Apollon eJournal - Issue IX - 2019

Apollon

ISSUE IX

2019

UNDERGRADUATE DIGITAL JOURNAL FOR THE HUMANITIES AT FAIRFIELD UNIVERSITY

OUR MISSION At Apollon, we strive to publish superior examples of undergraduate humanities research from a variety of disciplines as well as intellectual approaches.

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CONTENT “The Matter of the Mind in Mrs. Dalloway: How Woolf Reveals Gender Performativity Before Butler Reveals the Term”

by Nicole Renna

pages 3-15 “Social Media and the Power to Effect Change: The Impact of the Digital Landscape on Achieving Equity Within Art Museum Leadership and Visitorship”

by Olivia Melendez

pages 16-46 “Socially Unfit or Unfit Society?: Identifying Monstrosity in Medieval Scandinavian Literature”

by Ryan Kamkar

pages 47-57 “Tres representaciones de sororidad y resistencia femeninas en la postguerra española en La voz dormida de Benito Zambrano”

by Perla Jazmin Richerson

pages 58-70

2

“The Matter of the Mind in Mrs. Dalloway: How Woolf Reveals Gender Performativity Before Butler Reveals the Term”

by Nicole Renna

3

Introduction

producing an entirely authentic perfor-

Judith Butler, in her work “Gender

mance of life (rather than a parody) in

Trouble,” insists a need for a radial phil-

Mrs. Dalloway, its subversion of all con-

osophical movement towards the un-

ventions makes the consequential sub-

derstanding that gendered experience is

version of gender norms and binaries

internalized due to compulsory gender

completely logical. In considering the

actions and conventions, which pursue

major points of gender performativity

a completely derived and ultimately

outlined in Butler’s work, and then ex-

unachievable ideal. Yet, despite such a

ploring the concept of internal versus

claim, and ample discussion on how

performative identity in Mrs. Dalloway,

harmful and limiting this gendered ex-

this paper aims to indicate Woolf’s work

perience is, she introduces no solution

as the gender performance that Butler

for revealing or disrupting such gender

demanded, despite its predating Butler’s

performativity; though the comedic per-

gender theory, in the following way:

formance of drag is a promising compo-

Woolf, in Mrs. Dalloway, articulates the

nent in pushing the boundaries of gen-

simple truth of internal ambiguity in ex-

der norms in how it exposes the absurd-

perience, so that when those ideas apply

ity of idealized, distinct genders, Butler

to gender, and trickle in through the

asserts that it is hardly sufficient in

novel’s syntax and imagery, they are suf-

prompting a radical rethinking of such

ficient performance to reveal the discur-

norms because of its dependence on

siveness of gender, and essentially all

context, reception, and successful sub-

other conventions.

version of conventions. Butler wonders-and prompts her readers to wonder about--what other sort of performance

Mind over Matter: Gendering Performa-

could surge such a radical philosophical

tivity in Theory of Butler and Woolf

movement.

In “From Interiority to Gender Perfor-

Ironically, before Butler won-

mance,” from Judith Butler’s Gender

dered such things, before Butler’s gen-

Trouble, Butler proposes some major

der theories and her terms of gender

points about gender theory by consider-

performativity were even proposed, this

ing “the surface politics of the body” in

performance, and demonstration of

the context of gender identity (Butler

gender performativity, was, by Virginia

2547-2548). In distinguishing between

Woolf,

the

already

achieved.

Through

internality

and

externality

of 4

experience, she concludes that the ex-

recognizes that this comic disruption,

ternality of identity--such as “acts, ges-

entirely dependent on context, recep-

tures, enactments”--which can be un-

tion, and successfully imbuement of

derstood as a performance of identity,

what Butler calls “subversive confu-

when gendered, can be understood as a

sion,” is not sufficient in achieving a

gendered version of this performance.

necessary radical reappraisal of gender.

In other words, these “acts and ges-

Naturally, Butler then questions what

tures” are illusory representations of

performance would be sufficient to re-

some gendered “interiority or gendered

veal that rethinking. Specifically, she

core,” which is maintained by the “ob-

asks:

ligatory frame of reproductive heterosexuality,” and so is entirely discursive

“What performance where will invert

(2548-2549). In other words, our inter-

the inner/outer distinction and compel

nal consciousness is not, by nature, gen-

a radical rethinking of the psychological

dered; it is only through the external

presuppositions of gender identity and

cues obtained in human socialization,

sexuality? What performance where will

that we come to understand certain ide-

compel a reconsideration of the place

ological and personal qualities as gen-

and stability of the masculine and the

dered, and then adapt our behavior and

feminine? And what kind of gender per-

external persona accordingly to those

formance will enact and reveal the per-

molds. Butler asserts, then, that “if the

formativity of gender itself in a way that

inner truth of gender is a fabrication and

destabilizes the naturalized categories of

if true gender is a fantasy instituted and

identity and desire” (2551).

inscribed on the surface of bodies, then it seems that genders can be neither true

Yet, if one considers the majority of But-

nor false, but are only produced as the

ler’s assertions in the context of the

true effects of primary and stable iden-

work of Virginia Woolf, one finds that

tity” (2549).

her novels, especially Mrs. Dalloway,

Explaining how gender perfor-

although published in years previous to

mances, such like drag and cross-dress-

Butler’s work, can be read as that very

ing, are parodies of this identity, which

place that Butler wondered about.

reveal that the identity that gender fash-

The importance and deliberate

ions itself as some imitation of is with-

sketch of consciousness in Mrs. Dallo-

out

way, and the intention to remove the

origin,

Butler

nevertheless

5

construction of gender from the sketch,

blame for the meagerness of androgy-

is made clear in Woolf’s essay, “Androg-

nous minds, transcendent of the sort of

yny,” in which clear parallels to Butler’s

“fabricated inner truth of gender” But-

points already arise. In the essay, Woolf

ler describes. Woolf blames those that

explains her theory that there exists

brought about “sex-consciousness” for

both a masculine and feminine power in

the lack of androgyny in literature, in-

the minds of all people, yet in men the

sists that “the whole of the mind must

masculine is dominating and in women

lie wide open if we are to get at the

the feminine; she then asserts that “the

sense that the writer is communicating

normal and comfortable state of being is

his experience with perfect fullness,”

that when the two are in harmony to-

and explicitly states it her intention to

gether, spiritually cooperating” as when

do that in her own work (Woolf 904).

their fusion occurs “the mind is fully fer-

Since Woolf contends that she

tilized and uses all its faculties” (Woolf

herself is writing with both these minds,

901). She explains this adept mind, in

and recognizes that the acknowledge-

which this fusion occurs, as the “an-

ment of both minds is severely lacking

drogynous mind,” explaining how it is

in society, it makes sense that Mrs. Dal-

“resonant and porous,” “transmits emo-

loway outlines a clear distinction be-

tion without impediment” and “is natu-

tween the external experience of the

rally creative, incandescent, and undi-

character Clarissa Dalloway and her nat-

vided,” in contrast with “single-sexed”

ural conscious experience. Woolf pro-

minds; these points clearly align with

duces this through significant alterations

Butler’s notion that the “truth” of gen-

of syntax, grammar, and imagery, which

der is completely derived, and therefore

mirror the significant alterations of a

not the full, unrepressed, natural state of

need for gendered identity, between the

the interior mind. (Woolf 901). Moreo-

distinct internal natural state and exter-

ver, in the same way Butler contends

nal contrived one. This distinction,

that a sort of construction of what gen-

then, can be understood as the perfor-

der should be infiltrated the natural in-

mance Butler deems necessary for a

teriority of the mind to produce a “fab-

“radical rethinking” of gender, as it is a

ricated inner truth of gender,” Woolf

performance which necessarily inverts

contends that those that brought about

the “inner/outer distinction” of fabri-

“sex-consciousness,” and so the aware-

cated and fantasy gender, reconsiders

ness of discursivity of gender, are to

the “place and stability of the masculine 6

and feminine,” and reveals “the per-

observations about what modern gender

formativity of gender itself” through its

theorists, such as Judith Butler, are very

side by side outline of interior and exte-

preoccupied with: the existence of gen-

rior individual identity and experience

der as a construct of the external social

in an explicit way, rather than in the cir-

order, rather than an innate state of in-

cumventing and paradied way of some-

ternal being.

thing like drag.

The unique subversion of gender norms in Mrs. Dalloway, in contrast

Mind and Matter: Mrs. Dalloway at a

with all that came before it, is the em-

Glance

phasis on perfect internal androgyny

Mrs. Dalloway by Virginia Woolf details

paired with classical and mainstream ex-

a day in the life of the character Clarissa

ternal gendered performance; this insists

Dalloway, a lady of high society in post-

that instances of gendered subversion or

WWI London, as she makes prepara-

androgyny are not occurrences on the

tions for a party she is hosting in the

margins or in the minorities of society--

evening. The limited external plot, a

such as those of drag and/or LGBTQ

radical point of the novel, is an inten-

communities--but rather inherent truths

tional quality of the work, as the novel

to the identities of the full spectrum of

has a deeply interior perspective, travel-

class, wealth, and psyche. Clarissa Dal-

ing forward and back in time and in and

loway, in Mrs. Dalloway, is the image of

out of Clarissa’s and other characters'

a perfectly feminine and mannered Eng-

minds in order to portray an expansive

lish socialite, while her internal experi-

impression of Clarissa's life, mind, and

ence is as muddled, indefinable, and an-

identity in the span of a single day. The

drogynous as Septimus Smith, a men-

novel, allowing such a deep experience

tally-ill and war-traumatized man com-

of Clarissa’s internal experiences, cre-

pletely out of tune with high society.

ates a space of intrigue where the inter-

This allowance for seamless flow in and

nal musings of a high society woman--

out of the minds of different gendered

eternally dominated and restricted by

bodies, by way of their shared, un-

heteronormative social conventions and

bounded human experience as ungen-

patriarchal idealism of female image and

dered and underived persons, allows a

propriety--may be considered at its un-

transcendence from all cultural re-

filtered and unstructured basest. This af-

straints of externality, such as gendered

fords an opportunity to make key

performance, in a much more complex 7

way than a simple subversion of genders

and external performance through syn-

and gendered qualities, such like might

tax, grammar, and imagery. Over the

be seen in a work by Shakespeare. The

course of two pages, if the external rela-

presentation of the characters Clarissa

tions between part of the conversation

Dalloway and Septimus Smith, as exter-

between the characters is isolated, their

nally opposite by societal definitions of

interaction reads as follows:

class, gender, and sanity, but--through Woolf’s unique narrative composition

Clarissa: “‘Well, and what’s happened to

of human consciousness — internally

you?’”

fluid, figurative, and similarly unstructured, allows Woolf to paint a unique

Peter: “‘Millions of things!... I am in

and unprecedented picture of internal

love...In love..’”

sameness by way of a shared internal androgyny among all stations, and per-

Clarissa: “‘In love!’ she said...‘And who

formed identities, in external existence.

is she?’” she asked.

Matter over Mind: Exteriority as the

Peter: “‘A married woman, unfortu-

Performance in Mrs. Dalloway

nately...the wife of a Major in the Indian

Woolf introduces the notion of an outer

Army...She has... two small children; a

performance through the style of her

boy and a girl; and I have come over to

work, which insists that the external pic-

see my lawyers about the divorce (44-

ture of a person in the world is a filtered

45).’”

and spliced version of their internal

In these lines of dialogue, Woolf

truth. This performative role character

uses only declarative syntax, never using

Clarissa

externally,

conditional or figurative language; ques-

where conventions and expectations ex-

tions are posed, and answered immedi-

ist, is mirrored by Woolf’s style in ex-

ately and certainly in the following

pressing Clarissa in the outside world.

lines. Moreover, the phrases are succinct

For example, in conversations, such like

and factual; Peter expresses he is in love,

that when Peter, a previous love interest

that the woman he loves has two kids,

for Clarissa, comes over to speak with

and that he is going to speak to a lawyer

Clarissa while she sews her dress for the

about her divorce in short, direct sen-

party, Woolf draws a clear contrast be-

tences or fragments. This style, syntacti-

tween the style of the internal reality

cally brief and figuratively void, directly

Dalloway

plays

8

communicates the obligatory niceties of

course of these two pages of conversa-

catching up with a person basely. This

tion. While asking Peter her initial ques-

mimics perfectly the world of exterior-

tion of how he had been she is thinking,

ity that Butler insists frames and infil-

“So before a battle begins, the horses

trates our internal experience. In this in-

paw the ground; toss their heads; the

teraction, the fact that after years apart

light shines on their flanks; their necks

the topic of their conversation is heter-

curve. So Peter Walsh and Clarissa, sit-

osexual love, clearly falls thematically

ting side by side on the blue sofa, chal-

into the “obligatory frame of reproduc-

lenged each other,” the symbolic and

tive heterosexuality,” which Butler in-

metaphorical language, presenting the

sists compels our experience. Moreover,

energy and ferociousness of their en-

the fact that the language used to ex-

gagement, outside of the performed ci-

press this topic is direct and to the

vility of conventional interaction. While

point, and not at all representative of

Peter says he is in love, twice, Clarissa

their natural and incensed reaction to

simply parrots the phrase back, yet in-

being around each other, contrasts so

ternally her reaction is expansive be-

profoundly with their internal experi-

yond the two words; she thinks: “That

ence-- be it that Clarissa is over-

he at his age should be sucked under his

whelmed, reactionary, and emotional in

little bow-tie by that monster! And

her internal experience of this conversa-

there’s no flesh on his neck; his hands

tion, and the fact that they both have

are red; and he’s six months older than

very strong feelings for each other, be it

I am! Her eye flashed back to her; but

love, lust, regret, or resentment--makes

in her heart she felt, all the same, he is

the conversation, and her very brief re-

in love. He has that, she felt; he is in

sponses in it, definitely a performance

love (Woolf 45).” While, externally, the

which speaks to the domination of ex-

same simple concept of Peter’s love is

ternal conventional coherence

fixated on, and vocalized explicitly

over

what was internal and natural.

thrice, internally, Clarissa’s mind races

Such concise, clinical language in

through several vague and ambiguous

their relations implies a similar direct-

thoughts, without reiteration or expla-

ness and reductiveness to the society

nation: when Clarissa refers to “that

they operate in, especially when com-

monster!” does she mean the new girl in

pared to the internal expansiveness of

Peter’s life or love itself? What does she

Clarissa’s internal existence over the

mean by “there’s no flesh on his neck?”

9

why is she commenting that his hands

converse internal existence. This world

“are red” or that he is older than her?

is where the bell tower chimes every

What is she feeling when she thinks “he

hour in the chronology of her day,

has that, she felt...” Such external and

where she gets flowers to bring back for

internal distinctions as these character-

a party she is hosting, and where she

ize the interactions of the novel as a

converses explicitly with other charac-

whole, and are only supported more by

ters. The language which she can use in

other trends of external versus internal

it is similarly void of eccentricities, fig-

difference which serve to further frac-

urative language, and expansiveness.

ture the world of fluid and unbound in-

The fact that, through this role, she is,

ternal experience and conventional and

externally, developed to be the perfect

structured external performance.

picture of a female socialite, speaks to

Aside from the ambiguity of the

Butler’s world of gender performativity;

internal, Woolf also produces a lot inter-

she is the epitome of what is expected

nal inconsistency. Reacting further to

of the wife of a wealthy conservative

the knowledge that Peter is in love,

politician such as herself: a well-spoken

Clarissa thinks “all his life long Peter

and well-dressed heterosexual female,

had been fooled like that; first getting

conscious of her role in London high so-

sent down from Oxford; next marrying

ciety (Woolf). In fact, Woolf based the

the girl on the boat going out to India;

character off of a woman in her life who

now the wife of a Major in the Indian

was the proper type of society woman

Army--thank Heaven she had refused to

that Woolf was expected to be, Kitty

marry him!” which completely contra-

Maxse, who was the gentile wife of an

dicts

affluent

earlier

thoughts,

and

future

man

(Taylor).

