Apollon eJournal, Issue XI by Apollon eJournal

OUR MISSION AT APOLLON, WE STRIVE TO PUBLISH SUPERIOR EXAMPLES OF UNDERGRAUATE HUMANITIES RESEARCH FROM A VARIETY OF DISCIPLINES AS WELL AS INTELLECTUAL APPROACHES. OUR GOAL IS TO ENGAGE STUDENTS IN EVERY STAGE OF THE PROCESS, BEGINNING WITH STUDENTFACULTY COLLABORATION IN GENERATING UNDERGRADUATE SCHOLARSHIP AND FINISHING WITH THE RELEASE OF A POLISHED DIGITAL JOURNAL. APOLLON STRIVES TO TAKE ADVANTAGE OF THE UNIQUE OPPORTUNITY OF VENTURING INTO THE DIGITAL HUMANITIES BY ENGAGING WITH IMAGE, TEXT, SOUND, VIDEO, AND A VARIETY OF PRESENTATION PLATFORMS IN THE PROCESS OF SHOWCASING THE MANY SPECIES OF UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH.

OUR TEAM FACULTY DIRECTOR DR. SHANNON KELLEY

STAFF EDITORS JESSICA COLLOCA, ‘21 DEVON DENOTO, ‘21 DEVIN JOHNSON, ‘22 SHEILA MCCOMBS, ‘22 BRANDON ROBLES, ‘22 3

CONTENTS Unconventional Mothers and Absent Father in Four Latin American Films By Ariana Tartaglia Pages 5-37 Saturday Night Lear: “SNL” Cast as Today’s Shakespearian Fools By Jack Wolfram Pages 38-52 Johann Sebastian Bach and the Style Galant: Progressive Elements of The Italian Concerto By Maggie Lu Pages 53-69 A Case Study of Small Press Success in “The Rumpus” and “McSweeny’s: How Valuing Experimental Work and The Avante-Garde Generates Community By Tamiya Anderson Pages 70-93 The Principles of Trauma Informed Care in the Context of Childhood Domestic Violence By Shefali Golchha Pages 94-107 A Battle, Two Buildings, and One City During the Crusades By Lauren Wilbur Pages 108-126

About the Author Arianna is a New Jersey native and graduated from Fairfield University in May of 2020. She graduated with bachelor’s degrees in both Communication and Spanish. She was a member of the Fairfield Honors Program, Alpha Sigma Nu, and Phi Beta Kappa. Senior year she was presented the award for outstanding achievement for Communication and Spanish. She wrote this paper as part of the Fairfield Humanities Scholar program, where she was able to pursue a study of independent Spanish language films. 5

Abstract This work provides an in-depth analysis of gender roles in the film The Hurt Locker and contrasts this representation of family roles with examples from four Latin American films: Dolares de Arena, El Techo, Pelo Malo, and Mi Amiga del Parque. This objective of this work is to expose the ways in which the work woman do as part of childrearing is minimized by both men and women, and how this erasure of work is depicted in film. Images from each of these films highlight the difference between how mothers and fathers and treated, and how female agency is usually restricted by children, but male agency is not. The analysis of the impact of judgment from other characters depicted in the films creates a parallel between the real world and the cinematic world. Ultimately, this essay breaks down the idea that motherhood is an essential part of the performance of the female gender and shows how the link between motherhood and gender performance is instead supported through media depictions and societal traditions.

Unconventional Mothers and Absent Fathers in Four Latin American Films Introduction Complex female characters are few and far between in Hollywood blockbusters, and those representations often come scantily clad as objects for the masculine gaze rather than as figures for women to relate to. The traditional male lens of Hollywood commercial film has influenced the cinematic representation of women, especially when it comes to female character portrayal and development. The end result of these simple, sexual female figures is that real women have internalized this image of the cinematic female, an unrealistic image that does not even begin to represent the myriad of female-identifying people’s experiences. The lack of diverse representations is even worse for women of color, who are hardly ever featured in leading roles. For people of color (POC), these over simplified representations are not any better. Media outlets such as Fox and NBC., frequently portray POC as caregivers, criminals, maids, or cooks, all low skill jobs that are not a true reflection of reality In the way that these roles are not reflective of reality, highly visible film awards are hardly ever awarded to POC. One quarter of Latinx speaking roles were for criminals from 2001-2018 (Holson 2019). Only three percent of lead roles in this period were played by a Latinx actor in the same period, 2001-2018 (Holson 2019). Only four percent of directors were Latino, and of those four percent only one single director was a woman, Patricia Riggen (Smith et. al 2019, 3). Not surprisingly, no Latina directors have ever won the Oscar for best director. However, Oscarnominated films repeatedly recognizing white, male directors does not mean that there is a scarcity of Latin American films directed by women. Throughout the course of 91 years of the Oscars, only one female director has ever won the prize. Katheryn Bigelow won in 2010 for her critically acclaimed film, The Hurt Locker, which won six Oscars including best picture and best director. While Bigelow’s

achievement was a breakthrough for women directors, an argument can be made that the film itself is built off of previously existing norms and draws on a long tradition of masculine cinematic tropes and language. Bigelow shattered the glass ceiling in one way by being internationally recognized for her work as a director but used an existing film prescription that upholds traditional gender norms. This film will be used to examine the representation of fatherhood in relation to gender performance as male characters are more likely to be shown independently of their families. The film exemplifies his struggle outside the home, fighting for his country, a typical male portrayal, including that of heroes, contrasts with the ways in which women are portrayed in cinema. The four films selected act as foils to The Hurt Locker are about women and directed by women, featuring female protagonists who raise their children as single mothers or within an untraditional family unit. These films illustrate a reality outside of the grand narrative of family life that shatters idyllic perceptions of the necessity of heteronormative gender roles within families. These four films, Dólares de Arena,El Techo,Pelo Malo,and Mi Amiga del Parque serve as counterpoints to such ideas These films highlight the assumed centrality of motherhood to the performance of women and repeated depiction of motherhood within cinema. These non-commercial, non-Hollywood films expose the previous invisibility of the process of becoming a mother and the assumed responsibility of the children by mothers. These films break down the notion that motherhood is necessary for the performance of the female gender and if female characters do become mothers, the films question the notion that it is a purely glorious and gratifying experience. In addition, traditional methods of child bearing and rearing highlight how women are systematically denied agency once they are in charge of children in a way that men are not. Childcare duties are typically relegated to women by default within the home, meaning men can go about working, drink at the bar, or flying overseas for multiple tours of duty without worrying

about who will take care of the children, so their agency is not restricted by the children as it is for women. I. Breaking the glass directors’ ceiling? Katheryn Bigelow and The Hurt Locker In 2010, the Academy awards shined a spotlight on a woman director, Kathryn Bigelow for her film The Hurt Locker,a momentous win for women directors and equality activists fighting against the hegemonic power of men in film. Bigelow won the Academy Award for Best Director and the film won the Academy Award for Best Picture among many other awards from groups like the British Academy of Film, Television Arts and the Writers Guild of America. Despite all the awards and praise for a woman finally winning the award for best director, The Hurt Lockerdoes not challenge gender roles, nor offer a different representation of women. The stereotypical presentation of fatherhood and career in The Hurt Lockerstands in stark contrast to the presentations of motherhood in the four Latin American films used. The Hurt Lockertells the story of William James, a bomb squad specialist who lives off of adrenaline and bravery to disarm bombs across Iraq. The viewer follows his escapades, flirting with death and defiantly disobeying orders to protect and serve, or perhaps to prompt an adrenaline response. At the end of Staff Sergeant James’ tour, he returns home to his wife and baby where the viewer sees him taking part in civilian life; cleaning his gutters, cleaning mushrooms in the kitchen sink, and then playing with his baby. The maleness of protagonist William James is not dependent on his performance of fatherhood, but rather on his sacrifice as a soldier. The male protagonist is both an honorable soldier and an absent father, but his faulty commitment to his son and wife is not how the viewer is asked to judge him. His absence is justified by his job, a standard that does not apply to mothers, as this research explores.

