established. A
marry Nott, the troll.8 The prospect of
human who might have been highly val-
marrying this troll, marked for her re-
ued according to our society’s standards
volting
of civility and morality would not de-
daunting to Ali; as a prince with good
serve any social worth in this alternate
looks, he feels threatened that marrying
reality. In light of this consideration, the
an ugly troll could lower his social sta-
definition of a monster can be refined to
tus. If Nott had a notably more attrac-
refer to someone who does not have so-
tive physical appearance, Ali would not
cial merit within a particular group of
so desperately yearn to escape her grasp
focus. This new definition sheds light
and resist their marriage. Hence, Nott
onto an important matter relating to the
would not be rejected as a worthless
automatic assumptions that humans
monster, but instead might be more
generally make in order to identify a
likely to win over Ali’s love and estab-
monster. Namely, members of Western
lish her own position in society without
society associate unsightly physical char-
derision. Essentially, ugliness is a classi-
acteristics and savagery with monstros-
fication of physical abnormalities that
ity. We must question whether these
defy the standards of beauty within hu-
metrics are accurate determinants for
man society. Because these physical
social monstrosity.
characteristics do not conform to medi-
appearance,
is
particularly
eval Scandinavian society’s standards, 7
Docter, Silverman, and Unkrich, Monsters, Inc.
8
Bachman and Erlingsson, “Six Old Icelandic Sa-
gas,” 45.
50
they place the individuals in a low status
their propensity for antagonizing soci-
that causes alienation. Hence, they be-
ety. However, in Bisclaretz Ljo∂, this cri-
come monsters in the eyes of society. In
teria often prove unrealistic given the
conclusion, these unsightly physical
context of a character whose monstrous
characteristics are not necessarily an in-
appearance hides his civility.
dicator of a monster. Rather, they are
It is perhaps necessary at this point
features devalued by the standards of so-
to cite the case of Bisclaret himself, the
ciety, often to the point of monstrosity.
focus of the tale as well as the obvious
We can extend this principle to as-
exception to the previous claim. In sum-
sess our aversion to individuals who ex-
mary, as a bestial figure who exhibits no
hibit savagery by deviating from civiliza-
signs of social savagery and conse-
tion in terms of physical behavior. In ad-
quently manages to escape the fate of
dition
the
monstrosity, he exemplifies this ideal of
presentation of an individual’s habits in
challenging prejudices. Although his
society determines their identity as a
physical manifestation as a wolf notice-
monster. In the case of Nott, her gro-
ably contrasts that of a human, he prac-
tesque manner of eating horses and
tices civility through subordination to
other food taboos prompted Ali to grant
the king.10 Therefore, Bisclaret is neither
her the title of a monster.9 Thus, barba-
classified nor treated as a monster by the
rism is viewed as a monstrous and inhu-
people in the kingdom, because his civil
mane quality because it implies lack of
cordiality overshadows his physical ab-
culture, intrinsically provoking disgust
normalities. However, the tale’s anag-
in the same way that an unkempt ap-
norisis celebrates an unexpected occur-
pearance would. Considering that one
rence of an ideal scenario in which the
may be regarded as a monster if one ex-
general public is capable of redressing
hibits any conspicuous barbaric prac-
their preconceived notions of a sus-
tices, it is logical to measure the extent
pected monster.
to physical
appearance,
that non-physical (i.e. social) and often
To provide a holistic interpretation
subtle savagery would also lead being
of this phenomenon, it is crucial to dis-
identified as a monster. Surely, it would
cuss other cases throughout Bisclaretz
be most appropriate to diagnose a mon-
Ljo∂in which society’s initial judgments
ster through social merit upon gauging
of one’s apparent conformity to social
9
10
Bachman and Erlingsson, 47.
Cook and Tvetaine, “Bisclaret.”
51
standards lead to a miscalculation of
accurately make judgments from these
one’s compliance with society. For ex-
standards. If these judgments cannot be
ample, Bisclaret’s unfaithful wife is not
fairly made, the label of “monster” may
initially regarded as a monster because
be arbitrarily assigned time after time.
she has no apparent ugliness, despite
In modern society, people continue
demonstrating cruelty toward her hus-
to casually attribute greater social merit
band. In this case, Bisclaret’s wife avoids
to those who conform to certain stand-
the label of a monster due to her high
ards involving wealth, gender, and race,
status in society and unoffending ap-
among other judgments of appearance
pearance, which wards off suspicion of
and behavior. Naturally, these standards
her betrayal. When Bisclaret attacks her
divide a population into social ranks,
and removes her nose, he effectively
defined by individuals’ abilities to con-
gives her a physical attribute that allows
form to the group’s expectations. Ac-
others to label her as a monster. Further-
cording to a study of perceived wealth
more, her children are born without
on social influence, men who represent
noses as well, and are thus also recog-
wealthier members of society seem to be
nized as pariahs.11 If the children had
more readily trusted by the general pop-
noses, they would not be easily identi-
ulation when offering help. Conversely,
fied as monsters and would likely be
men with less apparent financial success
able to adopt a role in society. Essen-
have increased difficulty earning the
tially, these children are labeled as mon-
trust and appreciation of others when
sters due to their noselessness, regard-
offering the same.12 Through judgments
less of their individual morality or be-
continually made based on values of
havior. In light of these examples, it is
wealth, a large percentage of individuals
evident that our ability to accurately de-
who fall short of meeting this standard
termine the true monsters that antago-
are in turn dramatically undervalued by
nize our society is compromised by our
society.
own misconceptions about the physical
Furthermore, an alarming issue of
appearances of monsters. Therefore,
monstrosity arises from society’s im-
monstrosity is actually measured not
pulse to demonize extreme cases of pov-
against the standards of society, but ac-
erty by their nonconformity to the
cording to its members’ ability to
standard. An ethnographic study of the
11
12
Cook and Tvetaine, 97–98.