Explicitly,

thoughts, in which she questions if she

Clarissa and other characters seem to be

made the right choice not marrying

aware of this truth of the external shal-

him--questions which, internally have

lowness and performance. Clarissa is de-

no and need no explicit answer like they

scribed as “the great hostess,” by an old

would in the external.

friend Peter, and reflects on herself,

This stylistic regard for the exter-

thinking, “since her people were courti-

nal versus internal experience is true to

ers once in the time of the Georges, she,

Clarissa Dalloway's experience. Exter-

too, was going that very night to kindle

nally, she exists in the world of conven-

and illuminate; to give her party”

tions and appearances, despite her

(Woolf, 16). In these lines, it is clear that 10

her external identity be it by description

in politics like a man; very dignified,”

of Peter or by familial obligation to

she describes her face as “pointed, dart-

Clarissa, is tied to the performance of

like, definite,” while Peter wields a

party giving. Moreover, she is described

pocket knife, she wields her own phallic

as someone whose “life was a tissue of

objects, needles to mend her dress

vanity and deceit,” by her daughter’s tu-

(Woolf 4, 8, 10, 37, 76, 44).

tor, and thinks of herself, “now this

Her internal experience of the

body she wore...this body, with all its

memories and interactions she has with

capacities, seemed nothing -- nothing at

women are, also, completely opposite to

all;” descriptions such as these assert

everything she experiences and puts

that the body in external life is a fabri-

forth in the world of men. Firstly, her

cation for Clarissa (Woolf 16).

memories of her childhood friend, Sally

Acknowledging this, it makes

Seton, are declared to be ones of “pu-

perfect sense that internally, where

rity” and “integrity” but she never simi-

things are allowed to be fluid, and am-

larly categorized her ones about men,

biguous, and indistinct, gender per-

including ones of her past love with Pe-

formativity would be lost and androg-

ter Walsh and her current husband

yny would follow. Clarissa’s perfor-

Richard

mance of the elitist feminine ideal is

Clarissa first saw Sally she thought:

Dalloway,

as

such.

When

completely void in her internal; in fact, there is a considerable amount of phallic

“‘...if it were now to die ‘twere to be

imagery which marks her abstracted and

most happy.’ That was her feeling -

true self-image, beyond the physical

Othello’s feeling, and she felt it, she was

show, and significant internal mono-

convinced as strongly as Shakespeare

logues which portray feelings of inti-

meant Othello to feel it, all because she

macy towards women beyond any ex-

was coming down to dinner in a white

pressed in the external performative

frock to meet Sally Seton” (36).

world. Clarissa’s internal self-image is described as both masculine and femi-

Furthermore, she remembers a kiss she

nine: on multiple occasions she “stiff-

shared with Sally, when she was but a

ens,” sitting upright, she cuts “like a

girl, as “the most exquisite moment of

knife through everything,” she thinks

her whole life” when “the world might

“if she could have had her life over

have turned upside down! The others

again...she would have been interested

disappeared...she uncovered, or the 11

radiance broke through, the revelation,

she had been given a present wrapped

the religious feeling!” (Woolf 35). Such

up, and told just to keep it, not to look

descriptions contrast starkly with her

at it....(35)”

life as “Mrs. Richard Dalloway” in which she is in a stable and unimpas-

Yet, at the party, as the elitist “Mrs.

sioned marriage, in which “not for a

Richard Dalloway” this moment of flu-

moment did she believe in God,” and

idity, this lapse in “cohesive coherence”

her heterosexual love with Peter Walsh,

and “obligatory frame of reproductive

whom “she had to break up with or they

heterosexuality,” to borrow Butler’s

would have been destroyed, the both of

terms, is completely subverted to exist

them ruined” (Woolf 29). The fluidity

in her external identity. When Clarissa

of her never having to name her love, or

sees Sally again, they stop to greet each

logically determine the sexual implica-

other, as women of their class do at par-

tions of such love in the internal, are

ties, with kisses on the cheek, as is cus-

what allows the impressions to rise and

tomary, and the flowers that are present

fall without consequence; the “exquisite

are those gifted and set in a proper bou-

moment” of her kiss with Sally, after all,

quet from Clarissa’s prominent hus-

simply rises to the surface in the early

band. Moreover, while kissing Sally as

pages of the novel and never explicitly

kids, before conventions and identities

arises again, or is otherwise analyzed.

are formed, the world fell away and they

The closest the special flash of

accessed a perfect intimate connection;

homosexual love between Clarissa and

however when they greet convention-

Sally ever comes to being relived is

ally the physical world is prominent and

when they have their reunion at the

present, from the full rooms, to the

party. The original moment was as fol-

“roar” of conversations, to the “cur-

lows:

tains.” It reads as follows:

“Then came the most exquisite moment

“The lustre had gone out of her. Yet it

of her whole life passing a stone urn

was extraordinary to see her again,

with flowers in it. Sally stopped; picked

older, happier, less lovely. They kissed

a flower; kissed her on the lips. The

each other, first the cheek then that, by

whole world might have turned upside

the drawing-room door, and Clarissa

down! The others disappeared; there she

turned, with Sally’s hand in hers, and

was alone with Sally. And she felt that

saw her rooms full, heard the roar or 12

voices, saw the candlesticks, the blow-

on some of the same ideas of androgyny

ing curtains, and the roses which Rich-

and gender performativity that Woolf

ard had given her (Woolf 171).”

does, in her apt and compelling argu-

The style in Mrs. Dalloway alternating

ment in Gender Trouble, she is not cor-

between factual and direct when pro-

rect to say that a proper example, a clear

ducing the external, and vague and ab-

portrayal, of the existence of gender

stract when producing the internal, per-

performativity and internal androgyny

fectly mimics the notions of interiority

has not yet emerged in such a way to

and exteriority which Butler distin-

revolutionize the subversion of these

guishes between in her argument about

norms. As expressed earlier in this essay,

gender performativity. As such, the mo-

Butler, after evaluating drag perfor-

ments of gender fluidity which inter-

mance as a powerful but insufficient

vene in characters’, such a Clarissa’s in-

mode of exposing the arbitrary and con-

ternal experience, make perfect sense in

trived nature of gender performance,

the performance of that world, and per-

contends the following:

fectly reveal the performative derivation of gender along with all other conven-

“What performance where will invert

tions outside of the natural and internal.

the inner/outer distinction and compel a radical rethinking of the psychological

The Matter of the Mind in Mrs. Dallo-

presuppositions of gender identity and

way: How Woolf Presents Butler’s Gen-

sexuality? What performance where will

der Performativity

compel a reconsideration of the place

A consideration of androgyny and sub-

and stability of the masculine and the

version of gender norms in literature is

feminine? And what kind of gender per-

not novel; however, the expression of

formance will enact and reveal the per-

the internality of human consciousness

formativity of gender itself in a way that

in Mrs. Dalloway which, transcendent

destabilizes the naturalized categories of

and unconstrained, is liberated from the

identity and desire” (2551).

need to perform with respect to such norms of gender in order to expose, im-

Woolf’s work, Mrs. Dalloway, preced-

plicitly, the truth of androgyny and the

ing the work of Butler by years, through

derivativeness of gender associations, is

implicit and narrative means, does all

an unprecedented triumph in literature.

these

things

While Judith Butler touches, explicitly,

Woolf,

in

that

creating

Butler similar

demands. images, 13

syntactical flow, and figurative liberty to

distinct and opposite personhoods, and

be fluid and vague, in both the minds of

therefore experience the world as one or

externally female and male characters,

the other (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

does “invert the inner/outer distinction

1990; Woolf 1922).

and compel a radical rethinking of the psychological presuppositions of gender identity and sexuality;” Woolf, in creating clear distinctions between external and internal identity--and presenting the external world as being the place for constraints, labels, and societal norms of class, gender, and sanity, while the internal is unstable, unconstrained, and removed from all notions of social order--does “compel a reconsideration of the place and stability of the masculine and the feminine” as being entirely subject to the external world. As such, Woolf, in Mrs. Dalloway, is the “ kind of gender performance” that “will enact and reveal the performativity of gender itself in a way that destabilizes the naturalized categories of identity and desire,” because it presents, unequivocally, the existence of all such categories, labels, and impressions as beholden to the external world of identity and desire, not the internal. It makes sense then, that Mrs. Dalloway is described on its back cover as being an “inspired novelistic outline of human consciousness,” as it, implicitly, confronts the falsity of the cultural understanding of gender at the time that man and woman have 14

BIBLIOGRAPHY Butler , Judith. “Gender Trouble.” The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism, by Vincent B. Leitch, W.W. Norton & Co., 2010.

Taylor, David. “The Real Clarissa Dalloway – TheTLS.” TheTLS, The Times Literary Supplement, 16 July 2015, https://www.the-tls.co.uk/articles/public/the-real-clarissa-dalloway/.

Woolf , Virginia. “Androgyny .” The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism, by Vincent B. Leitch, W.W. Norton & Co., 2010.

Woolf, Virginia. Mrs. Dalloway. First ed., Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 1990.

Woolf, Virginia. Writer's Diary: Being Extracts from the Diary of Virginia Woolf. First ed., Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2003.

15

“Social Media and the Power to Effect Change: The Impact of the Digital Landscape on Achieving Equity Within Art Museum Leadership and Visitorship”

by Olivia Melendez

16

Introduction

visitorship, online phenomena have

Art museums in the United States are

demonstrated the ability for social me-

not exempt from the current social and

dia to realize museum diversification in-

political divisiveness of our times. Re-

itiatives. Through social media, those

cent events within the art world have re-

who have otherwise been excluded

vealed a call to action for museums to

from the art world are given a voice to

no longer be neutral institutions, but in-

challenge museums, promote activist in-

stead take a more active role in promot-

itiatives toward equity in the curatorial

ing social justice narratives, being the

field, and change the museum landscape

redistribution of power, influence, and

toward better and equitable representa-

value,1 in order to maintain relevance

tions, making museum spaces more ac-

within society and resolve a historic lack

cessible overall. Diversification within

of diversity. Controversies in the United

leadership and visitorship in American

States surrounding new curatorial hires,

art museums, therefore, can be actual-

discourse on representation, and shock-

ized through the utilization of the digi-

ing studies which reveal a lack of people

tal landscape.

of color visiting museums all demonstrate an immediate need for diversity

Visitorship: Demographics & Theories

initiatives. At the same time, barriers

Recent studies conducted by the Amer-

within the physical museum space and

ican Alliance of Museums (AAM) reveal

educational tracks further inhibit people

that “by 2033 people of color would

of color from proliferating as visitors

make up forty six percent of the coun-

and in obtaining curatorial leadership

try’s population, and yet they would still

roles. This call to action has resulted in

represent only nine percent of muse-

a reimagining of museums, their prac-

ums’ core visitors.”2 This projection re-

tices, and the roles of curators in order

veals that despite society itself becoming

to better serve the needs of an increas-

more incredibly diverse, and museums

ingly diverse society. Museums have

having an obligation to fulfill cultural

identified these systemic issues regard-

and societal demands, they are still ca-

ing diversity, however, no initiatives

tering to a traditionally white audience

have been able to successfully solve the

and putting their own relevancy as insti-

problem.

recently,

tutions at risk.3 White audiences cur-

where museums have historically strug-

rently account for the majority of art

gled to diversify their leadership and

museum visitors in the U.S. However,

However,

most

17

this is not because of a lack of interest

reveals how addressing representations

in museum going among minority

of people of color, or lack thereof, can

groups. For example, the National Mu-

benefit museum patronage greatly.

seum of African American History and

The National Endowment for the

Culture has seen unprecedented visitor

Arts (NEA) 2008 Survey of Public Par-

numbers, participation, and time spent

ticipation in the Arts revealed that non-

within the museum since opening its

hispanic white Americans made up 78.9

doors in 2016. Beginning with a well-

percent of art museum visitors, while ac-

planned social media strategy in 2012,

counting for just 68.7 percent of the

the museum targeted online audiences

U.S. population.8 Thus, display that

through Facebook lead-ads, and thereby

white visitors are overrepresented in to-

attributes much of their success upon

tal visitorship. Visitors identifying as

opening to their commitment to target-

Hispanic made up 8.6 percent of mu-

ing visitors online before they reached

seum visitors, and account for 13.5 per-

the front doors.4 As a result of their rig-

cent of the total U.S. population. While

orous Facebook outreach, the museum

visitors identifying as African American

sold

tickets

makeup 5.9 percent of total visitors and

within an hour, and tickets were com-

11.4 percent of the country's population,

pletely sold out through the end of

revealing minority backgrounds were

2016.5 Visitors could be seen waiting

underrepresented respectively. In at-

outside as early as three a.m. with the

tempting to find cultural and social rea-

hope of securing a ticket,6 demonstrat-

sons behind these shocking and prob-

ing the desire for representation of the

lematic numbers, the survey attributes

African American narrative within his-

“historically-grounded cultural barriers

tory museums, despite low visitor rates

to participation that make museums feel

from this demographic within the arts.

intimidating and exclusionary to many

These staggering visitor and desirability

people”. It also goes on to state that:

rates, combined with the visitor stay pe-

“the lack of specialized knowledge and

riod of upwards of six hours (compared

a cultivated aesthetic taste (‘cultural cap-

to the forty-five-minute dwell time most

ital’) to understand and appreciate what

museums retain visitors for)7 show a de-

are perceived by many as elite art forms,

sire for the inclusion of narratives of

especially in art museums”9 contribute

people of color that are mostly missing

to the lack of minority representation

within art museums. It additionally

within visitorship.

out

opening weekend

18

Such historically-grounded cultural

presentation as revered but not neces-

barriers resulting in intimidation and

sarily comfortable icons”12 to attract

exclusion are evident in what museum

those audiences historically reluctant to

consultant and theorist Elaine Heumann

cross the threshold. Beyond a museum’s

Gurian terms ‘threshold fear’. Threshold

architecture, buildings must also be ge-

fear is the idea that there are both phys-

ographically convenient in order to

ical and programmatic barriers causing

achieve equity. Museums should “either

difficulty for people of color to initiate

incorporate or [be] adjacent to public

the museum experience. Once a term

transport”13 to be most successful. Addi-

used in the field of psychology, Gurian

tionally, as “mixed-use spaces providing

re-appropriates it to express the felt con-

exhibitions, programmes, restaurants

straints impeding individuals from en-

and cafes, shopping, and party spaces

tering the museum space. Physically, a

under one roof”14 museums would ap-

museum’s location and architecture

peal to a broader population and cause

heavily influence who enters and inter-

art museums to become less of tourist

acts with the space. When museums

destinations, which Gurian believes at-

have large, sophisticated architecture,

tracts traditional audiences, and more

they attract the “typical affluent edu-

integrated into their respective commu-

cated museum-goer who is much im-

nities.

pressed with the current architectural emphasis

of

museum

As civic spaces, museums close

buildings.”10

themselves off from the public in curi-

While recent architectural projects for

ous ways. In addition to physical barri-

cultural buildings favor ultra-modern,

ers, Gurian also attributes threshold fear

sophisticated, and structurally elaborate

to more latent barriers that go beyond

buildings to house their collections,

getting audiences through the door.

such as the Broad contemporary art mu-

Anxieties arise when one must enter the

seum in Los Angeles, they can intimi-

museum space and reveal personal in-

date visitors and foster a sense of exclu-

formation about themselves among a

sion. Museums should be “interested in

majority population of white visitors.