The Hurt Locker’s heroic protagonist William James is an example of the performance of gender, which Peberdy describes as an artificially constructed version of gender used in cinema to normalize these representations. The replication of these constructions perpetuates this singular idea of correct masculinity and leads men to see themselves in these artificial constructions (Peberdy 2011, 29). In The Hurt Lockerthe almost all male cast enforces this notion, as the men in the film performing similar kinds of hyper-heteronormative masculinity like other men in their command. The maleness of James is then artificially constructed through his war experience and backed up by his status as a father, which confirms his virility in image 1 below.

In image 1, the viewer watches James play with his son who remains nameless throughout the film, indicating a lack of connection between father and son. The baby does not define James as a character but is instead used to illustrate some facet of normalcy and consistency in his life, which would be incredibly different for a female character, where the baby would define her life. The namelessness also prevents the viewer from making a connection with the baby, marginalizing James’ entire family. As James talks to his son, he has an epiphany that his one true purpose is to serve in the armed forces as a member of the bomb squad with the next scene cutting to the helicopters landing in Iraq again where James exits the plane for his next tour of duty. This epiphany occurs in Image 1, where

James is distanced from the viewer, suggesting a lack of intimacy and connection with his family even though he is in his own home. James and his son are in the center of the frame, but most of the space is occupied by walls, creating a sense of claustrophobia for the viewer and illustrating James’ feelings of claustrophobia when confined to his own home. In the following few scenes with his son, the two characters are not shown in the same frame together but rather through cut scenes where the son followed by James appear, creating more distance between the two. This usage of cinematic language mean for how the viewer sees and subsequently judges James as a man and father. The viewer understands that his call to serve pulls him back to Iraq, and that he is doing something noble by serving his country, and the fact that James’ family is hardly shown for more than ten minutes in the whole film suggests that they are almost inconsequential. The viewer almost forgets that he has a family, as he is portrayed as a father playing with his baby for less than three minutes in the entire film. However, his behavior as a father is inconsequential to how he is seen as a soldier. Bigelow uses this language of maleness to justify James’ decision, which rests on the gendered public/private binary of leaving the private sphere for the public sphere- which receives more attention and is paid. In other words, James is a hero independent of his family life. Fatherhood does not define James, his career does. His wife takes care of their child alone and is only a fraction of his story, again illustrating how Hollywood marginalizes female characters and the weight of motherhood. The success of this film at the Oscars and Bigelow’s breaking of the glass ceiling is a contradiction of sorts: while celebrated for breaking the gendered glass ceiling in winning the Oscar for best director, the representation of the gendered character roles within the film do not challenge the patriarchal roots of Hollywood film. Bigelow’s film relies on the masculine gaze to make James a hero on the battlefield. This idea of heroism is supported by James’

call to serve being so strong it repeatedly pulls him away from his family, enforcing the notion that a man’s place is outside of the home. The film continues the recipe of making home life, childrearing, and domestic responsibilities invisible and female with his wife occupying the role of caregiver and homemaker in the private sphere, while the male protagonist gains recognition and fame in the public sphere as a soldier and ultimately an absent father. This argument is not to say that soldiers should not be honored for their service, but rather to point out how ingrained these notions of gender are, dividing male and female visibility as seen in From Here to Eternity and American Sniperto the point that the viewer does not even question the absence of a husband and father because of the assumed omnipresent and self-sacrificing mother figure. II. A Look at Four Latin American Films The way that The Hurt Lockerportrays the performance of the male gender and the role of the father is another example of the visibility of maleness within cinema. Films like this are seen, awarded, and visible in ways that films about women are not. Some independent films challenge the traditional relationships between mother and child, but these films do not receive the same kind of visibility. The Latin American films, Dólares de Arena,El Techo,Pelo Malo, and Mi Amiga del Parquewere chosen because their representations of motherhood in different stages illustrate how motherhood is still deeply rooted in gendered inequality despite changes in the role of women in society, highlighting different representations of motherhood on screen. The films follow a chronological progression of motherhood with Dólares de Arena and El Techooffering representations of pregnancy. Mi Amiga del Parque provides an intimate portrait of postpartum depression and the struggles of mothering during the infant’s first year, while Pelo Maloillustrates a dystopian view of motherhood with older children.

Each of the films depict an unmasking of motherhood, such as the exposition of the loneliness of motherhood in Mi Amiga del Parque,rejecting typical saint-like representations of motherhood, showing the omnipresent mother figure that is taken for granted in films like The Hurt Locker.The objective of this film analysis is to quantify the cultural phenomenon of motherhood and the fusion of female identity with the role of motherhood as the performance of a joint female-mother identity unique to mothers. These films make visible the work that Bigelow erases during The Hurt Locker,by showing how women shoulder motherhood by themselves, without the same heroic recognition. III.Motherhood: ATheoretical background The theoretical concept of the grand narrative of motherhood illustrates how these films interrupt the Hollywood narrative of invisible female work and seek to present another point of view of motherhood outside of the white, middle-class nuclear family representation that dominates the screen. The grand narrative is defined as “a story scripted by some authority—whether it is an academic, a policy-maker, or the apparent consensus of a majority of people—that is ‘so pervasive, so taken for granted, as the only valid story’ (xxv) that it becomes a socially constructed truth”, with Lauren Johnson’s counter-narrative provided another kind of valid story (Johnson 2014, 292-293). The grand narrative in this case would be the stereotypical depiction of motherhood, nuclear family living in the suburbs with a stay at home mom who dedicates her life to taking care of her children while her husband works 9-5 at an office job. This narrative excludes almost all other experiences of motherhood. Johnson, a psychologist, has published work on alternative female narratives to unexpected pregnancy in order to create literature that reflects positively on unplanned pregnancy, in contrast to the traditional idea that single women who experience an unplanned pregnancy are at fault without a partner. Johnson’s video interview work uses

only a few subjects from Canada who were all middle class and white, which gave them more financial resources to take care of their child and use expert mothering like child care. Johnson proposes that her objective was to offer an alternative narrative to the ‘grand narrative’. The grand narrative of male dominance helps explain the hyper-visibility of Oscarwinning films likeThe Hurt Lockerand therefore, Hollywood’s erasure of the struggles of motherhood. These Latin American films present counter-narratives and grand narratives at the same time, recreating the complexity of motherhood that exists in the real world, rather than the one-sided Hollywood representation. In order to understand representations of motherhood, Andrea O’Reilly argues that motherhood has been consistently defined by patriarchal ideals rather than by real practice or routed in testimonies reflecting mothers’ experience. O’Reilly outlines three separate concepts of the performance of motherhood, as an “experience and role”, “institution and ideology”, and “identity and subjectivity” (O’Reilly 2016, 12). These concepts can be seen in each of the films that will be analyzed, but I will focus on the experience of motherhood that is captured on screen and the identity that comes attached to the motherhood portrayed. O’Reilly proposes the “ten ideological assumptions of patriarchal motherhood”, that I use to identify different areas in which the women protagonists in these films experience the pressure of patriarchal motherhood. (O’Reilly 2016, 14) The ten assumptions categorize the different conventions applied to motherhood that have changed the how women are judged. The assumptions dissect the behavior of the mothers in the chosen films and illustrate the difference between patriarchal discourse surrounding motherhood and realistic discourse from women filmmakers. These assumptions break down traditional practices and define the patriarchal influences that drive that performance. It is easy to say that motherhood is the most natural, instinctive, and basic act, but at a closer look it is not divorced from politics, economics, or philosophy as O’Reilly explains through the ten assumptions. Her assumptions aim to divorce what