Morse, “Help, Likability, and Social Influence.”
52
roots of mass incarceration in homeless
society. Social rejection has the power
men elicits a “frequently voiced claim
to produce monsters and negatively im-
that homeless men are serious and dan-
pact the security of members. With this
gerous criminals,” and reveals that po-
frame of reference, a society full of prej-
licemen are far more willing to arrest
udice and mistreatment of its members
men with unkempt appearances who
may itself be considered a monstrosity.
commit the same illegal act as “cleaner”
Assuming that society manages to
men, whom are often let off with a
reevaluate its own prejudices in order to
warning. Additionally, discriminatory
correctly identify monsters, one social
laws that undermine legitimate efforts of
issue remains apposite: People excluded
homeless people to earn money and se-
by society generally aim to dismantle so-
cure a place of shelter cause many of
ciety for their own benefit. As members
them to resort to criminal activities in
of society who feel threatened by this
order to survive.13 The demonization of
potential social change, people may aim
homeless men is evidently a misguided
to eliminate such danger. In turn, they
precaution aimed to protect more
may resolve to defeat every monster for
highly valued members of society by
the survival of our own society.14 The
identifying the non-conforming individ-
seemingly most logical way to destroy
uals as suspected threats to society. In
monsters is to kill them. In Ála Flekks
reality, this prejudice fundamentally
Saga, Ali reacts to Blue-tooth’s attempt
serves to reinforce society’s values of
to force him into marriage by fatally
wealth, though its inherent injustices
cursing her.15 This method initially ap-
also merit retaliation among its victims.
pears to be a successful way to liberate
Even if we hold firm to our monetary
Ali from the threat of this monster.
values that regard homeless people as in-
However, Ali ultimately faces the conse-
ferior, this does not warrant us to label
quences for his deed when Blue-tooth’s
each of them as a criminal, a formidable
brother Glodarauga seeks vengeance for
onus—similar to monstrosity—that de-
her demise and curses Ali to turn into a
finitively results in expulsion from
wolf.16 The inevitable purgatory and
13
From Beowulf to Marie de France, the Nibelunglied, and Thüring von Ringoltinger’s Melusine,” 531. 15 Bachman and Erlingsson, “Six Old Icelandic Sagas,” 45. 16 Bachman and Erlingsson, 50.
Snow, Baker, and Anderson, “Criminality and
Homeless Men: An Empirical Assessment.”543-545.
Classen, “The Monster Outside and within: Medieval Literary Reflections on Ethical Epistemology. 14
53
guilt that haunts a murderer justifies the
considered a good candidate to be cured
impracticality of this resolution.
in this fashion and incorporated into so-
One should not arrange to kill mon-
ciety if its own social values are not dia-
sters without assuming the consequent
metrically opposed to that of the current
burden of guilt and repentance. We are
society.17 This practice is exemplified in
then led to question the author’s inten-
The Little Flowers of St. Francis of As-
tion to prompt Ali to unabashedly re-
sisi, in which St. Francis deliberately
solve to murder the monster he faces.
manipulates the soul of a feral wolf in
Ali’s choice to murder Blue-tooth seems
order to transform it into a docile crea-
to directly result from her attack on his
ture whose existence is more conducive
social
not
to society.18 St. Francis performs noth-
threaten Ali’s life. Hence, Ali’s choice to
ing short of a miracle in baptizing and
kill this monster is arguably undue and
domesticating the wolf in a manner that
ultimately leads to his own misfortune.
allows it to more closely fit into the so-
With the retribution that the protago-
cial standards of the town. Despite this
nist faces after slaying a monster that
success, it remains significant that the
had not threatened his life, the author
rest of the townspeople do not seem to
implies that the slayer of monsters may
exhibit the necessary energy or skills to
be an unjustified way to resolve the dan-
initiate this act of curing by themselves.
ger they bring to members of society.
Thus, reliance on this method of con-
status.
Blue-tooth
does
As we rule out the viability of slaying
version to defend against monsters costs
the monster, it becomes crucial to de-
an incredible amount of skill for the so-
termine the safest way to allow for the
ciety to execute.
existence of monsters within society,
Given the impracticality of subduing
without the threat of the monster at-
every monster that does not conform to
tacking its members. One way to elimi-
society’s standards, perhaps a more real-
nate the danger of a monster attacking
istic way to eradicate the threat of mon-
society is to force the monster to con-
sters may be to incite societal adapta-
form to the standards and expectations
tions that eliminate the potential for the
of society, and effectively convert it into
propagation of monstrosity. This princi-
a benign state. The monster is often
ple is exemplified in Bisclaretz Ljo∂, as
Merkelbach, Dólgr í Bygg∂inni: The Literary Construction and Cultural Use of Social Monstrosity in the Sagas of Icelanders, 147.
18
17
Di Monte Santa Maria, “Chapter 21: Of the Most Holy Miracle Which St. Francis Wrought When He Converted the Firece Wolf of Gubbio.”