hospitable and less intimidating spaces,

Upon entering the space, visitors feel

a plethora of easily locatable human

that they must reveal that they “can af-

amenities, and wayfinding that is under-

ford the price of admission,” “dress and

standable.”11 Rather than “[asserting]

behave superficially in order to be al-

monumentality

lowed to remain in the building,” and

and

make

their

19

“if they visit during weekday hours, as-

of museum culture.”16 As a result, mu-

sumptions will be made that they are on

seums have become cultural symbols of

holiday, unemployed, retired, a student,

a self-serving system in which the upper

or somehow not in the workforce.”15 All

class elite attain the arts education, be-

of these factors contribute to minority

ginning in adolescence at school. Then

visitors’ reluctance to cross the thresh-

going on to fund and work within the

old of the physical museum space. The

arts institutions, making theirs the dom-

presence of security guards, small and

inant voice. The elite become the stew-

centralized entrances, limited hours,

ards of our cultural history through art,

and confusing self-navigation are all as-

giving them license to “dictate the val-

pects of the museum-going experience

ues of society,”17 despite museums being

that Gurian contributes to being “high

responsible for representing and being

threshold” and anxiety inducing for the

stewards of the cultural heritages’ of all.

unfamiliar visitor. Gurian suggests that

The

disparity

between

the

de-

museums should model themselves after

mographics of museum visitors and ac-

conventional shopping malls in order to

tual diversity within American commu-

better

visitors. This

nities calls into question the relevance

would allow visitors to enter inconspic-

and success of museums as civic spaces.

uously and anonymously through many

The American Alliance of Museums

different entrances with more covert

(AAM) identified “diversity, equity, ac-

surveillance, facilitate easy access to fa-

cessibility, and inclusion in all aspects of

miliar services (i.e. bathrooms) and be-

museums’

come welcoming to large multi-genera-

ming”18 to be issues at the top of their

tional groups in order to encourage so-

priority list in their 2016-20 strategic

cializing.

plan. Following this strategic plan, the

attract

diverse

structure

and

program-

The second attribution to low visitor

AAM assembled a team focused on di-

rates as revealed in the NEA Survey is an

versity, equity, accessibility, and inclu-

issue concerning equity and access to

sion. Over a six month period, the

formal arts education. A lack of a sophis-

teams “examined the characteristics of

ticated arts education begins in most

effective museum inclusion practices

public schools, as “many members of

and considered what steps the field

the middle and working class are denied

could take to promote DEAI.”19 The

an understanding and appreciation of

AAM reported the following assertions

art that would allow them to be a part 20

to be central to promoting DEAI in

#museuminclusion,

to

which

there

every museum:

were over 485,000 Twitter responses.22 While it is evident that underrepre-

1. “Every museum professional must do

sented groups are reluctant to initiate

personal work to face their unconscious

the museum experience in the physical

bias

world, there is a growing online community of people of color who are in-

2. Debate on definitions must not hin-

terested in the art world. They are uti-

der progress

lizing social media platforms to create spaces in which they can view art that is

3. Inclusion is central to the effective-

reflective of their lived experiences,

ness and sustainability of museums

proving their interest in art viewing.

This is an important phenomena that

4. Systemic change is vital to long-term,

museums must pay attention to and in-

genuine progress

corporate within their own spaces.

Twenty-eight-year-old curator Kimberly

5. Empowered, inclusive leadership is

Drew,

Instagram

user

@Muse-

essential at all levels of an organiza-

umMammy and social media manager

tion.”20

for the Metropolitan Museum of Art (MET), works to use social media to

While the report does not practically

connect audiences with contemporary

apply these DEAI initiatives and asser-

black artists, creating an almost living

tions, the group encouraged social me-

and breathing online exhibition of the

dia mobilization of museum profession-

black experience within art. She shares

als to share their responses to the follow-

with her over 233,000 Instagram follow-

ing questions: “What are you most

ers art that works to “[bridge] the gap

proud of in your work on diversity, eq-

between

uity, accessibility, and inclusion? What

voices and museum spaces.”[23]In 2011,

are your greatest obstacles to this work?

Drew launched Black Contemporary

What resources do you need? What does

Art, a blog dedicated to sharing works

success look like for the feld?”21 Profes-

by artists of color aimed at connecting

sionals attending the 2017 AAM confer-

people curious about black art. How-

ence were asked to respond to these

ever, they are incapable to find a cen-

questions

tralized outlet to do so with pieces that

using

the

hashtag

underrepresented

artistic

21

are relevant to their own lived experi-

public resources for a democratic soci-

ences. Drew recognized the need for

ety.”26

representation within museum space, and created an online resource to ac-

Curatorship: Education & Contempo-

complish this. As of 2016, Black Con-

rary Phenomena

temporary Art had over 200,000 active

Curation, always an integral yet for-

followers.24

It is clear, therefore, that

merly behind-the-scenes arts profession,

people of color want to participate in

has recently dominated popular culture

museum-going and art viewing, how-

and permeated the laypersons vernacu-

ever, the lack of representation they feel

lar. Within the profession itself, chal-

within traditional art museums makes

lenges to traditional educational path-

them reluctant to initiate the experi-

ways toward curatorial careers and a

ence. Instead, they have created online

mass marketing of a curatorial education

spaces that are representative of the art

are changing the intellectual landscape

that they wish to see.

of museology as a whole. Additionally,

When

considering

visitor

de-

the field has faced historical issues con-

mographics and the warranted reluc-

cerning a lack of diversity and its rela-

tance of minority visitors to initiate the

tionship with a museums intellectual au-

museum-going experience, the lack of

thority. The realities of pursuing a ca-

diversity and representation of people of

reer in art history and curatorship, being

color is dramatic, problematic, and

the high costs of degrees, small program

deeply concerning. Art museums can-

sizes, necessary unpaid internships and

not function as true civic spaces in ser-

meager salaries, favor the privileged. As

vice of their communities if they do not

a result, the profession tends to attract,

reflect the needs, values, and de-

if not serve entirely, those who are

mographics of the communities in

white and a part of the cultural elite,

which they serve. Therefore, art muse-

perpetuating historic traditions of who

ums within the United States must “seek

museums belong to and, in turn, who

to mirror the country’s demographic

they serve.

transformation and become fully inclu-

In the late nineteenth and twentieth

sive of the interests of their diverse com-

centuries, the idea and practice of exhi-

munities,”25 as this is “critical to the

bitions curated by academically trained

continued vitality of art museums as

art historians became the standard mode and context for viewing art, particular 22

artists, and entire collections. This

connection to art history, and displaying

changed the culture surrounding the

work.27

presentation and context in which art

Curating has developed into a career

was shown, creating the first instances

that requires intense academic and prac-

of what we now consider to be an act of

tical training, elevating the profession to

intellectual authority, which is now par-

be one of the most prestigious and im-

amount to the role of a twenty-first cen-

portant leadership roles within a mu-

tury curator. This intellectual authority

seum’s hierarchical structure. Most high

inherently shapes the way visitors expe-

ranking curatorial positions at medium

rience art within museums and the mes-

to large institutions require a PhD in art

sages they receive, while disseminating

history combined with years of practical

and dictating cultural narratives at large.

experience working in museums and/or

Acting as the caretakers and stewards

galleries, along with extensive contacts

of museum collections, curators are

of artists and other professionals for cre-

charged with the display of a museum’s

ating exhibitions and elevating the sta-

collection, how they should interact

tus of the institution they represent

with one another, how they should in-

overall. Now, however, universities are

teract with the viewer, and how and

changing the academic landscape of the

what the viewer should take from them.

career track in creating entire curatorial

In large institutions, as specialists in a

graduate programs in an effort to pro-

particular medium and period of art, cu-

vide students not only with an art his-

rators acquire, research, educate, and

tory background, but also with business

disseminate information for and to the

and administrative skills. Beyond the

public regarding the works within their

traditional rigorous academic scholar-

care, involving the creation of exhibi-

ship, most notably, and heavily mar-

tion themes and their presentation.

keted, are the networking opportunities

Famed curator Hans Ulrich Obrist, the

these programs promise to provide.

current the director at Serpentine Gal-

Although these new, exciting pro-

leries in London, sees himself as both a

grams have captured the attention of

partner to artists and utmost as a care-

many hopefuls seeking a career in the

taker. He attributes four things espe-

arts, institutions and seasoned curators

cially to successful curatorship: preserva-

in the field are skeptical, if not com-

tion,

pletely doutbful, of such programs.

selection

of

new

work,

a

These two-year curating MA programs 23

“on average... will set one back roughly

programs themselves. Eva Respini, the

$40,000 per academic year”28 in the

chief curator at the ICA Boston, sees cu-

United States, boasting a high cost for

ratorial MA programs as “money-mak-

what many consider to be a pay-for-net-

ing ventures to support PhD pro-

working program, rather than academi-

grams”34 rather than institutions com-

cally challenging intellectual work in

mitted to producing scholars in the field

the study of art history. As reported in

of art history. Their high price and per-

2017, with entry-level curatorial assis-

ceived exclusivity foster negative conno-

tant positions beginning at a meager

tations for many curators who believe a

$42,458 annual salary, assistant curators

strong art history program is key to suc-

positions at $55,999,29 and experienced

cessful curatorship.

art history college graduates reporting

The American Alliance of Museums

an 8.8 percent unemployment rate,30

recognizes diversity, equity, accessibil-

this tuition is largely inaccessible and

ity, and inclusion, with specific respect

unrealistic to many. While the network-

to museum’s internal leadership struc-

ing resources provided by curatorial

ture and influence on the institution’s

programs have helped many young cu-

intellectual authority, as being the most

rators, such as Ruba Katrib of the Sculp-

pressing issues in today’s diverse society.

tureCenter who attended the Bard Cen-

Due to the fact that curating shapes the

ter for Curatorial Studies,31 skyrocket to

shared cultural narrative through how

success post-graduation, most practicing

visitors interact with art and what art

curators assert that “if you want to suc-

they interact with, it is paramount for

ceed as a curator, you must begin with

museums to diversify the voices within

a solid grounding in art history.”32 Many

their curatorial staff to better serve their

professionals agree that technical, ad-

communities. Practices must be reex-

ministrative skills such as “how to write

amined and reimagined within current

an exhibition checklist or a loan agree-

social and political climate in order to

ment”33 are best learned on the job,

preserve the legacy and social function

with classroom time dedicated to under-

of museums as institutions entirely. A

standing the breadth of the art historical

survey conducted in 2015 by Ithaka S+R

canon and developing one’s specializa-

on behalf of the Andrew Mellon Foun-

tion. Skeptics of such programs not only

dation which studied the racial de-

question the academic capabilities of its

mographics of museum employees and

graduates, but also the intentions of the

found that among the aggregate of 24

institutions studied at the leadership

Curatorship has now come to in-

level (defined as Curators, Conservators,

volve activism and acts of social justice

Educators), 84 percent of employees

as society grows more and more diverse

identified as white (non-Hispanic), 3

and cultural needs shift. While recent

percent white (Hispanic), 0 percent

events within the arts have shed light on

American Indian, 6 percent Asian, 4

the need for diversity within the profes-

percent African American, 0 percent

sional world, curators and their exhibi-

Native Hawaiian, and 3 percent as two

tions have been stirring up controversy

or more races.35 These numbers vary

for decades. Curation, in practice, is

among job categories with the most di-

subjective in nature. One must be mind-

versity seen in the security and facilities

ful, cautious, and well-informed when

staffs, while curatorial departments were

creating an exhibition due to the inher-

reported to be approximately 90 per-

ent authoritative voice a curator as-

cent white. From these findings, it ap-

sumes. By deciding which pieces are

pears that more specialized departments

worth showing, which voices within so-

with higher educational requirements

ciety are most important and should be

are predominately white. These num-

given platforms, and judging what is and

bers also vary slightly in consideration of

is not good art, curators are inherently

age and birth year, as “younger em-

charged with creating our cultural artis-

ployee cohorts appear to be somewhat

tic narrative.

more diverse.”36 Among employees

Unsurprisingly, curators have mis-

holding leadership positions born in the

stepped in the process and misrepre-

1930’s, 20 percent accounted for un-

sented or taken an unwarranted voice in

derrepresented minorities while 80 per-

practice. Beginning in the 1960’s and

cent identified as white (non-Hispanic).

70’s, people of color began to challenge

This sector grows slightly more diverse

large institutions’ commitment to repre-

in later decades, as in the 1980’s and 90’s

sentation and their relevance, looking

underrepresented minority groups grew

specifically at well-respected Western

to around 30 percent. Leadership roles,

collections. The infamous “Harlem on

therefore, are slightly more diverse

My Mind: Cultural Capital of Black

among younger generations, however,

America, 1900-1968” exhibition at the

only most recently by a 10 percent mar-

MET in 1969 became a catalyst for this

gin.

and for the accountability of those in roles of cultural stewardship. In this 25

exhibit, photographs of life within the

percent of artists represented by [45

largely African American, Harlem com-

New

munity were exhibited; however, no

white,”38 demonstrating the need for

black artists were represented. It was an

black representation within the art be-

exotification of the lived experiences of

ing shown. The 2017 Whitney Biennial

an already marginalized community,

sparked a major controversy when cura-

and the MET, rather than showcasing

tors chose to display the workOpen Cas-

black artists from Harlem, exhibited

ket by Dana Schutz, a painting based on

large photo murals of an outsider's per-

a famous photograph of Emmett Till, a

spective of Harlem. The exhibit was im-

black boy who was lynched in Missis-

mediately criticized in the press and by

sippi in 1955 for being falsely accused of

the Harlem community for not only be-

accosting a white female. Till’s mother

ing a misrepresentation, but also for be-

chose to have an open casket at her sons

ing a blatant reinforcement of the power

funeral to showcase the brutality of the

structures favoring the white perspec-

racism that existed within America, and

tive within the arts. At the time, the

the subsequent photos of Till’s open cas-

MET’s director, Thomas Hoving, called

ket published by the press became a key

the exhibition an “error in judgement,”

catalyst for the Civil Rights Movement.

but this could not reconcile the deci-

Over 50 years later, this painting of the

sions made by the curator cultivating

famous photograph done by a white, fe-

such a patronizing and ethnocentric

male artist did not sit well with many

show, taking the power away from black

attendees of the Biennial, their main

artists to tell their own stories.

criticism being that the painting ex-

York

City]

galleries

[were]

Although curators have since used

ploited black suffering and that the art-

the MET’s unfortunate exhibit on Har-

ist, not being a member of the black

lem as a cautionary tale, institutions still

community, had no right to comment

continue to repeat the same mistakes

on the event. Unlike “Harlem on My

when it comes to representing people of

Mind”, critics of this event turned to so-

color, both as artists and as subjects

cial media to voice their concerns, and

within art. Since 2008, “2.4 percent of

the event itself soon went viral. The Bi-

all acquisitions and gifts and 7.6 percent

ennial was now on the public’s radar,

of all exhibitions at 30 prominent Amer-

and everyone could have a say in the

ican museums have been of work by Af-

conversation surrounding whether or

rican American artists.”37 In 2016, “80.5

not the painting should continue to be 26

displayed. Once again, the public saw

presentation” in order “to respond to

curators and institutions showcasing and

societal issues”41 through the creation of

giving attention to art that tells a narra-

exhibitions.

tive of the black community from an

The role of curator as activist is a re-

outside perspective. Thus, in favor of

cent phenomenon stemming from both

one that told a patronizing, exotifying,

societal needs and museums no longer

and sensationalizing for the profit and

seeing themselves as neutral institutions.

benefit of another, all while taking op-

Curator and arts writer Maura Reilly

portunities away from real black artists.

sees curatorial activism as being “the

This time, however, their voices could

practice of organizing art exhibitions

not be ignored.