we have come to know as motherhood from its societal influences and illustrate the shaping of motherhood by outside pressure. If these assumptions shape motherhood in the real world, then they also influence the depiction of motherhood in cinema and support the Hollywood version of motherhood. Dólares de Arena,El Techo,Pelo Malo,and Mi Amiga del Parquealso present a wider representation of motherhood, beyond the traditional ‘good mom’ character, like Sandra Bullock in The Blind Side,or Steel Magnolias.O’Reilly defines mothers outside of this accepted sphere as those who “by choice or circumstance, do not fulfill the profile of the good mother—they are too young or too old, or they do not follow the script of ‘good’ mothering— they work outside the home and live apart from their children” and are therefore ‘unfit’ mothers in need of rectification, since they fail the assumption of idealization. (O’Reilly 2016, 13-14) In this case, the ‘bad’ mother is not capable of performing motherhood as it ‘should’ be performed according to patriarchal motherhood norms. None of these concepts like age, work, or living situation apply as stringently to the father figure, in order to be considered a ‘good’ father the qualifications are essentially limited to showing up and playing with your child, similar to what James does in The Hurt Locker. In almost all four Latin American films, with an exception for Dólares de Arena,the father figure is physically absent, placing the entire experience of parenthood on the mother. The strict ideal of motherhood as self-sacrificing is not applied to male characters. We can see this double standard in Bigelow’s award-winning film. The protagonist James does not have to choose between his family and his military career, he picks his career and leaves the caretaking to his wife at home, yet The Hurt Lockerwon best picture. Less than perfect male characters can exist, can be protagonists, and are even celebrated! These characters take center stage in a variety of films, like The Wolf of Wall Streetand American Sniper.

The performance of motherhood is also separated from the performance of gender, despite the fact that they are closely linked. As Pagnoni Berns explains, “a subversive act can take place within performative acts that rupture the daily repetition of gender construction,” but these acts only affect the person who disrupts the societally accepted performance. (Berns 2013, 291) In terms of motherhood, however, any disruption of accepted mothering behavior involves two subjects, the mother and the child (Berns 2013, 291). Female characters are not afforded the same flexibility that male characters are with their roles as mothers being central to the value judgement of characters. The women protagonists in these films are influenced by society because of the effects that their behavior will have on their children. The weight of childcare duties as real work instead of a self-sacrificing act of inherent natural gender practice is not represented in Hollywood film. The four selected Latin American films show how childcare is real work by illustrating how mothers sacrifice, fight, and suffer while taking care of children on their own. For example, Mi Amiga del Parque shows how Liz is consumed by taking care of her newborn baby on her own. This phenomenon of working visibly outside and invisibly inside the home is best described by Danae Diéguez as the “doble jornada laboral”1in which both women’s roles and representations of women’s roles experience double the work that a man who only works outside the home does, but yet are limited in terms of agency (Diéguez 2012, 152). This unequal division of labor is also indicative of the performance of the female gender and why the films I examine about women emphasize the act of mothering. James is not subject to the doble jornadabecause he is not home at all, leaving his wife with all external and internal

trans. double labor workday

labors while he is away. Therefore, The Hurt Lockerfalls into the trap of leaving motherhood invisible, in the shadow of a man, without celebration or recognition. In the next section, these theoretical concepts will be used to explore representations of pregnancy in Dólares de Arena and El Techo. IV. Pre-Motherhood in El Techo and Dólares de Arena El Techotells the story of Anita, Yasmani, and Vito, three young adults living in Cuba. None of the protagonists have mothers in the film, Yasmani and Vito’s mothers died, and Anita’s is in the United States. Anita is pregnant and refuses to tell her mother. The director, Ramos Hernández, creates a dialogue in El Techobetween Anita and her unborn baby, and the impending state of Anita becoming a mother in order to re-write preconceived notions about motherhood. Anita feels attached to her child and starts preparing by buying baby clothes without having any of the other ‘requirements’ of having a baby, such as a husband or house. In fact, there is no semblance of a nuclear traditional heteronormative family in El Techo as all of the main characters are missing one or both of their parents. Anita herself does not believe that both parents are necessary in childrearing, when Yasmani (center) asks her about the father of the baby she responds by saying:

In images 2 and 3, Anita completely rejects the grand narrative that supports the idea of the traditional heteronormative nuclear family by expressing her antipathy towards present fathers. Her own journey to motherhood is a counter-narrative. In these images, the viewer

can tell that Anita is confident in her words with relaxed body language, shoulders down and legs tucked under her as seen in the image 2 above. She makes eye contact with Yasmani as she says that she does not care about the father of her baby, illustrating her confidence in her words. In addition to this, her baby bump is clearly visible in the shot emphasizing the fact that Anita is not hiding her baby or shameful about being a single mother, except when it comes to her own mother. Through Anita’s body language and words, it is evident that Anita accepts her position and is confident in her ability to be a mother without a father. However, Anita’s performance of the female gender and her confidence in her decision falters when confronted with another female presence. In images 2 and 3, Anita is alone with Vito and Yasmani and has no problem expressing her feelings on motherhood without a father. Anita is beyond the point in her pregnancy that most people tell family and friends that they are expecting, but yet Anita has not told her own mother about her baby. If motherhood is essential to the performance of femininity, it seems counterintuitive that Anita refuses to tell her mother. When she is asked by Vito about if her mother knows, Anita responds saying:

Image 4 seems to contradict the idea that Anita is confident in her journey to motherhood if she is not comfortable explaining her situation to her own mother. She does not hide the fact that she is pregnant to those around her, but single motherhood does not fit in the grand narrative as Anita is unable to cross the communication barrier between herself and her mom. There are a few explanations for her attitude. One, Anita’s mother believes in a traditional family

unit, and would chastise her and thus destabilize Anita’s confidence in her decision, or her mother raised her without her father and feels as though it was the wrong decision. This disconnect between Anita’s attitude and lack of disclosure to her mom suggests a feminine judgement of motherhood that is more critical than male judgement. Despite modern trends, change and equality have not overcome traditional ideas about the division of labor between men and women and the roles they both play within the home. A kind of shame and guilt persists for single mothers and unknown fathers because they exist outside of the grand narrative. In the shot above, Anita is not looking at her companions, but looking into the distance, while articulating what she would say to her mom. This suggests that female judgment on motherhood is more intense than male judgement. This does not mean that men are excluded from influencing the perception of gender with male bias. In El Techo,Anita spends most of her time hanging out with men. It is significant then that the viewer does not find out that her baby is a girl until almost half way through the film, and it is revealed at a very tense moment in the film while Anita is surrounded by males. While showing her ultrasound to Vito, Yasmani, and the clothes merchant, the merchant insults how the baby looks in the ultrasound. When Yasmani says the baby could be his, the merchant argues that it could not be because of how ugly ‘it’ is. When Anita hears this, her immediate response in Image 5 shows her need to gender her baby. This indicates her feeling of connection to the baby and thus explains her emotional response to the merchant’s meanspirited words. In the image 5 above, her mouth is open, and she is looking dead at the merchant as she angrily declares that ‘it’ is not an ‘it’ but a girl. Her tone as she says this is commanding and defensive. This suggests that she does feel the need to defend herself and her baby against the judgment of men. Despite Anita’s confidence in her own decision on motherhood, images 4 and 5 indicate that negotiating female identity and single motherhood is

difficult because it lies outside of the grand narrative. Anita’s counternarrative shows that even if a mother is confident in her own ability, there is a consistent social scrutiny from friends, relatives, and strangers questioning the validity of her motherhood that discredits her narrative. Image 5