54
the king chooses to accept Bisclaret into
significant issue in which social rejec-
his kingdom, thus fostering his return to
tion propagates the threat of monstros-
a human state.19 By forgiving his bestial
ity. While the imprisonment of minor
appearance and behavior, attributes
offenders leads to recidivism, critical
which would generally cause rejection
prisoner reentry programs significantly
by society due to a failure to conform to
decrease criminalization rates within a
its standards, the king transforms Bis-
community.21 As we create opportuni-
claret back into his human self. In a sim-
ties that allow a prior criminal to regain
ilar instance in Ála Flekks Saga, Ali is
merit in society, we begin to see that the
able to return to a human state after his
label of a monster does not serve as a
foster mother, Hild, recognizes his so-
permanent fixture to one’s identity.
cial value in spite of his bestial form.20
Universal acceptance, distinctly inde-
Hild demonstrates a critical ability to ex-
pendent of expectations for conversion,
pand one’s own societal standards in or-
appeals to the virtues of human nature
der to foster a community in which con-
to strive for self-improvement and be-
formity is not expected, ergo monstros-
longing. It requires us to trust that all
ity is irrelevant. In both of these cases,
people deserve to be accommodated by
the social construct of monstrosity is ef-
society and thus should not be identified
fectively destroyed when members of
as monsters. Through the eyes of an in-
society adjust their own standards in or-
clusive society, we finally illuminate our
der to be more inclusive of the monster.
view of the darkness in which we
Just as social acceptance of a monster in-
learned to fear monsters.
duces civility, this theory can be expanded to a universal scale of acceptance in order to uproot all monstrosity. Returning to modern life, we see that this ideal of universal acceptance yields promising results in our continual battle against monstrosity. Mass incarceration, 19
for
instance,
remains
Cook and Tvetaine, “Bisclaret,” 97.
a Bachman and Erlingsson, “Six Old Icelandic Sagas,” 52. 21 Jonson and Cullen, “Prisoner Reentry Programs.” 20
55
BIBLIOGRAPHY Bachman, W. Bryant, and Guomundur Erlingsson, trans. “Six Old Icelandic Sagas.” In The Saga of Ali Flekk, 43–61. New York: University Press of America, 1992. Classen, Albrecht. “The Monster Outside and within: Medieval Literary Reflections on Ethical Epistemology. From Beowulf to Marie de France, the Nibelunglied, and Thüring von Ringoltinger’s Melusine.” In Neohelicon, 521st–542nd ed. Vol. 40. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 2013. Cook, Robert, and Mattias Tvetaine, eds. “Bisclaret.” In Strengleikar: An Old Norse Translation of Twenty-One Old French Lais, 85–100. Oslo: Norsk Kjeldeskrift-Institutt, 1979. Di Monte Santa Maria, Ugolino. “Chapter 21: Of the Most Holy Miracle Which St. Francis Wrought When He Converted the Firece Wolf of Gubbio.” In The Little Flowers of St. Francis of Assisi, translated by W. Heywood, 47–50. New York: Vintage Books, A Division of Random House, Inc., 1998. Docter, Pete, Lee Silverman, and David Unkrich. Monsters, Inc.Disney: Pixar, 2013.
56
Jonson, Cheryl Lero, and Francis T. Cullen. “Prisoner Reentry Programs.” Crime and Justice44, no. 1 (2015): 517–75. https://doi.org/10.1086/681554. Lindow, John. “Medieval Trolls.” In Trolls: An Unnatural History, 30–50. Reaktion Books Ltd, 2014. Merkelbach, Rebecca Anna Maria. Dólgr í Bygg∂inni: The Literary Construction and Cultural Use of Social Monstrosity in the Sagas of Icelanders. Cambridge: Unpublished doctoral dissertation, n.d. “Merriam Webster Online.” Accessed November 30, 2017. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/monster. Morse, Stanley J. “Help, Likability, and Social Influence.” Journal of Applied Social Psychology2, no. 1 (1972): 34–46. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1972.tb01262.x. Snow, David A., Susan G. Baker, and Leon Anderson. “Criminality and Homeless Men: An Empirical Assessment.” Social Problems36, no. 5 (1989): 532–49. https://doi.org/10.2307/3096817.
57
“Tres representaciones de sororidad y resistencia femeninas en la postguerra española en La voz dormida de Benito Zambrano”
by Perla Jazmin Richerson
58
Se dice que en las guerras todos
es el caso de La voz dormidade Benito
pierden. Sin embargo, no hay alguna
Zambrano (2011). Este ensayo analizará
duda de que existen grupos de personas
tres formas de resistencia que se encuen-
que pierden más que otros. Este fue el
tran en los personajes femeninos de esta
caso de las mujeres a partir de la derrota
película: la mujer de fuertes ideales cuya
de los republicanos ante los nacionalis-
voluntad no se doblega por nada ni
tas tras la Guerra Civil española (1936-
nadie, la mujer que manifiesta su forta-
1939). Fueron precisamente las mujeres
leza en la protección de otros, y la mujer
que perdieron no solo los avances de
perseverante cuyo principal objetivo es
igualdad entre géneros que la Segunda
la recuperación de la memoria histórica
República comenzaba a introducir (par-
de las mujeres en particular.