with the principle aim of ensuring that

In consideration of the role of the

certain constituencies of artists are no

curator being one committed to show-

longer ghettoized or excluded from the

ing new artists, one can see how this can

master narratives of art,”. She believes it

prove to be a contentious decision if the

focuses “almost exclusively on work

art itself and the artist’s message does

produced by women, artists of color,

not reflect society's needs. The curator,

non-Euro-Americans, and/or queer art-

therefore, is no longer simply an objec-

ists”42 toward

tive tastemaker. Jamillah James, curator

challenging

at the Institute of Contemporary Art in

erasure, promoting the margins over the

Los Angeles, describes her role as a cu-

center, the minority over the majority,

rator as being more aligned with activ-

as well as positing curatorial “strategies

ism, stating that her, “commitment is

of resistance,” provoking intelligent de-

still very much to giving voice to artists

bate,

of color, women and queer-identified

knowledge, which, in the end, offers up

artists within institutions, and fore-

signs of hope and affirmation.”43 This

grounding their contributions in art his-

new phenomena of curatoratorial activ-

torical discourse.”39 James sees using the

ism both seeks to challenge and repair

“curatorial platform for advocacy and

the prevailing white, Western male

activism”40 as both a responsibility and

viewpoint found in the art historical

an honor that has great influence on so-

canon while uplifting and giving plat-

ciety. James sees potential in playing

forms to those historically underrepre-

“the liaison between the public and art-

sented and marginalized voices.

ists by

way

of interpretation

and

“leveling

hierarchies,

assumptions,

countering

disseminating

new

and 27

Not only must the curator see them-

structural inequality leading to a lack of

self as an activist, but they must be rep-

representation in the professional field.

resentative of the communities in which they serve. In 2017, the Brooklyn Mu-

Social Media & The Digital World: Ac-

seum faced backlash for hiring a white

cess & Equity

female as their new curator of African

Art museums, in recent years, have

art. The activist group Decolonize This

quickly adapted to the social media

Place said in a letter to the museum that

landscape in order to broaden their

the hire “reflects deeper structural flaws

reach and appeal to younger audiences.

within this museum’s culture in partic-

Boasting high follower rates, many large

ular and in the field, more generally.”44

institutions

This incident went “viral” on social me-

methods in order to best utilize social

dia, and created a dialogue among peo-

media. For example, since 2011, the Art

ple of color surrounding the best prac-

Institute of Chicago has experienced a

tices of museums in telling their history

boom in their social media presence, as

and who should have that voice. It

“their Facebook followers jumped to

brought attention to issues of diversity

around 447,000 from 55,000… on Twit-

in the arts at the professional level, and

ter, followers have increased to 159,000

social media activism allowed groups

from 25,000… [and they have] over

who otherwise would not to have a

100,000 Instagram followers.”46 Com-

voice. The largely negative response on

munication, connection, and interac-

social media by museum professionals,

tion with the public has grown im-

visitors, and laypersons alike was not a

mensely through the utilization of social

target at this particular individual, but

media platforms. In larger institutions,

rather at the historic institutional struc-

museums have hired communications

tures which allow for a lack of people of

professionals for social media leadership

color within the profession to assume

roles in which strategic methods are em-

these positions. In an interview with

ployed to capitalize on this social phe-

Newsweek, Steven Nelson, an African

nomenon.

are

employing

strategic

and African American art history profes-

While it is clear that museums strug-

sor at the University of California, Los

gle to promote diversity and an inclu-

Angeles, revealed that “the field of Afri-

sion of voices within their internal lead-

can art history in the U.S. is largely

ership and service of the public, there is

white and

female,”45

demonstrating a

no lack of diversity online and through 28

social media. As online communication

the public. In 2018, seventy-two percent

becomes “democratized,” “the power

of Americans identifying as Hispanic

has been taken from those in marketing

and 69 percent of Americans identifying

and public relations by the individuals

as African American use at least one so-

and communities that create, share, and

cial media site, Facebook and Instagram

consume blogs, tweets, Facebook en-

being the most frequented and popu-

tries, movies, pictures, and so forth…

lated platforms, both of which allow for

communication about brands happens,

free and direct interactions between us-

with or without permission of the firms

ers, including direct messaging, liking

in question.”47 The museum, therefore,

posts and commenting. Urban popula-

no longer holds the solitary authorita-

tions, also largely underrepresented in

tive voice. Their followers dictate the

the physical museum space, account for

content they wish to see and hold direct

the largest geographic and socioeco-

communication with the institution

nomic groups of social media users,

through the digital world. Most re-

with seventy-five percent of the urban

cently, this can be seen in instances of

population using Facebook versus sixty-

museums being held accountable for

seven percent within the suburban sec-

their hiring and exhibition decisions. In

tor.49

consideration of the interplay between

The ways in which people of color

the institution and the public on social

are using social media drastically differ

media, the public at large now has a

from that of the white American popu-

greater stake in museum practices.

lation. A survey conducted by the Pew

Social media has allowed for un-

Research Center reveals that “black so-

derrepresented audiences in particular

cial media users (68 percent) are

to have a voice where they historically

roughly twice as likely as whites (35 per-

have not. Due to the fact that sixty-nine

cent) to say that at least some of the

percent of Americans use at least one so-

posts they see on social networking sites

cial media platform, a drastic increase

are about race or race relations,” and

from five percent in 2005,48 social me-

within their own posting “among black

dia is generally representative of the ac-

social media users, 28 percent say most

tual American population. While people

or some of what they post is about race

of color are largely underrepresented in

or race relations; 8 percent of whites say

the physical museum space, racial equity

the same”. While only “roughly two-

can be seen in social media use among

thirds (67 percent) of whites who use 29

social media say that none of things they

excellent example of the ways in which

post or share pertain to race.”50 People

cultural institutions can use social media

of color are turning to social media as a

to promote inclusion. The museum’s

tool for voicing issues within their com-

sixty-seven-million-year-old

munities, forming bonds, and activism.

saurus rex specimen, Sue, has always

With public and institutional social me-

been a celebrity in their own right due

dia users dramatically increasing in re-

to being the largest specimen of their

cent years, these platforms “have pro-

species ever found. However, in recent

vided new arenas for national conversa-

years Sue has become a personified

tions about race and racial inequality.”51

Twitter phenomenon, perhaps becom-

Platforms such as Twitter and Facebook

ing the first museum artifact turned

have provided online spaces to discuss

online celebrity. Boasting over 47,600

the intersection of race and cultural

followers, her official account uses in-

phenomena. This reveals the relevancy

formal jargon, online humor, and, most

of social media as a space to have open

importantly, activism to appeal to her

and public discussions surrounding ra-

followers. Breaking the traditional ex-

cial inequality to promote social equity,

pectations of formality for official mu-

a tool museums may utilize to help solve

seum press, @SUEtheTrex utilizes gifs,

historical issues of representation within

memes, emojis, and other informal

their collections and practices.

modes of internet humor to inform and

tyranno-

Museums are using social media ac-

educate her followers on topics rooted

counts to directly communicate with

in history and science, demonstrating

and connect to the digital public, estab-

the successful interplay between online

lishing personalized contact between

communication

the institution and individual followers

goals of a museum.

and

the

traditional

and increasing transparency. These ac-

Most notably, Sue is not neutral in

counts can be purely informative in na-

regards to social activism. Sue uses gen-

ture or specified in their voice and ap-

der-neutral pronouns and lists their pre-

proach. Additionally, the social activism

ferred “they/them” in their Twitter bio.

seen on social media has pushed muse-

Named after the scientist that discov-

ums to no longer have a neutral voice

ered them, Sue’s gender has not been

and to engage in dialogues surrounding

able to be identified by scientists, and

social justice. Although not an art mu-

the Field Museum used this as an oppor-

seum, the Field Museum has become an

tunity

to

bring

social

issues

and 30

dialogues into their framework as an in-

accessibility make museum going possi-

stitution. Sue, as an official representa-

ble for groups unable to reach the phys-

tive of the museum, often engages in di-

ical space. Many museums, small and

alogues with fans surrounding their pre-

large, have created digital open-access

ferred pronouns and corrects those who

platforms in which objects from their

mis-gender them. The Field Museum, as

collections have been digitized with

an institution, confirmed Sue’s pre-

contextual information and scholarship.

ferred pronouns in an official press re-

The anonymity, convenience, and lack

lease and asserted that the specimen be

of intervention of a physical space make

addressed as such. This resulted in posi-

digital collections appealing to students,

tive feedback from the non-binary com-

researchers, and young people who may

munity, as they saw this as an act of in-

not have a formal arts education and

clusion and increased representation for

therefore feel uncomfortable in the ritu-

them in cultural spaces. Additionally,

alized museum space. In 2009, the MET

the Field Museum took major steps in

established their Digital Media Depart-

promoting

within

ment, for which “websites were built,

their staff, offering workshops and train-

collections were digitized, apps were

ing sessions for employees to better “un-

launched, digital content was produced,

derstand the importance, develop com-

social media accounts multiplied.”53

fort with using gender-neutral pro-

Similar digital departments can be seen

nouns” while creating “empathy for

at other art institutions comparable in

nonbinary colleagues and patrons.”52

size, and their range of initiatives is ro-

Twitter activism, therefore, became a

bust. These departments incorporate ed-

catalyst for actualized inclusion initia-

ucators, curators, communications ex-

tives within the museum space and their

perts, and other professionals to create

internal hierarchical structure, revealing

an interdisciplinary team of profession-

the importance of social media for social

als working to bridge the gap between

equity within the museum space.

the digital and real world. Museums are

gender

inclusion

Increasingly, museums are attempt-

now seeing the internet “as a thing that

ing to broaden the reach of their collec-

annihilates place, making it possible to

tions through the use of digital plat-

be

forms to showcase their collections. Re-

Through their digital collections, the

cent initiatives to digitize museum col-

MET aims to make their world re-

lections

nowned collections as accessible as

in

an

effort

to

increase

here,

there

and

everywhere.”54

31

possible to anyone in the world. Their

people of color (African, Latin, Asian,

Chief Digital Officer affirmed in an in-

Middle-Eastern, Native American and

terview with the New York Times that

Pacific Island descent),”57 has created a

“most of the people who are interested

robust online and in-person community

in art aren’t going to get on a plane and

of museum professionals working to-

come here. It would be great if they

ward

came. But it’s O.K. if what we’re doing

events such as tours, workshops, and

is reaching them in just a digital way.”55

mixers work to create “meaningful ex-

The United States Census Bureau re-

periences for people of color in muse-

ported in 2015 that “62 percent of

ums and other cultural enclaves.”58

American households had ‘high connec-

Most notably, however, the community

tivity,’ meaning they had three key

built by Museum Hue has extended into

computer and Internet items: a desktop

the digital world in a meaningful way.

or laptop, a handheld computer or

With Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram

smartphone, and a broadband Internet

platforms, each respectively boasting

subscription.”56 Therefore, such efforts

followers in the thousands, the organi-

by major institutions like the MET to

zation posts about important issues con-

digitize their collections prove to make

cerning diversity in the arts in an effort

art more accessible to the public

to promote representation and inclusion

through how prevalent the digital world

at the leadership level. Museum Hue’s

is in most American’s lives.

Facebook group is comprised of “750

diversity

initiatives.

In-person

Internet and social media have also

members around the country” and is

proven to be important vehicles for mu-

“geared toward helping people of color

seum professionals to connect and build

find jobs, residencies, artist resources,

community amongst themselves. A tra-

and opportunities in the field.”59 The

ditionally insular and niche profession,

group has created a successful “net-

the establishment of online communi-

working and support group that offers

ties by and between museum profes-

members timely information on job of-

sionals has helped strengthen bonds and

fers as well as savvy career coaching, in-

form alliances between curators and

cluding résumé editing and counsel-

museum leaders around the world, con-

ing”60 for those interested in diversify-

necting them and their shared initiatives

ing the museum field. Monica Mont-

toward diversity. Established in 2015,

gomery, co-founder of Museum Hue

Museum Hue, “an arts platform for

and director at the Lewis H. Latimer 32

Historic Houseand the Museum of Im-

accessibility and for professionals in the

pact, credits “ the successful hire of be-

field to build community. Translating

tween 10 and 12 people at museums or

this into physical participation is a chal-

arts organizations”61 to the Facebook

lenge for museums, however, social me-

group. In addition to Museum Hue,

dia activism has proven that minority

online communities of museum profes-

visitor groups desire for representation

sionals exist across almost all social me-

within the museum space and see social

dia platforms. The Reddit subgroup Mu-

media as a comfortable and useful way

seumPros hosts 4,700 followers, posting

to promote social justice initiatives. Ad-

on a range of topics concerning mu-

ditionally, museum professionals have

seum best practices, career and higher

utilized the internet to create online

education advice, and even issues of di-

communities in which initiatives and

versity within the professional field. Us-

goals can be shared, while working to-

ers have inquired about the neutrality of

gether to diversify the field in providing

other museums and the ethics of apply-

others with job advice and assistance.

ing to a curator of African Art position

Social media, the internet, and the digi-

as a white individual, among other is-

tal landscape as a whole, therefore, have

sues concerning diversity within mu-

proven to be a powerful tool for the

seum leadership structure. These online

public, professionals, and institutions at

cohorts have proven to provide profes-

large to work together toward diversity

sionals with an equitable space to dis-

and better representations of people of

cuss their own personal challenges, en-

color within the art museum space.

gage in discourses on best practices, provide opportunities for one another,

Solutions, Resolutions & Conclusions

and most importantly establish a unified

While issues of diversity both at the

front concerning issues of diversity

leadership and visitorship level within

within the arts.

American art museums have been long

One can see how social media, the

discussed, studied, and theorized, there

internet, and the digital landscape have

has not yet been a clear solution to the

all been powerful tools for the public to

problem. Museums have historically

hold museums responsible for their

struggled to diversify the staffing of their

staffing and collections, as they pertain

leadership, particularly within the cura-

to issues of diversity and equity. As well

torial field. This is patrially due to the

as pressuring museums to increase

socioeconomic

barriers

preventing 33

people of color from obtaining the

people,”63 aimed at strengthening “the

changing educational requirements nec-

pipeline to leadership roles.”64

essary for leadership roles. Pressure from

In 2018, the Walton Family Founda-

societal needs for representation within

tion awarded Spelman College a 5.4

the museum field and current efforts to-

million-dollar grant toward establishing

ward diversification in the workplace

the Atlanta University Center Collective

within society as a whole have recently

for the Study of Art History and Curato-

expedited efforts to provide students of

rial Studies. In conjunction with schol-

color with fair opportunities to a cura-

arships awarded at Morehouse College

torial career. The Walton Family Foun-

and Clark Atlanta University, “the new

dation, the Ford Foundation, and the

initiative will result in the creation of an

Andrew Mellon Foundation have been

Art History major and Curatorial Stud-

influential in promoting fair opportuni-

ies minor at the Atlanta University Cen-

ties through substantial financial contri-

ter.”65 The initiative, aimed to “foster

butions to higher education institutions.

innovation and create an educational

In consideration of the DEAI initiatives

pipeline into art museum leadership

established by the AAM, these founda-

that is more representative of our na-

tions are thinking forward toward estab-

tion's increasing diversity,”66 will allow

lishing a diversified professional field, in

these historically black colleges to be-

particular hiring people of color for

come “[incubators] of African-American

leadership roles, that reflects the needs

museum professionals in the United

of society and reevaluates the art mu-

States.”67 Additionally, in 2013 the An-

seum as a civic space. In 2015, the Wal-

drew Mellon Foundation created the

ton Family Foundation and the Ford

Mellon Undergraduate Curatorial Fel-

Foundation awarded the Minneapolis

lowship in response to the curatorial

Institute of Art (Mia) a major grant to-

field being unreflective of the demo-

ward their “diversity, equity, and acces-

graphic changes in the United States.