In relation to Anita’s journey, in Dólares de Arena, Noelí also has no relationship with her mother who lives abroad and becomes pregnant while in a nontraditional family situation. Noelí has relationships with tourists, both men and women, in order to support herself and her boyfriend. She receives both money and gifts from them, as the viewer sees at the beginning of the film where the Frenchman she is seeing gifts her his chain, only to have her boyfriend pawn it immediately after. This is only a glimpse at her relationships however, as throughout the film she develops a deep relationship with Anne, a tourist, lesbian, and French national who crosses the line between mother figure, caretaker, and lover. Noelí’s relationship with Anne is unequal, but Noelí discloses her pregnancy to Anne first in image 6. Her lack of eye contact in image 6 and the fact that she is the only person in the frame though she is talking to Anne suggests that disclosing this is more about Noelí confronting her pregnancy as a reality than about telling Anne herself. The viewer learns early in the film that Noelí previously had one abortion indicating that Noelí may not have been ready to be a mother then but is ready now. Her choice to disclose to a woman first suggests a bond between women in understanding the weight of motherhood and the implied ties between all women who perform femininity and motherhood.

Anne is accepting of her pregnancy even though she has no relation to the child other than her emotional connection to Noelí and takes her to the doctor after she is in a motorcycle accident. At the doctor’s office, the doctor performs an ultrasound where Anne asks: “can we have pictures of this, for memory?”

In image 8, the viewer can tell that Noelí is looking back at Anne after she asks for the picture of the baby in image 7, smiling towards Anne. Her smile indicates the happiness she feels from the acceptance of her pregnancy and the bond between herself and Anne over the experience of motherhood. However, while Anne and Noelí openly discuss the pregnancy, Noelí does not disclose the pregnancy to her boyfriend, which he confronts her about it. Her avoidance suggests that she knows that when she discloses to him their relationship will change, and he will have more control over what she does. He benefits from the relationship that Noelí has with Anne because she makes money and supports both of them, since he does not have a job. She maintains heteronormative and homoerotic relationships at the same time, and still ends up being saddled with traditional expectations of motherhood once he learns about the baby. He confronts her in image 9 and in image 10:

This confrontation is wholly focused on him. In image 9, Noelí is not on screen, but the intensity of his gaze is clearly looking at her. The camera angle is tilted up slightly as if he’s above the viewer, suggesting that he has a power over this situation because he is a man. The dialogue also indicates that Noelí has disclosed to others besides Anne since ‘people’ plural are talking. In image 10, Noelí is in the foreground and out of focus, while her boyfriend is in focus and maintaining consistent eye contact while asking about the future of his son. Here, the performance of motherhood shifts from being entirely about Noelí and her child to a responsibility to her boyfriend who assumes one, that he is the father, and two, that the baby is a boy. The viewer knows that the baby is a boy because the doctor tells Noelí earlier in the film, but it is unclear if her boyfriend knows this since he did not even know that she was pregnant. This assumption illustrates the gendered bias that he brings to their relationship that helps maintain the performances of masculinity and femininity. It is not about Noelí leaving, but now about his sonleaving. In this way, her relationship to her boyfriend has now shifted from romantic to familial, she will be the mother of his son,and therefore her performance of female gender is tied to this child. At the end of the film, Noelí chooses to remain in the Dominican Republic with her boyfriend rather than going to France with Anne. Noelí gives up the opportunity to raise her child with Anne in France and with considerably more money than she has. There are several factors that bring about this decision. First, Noelí and her boyfriend love each other, which is the most obvious, but in choosing to stay with her boyfriend she also chooses to replicate heteronormative family structure and uphold traditional performances of femininity and masculinity. Her choice then reinsures the legitimacy of her motherhood and shows the ways in

which the fathers of children can exercise agency over the mothers through biological ties and traditional parental roles.

V. Beginnings of Motherhood: Mi Amiga del Parqueand Pelo Malo Mi Amiga del Parque(2015) tells the story of Liz, a new mother to baby Nicanor living in Argentina. Like Anita and Noelí, Liz’s mom is not in her life. Nicanor is young, and the viewer learns early in the film that Liz is having trouble adjusting to motherhood, as she is shown falling asleep while giving him the bottle. The next scene cuts to her hiring Yazmina to help Liz with the baby and house chores. As Liz tells Yazmina about how she is “a little overwhelmed” and her “husband travels a lot”, Yazmina relates her own story of motherhood to Liz: (Mi Amiga del Parque2015, 7:25-7:41)

In images 11-13, the camera is focused on Liz even though Yazmina is talking, and she keeps her attention focused on her son. The viewer can tell that Liz is listening to Yazmina’s story due to her face goes from relaxed in image 11, to slightly more concerned in image 12 with her brown slightly furrowed and her mouth down turned in the corner, to even more concerned in image 13 with her brow fully furrowed. Her concern over Yazmina’s story shows her sympathy

for Yazmina, but since images 11-13 are focused on Liz the viewer is meant to understand that Liz’s reaction to this story is more important that the story itself. Her sympathy is not reciprocated by Yazmina, who, after telling her story, tells Liz that: Yazmina’s words invalidate Liz’s own struggle with motherhood and illustrate the intensity of judgement that mothers receive from other women. Image 14

Here, the male gaze is not just held by a man but also perpetuated by women. Yazmina has come into Liz’s home at a moment where she needs love and support, but instead criticizes Liz without offering any judgement for the absent husband and father. Yazmina’s lack of sympathy illustrates the naturalization of motherhood, or in other words, that motherhood is an inherent quality that women possess and not something learned through experience. (O’Reilly 2016, 14) From her perspective, Yazmina had a much harder experience and therefore Liz’s ‘excuse’ is not good enough to excuse her lack of ‘mothering’ skills, the skills that Yazmina considers essential. The camera shift in image 14 reinforces this idea: the viewer now sees Yazmina, holding Liz’s baby who stopped crying as soon as Yazmina picked him up. In this way, Yazmina not only invalidates Liz’s performance of motherhood verbally by comparing it to hers, but also physically by instantly calming the baby without appearing to do anything. However, Yazmina is not the only character in the film to judge Liz’s performance of motherhood. Liz is

repeatedly told how to be a good mother by other men in the film, contributing to her frustration at her perceived ineptness and exemplifying how the performance of motherhood is constantly under scrutiny in a way that masculinity is not. When Liz visits the doctor for Nicanor’s checkup, she expresses her concern to the doctor about not knowing what to do for her son, he responds by saying that even in poor families, “if the mother plays with her child, talks to him, supports him” then “that child is protected”, but it puts all of this responsibility on the mother (Mi Amiga del Parque 2015, 9:37-9:53) Since Liz is the only parent at the doctor’s office, it is possible that the doctor said ‘mother’ because the father is not present. I propose however, that the doctor, who is a man, says ‘mother’ because he believes that only a mother can do this. During this scene, the camera is focused on the doctor and the viewer does not get to see Liz’s reaction until he’s done talking. By denying Liz an opportunity to respond on screen, or for the viewer to even see her reaction, this scene supports the idea that the full burden of childrearing falls on mothers and they are not given a voice, nor the agency to change their situation. In fact, the doctor is not the only male character to give Liz advice on parenting or comment on her performance of motherhood, which enforces preconceived notions of motherhood without having any experience that would inform their critique. These instances illustrate the masculine assumption that motherhood is inherent to women. The first instance of a commentary on Liz’s performance of motherhood comes from her friend (who she later cheats on her husband with) and he asks her her how breastfeeding is going, a fairly personal question to ask a new mother, especially as a man.