ticularmente en los años en los que go-
La voz dormida se centra en la
bernaban los partidos progresistas), sino
vida de mujeres encarceladas en la
que también, al llegar el dictador Fran-
prisión de las Ventas en Madrid de pre-
cisco Franco al poder, perdieron el con-
sas políticas el periodo de la posguerra
trol sobre sus mentes y sobre sus cuer-
y la represión franquista. Las protagonis-
pos (Milquet 2012, 112); es decir,
tas son dos hermanas, Hortensia (Inma
perdieron su capacidad de agencia sobre
Cuesta) y Pepita (María León). Horten-
sus propias vidas. Su opinión en materia
sia se encuentra en estado de embarazo
de asuntos públicos no solo era consid-
en la cárcel y Pepita se muda a Madrid
erada irrelevante—producto de una
desde Córdoba para estar más cerca de
mente inferior/no desarrollada—, sino
su hermana. Pepita se involucra con los
que también fue reprimida. Según el go-
republicanos que luchan en la clandes-
bierno franquista, el único propósito de
tinidad por su hermana, su cuñado Fe-
sus cuerpos era la procreación, el
lipe (Daniel Holguín) y, después, por
cuidado y la educación de la nueva gen-
Paulino (Marc Clotet), de quien se en-
eración ideal que se apegara a las ide-
amora. Felipe y Paulino son capturados
ologías
(Picornell-
por los policías y, como consecuencia,
Belenguer 2006, 119-120). Por eso, po-
Pepita es interrogada y torturada con
dría sorprender encontrar obras que re-
fines de obtener información sobre
flejen la situación de la mujer en este
ellos. Tras ser sentenciada a muerte, a
periodo que no caigan en su repre-
Hortensia se le permite vivir hasta que
sentación victimista, sino que enfaticen
nazca su hija. Poco después de dar a luz,
su faceta de resistencia y sororidad. Este
Hortensia es ejecutada y Pepita logra
de
la
dictadura
59
llevarse a Tensi (la hija de Hortensia)
Pepita y Tensi. Para ello, comenzaré con
con ella. Tensi después demuestra la
un breve contexto histórico y el papel
continuación de la lucha que su madre
que las mujeres jugaron en la Segunda
le inspiró, por medio de los diarios que
República y la Guerra Civil, y la sub-
le dejó como patrimonio, con el ob-
siguiente represión de las republicanas
jetivo de que su existencia no fuera bor-
tras el triunfo nacionalista.
rada de la historia. El largometraje está basado en
España en el siglo XX estaba llena de
tensiones
y
refriegas.
La
una novela escrita por Dulce Chacón en
proclamación de la Segunda República
2002. Su libro es una mezcla de testimo-
en abril de 1931 sucedió a la monarquía
nios reales que obtuvo por medio de en-
constitucional
trevistas que realizó durante cuatro años
Borbón en España. Durante este peri-
al fin del siglo XX. Estas narraciones
odo, diferentes partidos de ideologías
están entretejidas con elementos ficti-
izquierdas y derechas gobernaron alter-
cios que relatan la historia de algunas
nativamente. La Segunda República
mujeres en la prisión de las Ventas. La
estuvo plagada de gran inestabilidad a
voz dormida fue una de las primeras
causa, principalmente, de grandes ten-
obras que ejemplifica ese intento de re-
siones entre clases sociales e ideologías
cuperar la memoria histórica; la obra
políticas. Por un lado, se encontraban
tiene el poder de romper el silencio del
los partidos de izquierdas (entre los
franquismo y se manifiesta en“un grito
cuales se agrupaban socialistas, co-
para despertar a olvidadizos y desmemo-
munistas, anarquistas) y por otro los de
riados”(Chacón 2003). Tal fue su im-
la derecha, apoyados primordialmente
pacto que Benito Zambrano decidió
por
adaptarla para el cine. Si bien los estu-
fascistas. Sin embargo, las tensiones in-
dios y análisis sobre La voz dormidason,
crementaron aún más después de las
en su mayoría, literarios, este ensayo
elecciones demócratas de 1936, en las
trata de centrarse no tanto en el libro
que el partido de izquierda Frente
como en la película; en particular aporta
Nacional ganó. Inconforme con el tri-
una visión novedosa acerca de las repre-
unfo, una facción del estamento militar
sentaciones de la resistencia y la sorori-
comenzó una sublevación al mando del
dad—que son fundamentales en el
General Francisco Franco. Dicho golpe
film— proyectadas por los personajes de
de estado indujo a la guerra.
de
monárquicos,
Alfonso
XIII
conservadores
de
y
las presas políticas (como Hortensia), 60
La Guerra Civil fue un conflicto
aquel que expresara disgusto con el
primordialmente entre los nacionalistas
nuevo
poder
era
castigado
con
que apoyaban la sublevación de Franco
ejecuciones, encarcelamientos, tortura u
y de los republicanos que exigían la con-
ostracismo. Sin embargo, se podría decir
tinuación del gobierno legítimo de la
que las dobles perdedoras fueron las
Segunda República. El grupo de los re-
mujeres ya que, los ideales de igualdad
publicanos estaba compuesto por traba-
entre los sexos introducidos durante la
jadores, liberales progresistas y secularis-
Segunda República fueron erradicados y
tas—cuyos principios provenían primor-
las mujeres sometidas y reeducadas.