sibility initiative, which aims to diversify

This fellowship, aimed at diversifying

the museum’s leadership and generally

the curatorial ranks, follows fellows

ensure the museum is an accessible and

from a one-week summer program for

inclusive place.”62 This grant helped to

undergraduates at one of six pilot muse-

establish three year-long fellowship po-

ums located “in areas of the country

sitions at the Mia which “targeted to-

with ethnically diverse or rapidly diver-

ward people of color and indigenous

sifying populations,”68 to a two-year 34

paid fellowship at a partner institution,

periods in American history.”70 Even

and eventual mentorship in the process

more remarkable than the exhibition’s

of earning a PhD. This comprehensive

content itself, which focuses on “the un-

approach to strengthening the curatorial

just

pathway for undergraduates of color in

Americans, such as Faith Ringgold’s

order to foster diversity within the field

painting featuring a “bleeding” flag and

has proven successful for the Mellon

Emory Douglas’s graphic images of be-

Foundation. According to Mellon.org:

leaguered Black city life,”71 is the cura-

“as of early 2018, twenty students have

tor behind the exhibition, Ashley James,

participated in the fellowship, and thir-

who is the Assistant Curator of Contem-

teen alumni have either enrolled in

porary Art at the institution. James is a

graduate programs or are working in the

young African American woman, and in

arts to gain more experience that could

her first lead exhibition at the Brooklyn

place them on a path toward curatorial

Museum showcases over two-hundred

positions in a

museum.”69

social

conditions

facing

Black

Financial

works by more than sixty Black artists,

contributions from private foundations

demonstrating the importance of hiring

toward diversification efforts within the

curators who are interested in displaying

curatorial profession are helping to

those

make a career in the arts more equitable

voices within the museum space.

historically

underrepresented

for students of color, resulting in in-

What curators choose to put on the

creased ownership over the shared

walls in their charge shapes cultural nar-

voices within an institution.

ratives. Art, as a reflection of society and

While missteps have been taken in

the respective historical moment the

hiring decisions at the Brooklyn Mu-

work was created within, tells viewers

seum, small but powerful leaps forward

what is beautiful, who is powerful, and

can be seen across other departments.

what stories matter. In choosing the

The influence of people of color work-

most exemplary works, curators have

ing within curatorial departments is ev-

the authority telling viewers what or

ident through their exhibition, “Soul of

who in society qualifies as beautiful and

a Nation: Art in the Age of Black

powerful, and the viewer, in their inter-

Power,” which showcases a “broad

action with the piece, decides how they

spectrum of Black artistic practice from

fit in in relation to this. Former presi-

1963 to 1983, one of the most politically,

dent Barack Obama and First-Lady

socially, and aesthetically revolutionary

Michelle Obama historically selected 35

Kehinde Wiley and Amy Sherald respec-

Representation is powerful and needs to

tively to paint their portraits for the

be addressed, considering the 2017 Cul-

Smithsonian National Portrait Gallery, a

ture Track Report found that “people of

tradition for every president when exit-

color were 82 percent more likely to

ing their tenure. Not only was the

cite ‘cultural activities as not reflecting

Obama’s choice to commission black

people of all backgrounds’.”73 In the

artists, (both of whom discuss themes of

case of Parker Curry, social media and a

historical modes of power and social jus-

viral post sparked national discussions

tice), significant and groundbreaking,

surrounding representation of people of

but the actual display of the paintings

color on museums’ walls, the impact it

took on a new life and meaning for the

has on social narratives and the ways in

representation of black people within

which one’s experiences viewing art

the museum space. Some months after

shape their perceptions of the world.

the official reveal of the portraits, an im-

Curators of color are not only begin-

age of an African-American girl standing

ning to find a voice, but so are visitors.

entranced in front of Michelle Obama’s

The quick mobilization of voices in re-

portrait was shared by another museum

action to controversial events within the

patron on Facebook. The post went vi-

art world, as published on social media,

ral and the original photo has now

have not only held museums accounta-

amassed over 27,000 likes, 1,700 com-

ble for diversity initiatives, but have also

ments, and over 36,000 shares across the

prompted museums to act quickly to

social media platform. This image of the

best utilize and disseminate these voices

young girl, later identified as two-year

to ensure their credibility and relevance

old Parker Curry, staring open-mouthed

as cultural spaces. The rise and necessity

at the portrait that towers over her,

of social media presence for museums

demonstrates the psychological and

has birthed new roles within the mu-

emotional impact showcasing works de-

seum staff specifically targeted at utiliz-

picting people of color in positions of

ing this phenomenon to its fullest po-

power has on visitors, most importantly

tential. Directors of digital content, so-

young, impressional visitors. Parker

cial media specialists, and liaisons be-

Curry's mother said in an interview with

tween the digital landscape and mu-

CNN

believed

seum alike are being established at light-

Michelle Obama was a “queen” and

ning speeds within institutions small

wanted to grow up to be a queen, too.72

and large across the United States. JiaJia

that

her

daughter

36

Fei, former associate director of digital

Aldrich’s mission in supporting contem-

marketing at the Guggenheim, was ap-

porary artists,” through the use of “a

pointed in 2015 as the first Director of

combination of channels to reach as

Digital for the Jewish Museum. With

many demographics as possible.”76 In

goals to “[empower and collaborate]

running the social media platforms for

with every dimension of the museum to

the Aldrich, Monachino has made keen

harness the enormous potential of digi-

observations regarding how social me-

tal to reach new audiences,”74 Fei and

dia users themselves are driving the con-

her established Instagram following of-

tent they wish to see. “I’ve noticed that

fer the museum a way to reach new, un-

social media sometimes takes a life of its

tapped audiences. In an interview with

own and trends develop unintention-

ArtNet News at the close of her first year

ally,” Monachino says, “for example, we

in this position, Fei revealed that the

started to notice that many people were

“digital space opens up unprecedented

posting images of their shoes on David

access to our holdings, but also invites

Adamo’s chalk installation in Objects

an entirely new and global audience

Like Us on Instagram – from that we

who may never be able to visit us in per-

were able to develop the #WalkOn-

son,”75 further emphasizing the ways in

Chalk hashtag.”77 Monachino observes

which social media can provide a con-

that, “I find that Facebook tends to be

tact point with the museum without the

more communicative though, this is

intervention of a physical space, making

where people often post questions and

collections more equitable.

offer their feedback and comments.

One museum professional working

Both platforms–Facebook and Insta-

in a social media strategist role is Caitlin

gram–act as hubs for the public to inter-

Monachino, Digital Media Coordinator

act.”78 The result of audience-driven

at the Aldrich Contemporary Art Mu-

museum content allows the public to

seum in Ridgefield, Connecticut. As

gain a sense of inclusion that has other-

digital media coordinator, Monachino

wise been historically missing. “The so-

utilizes social media to promote the mis-

cial media channels give the museum a

sion and further the reach of her institu-

presence outside of its walls where we

tion. In an interview, Monachino states

can engage with people and give them a

that the goals of social media at the Al-

sense of inclusion to the Aldrich com-

drich “are to regularly engage with the

munity, and the art world as a whole,”

public and consistently promote Larry

observes Monachino, “this is important 37

because many people often feel ex-

reporting using social media channels

cluded from that realm. We always want

onsite during their visit between 2016-

to make the Museum feel as accessible

2017,83 it is paramount museums utilize

as possible.”79 This inclusion and sense

this technology to encourage visitorship

of shared ownership over a museum

and reshape how visitors experience the

cannot be achieved in any other context

gallery space. Many museums, in reac-

as democraziting as social media. Mon-

tion to the proliferation of cell phones

achino attributes increased social media

within society, have created “apps that

audience

to

allow visitors to seek out additional in-

hashtag “campaigns”, as in the David

formation,”84 changing the expectations

Adamo installation, but also to “behind-

for how one should or must interact

the-scenes

–

with artworks. These apps not only

which gives the Museum a greater sense

make information more accessible, but

of

also the museum going experience a

engagement

not

only

documentation/footage

transparency

greater public

and

consequently

interest.”80

Monachino

more comfortable one. Many museums

asserts that “people like to really know

have incorporated GPS technology into

what’s going on at the museum and see

their apps which make wayfinding

it in action, not just posts that look like

through galleries easier and, in turn, in-

advertisements.”81

crease visitor anonymity. Individuals no

Museums are increasingly reconsid-

longer have to identify themselves as

ering their relationship with digital me-

museum-going novices by using bulky

dia in order to retain and increase visi-

maps or asking staff for help, assuming

torship. By incorporating and encourag-

there is no language barrier. By encour-

ing social media use within the museum

aging cell phone use and creating infor-

space, institutions are working to chal-

mationally and experientially compre-

lenge traditional expectations of mu-

hensive apps, unfamiliar museum goers

seum-going behavior and rituals that

no longer feel the anxieties brought

have historically marginalized unfamil-

upon by traditional barriers and exclu-

iar visitors. In 2011, the MET, upon rec-

sions of historic museum-going rituals.

ognizing “that cellphones are omnipres-

Overall, the use of social and digital

ent in modern society, and fighting

media by institutions, visitors, and mu-

them is a losing battle,”82 stopped dis-

seum professionals has proven to make

couraging cell phone use. With 52 per-

museum going, as a whole, more de-

cent of visitors to cultural organizations

mocratizing.

“One

of

the

great 38

advantages of social media is the cou-

for students of color in order to diversify

pling of its very low barrier to entry and

the field. Practicing curators are also

its far reach. Hopefully by presenting a

solving issues of diversity through creat-

feed where people can learn about who

ing online cohorts in order to discuss

we are and what we do, they will not

and implement initiatives in support of

only become interested and want to visit

people of color working in the field and

the Museum, but will also feel person-

building community in a traditionally

ally welcomed before they even show

insular career. Museum professionals

up at the door,” believes Monachino,

like Kimberly Drew and the Museum

“utilizing social media is a diversity ini-

HUE co-founders who recognize needs

tiative in itself, in a way, because it is out

within their communities are creating

there for all to see. It isn’t a mailer that

online platforms to serve the needs of

is being sent to certain neighborhoods,

the minority community within the arts.

or a poster that’s only visible in certain

Furthermore, it is clear that social

places; it’s everywhere all at once, for

media has become a powerful tool for

everyone.”85 By utilizing the democra-

solving historic issues of diversity within

tizing power of the digital landscape,

art museums at both the professional

museums can successfully solve historic

and visitorship levels. American art mu-

issues concerning a lack of diversity that

seums must quickly and wholeheartedly

have long been identified, yet have re-

adapt to the digital landscape in order

mained largely unsolved.

to maintain relevancy and best serve

Additionally, issues concerning di-

their communities. Visual art is power-

versity within the professional world, in

ful in shaping our shared cultural narra-

particular the curatorial career, are be-

tive. Solving historic issues of represen-

ing solved through a reexamination of

tation

the educational track and online com-

within the arts is not only important for

munity building. While most recently

museums to maintain their relevance,

art history higher education has become

but also for equity within society as a

clouded by curatorial MA programs

whole. Social media, digital media and

aimed at networking that are largely in-

the internet are democratizing and do

accessible to students of color, private

not discriminate, making them the per-

foundations are working to help give

fect entry point for museums to solve

educational opportunities to and create

historic issues of diversity.

concerning people

of

color

comprehensive fellowship experiences 39

BIBLIOGRAPHY "About." Museum Hue. https://www.museumhue.com/about-us/.

Agrawal, Nadya. "Curator Kimberly Drew on Black Art, Social Media, and Taking Selfies in Museums." Broadly. November 25, 2016. https://broadly.vice.com/en_us/article/evgd9e/kimberly-drew-museummamm-interview.

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Boucher, Brian. "What's the Best Path to a Top Museum Job? We Analyzed the Training of 100 Curators to Find Out." Artnet News. April 02, 2018. https://news.artnet.com/art-world/curator-schools-contemporaryart-1257305.

Carnevale, Anthony, Ban Cheah, and Jeff Strohl. Hard Times: College Majors, Unemployment and Earnings. Report. 2010.

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But Is It Worth It?" Artnet News. July 05, 2017. https://news.artnet.com/art-world/are-masters-degrees-in-curating-worth-it-98090.

Embuscado, Rain. “Good Luck Getting Into the National Museum of African American History and Culture Before Winter.” ArtNet News. September 16, 2016. https://news.artnet.com/art-world/national-museum-ofafrican-american-history-64940 Embuscado, Rain. "Interview With Jewish Museum Digital Director JiaJia Fei." Artnet News. October 11, 2016. https://news.artnet.com/artworld/jiajia-fei-interview-jewish-museum-672887.

Facing Change: Insights From the American Alliance of Museums' Diversity, Equity, Accessibility, and Inclusion Working Group. Report. Arlington, Virginia: American Alliance of Museums. 2018.

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Farrell, Betty, and Maria Medvedeva. Demographic Transformation and the Future of Museums. Report. Washington D.C.: AAM Press, American Association of Museums. 2010. https://www.aam-us.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/Demographic-Change-and-the-Future-of-Museums.pdf.

Fleenor, S.E. "How a T. Rex Named SUE Became a Non Binary Icon."

Them. May 04, 2018. https://www.them.us/story/sue-the-t-rex-is-a-nonbinary-icon.

Gilbert, Sophie. "Please Turn On Your Phone in the Museum." The Atlantic. September 13, 2016. https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2016/10/please-turn-on-your-phone-in-the-museum/497525/.

Giridharadas, Anand. "Museums See Different Virtues in Virtual Worlds."

The New York Times. August 07, 2014. https://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/08/arts/design/museums-see-different-virtues-in-virtual-worlds.html_r=0.

Greenberger, Alex. "'Simply Not a Good Look': Activist Group Criticizes Brooklyn Museum's Hiring of White Curator for African Art Department." ARTnews. April 6, 2018. http://www.artnews.com/2018/04/06/simply-notgood-look-activist-group-criticizes-brooklyn-museums-hiring-white-curator-african-art-department-open-letter/.

Gurian, Elaine Heumann. Threshold Fear. www.egurian.com. PDF.

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Halperin, Julia. "African American Artists Are More Visible Than Ever. So Why Are Museums Giving Them Short Shrift?" Artnet News. September 19, 2018. https://news.artnet.com/market/african-american-research-museums-1350362.

Hannon, Kerry. "Museums, the New Social Media Darlings." The New York Times. October 28, 2016. https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/30/arts/design/museums-the-new-social-media-darlings.html.

"How Onsite Social Media Use Impacts Visitor Satisfaction (DATA)."

Colleen Dilenschneider. August 16, 2017. https://www.colleendilen.com/2017/08/16/onsite-social-media-use-impacts-visitor-satisfaction-data/.

Irish, Anni. "The Curator as Advocate: Spotlight on ICA LA's Jamillah James." ArtSlant. October 24, 2016.https://www.artslant.com/ew/articles/show/46676-the-curator-as-advocate-spotlight-on-ica-las-jamillahjames.

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Kaplan, Isaac. "37% of Art Museum Visitors Don't View Them as Culture-and Other Takeaways from the 2017 Culture Track Report." Artsy.

October 16, 2017. https://www.artsy.net/article/artsy-editorial-37-art-museum-visitors-view-culture-takeaWays-2017-culture-track-report.

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Kietzmann, Jan H., Kristopher Hermkens, Ian P. Mccarthy, and Bruno S. Silvestre. "Social Media? Get Serious! Understanding the Functional Building Blocks of Social Media." Business Horizons54, no. 3 (February 5, 2011): 241-51. doi:10.1016/j.bushor.2011.01.005.

Levitt, Peggy. “Museums Must Attract Diverse Visitors or Risk Irrelevance.” The Atlantic, Atlantic Media Company. November 9, 2015. www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2015/11/museums-must-attract-diverse-visitors-or-risk-irrelevance/433347/.

Monachino, Caitlin. E-mail interview by author. November 23, 2018.

Munro, Cait. "Instagram Sensation JiaJia Fei to Jewish Museum." Artnet News. April 22, 2016. https://news.artnet.com/art-world/jiajia-fei-jewishmuseum-387506.

Neuendorf, Henri. "Study: 80% of Artists Represented at NYC's Top Galleries Are White." Artnet News. June 02, 2017. https://news.artnet.com/art-world/new-york-galleries-study-979049.

Obrist, Hans Ulrich, Stuart Jeffries, and Nancy Groves. "Hans Ulrich Obrist: The Art of Curation." The Guardian. March 23, 2014. https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2014/mar/23/hans-ulrichobrist-art-curator.

O'Malley, Tim. "Case Study: Reaching New Audiences in the Digital World." AAM Online (audio blog). 2017. Aam-us.org.