Image 15 16

In image 15, Liz is still smiling from the beginning of the conversation while her friend is smiling as he asks her the question. Here, the spectator can see both of the subjects, equally sharing the frame as they walk and talk. Once Liz confesses that she is struggling with breastfeeding and cannot do it, the camera angle changes in image 16. Liz starts crying once she confesses that she cannot breastfeed Nicanor as she places her head in her hand, avoiding eye contact at her friend. Image 16 hearkens back to the scene where Noelí finally comes to terms with her pregnancy as the language in this scene suggests a similar feeling. Liz is finally confronting her shame in not being able to breastfeed out loud, but instead of having this moment with another woman, like Noelí and Anne, she has it with a man, who does not understand the reality of motherhood in the way that Liz does. Breastfeeding is not as natural as one would think, and many women experience some difficulty, but bottle feeding is not part of the grand narrative of motherhood and has somehow come to represent substandard mothering even though it has no impact on the growth of the baby. Similar to Anita and Noelí, Liz is also missing her mother, which means that she does not have a close female relationship that she can depend on as she learns to be a mother. Yazmina is the first to point this out in Image 17. Yazmina mentions this after she tells Liz that she is complaining just to complain in Image 14, so this seems to the viewer that Yazmina is justifying her insult to Liz by blaming her mental state on the fact that neither her mom nor her husband is around to help her.

By allowing the camera to capture the internal struggle, postpartum depression, and loneliness of new motherhood, the viewer sees how these socially acceptable comments that Yazmina makes are exceptionally cruel and hurtful to Liz and would be to all mothers. Liz’s loneliness that comes with motherhood without her own mother and husband is similar to the experience of many new mothers who are alone with their babies. This goes directly against the traditional romanticized cinematic representation of motherhood. The viewer finds out later that Liz’s mother died within the last year while she was pregnant, understanding why she has no parental support. This scene exemplifies the loneliness that mothers can experience that is systematically undocumented in media in order to support traditional notions of motherhood within media. Despite Liz’s struggle, the film makes her love for her child irrefutable, with how she worries about what is best for him and always thinks of him first. A mother not loving her child seems like an impossible story to tell, but Pelo Malocontrasts Liz’s story of self-sacrifice with a dystopian view on motherhood. Pelo Malo tells the story of Junior and his mother, Marta who live in the public housing of Venezuela. Marta was a security guard until she lost her job due to an unexplained incident. Unlike the previous films, Marta does not treat her oldest son, Junior with love and affection, but rather dislikes him in a relationship dynamic that is almost never portrayed in Hollywood films.

Image 18

The viewer learns a lot about Junior at the beginning of the film: he likes to dance, he wants to straighten his hair, and he wants his picture taken as a singer. However, his mother does not approve of his behavior and catches him dancing in the stairwell of their building, later asking him about it and forcing him to dance with her until he runs away. From this scene, it is easy for the viewer to conclude that Marta does not like her son for who he is, nor does she accept him. However, when Junior’s grandma offers to take Junior and raise him Marta refuses, responding in image 18 below. Her reaction is surprising, considering that a few scenes before the viewer watches her yell at Junior. Image 18 shows Marta in the middle of the frame, looking at Carmen, Junior’s paternal grandma, and speaking. The intensity of her gaze is amplified by her lowered chin and the light creating dark shadows below her eyes, drawing the viewer’s eyes to hers. This image cements the viewer’s understanding of their relationship, Marta dislikes her son but still wants him to live, at least in this moment. In the next two images, 19 and 20, Carmen calls Marta out for why she dislikes Junior:

Here the viewer comes to understand why Marta had such an issue with Junior dancing before, because he wants to be “pretty” rather than handsome while Marta has an issue with these perceived feminine traits. Carmen seems to be accepting of who Junior is as seen in Image 19 where she almost smiles while talking about what Junior desires to be. Her smile falls in image

20 as she stares at Marta, expressing her judgment of Marta for not accepting her grandson for who he is. Images 18-20 illustrate the tension between the two women over Junior, and Carmen’s defense of Junior makes the viewer critical of how Marta treats him. Carmen’s offer to take Junior seems appealing, but something keeps Marta from accepting, whether it be selfish motives or some innate attachment to her child. After Marta, Junior, and the baby go home, Marta continues her quest to return to her job as a security guard. Her occupation fuels some of her perceptions about men, as all the guards she sees as she revisits her office trying to recover her job are all men. This affects how she treats Junior, and the expectations that she has for him. Marta will go as far as to follow Junior into the bathroom to enforce these expectations, as images 21 and 22 show:

Image 21 highlights the fact that Junior is a young boy, his feet do not even reach the ground as he sits on the toilet. He may be sitting because he needs to do more than urinate, but when Marta finds him sitting on the toilet, she tells him that “men do not pee sitting down” and then continues to bang on the door with the palm of her hand and scream at Junior to get out of the bathroom in image 22. These images show the lengths that Marta will go to in order to impose socially accepted ideas of the performance of the male gender on Junior, violating his privacy while he uses the bathroom just to make sure that he pees ‘correctly’. She does this in a public bathroom too, showing that she has no problem embarrassing Junior in public just for this

purpose. Not to mention, tying someone’s gender identity to their position while urinating is bizarre. Here, Marta shows yet again her distaste for her son because he continually rejects what she believes to be the correct performance of gender. Part of the plot of the film centers around a picture that Junior and his girl neighbor keep planning to take. Both of them need a passport photo for school, but the girl wants her photo taken as Miss Venezuela and Junior wants his picture taken as a singer with straight hair, so he asks his grandmother to make him a suit and straighten his hair since his mother will not let him do anything with his hair. His neighbor suggests that he should get his picture taken as a soldier in the Venezuelan army for his mom (image 23). The fact that even the neighbor knows about Marta’s dislike of her son’s character indicates that she is public about her dislike, just as she was in images 21 and 22. The subtitles in image 23 translate the girl’s words in a loose manner,

something I find important to point out in order to understand the depth of Junior and Marta’s relationship. What the girl says in Spanish is that he should get his photo taken as a soldier “para que tu mamá te quiera”, which also translates to “so that your mother will love you”, a much stronger statement on the public knowledge that Marta rejects her son for who he is (Pelo Malo 2013, 51:29). Here the neighbor suggests that if Junior conforms to traditional gender roles that his mom will love him, but if he does then Junior has to reject who he really is. What is even more remarkable about this scene is the common knowledge that Marta does not love her son,