dialmente de la Ilustración Francesa—
Cuando comenzó la República
que buscaban asimilarse al resto de la
había un gran índice de analfabetismo y
Europa industrializada para lograr el
desnutrición. Una de sus principales
beneficio social. De acuerdo a ellos,
misiones fue diseñar un proyecto educa-
perder la guerra significaría dar paso al
tivo con un modelo público, obligato-
asentamiento del fascismo y con sus ide-
rio, sin cargo y laico. Este modelo
ales tradicionales regresaría la suprema-
también incluyó la coeducación sin
cía de la Iglesia católica. Los nacionalis-
hacer distinciones de aspectos económi-
tas representaban la tradición y el deseo
cos y sociales. La coeducación tuvo un
de retornar a los grandes tiempos de la
gran impacto en la mujer ya que, ante-
España imperial, en los que los privi-
riormente, las mujeres se encontraban
legios monárquicos y clericales fueran
en tremenda desventaja, dado que a las
conservados bajo un orden social jerár-
niñas se les enseñaba a ser “ángeles del
quico. Por ello, sus principales colabo-
hogar” con la meta de convertirlas en
radores fueron la Iglesia católica, las
esposas y madres. La República creía
elites industriales y agrarias, al igual que
que la educación mixta era esencial para
la aristocracia y los sectores militares.
el respeto entre los sexos y para el desar-
La Guerra Civil terminó en 1939
rollo ético y cívico de la sociedad (Mar-
con el triunfo de Franco y los nacional-
tínez Ten et al. 2011, 14). Otro de los
istas y con ello, comenzaron 36 años de
logros para las mujeres fue el sufragio
dictadura dirigidos por Franco. Durante
universal (por el cual votaron por pri-
la dictadura se reintrodujo el poder de
mera vez en 1933), el derecho al aborto,
la iglesia y una nueva lucha se inició: la
y el divorcio. Son estas y muchas más,
erradicación completa de toda ideología
las libertades que la mujer republicana
que se opusiera al nuevo régimen. Todo
se rehusaba a perder. 61
Francisco
Franco
Fa-
les falta el talento creador reservado por
lange[1]fueron apoyados por la Iglesia
Dios para inteligencias varoniles; no-
católica para regresar a la mujer a donde
sotras no podemos hacer nada más que
“pertenecía” por naturaleza (Fernández
interpretar, mejor o peor, lo que los
García 2012, 334). Se forzó a las mujeres
hombres nos dan hecho” y “la vida de
a ocupar un papel subalterno, bajo las
toda mujer, a pesar de cuanto ella quiera
órdenes de los varones, procedente de
simular—o disimular—no es más que un
una
antiguos
eterno deseo de encontrar a quien som-
prejuicios católicos y reforzados por un
eterse” (Fernández García 2012, 340,
nacionalismo conservador (Ortiz Heras
342). Si bien antes las mujeres estaban
2006, 4). Sus vidas eran solamente
sometidas a prejuicios de ignorancia e
reconocidas como madres, esposas y
inferioridad, la Sección Femenina que-
hermanas de algún individuo del sexo
brantó cualquier inspiración que no
masculino. A no ser por la maternidad,
fuese el papel de tapete de varones. Esos
y por la habilidad de satisfacer los
ideales de superioridad masculina son
placeres carnales de los hombres, las
los que dieron lugar a los abusos de mu-
mujeres no habrían sido consideradas en
jeres a partir de la derrota de la
absoluto. Los estudios del psicólogo An-
República, especialmente de aquellas
tonio Vallejo Nájera contribuyeron a
que se atrevieron a luchar por el
crear este ideal de inferioridad del sexo
derecho de autonomía e igualdad.
predisposición
de
y
la
femenino (Leggot 2018, 133). Según sus
La mujer perdió más que la
estudios, la mujer tenía una naturaleza
guerra. Al ser derrotada la República,
pecaminosa que la sometía al peligro de
con ella no solo se esfumaron los
caer bajo el hechizo de las ideologías de
avances que las mujeres habían logrado,
izquierdas, como la comunista. Dado
sino que también fueron sometidas a
que a la mujer se le asignó la tarea de
ideales de sacrificio, subordinación y to-
educar a los hijos, es por medio de ella
tal obediencia, con los que se le negó a
que la difusión de ideologías “contam-
la mujer el desarrollo como persona
inantes” en generaciones futuras nece-
(Pinilla García 2006, 165). A la mujer se
sitaba ser eliminada. Para adoctrinar a la
le forzó a vestir, pensar y actuar de
mujer en ideas nacionalistas se creó la
acuerdo a los ideales masculinos. No se
Sección Femenina, al frente de la cual se
le permitía opinar y mucho menos par-
encontraba Pilar Primo de Rivera. Según
ticipar en la política. Se le sometió a un
ella “las mujeres nunca descubren nada,
papel de sumisa con el simple propósito 62
de procrear y facilitar la vida de varones.