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Provost, Nam. "Art Museums Have Struggled to Diversify- What Will It Take to Change That?" Medium.com. August 28, 2018. https://medium.com/minneapolis-institute-of-art/art-museums-have-struggled-to-diversify-what-will-it-take-to-change-that-63bb268710a3.

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Russell, Adrianne. "Making BlackLivesMatter in Museums." AAM Online (audio blog), 2017. Aam-us.org.

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July 28, 2015. https://mellon.org/media/filer_public/ba/99/ba99e53a48d5-4038-80e1-66f9ba1c020e/Awmf_museum_diversity_report_aamd_728-15.pdf.

Shah, Parth. “At African-American History Museum, Visitor 'Dwell Time' Is Off The Charts.” NPR. November 3, 2016.

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https://www.npr.org/2016/11/03/500560162/new-smithsonian-africanamerican-history-museum-overwhelmed-with-visitors.

Sit, Ryan. "Museum Appoints White Woman as African Art Curator, Sparks Outrage." Newsweek. March 29, 2018. https://www.newsweek.com/white-woman-named-curator-african-artbrooklyn-museuM-865522.

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Zaru, Deena. "Little Girl Awestruck by Michelle Obama's Portrait Believes She's 'a Queen'." CNN. March 05, 2018. https://www.cnn.com/2018/03/03/politics/michelle-obama-portrait-girlparker-curry/index.html.

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46

“Socially Unfit or Unfit Society?: Identifying Monstrosity in Medieval Scandinavian Literature”

by Ryan Kamkar

47

The term “monster” defines an in-

monstrosity has been regarded as taboo

dividual who has an unusual or unac-

throughout history. Labels that sug-

ceptable behavior or appearance.1 With

gested monstrosity, such as “troll” and

this definition, the word is used by soci-

“witch,” were often equivalent to con-

ety as a label to alienate those who do

temporary derogatory slurs as ways to

not fit into its criteria of normalcy. As

insult an individual and undermine their

such, it seems natural for monsters to

social merit.2 The status of a monster

strive to dismantle the oppressive soci-

was fundamentally low and often indic-

ety and establish a new social order–one

ative of someone who offered little to

in which they would no longer be de-

no value to society. Such devaluation re-

fined as monsters. This brings into ques-

sulted in the dismissal of this class as un-

tion what a monster truly is within the

fit for society, along with social rejec-

context of society, and under what cir-

tion to the extent of avoidance and even

cumstances one may be able to escape

fear. Indeed, labelling an individual as a

from such discrimination. Upon dissect-

monster would successfully warrant

ing the role of monsters in medieval

their expulsion from society.

works including a cursed werewolf in

Given the profound capacity of me-

Bisclaretz Ljo∂, a family of rebellious

dieval society to discriminate against an

trolls in Ála Flekks Sagaand a domesti-

individual through the criminalization

cated beast in The Little Flowers of St.

of monstrosity, some underlying mo-

Francis of Assisi, we may then gain in-

tives of this prejudice should be investi-

sight into the foundation of contempo-

gated. As independent, unrestrained

rary Western society’s battle against

creatures, monsters are recognized as

monstrosity.

anti-Christian symbols of evil and sin,

In order to contemplate the tenets of

and thus serve as a foil to the righteous-

social monstrosity, we must seek to

ness of religion and civilization.3 Conse-

elicit the underlying mechanisms of hu-

quently, members of society fixate on

man judgment that lead to the regular

this nonconformity and ostracize these

discrimination of monsters. With its im-

individuals in order bolster their own

plicit

inferiority,

self-image of rectitude. Furthermore,

“Merriam Webster Online.”

Lindow, “Medieval Trolls,” 39.

3 Classen, “The Monster Outside and within: Medieval Literary Reflections on Ethical Epistemology.

From Beowulf to Marie de France, the Nibelunglied, and Thüring von Ringoltinger’s Melusine,” 525.

1 2

repulsiveness

and

48

humans detach themselves from mon-

son of the king and can thereby change

sters by categorizing these beings with a

the society that rejects them. Further-

sense of “otherness.”4 People exclude

more, Jotunoxi, one of Blue-tooth’s

monsters in order to develop a closer

brothers, performs a similar stunt in

connection to their own community

pursuit

and gain a sense of self-identity, as they

maiden-king.6 Such marriages not only

define morality and civilization to be

prevent Ali and Thornbjarg from pro-

against the nature of the monsters. By

ducing heirs, but they also secure a val-

regarding monstrosity as an evil entity

uable element of humanity into the oth-

to be antagonized, humans create a

erwise socially worthless family of mon-

common enemy which allows them-

sters. The objective of the family of

selves to form closer relationships with

trolls to marry a currently esteemed

others who also adhere to their own

leader of society exemplifies the ambi-

standards of normalcy, thus establishing

tion of monsters to create a new society

a more cohesive society.

in which they are unconditionally in-

of

marrying

Thornbjarg,

a

Monsters are, by definition, those

cluded. Essentially, they aim to normal-

who are excluded. Therefore, they at-

ize themselves by establishing a new in-

tempt to uproot the current social struc-

tegrated social order in which they are

ture in order to gain more inclusion and

integrated, such as by kinship to a pre-

acceptance, as shown in various medie-

vious leader. If the family of trolls were

val Scandinavian works. Most notably,

to successfully create a new society with

in Ála Flekks Saga, Blue-tooth is a troll

norms in accordance to their own ac-

who segregates prince Ali, a member of

ceptance, then nobility from the former

royalty, from his kingdom and coerces

society may be potentially unwelcome.

him into marrying one of her siblings in

This would result in the vicious cycle re-

her troll family.5 In this example, Blue-

peating, in which a new group of indi-

tooth aims to dismantle society by iso-

viduals is labelled as monsters, accord-

lating an important leader of the king-

ing to their inability to conform to the

dom and forcing him into matrimony

new social standards.

with a troll. Blue-tooth’s motivation for

We now realize that the term “mon-

attacking Ali lies in the fact that he is the

ster” is subjective depending on the

4

6

Classen, 539.

Bachman and Erlingsson, “Six Old Icelandic Sagas,” 45.

Bachman and Erlingsson, 56.

5

49

society to which it is being applied. One

Although monstrosity refers to one’s

great example of this phenomenon is il-

relative lack of social merit, we will eval-

lustrated in the Pixar film Monster’s

uate whether physical abnormalities

Inc., which portrays a society wherein

serve as harbingers of those who are

individuals whom humans would per-

classified as monsters. This will, in turn,

ceive as monsters are normalized and

signify whether an unusual physical ap-

humans themselves are formidable.7 In

pearance can be acknowledged as a tell-

this apparent parallel universe, the labels

tale sign to identify a monster. In Ála

of “monster” and “citizen” have inter-

Flekks Saga, Ali is overwhelmed with

changed according to the counterintui-

horror and dread as he is forced to

tive standards that were established. A

marry Nott, the troll.8 The prospect of

human who might have been highly val-

marrying this troll, marked for her re-

ued according to our society’s standards

volting

of civility and morality would not de-

daunting to Ali; as a prince with good

serve any social worth in this alternate

looks, he feels threatened that marrying

reality. In light of this consideration, the

an ugly troll could lower his social sta-

definition of a monster can be refined to

tus. If Nott had a notably more attrac-

refer to someone who does not have so-

tive physical appearance, Ali would not

cial merit within a particular group of

so desperately yearn to escape her grasp

focus. This new definition sheds light

and resist their marriage. Hence, Nott

onto an important matter relating to the

would not be rejected as a worthless

automatic assumptions that humans

monster, but instead might be more

generally make in order to identify a

likely to win over Ali’s love and estab-

monster. Namely, members of Western

lish her own position in society without

society associate unsightly physical char-

derision. Essentially, ugliness is a classi-

acteristics and savagery with monstros-

fication of physical abnormalities that

ity. We must question whether these

defy the standards of beauty within hu-

metrics are accurate determinants for

man society. Because these physical

social monstrosity.

characteristics do not conform to medi-

appearance,

is

particularly

eval Scandinavian society’s standards, 7

Docter, Silverman, and Unkrich, Monsters, Inc.

8

Bachman and Erlingsson, “Six Old Icelandic Sa-

gas,” 45.

50

they place the individuals in a low status

their propensity for antagonizing soci-

that causes alienation. Hence, they be-

ety. However, in Bisclaretz Ljo∂, this cri-

come monsters in the eyes of society. In

teria often prove unrealistic given the

conclusion, these unsightly physical

context of a character whose monstrous

characteristics are not necessarily an in-

appearance hides his civility.

dicator of a monster. Rather, they are

It is perhaps necessary at this point

features devalued by the standards of so-

to cite the case of Bisclaret himself, the

ciety, often to the point of monstrosity.

focus of the tale as well as the obvious

We can extend this principle to as-

exception to the previous claim. In sum-

sess our aversion to individuals who ex-

mary, as a bestial figure who exhibits no

hibit savagery by deviating from civiliza-

signs of social savagery and conse-

tion in terms of physical behavior. In ad-

quently manages to escape the fate of

dition

the

monstrosity, he exemplifies this ideal of

presentation of an individual’s habits in

challenging prejudices. Although his

society determines their identity as a

physical manifestation as a wolf notice-

monster. In the case of Nott, her gro-

ably contrasts that of a human, he prac-

tesque manner of eating horses and

tices civility through subordination to

other food taboos prompted Ali to grant

the king.10 Therefore, Bisclaret is neither

her the title of a monster.9 Thus, barba-

classified nor treated as a monster by the

rism is viewed as a monstrous and inhu-

people in the kingdom, because his civil

mane quality because it implies lack of

cordiality overshadows his physical ab-

culture, intrinsically provoking disgust

normalities. However, the tale’s anag-

in the same way that an unkempt ap-

norisis celebrates an unexpected occur-

pearance would. Considering that one

rence of an ideal scenario in which the

may be regarded as a monster if one ex-

general public is capable of redressing

hibits any conspicuous barbaric prac-

their preconceived notions of a sus-

tices, it is logical to measure the extent

pected monster.

to physical

appearance,

that non-physical (i.e. social) and often

To provide a holistic interpretation

subtle savagery would also lead being

of this phenomenon, it is crucial to dis-

identified as a monster. Surely, it would

cuss other cases throughout Bisclaretz

be most appropriate to diagnose a mon-

Ljo∂in which society’s initial judgments

ster through social merit upon gauging

of one’s apparent conformity to social

9

10

Bachman and Erlingsson, 47.

Cook and Tvetaine, “Bisclaret.”

51

standards lead to a miscalculation of

accurately make judgments from these

one’s compliance with society. For ex-

standards. If these judgments cannot be

ample, Bisclaret’s unfaithful wife is not

fairly made, the label of “monster” may

initially regarded as a monster because

be arbitrarily assigned time after time.

she has no apparent ugliness, despite

In modern society, people continue

demonstrating cruelty toward her hus-

to casually attribute greater social merit

band. In this case, Bisclaret’s wife avoids

to those who conform to certain stand-

the label of a monster due to her high

ards involving wealth, gender, and race,

status in society and unoffending ap-

among other judgments of appearance

pearance, which wards off suspicion of

and behavior. Naturally, these standards

her betrayal. When Bisclaret attacks her

divide a population into social ranks,

and removes her nose, he effectively

defined by individuals’ abilities to con-

gives her a physical attribute that allows

form to the group’s expectations. Ac-

others to label her as a monster. Further-

cording to a study of perceived wealth

more, her children are born without

on social influence, men who represent

noses as well, and are thus also recog-

wealthier members of society seem to be

nized as pariahs.11 If the children had

more readily trusted by the general pop-

noses, they would not be easily identi-

ulation when offering help. Conversely,

fied as monsters and would likely be

men with less apparent financial success

able to adopt a role in society. Essen-

have increased difficulty earning the

tially, these children are labeled as mon-

trust and appreciation of others when

sters due to their noselessness, regard-

offering the same.12 Through judgments

less of their individual morality or be-

continually made based on values of

havior. In light of these examples, it is

wealth, a large percentage of individuals

evident that our ability to accurately de-

who fall short of meeting this standard

termine the true monsters that antago-

are in turn dramatically undervalued by

nize our society is compromised by our

society.

own misconceptions about the physical

Furthermore, an alarming issue of

appearances of monsters. Therefore,

monstrosity arises from society’s im-

monstrosity is actually measured not

pulse to demonize extreme cases of pov-

against the standards of society, but ac-

erty by their nonconformity to the

cording to its members’ ability to

standard. An ethnographic study of the

11

12

Cook and Tvetaine, 97–98.

Morse, “Help, Likability, and Social Influence.”

52

roots of mass incarceration in homeless

society. Social rejection has the power

men elicits a “frequently voiced claim

to produce monsters and negatively im-

that homeless men are serious and dan-

pact the security of members. With this

gerous criminals,” and reveals that po-

frame of reference, a society full of prej-

licemen are far more willing to arrest

udice and mistreatment of its members

men with unkempt appearances who

may itself be considered a monstrosity.

commit the same illegal act as “cleaner”

Assuming that society manages to

men, whom are often let off with a

reevaluate its own prejudices in order to

warning. Additionally, discriminatory

correctly identify monsters, one social

laws that undermine legitimate efforts of

issue remains apposite: People excluded

homeless people to earn money and se-

by society generally aim to dismantle so-

cure a place of shelter cause many of

ciety for their own benefit. As members

them to resort to criminal activities in

of society who feel threatened by this

order to survive.13 The demonization of

potential social change, people may aim

homeless men is evidently a misguided

to eliminate such danger. In turn, they

precaution aimed to protect more

may resolve to defeat every monster for

highly valued members of society by

the survival of our own society.14 The

identifying the non-conforming individ-

seemingly most logical way to destroy

uals as suspected threats to society. In

monsters is to kill them. In Ála Flekks

reality, this prejudice fundamentally

Saga, Ali reacts to Blue-tooth’s attempt

serves to reinforce society’s values of

to force him into marriage by fatally

wealth, though its inherent injustices

cursing her.15 This method initially ap-

also merit retaliation among its victims.

pears to be a successful way to liberate

Even if we hold firm to our monetary

Ali from the threat of this monster.

values that regard homeless people as in-

However, Ali ultimately faces the conse-

ferior, this does not warrant us to label

quences for his deed when Blue-tooth’s

each of them as a criminal, a formidable

brother Glodarauga seeks vengeance for

onus—similar to monstrosity—that de-

her demise and curses Ali to turn into a

finitively results in expulsion from

wolf.16 The inevitable purgatory and

13

From Beowulf to Marie de France, the Nibelunglied, and Thüring von Ringoltinger’s Melusine,” 531.

15 Bachman and Erlingsson, “Six Old Icelandic Sagas,” 45.

16 Bachman and Erlingsson, 50.

Snow, Baker, and Anderson, “Criminality and

Homeless Men: An Empirical Assessment.”543-545.

Classen, “The Monster Outside and within: Medieval Literary Reflections on Ethical Epistemology.

14

53

guilt that haunts a murderer justifies the

considered a good candidate to be cured

impracticality of this resolution.

in this fashion and incorporated into so-

One should not arrange to kill mon-

ciety if its own social values are not dia-

sters without assuming the consequent

metrically opposed to that of the current

burden of guilt and repentance. We are

society.17 This practice is exemplified in

then led to question the author’s inten-

The Little Flowers of St. Francis of As-

tion to prompt Ali to unabashedly re-

sisi, in which St. Francis deliberately

solve to murder the monster he faces.

manipulates the soul of a feral wolf in

Ali’s choice to murder Blue-tooth seems

order to transform it into a docile crea-

to directly result from her attack on his

ture whose existence is more conducive

social

not

to society.18 St. Francis performs noth-

threaten Ali’s life. Hence, Ali’s choice to

ing short of a miracle in baptizing and

kill this monster is arguably undue and

domesticating the wolf in a manner that

ultimately leads to his own misfortune.

allows it to more closely fit into the so-

With the retribution that the protago-

cial standards of the town. Despite this

nist faces after slaying a monster that

success, it remains significant that the

had not threatened his life, the author

rest of the townspeople do not seem to

implies that the slayer of monsters may

exhibit the necessary energy or skills to

be an unjustified way to resolve the dan-

initiate this act of curing by themselves.

ger they bring to members of society.