which goes against the classic portrayal of loving, self-sacrificing mothers described earlier in this paper. While Marta spends most of her time in the film yelling at Junior for how he uses the bathroom and for brushing his hair, there is one moment when she questions herself at the doctor, and if Junior’s female tendencies are her fault. Marta goes to the doctor and asks him if Junior is gay, and then blames it on herself for not holding him enough. The doctor responds to Marta in a similar way to how Nicanor’s doctor responds to Liz in Mi Amiga del Parque, suggesting that she spend more time with her kids. The parallel of two male doctors advising mothers who are questioning the success of their mothering is indicative of the judgement that women receive from men and that women are used to looking for external acceptance for their work. Mothering becomes a public discourse, even though the majority of the work is completed by the mother alone. Both Liz and Marta are worried that they have somehow messed up their children, despite the fact that their children are healthy and for the most part, happy. The one point of tenderness between Marta and Junior in the film occurs after he tries to ‘fix’ his hair with mayonnaise. When Marta discovers him, she screams and washes his hair in the kitchen sink. When Junior goes to bed, Marta comes in and tells him that he does not have bad hair. In Image 24, the viewer sees Marta gently stroking Junior’s hair while he lays in bed,

looking up at her. Marta’s expression is neutral for once, she is not frowning or baring her teeth, and her voice is soft as she talks to Junior. The soft lighting of Image 24 creates a kinder atmosphere than in previous shots, and the closeness of Marta and Junior suggest a moment of intimacy as they both address what they see as the common problem, Junior’s hair. In this moment, however, Marta accepts Junior’s hair for what it is, showing that despite the complexity of their relationship there is some element of connection between mother and child. This connection could mean love, but it does not mean complete acceptance. At the very end of the film, Marta starts packing Junior’s stuff to send him to his grandmother’ home, seemingly permanently. Marta has undergone a change of heart in image 18, where she refused to leave Junior because she did not want him to get shot. Junior starts protesting and trying to pull his stuff out of the bag because he does not want to go back to his grandmother after a misunderstanding believing she made him a dress, vehemently protesting because boys do not wear dresses. As he begs her to stay, he asks his mother if he can stay if he cuts his hair, and Marta pulls a pair of clippers that she bought before her work out of her purse and puts them on the table. In response to this, Junior says:

The exchange in images 25 and 26 goes against everything the viewer expects from a mother. Junior holds the clippers in the bottom left corner of the frame and looks directly at his mother, telling her that he does not love her. The fried plantains that he asked for and Marta made are

also in the bottom corner near his hand, highlighting the juxtaposition of the razor that he hates and the plantains that he loves. Marta validates his sentiment by responding and saying she does not love him either. Here, Marta rejects the very thing that mothers are always supposed to do, loving their children for who they are. Being a mother is not central to Marta’s performance of the female gender as Junior is no more than an obligation to her. The viewer can sense this in image 26 from Marta’s body language; her head is tilted slightly, her mouth is straight, eyebrows neutral, and eyes looking right at Junior. Her lack of emotion makes the statement more powerful as evidenced by her truthful response rather than speaking out of anger. Marta occupies the majority of image 26 with nothing else in the frame unlike Junior in Image 25. This focus on her suggests that this is her true sentiment, that there is nothing influencing her words other than her true feelings, going against everything we are told to believe about the joys of motherhood. Conclusion To compare Pelo Malo to The Hurt Locker,audiences would judge Marta differently if she up and left Junior and the baby to join the army. Marta’s work as a security guard, a male dominated field, has influenced her perception of how males must behave. The viewer judges Marta for her abrasive treatment of Junior and sympathize with him because his mother does not accept him for who he is. James does not even see his child, since he has reenlisted in the military. The viewer is not asked to judge James and may not judge him for not being there for his family. His role as a father is glossed over because it is not central to his worth. Marta’s role as a mother is not, but the viewer judges Marta for her actions and for her lack of ‘motherliness’. These representations of parenthood show striking contrasts between how each parent is represented and what characteristics are assigned to each gender.

There would be a different reaction if Anita and Noelí were not excited about their babies and instead dreading their arrival. Viewers would feel like something was wrong with them, as if they were unfit to be mothers. However, James is seen playing with his baby for three minutes of a 131-minute film, only to leave again, and is not considered to be an unfit dad. He dreads being at home and dreams of the battlefield instead of his loving wife and little baby. This film reminds audiences that family and children belong in the woman’s realm while the man’s is outside of the home. It is assumed that these babies will become everything to Anita and Noelí, the new center of their life, but James’s baby is clearly not the center of James’s life because his career is the center of his life. These uneven expectations highlight the entanglement of the performance of female gender and motherhood in ways that the performance of the male gender and fatherhood are not. The characters Liz and Nicanor in Mi Amiga del Parqueshow the other side of parenting while the father is away. Liz is consumed by her responsibility to her baby, barely spending any time with friends and being constantly criticized by others for her motherly decisions. As James enjoys the company of his fellow officers and occasional check-ins with his wife, viewers can see the toll that it takes on the other end by observing Liz’s loneliness. This shows the agency that men are given, in comparison to women, who assume all responsibility of their children. Mi Amiga del Parquealso illustrates the disparity in how we judge women and parenting in comparison to men. Liz receives harsh criticism from Yazmina, but no comment is made on the absence of her husband. The same goes for James when he is not judged for not supporting his wife, nor does he receive any criticism from those around him. Here again the incredibly different standards for mothers and fathers are made evident through these two films. The four Latin American films analyzed provide alternative representations of motherhood that go against the single story featured in the grand narrative. The diverse

illustrations of motherhood remind the viewer that there is no ‘right’ performance of motherhood or of the female gender, but only preconceived ideas that stem from societal expectations and create an illusion of ‘correct’ mothering. Since these films were created outside of Hollywood commercial cinema, they reflect a wider variety of experiences while also exposing the truth of motherhood that hides behind the grand narrative. This truth is that women are underrepresented, less respected, discredited, and typically erased in Hollywood films, making it easier to undervalue and under-reward women who work in film. Of the women who work in film, the only one to win best director worked with male language and used a grand narrative in her film. Even though many touted Bigelow’s success in breaking the glass ceiling as a sign that society was finally accepting and awarding female achievement, her film actually does the opposite by ignoring the inherent inequality in the protagonist’s family life and erasing all the work that the female character does to keep the James family alive. The lack of visibility plagues women directors, actresses, and producers, and Bigelow’s film itself does nothing but support that invisibility. In order to understand the performance of the female gender and motherhood, there must be attention towards independent film and start awarding those films that present visible, complex female characters.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Berns, Fernando Gabriel Pagnoni. 2016. Motherhood and Identity in Contemporary Argentine Cinema. In Screening Motherhood in Contemporary World Cinema,edited by Asma Sayed. Demeter Press. Bigelow, Katheryn, director. 2008. The Hurt Locker.Voltage Pictures. Diéguez, Danae C., and Odile Bouchet. 2012. “¿Ellas Miran Diferente? Temas y representaciones de las realizadoras jóvenes en Cuba / Ont-Elles Un Regard Différent? Thèmes et représentations des jeunes réalisatrices à Cuba.” Cinémas D'Amérique Latine, no. 20, 150–162. https://doi.org/10.4000/cinelatino.617 Holson, Lauren. 2019. “Latinos Are Underrepresented in Hollywood, Study Finds.” The New York Times. August 26, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/08/26/movies/latinoshollywood-underrepresented.html Johnson, J. Lauren. 2014. “Our Films, Our Selves: Performing Unplanned Motherhood through Videographic Inquiry.” Performing Motherhood: Artistic, Activist, and Everyday Enactments,edited by Amber E. Kinser et al. Demeter Press. JSTOR. https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1rrd9tv Katz, Ana, Director. 2015. My Friend from the Park.Visit Films. OʹReilly, Andrea. 2016. Matricentric Feminism: Theory, Activism, Practice.Demeter Press. JSTOR. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1rrd8b4 Pancrazi, Jean-Noël, director. 2015. Dólares de Arena.Breaking Glass Pictures. Peberdy, Donna. 2011. Masculinity and Film Performance:Male Angst in Contemporary American Cinema.Palgrave Macmillan Limited. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230308701 Ramos Hernández, Patricia, Director. 2016. El Techo.JNV Productions. Rondón, Mariana, Director. 2013. Bad Hair.Pragda. Smith, Stacy L, Marc Choueiti, Ariana Case, Dr. Katherine Pieper, Hannah Clark, Karla Hernandez & Jacqueline Martinez. 2019. "Latinos in Film: Erasure on Screen & Behind