denunciar la victimización de estas mu-
Todas
direc-
jeres, sino que además rechaza caer en
tamente la aplicación de estos pensam-
un retrato debilitador de la mujer; en la
ientos, pero la violencia fue más im-
película se destaca su espíritu em-
pactante con aquellas que tuvieron vín-
poderado. La técnica cinematográfica
culos con ideologías de izquierda, con
logra
métodos de tortura, violación y despojo
represión, miedo y pobreza. En la esce-
de la dignidad. Se les señalaba como
nas carcelarias en particular predominan
mujeres poseedoras del gen rojo—un
las escenas nocturnas, la iluminación es
término dentro de los estudios de Val-
tenebrista y los colores predominantes,
lejo Nájera donde se afirma que, a partir
fríos. Los planos generales sirven para
de sus “estudios”, encontró que los in-
mostrar el hacinamiento en el que vivían
dividuos de la izquierda eran sujetos in-
las presas—Leggot menciona cómo en la
adaptados que, al no conseguir sus as-
cárcel de las Ventas, con una capacidad
piraciones y sentirse inferiores, cultiva-
para quinientas presas, habitaban casi
ban el rencor, la perversión y la
once mil mujeres (2018, 132). Al es-
venganza en todos sus aspectos, dando
pectador no se le escapan los constantes
lugar a una mayor criminalidad y a revo-
encuadres en contrapicado que mues-
luciones, con las que facilitaban el con-
tran la ventana con rejas situada en lo
tagio del marxismo.Entre los métodos
alto, que es la única fuente de luz y
de tortura se encontraban la electro-
único contacto con el exterior, enfati-
cución de pechos y otras partes íntimas.
zando lo desolador de la situación en la
La humillación se realizaba por medio
que se encontraban las presas. A través
de rapaduras públicas que tenían dos
de esa ventana las presas escuchan los
propósitos: marcar a las “traidoras” re-
disparos de los pelotones de fusila-
publicanas y despojar a las mujeres de su
miento.
las
mujeres
sufrieron
transmitir
ese
ambiente
de
feminidad misma por atreverse a ser más
Si bien la película enfatiza, de esta
que un cuerpo sometido a la voluntad
forma, la victimización de estas mujeres,
del franquismo.
también ofrece su contrapartida, su re-
Hay muchas pruebas del abuso
sistencia. Muchas de las escenas de tor-
físico cometido contra las mujeres du-
tura se omiten gráficamente y solo asisti-
rante la dictadura, pero hasta hace poco
mos a la actitud triunfante de las muje-
no se hablaba sobre ello. La voz dormi-
res a pesar de que los efectos de la tor-
dano solo expone estos actos por
tura sí son visibles en forma de golpes y 63
la rapadura de cabellera. Por ejemplo, el
(Corbalán 2013, 242). Estas mujeres se
personaje de una de las presas, Sole, es
convierten en una hermandad que se
representado por una mujer que con-
niega a ser victimizada y, por ello, co-
tinúa la lucha, no solo por medio de la
lectivamente
resistencia, sino de la transferencia de
ional[2]para despedir dignamente a sus
información con los republicanos desde
compatriotas, darles fuerza en momen-
la celda de prisión. Otras películas cen-
tos de incertidumbre y honrar la injusta
tradas en la represión de la mujer en esta
muerte que el régimen les ha impuesto.
época—por ejemplo, De tu ventana a la
Hortensia y las presas son la encarnación
mía(Ortiz
explícita-
misma de una familia adoptiva, de una
mente las rapaduras de cabellera, por las
convivencia comunitaria, cuyo espíritu
cuales los franquistas sometían y escar-
‘sirve para denunciar la represión dicta-
mentaban a las mujeres. La vozdormi-
torial y la violencia ejercida contra estos
daopta por exponer esta violencia de gé-
cuerpos femeninos insurgentes’ (Cor-
nero de una manera novedosa. Es decir,
balán 2013, 250).
2011)—muestran
cantan
la
Internac-
no muestra cuando Sole es rapada como
En el film se puede observar no
castigo por filtrar información a los re-
solamente el desprecio que las mujeres
publicanos, la escena que seguramente
poseedoras del gen rojo recibían, sino
la colocaría en una posición de víctima
que también se expone la íntima rela-
desvalida. En su lugar, el espectador
ción que la Iglesia católica tenía con el
reconoce lo acontecido cuando regresa
régimen franquista. La presencia de
en escena con golpes en la cara y su ca-
servidores religiosos en las cárceles, es-
bellera
al
pecialmente la de monjas, era constante.
encuadre cojeando, pero triunfando.
Apoyando a la dictadura, la iglesia
Sus compañeras se compadecen y la
formó parte del sector carcelario para
quieren ayudar, pero ella las detiene y se
castigar a los derrotados, tratar de indoc-
rehúsa a mostrar debilidad frente a sus
trinarlos y para asegurarse que el gen
opresoras, las guardias de la cárcel
rojo no fuera expandido. Muchas muje-
presentes. Sole utiliza lo único que
res que combatieron al lado de la
tiene, su cuerpo, como una fuente de
República que se encontraban en estado
resistencia. La sororidad entre las presas
de embarazo no pudieron oponerse a
de las Ventas “reta a la autoridad, cues-
que sus hijos o hijas fueran bautizados
tionando el orden social y moral del
en la fe católica o que fueran entregados
aparato
a
rapada.
represivo
Además,
de
la
llega
prisión”
familias
franquistas.