Thus, reliance on this method of con-

status.

Blue-tooth

does

As we rule out the viability of slaying

version to defend against monsters costs

the monster, it becomes crucial to de-

an incredible amount of skill for the so-

termine the safest way to allow for the

ciety to execute.

existence of monsters within society,

Given the impracticality of subduing

without the threat of the monster at-

every monster that does not conform to

tacking its members. One way to elimi-

society’s standards, perhaps a more real-

nate the danger of a monster attacking

istic way to eradicate the threat of mon-

society is to force the monster to con-

sters may be to incite societal adapta-

form to the standards and expectations

tions that eliminate the potential for the

of society, and effectively convert it into

propagation of monstrosity. This princi-

a benign state. The monster is often

ple is exemplified in Bisclaretz Ljo∂, as

Merkelbach, Dólgr í Bygg∂inni: The Literary Construction and Cultural Use of Social Monstrosity in the Sagas of Icelanders, 147.

18

17

Di Monte Santa Maria, “Chapter 21: Of the Most Holy Miracle Which St. Francis Wrought When He Converted the Firece Wolf of Gubbio.”

54

the king chooses to accept Bisclaret into

significant issue in which social rejec-

his kingdom, thus fostering his return to

tion propagates the threat of monstros-

a human state.19 By forgiving his bestial

ity. While the imprisonment of minor

appearance and behavior, attributes

offenders leads to recidivism, critical

which would generally cause rejection

prisoner reentry programs significantly

by society due to a failure to conform to

decrease criminalization rates within a

its standards, the king transforms Bis-

community.21 As we create opportuni-

claret back into his human self. In a sim-

ties that allow a prior criminal to regain

ilar instance in Ála Flekks Saga, Ali is

merit in society, we begin to see that the

able to return to a human state after his

label of a monster does not serve as a

foster mother, Hild, recognizes his so-

permanent fixture to one’s identity.

cial value in spite of his bestial form.20

Universal acceptance, distinctly inde-

Hild demonstrates a critical ability to ex-

pendent of expectations for conversion,

pand one’s own societal standards in or-

appeals to the virtues of human nature

der to foster a community in which con-

to strive for self-improvement and be-

formity is not expected, ergo monstros-

longing. It requires us to trust that all

ity is irrelevant. In both of these cases,

people deserve to be accommodated by

the social construct of monstrosity is ef-

society and thus should not be identified

fectively destroyed when members of

as monsters. Through the eyes of an in-

society adjust their own standards in or-

clusive society, we finally illuminate our

der to be more inclusive of the monster.

view of the darkness in which we

Just as social acceptance of a monster in-

learned to fear monsters.

duces civility, this theory can be expanded to a universal scale of acceptance in order to uproot all monstrosity.

Returning to modern life, we see that this ideal of universal acceptance yields promising results in our continual battle against monstrosity. Mass incarceration, 19

for

instance,

remains

Cook and Tvetaine, “Bisclaret,” 97.

a Bachman and Erlingsson, “Six Old Icelandic Sagas,” 52.

21 Jonson and Cullen, “Prisoner Reentry Programs.”

20

55

BIBLIOGRAPHY Bachman, W. Bryant, and Guomundur Erlingsson, trans. “Six Old Icelandic Sagas.” In The Saga of Ali Flekk, 43–61. New York: University Press of America, 1992.

Classen, Albrecht. “The Monster Outside and within: Medieval Literary Reflections on Ethical Epistemology. From Beowulf to Marie de France, the Nibelunglied, and Thüring von Ringoltinger’s Melusine.” In Neohelicon, 521st–542nd ed. Vol. 40. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 2013.

Cook, Robert, and Mattias Tvetaine, eds. “Bisclaret.” In Strengleikar: An Old Norse Translation of Twenty-One Old French Lais, 85–100. Oslo: Norsk Kjeldeskrift-Institutt, 1979.

Di Monte Santa Maria, Ugolino. “Chapter 21: Of the Most Holy Miracle Which St. Francis Wrought When He Converted the Firece Wolf of Gubbio.” In The Little Flowers of St. Francis of Assisi, translated by W. Heywood, 47–50. New York: Vintage Books, A Division of Random House, Inc., 1998.

Docter, Pete, Lee Silverman, and David Unkrich. Monsters, Inc.Disney: Pixar, 2013.

56

Jonson, Cheryl Lero, and Francis T. Cullen. “Prisoner Reentry Programs.” Crime and Justice44, no. 1 (2015): 517–75. https://doi.org/10.1086/681554.

Lindow, John. “Medieval Trolls.” In Trolls: An Unnatural History, 30–50.

Reaktion Books Ltd, 2014.

Merkelbach, Rebecca Anna Maria. Dólgr í Bygg∂inni: The Literary Construction and Cultural Use of Social Monstrosity in the Sagas of Icelanders. Cambridge: Unpublished doctoral dissertation, n.d.

“Merriam Webster Online.” Accessed November 30, 2017. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/monster.

Morse, Stanley J. “Help, Likability, and Social Influence.” Journal of Applied Social Psychology2, no. 1 (1972): 34–46. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1972.tb01262.x.

Snow, David A., Susan G. Baker, and Leon Anderson. “Criminality and Homeless Men: An Empirical Assessment.” Social Problems36, no. 5 (1989): 532–49. https://doi.org/10.2307/3096817.

57

“Tres representaciones de sororidad y resistencia femeninas en la postguerra española en La voz dormida de Benito Zambrano”

by Perla Jazmin Richerson

58

Se dice que en las guerras todos

es el caso de La voz dormidade Benito

pierden. Sin embargo, no hay alguna

Zambrano (2011). Este ensayo analizará

duda de que existen grupos de personas

tres formas de resistencia que se encuen-

que pierden más que otros. Este fue el

tran en los personajes femeninos de esta

caso de las mujeres a partir de la derrota

película: la mujer de fuertes ideales cuya

de los republicanos ante los nacionalis-

voluntad no se doblega por nada ni

tas tras la Guerra Civil española (1936-

nadie, la mujer que manifiesta su forta-

1939). Fueron precisamente las mujeres

leza en la protección de otros, y la mujer

que perdieron no solo los avances de

perseverante cuyo principal objetivo es

igualdad entre géneros que la Segunda

la recuperación de la memoria histórica

República comenzaba a introducir (par-

de las mujeres en particular.

ticularmente en los años en los que go-

La voz dormida se centra en la

bernaban los partidos progresistas), sino

vida de mujeres encarceladas en la

que también, al llegar el dictador Fran-

prisión de las Ventas en Madrid de pre-

cisco Franco al poder, perdieron el con-

sas políticas el periodo de la posguerra

trol sobre sus mentes y sobre sus cuer-

y la represión franquista. Las protagonis-

pos (Milquet 2012, 112); es decir,

tas son dos hermanas, Hortensia (Inma

perdieron su capacidad de agencia sobre

Cuesta) y Pepita (María León). Horten-

sus propias vidas. Su opinión en materia

sia se encuentra en estado de embarazo

de asuntos públicos no solo era consid-

en la cárcel y Pepita se muda a Madrid

erada irrelevante—producto de una

desde Córdoba para estar más cerca de

mente inferior/no desarrollada—, sino

su hermana. Pepita se involucra con los

que también fue reprimida. Según el go-

republicanos que luchan en la clandes-

bierno franquista, el único propósito de

tinidad por su hermana, su cuñado Fe-

sus cuerpos era la procreación, el

lipe (Daniel Holguín) y, después, por

cuidado y la educación de la nueva gen-

Paulino (Marc Clotet), de quien se en-

eración ideal que se apegara a las ide-

amora. Felipe y Paulino son capturados

ologías

(Picornell-

por los policías y, como consecuencia,

Belenguer 2006, 119-120). Por eso, po-

Pepita es interrogada y torturada con

dría sorprender encontrar obras que re-

fines de obtener información sobre

flejen la situación de la mujer en este

ellos. Tras ser sentenciada a muerte, a

periodo que no caigan en su repre-

Hortensia se le permite vivir hasta que

sentación victimista, sino que enfaticen

nazca su hija. Poco después de dar a luz,

su faceta de resistencia y sororidad. Este

Hortensia es ejecutada y Pepita logra

de

la

dictadura

59

llevarse a Tensi (la hija de Hortensia)

Pepita y Tensi. Para ello, comenzaré con

con ella. Tensi después demuestra la

un breve contexto histórico y el papel

continuación de la lucha que su madre

que las mujeres jugaron en la Segunda

le inspiró, por medio de los diarios que

República y la Guerra Civil, y la sub-

le dejó como patrimonio, con el ob-

siguiente represión de las republicanas

jetivo de que su existencia no fuera bor-

tras el triunfo nacionalista.

rada de la historia.

El largometraje está basado en

España en el siglo XX estaba llena de

tensiones

y

refriegas.

La

una novela escrita por Dulce Chacón en

proclamación de la Segunda República

2002. Su libro es una mezcla de testimo-

en abril de 1931 sucedió a la monarquía

nios reales que obtuvo por medio de en-

constitucional

trevistas que realizó durante cuatro años

Borbón en España. Durante este peri-

al fin del siglo XX. Estas narraciones

odo, diferentes partidos de ideologías

están entretejidas con elementos ficti-

izquierdas y derechas gobernaron alter-

cios que relatan la historia de algunas

nativamente. La Segunda República

mujeres en la prisión de las Ventas. La

estuvo plagada de gran inestabilidad a

voz dormida fue una de las primeras

causa, principalmente, de grandes ten-

obras que ejemplifica ese intento de re-

siones entre clases sociales e ideologías

cuperar la memoria histórica; la obra

políticas. Por un lado, se encontraban

tiene el poder de romper el silencio del

los partidos de izquierdas (entre los

franquismo y se manifiesta en“un grito

cuales se agrupaban socialistas, co-

para despertar a olvidadizos y desmemo-

munistas, anarquistas) y por otro los de

riados”(Chacón 2003). Tal fue su im-

la derecha, apoyados primordialmente

pacto que Benito Zambrano decidió

por

adaptarla para el cine. Si bien los estu-

fascistas. Sin embargo, las tensiones in-

dios y análisis sobre La voz dormidason,

crementaron aún más después de las

en su mayoría, literarios, este ensayo

elecciones demócratas de 1936, en las

trata de centrarse no tanto en el libro

que el partido de izquierda Frente

como en la película; en particular aporta

Nacional ganó. Inconforme con el tri-

una visión novedosa acerca de las repre-

unfo, una facción del estamento militar

sentaciones de la resistencia y la sorori-

comenzó una sublevación al mando del

dad—que son fundamentales en el

General Francisco Franco. Dicho golpe

film— proyectadas por los personajes de

de estado indujo a la guerra.

de

monárquicos,

Alfonso

XIII

conservadores

de

y

las presas políticas (como Hortensia), 60

La Guerra Civil fue un conflicto

aquel que expresara disgusto con el

primordialmente entre los nacionalistas

nuevo

poder

era

castigado

con

que apoyaban la sublevación de Franco

ejecuciones, encarcelamientos, tortura u

y de los republicanos que exigían la con-

ostracismo. Sin embargo, se podría decir

tinuación del gobierno legítimo de la

que las dobles perdedoras fueron las

Segunda República. El grupo de los re-

mujeres ya que, los ideales de igualdad

publicanos estaba compuesto por traba-

entre los sexos introducidos durante la

jadores, liberales progresistas y secularis-

Segunda República fueron erradicados y

tas—cuyos principios provenían primor-

las mujeres sometidas y reeducadas.

dialmente de la Ilustración Francesa—

Cuando comenzó la República

que buscaban asimilarse al resto de la

había un gran índice de analfabetismo y

Europa industrializada para lograr el

desnutrición. Una de sus principales

beneficio social. De acuerdo a ellos,

misiones fue diseñar un proyecto educa-

perder la guerra significaría dar paso al

tivo con un modelo público, obligato-

asentamiento del fascismo y con sus ide-

rio, sin cargo y laico. Este modelo

ales tradicionales regresaría la suprema-

también incluyó la coeducación sin

cía de la Iglesia católica. Los nacionalis-

hacer distinciones de aspectos económi-

tas representaban la tradición y el deseo

cos y sociales. La coeducación tuvo un

de retornar a los grandes tiempos de la

gran impacto en la mujer ya que, ante-

España imperial, en los que los privi-

riormente, las mujeres se encontraban

legios monárquicos y clericales fueran

en tremenda desventaja, dado que a las

conservados bajo un orden social jerár-

niñas se les enseñaba a ser “ángeles del

quico. Por ello, sus principales colabo-

hogar” con la meta de convertirlas en

radores fueron la Iglesia católica, las

esposas y madres. La República creía

elites industriales y agrarias, al igual que

que la educación mixta era esencial para

la aristocracia y los sectores militares.

el respeto entre los sexos y para el desar-

La Guerra Civil terminó en 1939

rollo ético y cívico de la sociedad (Mar-

con el triunfo de Franco y los nacional-

tínez Ten et al. 2011, 14). Otro de los

istas y con ello, comenzaron 36 años de

logros para las mujeres fue el sufragio

dictadura dirigidos por Franco. Durante

universal (por el cual votaron por pri-

la dictadura se reintrodujo el poder de

mera vez en 1933), el derecho al aborto,

la iglesia y una nueva lucha se inició: la

y el divorcio. Son estas y muchas más,

erradicación completa de toda ideología

las libertades que la mujer republicana

que se opusiera al nuevo régimen. Todo

se rehusaba a perder.