the Camera." USC Annenburg Inclusion Initiative. http://assets.uscannenberg.org/docs/aii-study-latinos-in-film-2019.pdf

About the Author Jack Wolfram is an undergraduate scholar at Emory University, pursuing his degree in Creative Writing with a minor in Theater Studies (May 2022). At Emory’s two-year, liberal-arts-immersive Oxford College campus, Wolfram earned an Associate of Arts degree and a certificate for Ethical Leadership and Social Change (May 2020) as well. Now a junior at the Emory College of Arts and Sciences, Wolfram explores leadership, interdisciplinary connections, and storytelling in writing and practice as an Emory Interdisciplinary Exploration and Scholarship (IDEAS) Fellow, peer leader and mentor, university writing tutor, undergraduate research fellow, and passionate learner. 38

Saturday Night Lear: SNL Cast as Today’s Shakespearian Fools Recently finishing its forty-fifth season, NBC’s live television variety show Saturday Night Live has developed a reputation for disregarding the “lines” we often refuse to cross when discussing certain issues concerning the sociopolitical world, current events, or pop culture. Over the past several years, SNL(as the show’s title is often abbreviated) casts have focused the majority of their satirical skits and sketches on the inherent character of powerful, high-profile entities. Those who compose the SNLcast are notorious for taking full advantage of their unique platform; they say practically anything and act outrageously within their sketch characters. Very little can stop them due to the live-broadcast nature of the show. But these comics’ performances every Saturday night resonate far beyond the simple guffaws of entertainment. Their portrayal and parody of current events and political issues evoke darker and deeper truths about the roots of these conflicts. SNLisn’t just about jokes. It’s about illumination. In the same vein, William Shakespeare’s King Lear contains a character whose characteristics and actions parallel those of Saturday Night Live’s comedians and entertainers. Lear’s Fool says whatever and does whatever he wants without any regard for society’s social protocols, either – court fools in Shakespeare’s era possessed a degree of protective immunity, so as to entertain without fear of punishment. 1 Although those around him in the play treat him merely as entertainment, the Fool continually sheds light on the grave realities and unintended consequences of others’ actions throughout King Lear.He, too, offers illumination through what his audience perceives to be humor and nonsense. In a time in which William Shakespeare’s work still remains (at times, astonishingly) relevant to current events and our day-to-day lives, I became curious as to whether or not

Gilbert J. Rose, “King Lear and The Use of Humor in Treatment,” in Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association(New York: American Psychoanalytic Association, 1969), 928.

Saturday Night Livemight be considered a modern-day manifestation of King Lear’s Fool. I hypothesized and eventually concluded as such because both SNL and the Fool are typically perceived as outlandish, but deliver their humor and nonsense with illuminatory, thoughprovoking twists. Both entities perform without regard for “good form” or taboos, and neither fear immediate punishment for their antics; the Fool and his modern-day manifestation, Saturday Night Live,both explicitly entertain their audiences, but implicitly try to suggest and prompt change in them as well. Although multiple versions of Shakespearian texts like King Lear exist, and with them two differing versions of the Lear Fool’s character2, I contend that the Fool in Lear —as well as other Bard-born “fools” of the same archetype, to similar extents—is the Shakespearian ancestor of today’s Saturday Night Live,and that the latter can be strongly considered a modern-day manifestation of the former. Similar to how we might view SNL as just a funny TV show, many of those around the Fool in King Lear regard him as a mere comic. However, what Learreaders and playgoers eventually realize is that the Fool constantly attempts to shed light on much more grave, poignant realities of the situations unfolding around him. Throughout the entirety of the script, Lear’s Fool exhibits wisdom, wit, and an uncannily clear vison of the kinds of consequences Lear’s actions in the beginning of the play will bring about. He is able to vocalize these concerns as well; his role as Fool grants him a sort of protective immunity from punishment. As Gilbert J. Rose details, many court jesters and fools in Shakespeare’s time ultimately paid with their lives for vocalizing particularly unpleasant truths or insults to their masters.3 Lear’s Fool receives no such punishments, which implies that the Fool has earned the right to be outspoken in Lear’s

As depicted in one of the more commonly-accepted versions of King Lear, the Folger Shakespeare Library edition (which consists of the Quarto version with Folio variations interwoven into the text). 3 Rose, 927.

eyes. While, King Lear does threaten him after certain particularly pointed jabs, the Fool always manages to calm Lear down with further joke-truths and nonsense to avoid punishment. For instance, in Act 1, Scene 4, Lear’s reactions to the Fool begin at an angry, threatening level, but gradually tone down: Lear: Take heed, sirrah-the whip. […] A pestilent gall to me. […] Do. […] Why, no, boy ... […] A bitter fool! […] No, lad; teach me. […] Dost thou call me fool, boy? Fool: All thy other titles thou have given away ...4 In this scene, when Lear’s daughter Goneril enters after the Fool brings Lear closer to reality with his string of comedically-worded truths, she is confronted by “a changed Lear, addressing her with cool and critical authority”.5 The Fool’s actions prompting this change, although the change itself ended up having relatively minor consequences in the grand scheme of things within the play, give rise to a central question regarding the Fool’s character: is he just (pardon the pun) “fooling” around, or is he truly attempting to sway Lear from a misled, erroneous course? In the words of Hilary Gatti, “We may ask if his [Lear’s] Fool, once he has finally appeared on the stage in Act 1, scene 4, follows a strategy directed towards a particular aim. Does he pursue an end which will change the course of events as he finds them when he makes his first appearance in the world of Shakespeare’s play?”6

William Shakespeare, The Tragedy ofKing Lear,ed. Barbara A. Mowat and Paul Werstine (New York: Washington Square Press, 2000-2009), 1.4.113, 117, 119, 135, 139, 142, 151-53. 5 Rose, 930. 6 Hilary Gatti, “Nonsense and Liberty: The Language Games of The Fool in Shakespeare’s King Lear”in Nonsense and Other Senses: Regulated Absurdity in Literature,ed. Elisabetta Tarantino and Carlo Caruso (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2009), 150.