La
película 64
denuncia este apoyo que la iglesia of-
de ellas, por ejemplo, se enferma, todas
reció al regimen caracterizando a los y
juntan las secas naranjas que les dan de
las religiosas como personas autoritarias
postre para exprimir el poco zumo den-
y sin un ápice de compasión. Por ejem-
tro de la boca de su camarada. En un
plo, cuando Hortensia se niega a que el
ambiente donde todas necesitan, las pre-
cura bautice a su hija, este le responde:
sas sacrifican lo poco que tienen para el
“Está bien; nos veremos delante del
beneficio mutuo. Su sororidad se de-
pelotón de fusilamiento.” Hortensia ha
muestra de manera activa en todos los
implorado constatemente a Pepita que
aspectos de la vida cotidiana: se apoyan
no permita ni su bautizo ni su abduc-
moralmente, leen juntas las pocas cartas
ción por su pavor de que su hija fuera
que les llegan, etc. Irónicamente es den-
entregada a tal suerte. En otra ocasión,
tro de las Ventas que las mujeres
después de negarse a comulgar, a las
analfabetas por fin tienen la oportunidad
presas se les reprimenda y se les exige
de educarse. A Hortensia le enseñó
besar el pie de una figura del niño Jesús
Paulino a leer y ella pasa los conoci-
como castigo. Algunas de las presas se
mientos a las otras, utilizando de esta
rebelan y por ello reciben bofetadas e
manera el aislamiento de la prisión
insultos. Hortensia no es creyente, lo
como un escalón hacia su propio mejo-
cual es conocido por sus hermanas de
ramiento y resistencia, ya que Hortensia
prisión, y temerosa dice que no podrá
y otras presas después se rehúsan a fir-
besar al muñeco. Por lo cual Tomasa,
mar su condena sin primero leer el doc-
una reclusa con mucha integridad y or-
umento, lo cual demuestra su agencia y
gullo, rescata a Hortensia y a las demás,
orgullo.
sacrificándose a sí misma con tal de
La violencia física no fue ejercida
oponerse a la injusta autoridad, y por
exclusivamente en las prisiones y la
defender los principios de sus aliadas.
película lo refleja utilizando al personaje
De esta manera, Tomasa no permite que
de Pepita, mostrada como una mujer in-
sus colegas se arriesguen a recibir los
ocente, bondadosa y piadosa que desde
maltratos físicos y psicológicos de las
el principio está expuesta al peligro, mas
guardias, en especial Hortensia, ya que
no por decisión propia, sino por ayudar
está embarazada.
a su hermana. Ella misma desconfía de
En
la
película
vemos
otras
su fortaleza y le suplica a su hermana
muchas instancias en las que las prision-
que no la involucre, porque ‘no tiene
eras se cuidan unas a otras. Cuando una
sangre para esas cosas, si me coge la 65
policía, yo lo digo todo.’ Su personaje
mujeres eran, y continúan siendo, alta-
da un giro por completo cuando se en-
mente sexualizados y cosificados. Estos
tera que su cuñado fue herido de bala.
mismos son un símbolo del placer sex-
Desde ese momento, ella se llena de una
ual de la mujer, el cual era considerado
fortaleza protectora y una lealtad que
un pecado, dado que el placer carnal y
define a su personaje. La capacidad de
los cuerpos de las mujeres eran propie-
resistencia de Pepita culmina durante la
dad de los hombres. Con la tortura de
escena de su tortura. A pesar de que la
pezones se despoja a la mujer de su
golpean, desnudan y electrocutan los
dignidad, autonomía sobre su cuerpo y
pezones con fines de sacarle infor-
se le somete a la opresión. Por otra
mación sobre su novio y su cuñado,
parte, dado que por medio de los pe-
Pepita se mantiene fuerte para proteger
zones los seres humanos se alimentan al
a los suyos.La voz dormidaexpone a una
nacer, la tortura de los pechos amenaza
mujer cuya resistencia se amplifica cu-
y oprime la maternidad misma de las
ando siente que debe proteger a otros.
mujeres. Con la destrucción de los pe-
Este paralelismo entre las dos hermanas
zones, se elimina la habilidad de mujeres
es acentuado en las escenas en las que
sospechosas de poseer el gen rojo—el
Pepita visita a Hortensia en la cárcel en
cual las hacía vulnerables a ideologías
las que los planos-contraplanos las po-
contaminantes— de amamantar a sus hi-
nen al mismo nivel diegético. Es muy
jos. De esta manera, y de forma sim-
típico de las películas mostrar a las mu-
bólica, se evita la existencia de futuras
jeres incapaces de soportar adversidades
generaciones corrompidas. Este último
sin la intercesión masculina. Pero Pepita
punto me lleva al tema de la fortaleza y
no es rescatada ni por su novio, ni por
determinación de Tensi de continuar la
su
mismos
lucha de sus padres. Ella misma repre-
presentes y siendo testigos de su cal-
senta la voz que había estado dormida,
vario. A la mujer se le otorga, novedos-
mas ahora despierta con el fin de poner
amente, un papel de resistencia en su
en manifiesto las vidas de las personas
más elaborado contexto; en la escena
que por tanto tiempo fueron reprimidas,
que Pepita comparte con otros per-
silenciadas y forzadas al olvido.
cuñado,
estando
ellos
sonajes masculinos es ella la que personifica la fortaleza. más
Generalmente,
los
hijos
que
crecieron durante la dictadura vivían en
Pero la tortura de Pepita requiere
el silencio; en las familias, sobre todo
escrutinio. Los pechos de las
donde
había
miembros
del
bando 66
vencido, no se hablaba de nada que
perdedores y las perdedoras de la guerra
hubiera pasado durante la guerra. Tensi,
al olvido. No fue hasta comienzos del
sin embargo, es consciente de la lucha
siglo XXI que voces cada vez más nu-
de sus padres y ella misma se propone
merosas comenzaron a elevarse para re-
continuarla (Lu 2014, 127). Los textos
cuperar esta memoria (y no fue hasta el
que Hortensia deja como testimonio
2007 que se formuló una Ley de la Me-
para su hija la inspiran a continuar con
moria Histórica en España).