61

Francisco

Franco

Fa-

les falta el talento creador reservado por

lange[1]fueron apoyados por la Iglesia

Dios para inteligencias varoniles; no-

católica para regresar a la mujer a donde

sotras no podemos hacer nada más que

“pertenecía” por naturaleza (Fernández

interpretar, mejor o peor, lo que los

García 2012, 334). Se forzó a las mujeres

hombres nos dan hecho” y “la vida de

a ocupar un papel subalterno, bajo las

toda mujer, a pesar de cuanto ella quiera

órdenes de los varones, procedente de

simular—o disimular—no es más que un

una

antiguos

eterno deseo de encontrar a quien som-

prejuicios católicos y reforzados por un

eterse” (Fernández García 2012, 340,

nacionalismo conservador (Ortiz Heras

342). Si bien antes las mujeres estaban

2006, 4). Sus vidas eran solamente

sometidas a prejuicios de ignorancia e

reconocidas como madres, esposas y

inferioridad, la Sección Femenina que-

hermanas de algún individuo del sexo

brantó cualquier inspiración que no

masculino. A no ser por la maternidad,

fuese el papel de tapete de varones. Esos

y por la habilidad de satisfacer los

ideales de superioridad masculina son

placeres carnales de los hombres, las

los que dieron lugar a los abusos de mu-

mujeres no habrían sido consideradas en

jeres a partir de la derrota de la

absoluto. Los estudios del psicólogo An-

República, especialmente de aquellas

tonio Vallejo Nájera contribuyeron a

que se atrevieron a luchar por el

crear este ideal de inferioridad del sexo

derecho de autonomía e igualdad.

predisposición

de

y

la

femenino (Leggot 2018, 133). Según sus

La mujer perdió más que la

estudios, la mujer tenía una naturaleza

guerra. Al ser derrotada la República,

pecaminosa que la sometía al peligro de

con ella no solo se esfumaron los

caer bajo el hechizo de las ideologías de

avances que las mujeres habían logrado,

izquierdas, como la comunista. Dado

sino que también fueron sometidas a

que a la mujer se le asignó la tarea de

ideales de sacrificio, subordinación y to-

educar a los hijos, es por medio de ella

tal obediencia, con los que se le negó a

que la difusión de ideologías “contam-

la mujer el desarrollo como persona

inantes” en generaciones futuras nece-

(Pinilla García 2006, 165). A la mujer se

sitaba ser eliminada. Para adoctrinar a la

le forzó a vestir, pensar y actuar de

mujer en ideas nacionalistas se creó la

acuerdo a los ideales masculinos. No se

Sección Femenina, al frente de la cual se

le permitía opinar y mucho menos par-

encontraba Pilar Primo de Rivera. Según

ticipar en la política. Se le sometió a un

ella “las mujeres nunca descubren nada,

papel de sumisa con el simple propósito 62

de procrear y facilitar la vida de varones.

denunciar la victimización de estas mu-

Todas

direc-

jeres, sino que además rechaza caer en

tamente la aplicación de estos pensam-

un retrato debilitador de la mujer; en la

ientos, pero la violencia fue más im-

película se destaca su espíritu em-

pactante con aquellas que tuvieron vín-

poderado. La técnica cinematográfica

culos con ideologías de izquierda, con

logra

métodos de tortura, violación y despojo

represión, miedo y pobreza. En la esce-

de la dignidad. Se les señalaba como

nas carcelarias en particular predominan

mujeres poseedoras del gen rojo—un

las escenas nocturnas, la iluminación es

término dentro de los estudios de Val-

tenebrista y los colores predominantes,

lejo Nájera donde se afirma que, a partir

fríos. Los planos generales sirven para

de sus “estudios”, encontró que los in-

mostrar el hacinamiento en el que vivían

dividuos de la izquierda eran sujetos in-

las presas—Leggot menciona cómo en la

adaptados que, al no conseguir sus as-

cárcel de las Ventas, con una capacidad

piraciones y sentirse inferiores, cultiva-

para quinientas presas, habitaban casi

ban el rencor, la perversión y la

once mil mujeres (2018, 132). Al es-

venganza en todos sus aspectos, dando

pectador no se le escapan los constantes

lugar a una mayor criminalidad y a revo-

encuadres en contrapicado que mues-

luciones, con las que facilitaban el con-

tran la ventana con rejas situada en lo

tagio del marxismo.Entre los métodos

alto, que es la única fuente de luz y

de tortura se encontraban la electro-

único contacto con el exterior, enfati-

cución de pechos y otras partes íntimas.

zando lo desolador de la situación en la

La humillación se realizaba por medio

que se encontraban las presas. A través

de rapaduras públicas que tenían dos

de esa ventana las presas escuchan los

propósitos: marcar a las “traidoras” re-

disparos de los pelotones de fusila-

publicanas y despojar a las mujeres de su

miento.

las

mujeres

sufrieron

transmitir

ese

ambiente

de

feminidad misma por atreverse a ser más

Si bien la película enfatiza, de esta

que un cuerpo sometido a la voluntad

forma, la victimización de estas mujeres,

del franquismo.

también ofrece su contrapartida, su re-

Hay muchas pruebas del abuso

sistencia. Muchas de las escenas de tor-

físico cometido contra las mujeres du-

tura se omiten gráficamente y solo asisti-

rante la dictadura, pero hasta hace poco

mos a la actitud triunfante de las muje-

no se hablaba sobre ello. La voz dormi-

res a pesar de que los efectos de la tor-

dano solo expone estos actos por

tura sí son visibles en forma de golpes y 63

la rapadura de cabellera. Por ejemplo, el

(Corbalán 2013, 242). Estas mujeres se

personaje de una de las presas, Sole, es

convierten en una hermandad que se

representado por una mujer que con-

niega a ser victimizada y, por ello, co-

tinúa la lucha, no solo por medio de la

lectivamente

resistencia, sino de la transferencia de

ional[2]para despedir dignamente a sus

información con los republicanos desde

compatriotas, darles fuerza en momen-

la celda de prisión. Otras películas cen-

tos de incertidumbre y honrar la injusta

tradas en la represión de la mujer en esta

muerte que el régimen les ha impuesto.

época—por ejemplo, De tu ventana a la

Hortensia y las presas son la encarnación

mía(Ortiz

explícita-

misma de una familia adoptiva, de una

mente las rapaduras de cabellera, por las

convivencia comunitaria, cuyo espíritu

cuales los franquistas sometían y escar-

‘sirve para denunciar la represión dicta-

mentaban a las mujeres. La vozdormi-

torial y la violencia ejercida contra estos

daopta por exponer esta violencia de gé-

cuerpos femeninos insurgentes’ (Cor-

nero de una manera novedosa. Es decir,

balán 2013, 250).

2011)—muestran

cantan

la

Internac-

no muestra cuando Sole es rapada como

En el film se puede observar no

castigo por filtrar información a los re-

solamente el desprecio que las mujeres

publicanos, la escena que seguramente

poseedoras del gen rojo recibían, sino

la colocaría en una posición de víctima

que también se expone la íntima rela-

desvalida. En su lugar, el espectador

ción que la Iglesia católica tenía con el

reconoce lo acontecido cuando regresa

régimen franquista. La presencia de

en escena con golpes en la cara y su ca-

servidores religiosos en las cárceles, es-

bellera

al

pecialmente la de monjas, era constante.

encuadre cojeando, pero triunfando.

Apoyando a la dictadura, la iglesia

Sus compañeras se compadecen y la

formó parte del sector carcelario para

quieren ayudar, pero ella las detiene y se

castigar a los derrotados, tratar de indoc-

rehúsa a mostrar debilidad frente a sus

trinarlos y para asegurarse que el gen

opresoras, las guardias de la cárcel

rojo no fuera expandido. Muchas muje-

presentes. Sole utiliza lo único que

res que combatieron al lado de la

tiene, su cuerpo, como una fuente de

República que se encontraban en estado

resistencia. La sororidad entre las presas

de embarazo no pudieron oponerse a

de las Ventas “reta a la autoridad, cues-

que sus hijos o hijas fueran bautizados

tionando el orden social y moral del

en la fe católica o que fueran entregados

aparato

a

rapada.

represivo

Además,

de

la

llega

prisión”

familias

franquistas.

La

película 64

denuncia este apoyo que la iglesia of-

de ellas, por ejemplo, se enferma, todas

reció al regimen caracterizando a los y

juntan las secas naranjas que les dan de

las religiosas como personas autoritarias

postre para exprimir el poco zumo den-

y sin un ápice de compasión. Por ejem-

tro de la boca de su camarada. En un

plo, cuando Hortensia se niega a que el

ambiente donde todas necesitan, las pre-

cura bautice a su hija, este le responde:

sas sacrifican lo poco que tienen para el

“Está bien; nos veremos delante del

beneficio mutuo. Su sororidad se de-

pelotón de fusilamiento.” Hortensia ha

muestra de manera activa en todos los

implorado constatemente a Pepita que

aspectos de la vida cotidiana: se apoyan

no permita ni su bautizo ni su abduc-

moralmente, leen juntas las pocas cartas

ción por su pavor de que su hija fuera

que les llegan, etc. Irónicamente es den-

entregada a tal suerte. En otra ocasión,

tro de las Ventas que las mujeres

después de negarse a comulgar, a las

analfabetas por fin tienen la oportunidad

presas se les reprimenda y se les exige

de educarse. A Hortensia le enseñó

besar el pie de una figura del niño Jesús

Paulino a leer y ella pasa los conoci-

como castigo. Algunas de las presas se

mientos a las otras, utilizando de esta

rebelan y por ello reciben bofetadas e

manera el aislamiento de la prisión

insultos. Hortensia no es creyente, lo

como un escalón hacia su propio mejo-

cual es conocido por sus hermanas de

ramiento y resistencia, ya que Hortensia

prisión, y temerosa dice que no podrá

y otras presas después se rehúsan a fir-

besar al muñeco. Por lo cual Tomasa,

mar su condena sin primero leer el doc-

una reclusa con mucha integridad y or-

umento, lo cual demuestra su agencia y

gullo, rescata a Hortensia y a las demás,

orgullo.

sacrificándose a sí misma con tal de

La violencia física no fue ejercida

oponerse a la injusta autoridad, y por

exclusivamente en las prisiones y la

defender los principios de sus aliadas.

película lo refleja utilizando al personaje

De esta manera, Tomasa no permite que

de Pepita, mostrada como una mujer in-

sus colegas se arriesguen a recibir los

ocente, bondadosa y piadosa que desde

maltratos físicos y psicológicos de las

el principio está expuesta al peligro, mas

guardias, en especial Hortensia, ya que

no por decisión propia, sino por ayudar

está embarazada.

a su hermana. Ella misma desconfía de

En

la

película

vemos

otras

su fortaleza y le suplica a su hermana

muchas instancias en las que las prision-

que no la involucre, porque ‘no tiene

eras se cuidan unas a otras. Cuando una

sangre para esas cosas, si me coge la 65

policía, yo lo digo todo.’ Su personaje

mujeres eran, y continúan siendo, alta-

da un giro por completo cuando se en-

mente sexualizados y cosificados. Estos

tera que su cuñado fue herido de bala.

mismos son un símbolo del placer sex-

Desde ese momento, ella se llena de una

ual de la mujer, el cual era considerado

fortaleza protectora y una lealtad que

un pecado, dado que el placer carnal y

define a su personaje. La capacidad de

los cuerpos de las mujeres eran propie-

resistencia de Pepita culmina durante la

dad de los hombres. Con la tortura de

escena de su tortura. A pesar de que la

pezones se despoja a la mujer de su

golpean, desnudan y electrocutan los

dignidad, autonomía sobre su cuerpo y

pezones con fines de sacarle infor-

se le somete a la opresión. Por otra

mación sobre su novio y su cuñado,

parte, dado que por medio de los pe-

Pepita se mantiene fuerte para proteger

zones los seres humanos se alimentan al

a los suyos.La voz dormidaexpone a una

nacer, la tortura de los pechos amenaza

mujer cuya resistencia se amplifica cu-

y oprime la maternidad misma de las

ando siente que debe proteger a otros.

mujeres. Con la destrucción de los pe-

Este paralelismo entre las dos hermanas

zones, se elimina la habilidad de mujeres

es acentuado en las escenas en las que

sospechosas de poseer el gen rojo—el

Pepita visita a Hortensia en la cárcel en

cual las hacía vulnerables a ideologías

las que los planos-contraplanos las po-

contaminantes— de amamantar a sus hi-

nen al mismo nivel diegético. Es muy

jos. De esta manera, y de forma sim-

típico de las películas mostrar a las mu-

bólica, se evita la existencia de futuras

jeres incapaces de soportar adversidades

generaciones corrompidas. Este último

sin la intercesión masculina. Pero Pepita

punto me lleva al tema de la fortaleza y

no es rescatada ni por su novio, ni por

determinación de Tensi de continuar la

su

mismos

lucha de sus padres. Ella misma repre-

presentes y siendo testigos de su cal-

senta la voz que había estado dormida,

vario. A la mujer se le otorga, novedos-

mas ahora despierta con el fin de poner

amente, un papel de resistencia en su

en manifiesto las vidas de las personas

más elaborado contexto; en la escena

que por tanto tiempo fueron reprimidas,

que Pepita comparte con otros per-

silenciadas y forzadas al olvido.

sonajes masculinos es ella la que person-

Generalmente,

cuñado,

estando

ellos

ifica la fortaleza. más

los

hijos

que

crecieron durante la dictadura vivían en

Pero la tortura de Pepita requiere

el silencio; en las familias, sobre todo

escrutinio. Los pechos de las

donde

había

miembros

del

bando 66

vencido, no se hablaba de nada que

perdedores y las perdedoras de la guerra

hubiera pasado durante la guerra. Tensi,

al olvido. No fue hasta comienzos del

sin embargo, es consciente de la lucha

siglo XXI que voces cada vez más nu-

de sus padres y ella misma se propone

merosas comenzaron a elevarse para re-

continuarla (Lu 2014, 127). Los textos

cuperar esta memoria (y no fue hasta el

que Hortensia deja como testimonio

2007 que se formuló una Ley de la Me-

para su hija la inspiran a continuar con

moria Histórica en España).

la causa que sus padres habían comen-

Parece haber consenso cuando se

zado. Después de leer los cuadernos,

dice que la historia es escrita por los

Tensi dice que lo primero que hará es

vencedores, y que los testimonio de los

encontrar los restos del cuerpo de su pa-

vencidos son típicamente borrados y

dre para poder unirlos con los de su ma-

más aún si estos son mujeres. Es por esto

dre. La hija de Hortensia aparece al final

que la novela de Dulce Chacón y, más

de la película en forma de voz en off

adelante, la adaptación de Benito Zam-

para relatar brevemente los aconteci-

brano, llegaron en un momento en el

mientos después de la muerte de su ma-

que se impulsó la existencia de otras

dre, evitando, de esta manera, que se

obras que narraban la versión de las vo-

borren de la historia. El libro de Dulce

ces reprimidas de las mujeres republi-

Chacón fue pionero en este sentido y se

canas. La voz dormidademuestra la im-

podría decir que su novela participó y

portancia de la historia de las mujeres

contribuyó, en su medida, a un mo-

republicanas y puntualiza su carácter

vimiento de gran magnitud al despertar

fuerte y combativo. El homenaje que el

aquellas voces que habían estado dormi-

director hace a estas mujeres se manifi-

das para ‘recuperar la memoria de

esta en la forma en la que la repre-

aquellos que no han tenido el derecho

sentación no las victimiza y convierte en

de expresar sus propios recuerdos y, de

desvalidas. Al contrario, a la mujer se la

este modo, recuperar la memoria histó-

escenifica en su latente resistencia, por

rica’ (Chacón 2003). Este asunto ha sido

medio de una sororidad entre presas,

particularmente controvertido en la so-

una fortaleza protectora y una voz que

ciedad española de finales del siglo XX

finalmente despierta para alentar a

y XXI, de forma que la recuperación de

aquellos que no se les permitió por tanto

la memoria histórica se ha convertido en

tiempo el derecho de narrar su testimo-

una especie de lucha y resistencia contra

nio para finalmente liberarse y contar su

quienes quieren reducir la historia de los

versión de los hecho 67

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Chacón, Dulce. Entrevista con Antonio José Domínguez. “Entrevista con Dulce Chacón. Rebelión, 2003, https://www.rebelion.org/hemeroteca/cultura/dulce230303.htm. Último acceso 26 de abril, 2018).

Corbalán, Ana. “Cuerpos femeninos de resistencia en la prisión: Mirada fílmica de Azucena Rodríguez y Belén Macías.” Gynocine:Teoría de género, filmología y praxis cinematográfica. Ed. Barbara Zecchi, 2013, pp.

241-255. Zaragoza: Prensas de la Universidad de Zaragoza, Amherst: U of Massachusetts Press.

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68

Culture. Eds. Gámez Fuentes and Maseda García. Bern Switzerland: Peter Lang US., 2018, pp. 129-135.

Lu, Yun. “Despertar la voz dormida de las vencidas. Análisis sobre la narradora singular y protagonistas plurales en La voz dormida de Dulce Chacón.” Revista Historia Autónoma, 5, 2014, pp. 119-132.

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Milquet, Sophie. "Escribir el trauma en femenino: las obras de Agustín Gómez-Arcos y Dulce Chacón." Bulletin of Spanish Studies: Hispanic Studies and Researches on Spain, Portugal, and Latin America, vol. 89, no. 7-8, 2012, pp. 109-121.

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Picornell-Belenguer, Mercé. “La voz dormida, la voz presente. Notas sobre la inscripción de la identidad de las mujeres represaliadas por el franquismo en “La voz dormida” de Dulce Chacón.” Letras Femeninas, vol.

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69

Pinilla García, Alfonso. “La mujer en la posguerra franquista a través de la Revista Medina” (1940-1945). Arenal, vol. 13, no 1, 2006, pp. 153-179.

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[1] La Falange fue un grupo político fundado por José Primo de Rivera en 1933 y que sostenía principios ideológicos similares a los del fascismo.

[2] La Internacional es el himno más famoso del movimiento obrero, escrito por Eugéne Pottier en 1871.

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