la causa que sus padres habían comen-
Parece haber consenso cuando se
zado. Después de leer los cuadernos,
dice que la historia es escrita por los
Tensi dice que lo primero que hará es
vencedores, y que los testimonio de los
encontrar los restos del cuerpo de su pa-
vencidos son típicamente borrados y
dre para poder unirlos con los de su ma-
más aún si estos son mujeres. Es por esto
dre. La hija de Hortensia aparece al final
que la novela de Dulce Chacón y, más
de la película en forma de voz en off
adelante, la adaptación de Benito Zam-
para relatar brevemente los aconteci-
brano, llegaron en un momento en el
mientos después de la muerte de su ma-
que se impulsó la existencia de otras
dre, evitando, de esta manera, que se
obras que narraban la versión de las vo-
borren de la historia. El libro de Dulce
ces reprimidas de las mujeres republi-
Chacón fue pionero en este sentido y se
canas. La voz dormidademuestra la im-
podría decir que su novela participó y
portancia de la historia de las mujeres
contribuyó, en su medida, a un mo-
republicanas y puntualiza su carácter
vimiento de gran magnitud al despertar
fuerte y combativo. El homenaje que el
aquellas voces que habían estado dormi-
director hace a estas mujeres se manifi-
das para ‘recuperar la memoria de
esta en la forma en la que la repre-
aquellos que no han tenido el derecho
sentación no las victimiza y convierte en
de expresar sus propios recuerdos y, de
desvalidas. Al contrario, a la mujer se la
este modo, recuperar la memoria histó-
escenifica en su latente resistencia, por
rica’ (Chacón 2003). Este asunto ha sido
medio de una sororidad entre presas,
particularmente controvertido en la so-
una fortaleza protectora y una voz que
ciedad española de finales del siglo XX
finalmente despierta para alentar a
y XXI, de forma que la recuperación de
aquellos que no se les permitió por tanto
la memoria histórica se ha convertido en
tiempo el derecho de narrar su testimo-
una especie de lucha y resistencia contra
nio para finalmente liberarse y contar su
quienes quieren reducir la historia de los
versión de los hecho 67
CITAS Chacón, Dulce. La voz dormida, Madrid, Santillana, 2002. Chacón, Dulce. Entrevista con Antonio José Domínguez. “Entrevista con Dulce Chacón. Rebelión, 2003, https://www.rebelion.org/hemeroteca/cultura/dulce230303.htm. Último acceso 26 de abril, 2018). Corbalán, Ana. “Cuerpos femeninos de resistencia en la prisión: Mirada fílmica de Azucena Rodríguez y Belén Macías.” Gynocine:Teoría de género, filmología y praxis cinematográfica. Ed. Barbara Zecchi, 2013, pp. 241-255. Zaragoza: Prensas de la Universidad de Zaragoza, Amherst: U of Massachusetts Press. Fernández García, Sandra. "Muertas en vida. Investigación sobre la represión dada a las mujeres en la postguerra española en Ciudad Real." Revista de Antropología Iberoamericana, vol. 7, no. 3, 2012, pp. 327-360. La voz dormida. Dir. Benito Zambrano. Audiovisual Aval SGR. 2011. DVD. Leggott, Sarah. “Narrative Representations of Gendered Violence and Women’s resistance in Francoist Spain.” Gender and Violence in Spanish
68
Culture. Eds. Gámez Fuentes and Maseda García. Bern Switzerland: Peter Lang US., 2018, pp. 129-135. Lu, Yun. “Despertar la voz dormida de las vencidas. Análisis sobre la narradora singular y protagonistas plurales en La voz dormida de Dulce Chacón.” Revista Historia Autónoma, 5, 2014, pp. 119-132. Martínez Ten, Luz, Peryrot Marcos, Beatriz, Sánchez de Madariaga, Elena.Las maestras de le República.Sindicadas.es, 2011, http://www.lasmaestrasdelarepublica.com/downloads/UnidadDidacticaLasMaestras.pdf?article2843. Último acceso 26 de abril de 2018. Milquet, Sophie. "Escribir el trauma en femenino: las obras de Agustín Gómez-Arcos y Dulce Chacón." Bulletin of Spanish Studies: Hispanic Studies and Researches on Spain, Portugal, and Latin America, vol. 89, no. 7-8, 2012, pp. 109-121. Ortiz, Paula, dir. “De tu ventana a la mía,”2011. Ortiz Heras, Manuel. “Mujer y dictadura franquista.” Aposta, no. 28, 2006, http://www.apostadigital.com/revistav3/hemeroteca/ortizheras.pdf. Último acceso 23 de enero de 2019. Picornell-Belenguer, Mercé. “La voz dormida, la voz presente. Notas sobre la inscripción de la identidad de las mujeres represaliadas por el franquismo en “La voz dormida” de Dulce Chacón.” Letras Femeninas, vol. 32, no. 2, 2006, pp. 117-143.
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Pinilla García, Alfonso. “La mujer en la posguerra franquista a través de la Revista Medina” (1940-1945). Arenal, vol. 13, no 1, 2006, pp. 153-179. Zambrano, Benito, dir. “La voz dormida,” 2011. [1] La Falange fue un grupo político fundado por José Primo de Rivera en 1933 y que sostenía principios ideológicos similares a los del fascismo. [2] La Internacional es el himno más famoso del movimiento obrero, escrito por Eugéne Pottier en 1871.
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