The Fool does not mock the foolish ways of others simply for the sake of mockery. Using the most effective tools he has at his disposal—comedic talents, wordplay proficiency, and his close relationship with the King—the Fool attempts to illustrate the erroneous nature of authority figures’ ways for all of those he entertains in doing so, including the authority figures themselves. SNLperforms similarly with its own audiences via parody, spoof sketches, and character portrayals. Consider Saturday Night Live’s sketch about the first debate of the United States’ 2020 presidential election cycle, for instance. The debate itself was hosted by Chris Wallace on Tuesday, September 29th, 2020, with Democratic nominee Joe Biden and sitting president Donald Trump; news broke later that week that Trump had contracted COVID-19 and infected many high-profile Republican peers amid his vehement rebukes of mask wearing, social distancing, and other preventative safety measures.7 In their Saturday spoof of this debate, the entertainers of NBC’s Studio 8H called attention to the president’s carelessness about COVID19 amidst a larger critique of the chaos he sowed via incessant interruptions throughout the event:

Wallace: Each candidates will have two minutes uninterrupted– Trump: Boring! Wallace: Mr. President, I haven’t even introduced the candidates yet. Trump: Tell that to my Adderall, Chris. Now, let’s get this show on the road and off the rails. Wallace: And you did take the COVID test, you promised to take in advance, correct? Trump: Uh, absolutely. [Holds up crossed fingers] Scout’s honor. Wallace: President Trump has already introduced himself. So, let’s now welcome the democratic candidate— Trump: Boo. Here comes the booing. Wallace: Former vice-president of the United States– Trump: Allegedly. Wallace: And senator from Delaware– Trump: Not even a real state. 7

Olivia Nuzzi and Ben Jacobs, “The White House Is Spreading Virus and Lies,” Intelligencer(New York Magazine, October 4, 2020), nymag.com/intelligencer/2020/10/white-house-spreads-covid-19-and-lies-abouttrumps-health.html.

Wallace: Joe Biden.8 Wallace (Beck Bennett) and Trump’s (Alec Baldwin) back-and-forth in these opening lines highlights what made the debate, as SNL put it, “pretty fun to watch as long as you don’t live in America” – the utter lack of professionalism on our sitting president’s part and his later-exposed abject carelessness for the health and safety of those around him, including Biden and Wallace. Within the very first minute of the sketch, SNL’s Bennett and Baldwin already offer a critique of authority embedded in their satirical scene-play. As modern-day manifestations of Shakespeare’s Fool from King Lear, SNL comedians use their extraordinary wits, creativity, quick-thinking minds, and physical abilities to highlight the utter ridiculousness of various modern issues and events through humor. One such instance of this comedic politicking is a “Weekend Update” segment airing prior to Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg’s Congressional testimony in 2018.9 Reoccurring segment hosts Michael Che and Colin Jost, portraying themselves, interview “Mark Zuckerberg” – played by Alex Moffat – about Facebook’s then-alleged mishandling of users’ data. Che and Jost pose reasonable questions to their in-character castmate about Facebook’s planned recompenses to the millions of users whose information the company holds in its databases, only to be met with exaggerated versions of the real-life Facebook CEO’s seeming indifference about righting these wrongs. Jost recognizes that “a lot of people now are calling on you to resign from Facebook,” to which Zuckerberg retorts, “No way, homie. Because according to our datasets, I don’t have to and you can’t make me.” When Zuckerberg asserts that “Facebook is going to change,” Jost asks if users

Don Roy King, transcriber. “First Debate Cold Open - Transcript.” SNL Transcripts Tonight,October 15, 2020. https://snltranscripts.jt.org/2020/first-debate-cold-open.phtml.

“Weekend Update: Mark Zuckerberg on Cambridge Analytica.” Saturday Night Live,season 43, episode 17, featuring Colin Jost, Michael Che, and Alex Moffat, aired April 7, 2018, in broadcast syndication. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GqRo9xYKnfA. 9

will now be able to delete personal data from the site; Zuckerberg laughs in his face.10 “No backsies.” Within the framing device of an interview, Jost and Moffat hit on a harrowing truth at the root of the latter’s laughably forward character portrayal – corporate commodification of our online lives often goes relatively unpunished, despite perpetrators’ performative apologies. The Saturday Night Liveteam’s comedic talents pad serious commentaries that are hardly humorous in and of themselves. Humor serves as the primary means by which the Fool communicates with the king about serious subjects, too. In Act 1, upon hearing King Lear propose his self-absorbed, inheritance divvying contest of affection, the Fool offers the king his coxcomb (the traditional hat of a court fool or jester). In doing so, he implies that Lear behaves foolishly enough to become a fool himself. Later in the scene, further criticizing Lear’s foolish decisions, the fool exclaims: To give away thy land, Come place him here by me Do thou for him stand. The sweet and bitter fool will presently appear.11

If any other character were to have called Lear out in such a manner, his response would have been much more severe – for instance, he exiles Kent with a death threat simply for interrupting him.12 However, because the fool earned the right to be outspoken through his humor, Lear only mildly contests these criticisms. The Fool’s crossing of that proverbial line in order to capture his audience’s attention is another element of his character paralleling Saturday Night Live.The show’s weekend entertainers effectively dodge punishment for their portrayals

“Weekend Update: Mark Zuckerberg on Cambridge Analytica.” Shakespeare, (1.4.145-49) 12 Shakespeare, 1.1.174, 179. 10 11

and critiques of various high-profile figures due to their platform’s storied reputation (if not their own, too). For instance, Trump and his political posse have lambasted actor Alec Baldwin for Baldwin’s portrayal of him frequently over the past four years, but Baldwin regularly portrays the controversial business-mogul-turned-president in nationally televised SNL skits regardless (an example being the afore-described first presidential debate).13 Those who bear the brunt of SNL’s jokes have little say in whether or not their comics can make such jokes – just like the Fool, the reputation that Saturday Night Livehas developed largely frees its casts from outside censorship. The most that those they lampoon can do in response is articulate their feelings, as Lear occasionally does with the Fool, too.14 Whereas parody, spoof sketches, and character portrayals are Saturday Night Live’s primary comedic methods of highlighting dark realities within our contemporary context (the

show, after all, is a sketch comedy program), the Shakespearian Fool’s strategy in King Lear

Associated Press. “Donald Trump, Alec Baldwin Renew Twitter Feud.” Billboard,March 5, 2018. https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/8227763/president-donald-trump-alec-baldwin-renew-twitter-feud-snl-satu rdaynight-live. 14 Genevieve Carlton. “Political Figures Share What They Really Thought Of SNL's Impressions Of Them.” Ranker, June 21, 2019. https://www.ranker.com/list/how-political-figures-feel-about-snl-impressions/genevieve-carlton. 13

revolves around employing “linguistic paradox and wordplay” to a similar end.15 Role reversal is a significant component of the Fool’s methodology; he continually tries to place himself in the role as master to the king and in turn focuses on King Lear’s abject foolishness. For instance, the Fool calls Lear “my boy” several times in the latter half of King Lear’s script, which registers as ironic with us as an audience because Lear was calling the Fool that very same thing during an earlier portion of the play.16 This king-as-fool-and-fool-as-king dynamic can be observed in numerous different ways throughout King Lear,starting from the Fool’s very first scene: as described earlier, the Fool presents Lear with his coxcomb hat, as if Lear was meant to put it on and take on the Fool’s role as well. Later in the play, as Lear further descends into madness, the Fool tries to convince his master to swallow his pride, seek forgiveness from his daughters, and get out of the rain: “O nuncle, court holy water in a dry house is / better than this rainwater out o' door. Good nun- / cle, in, and ask thy daughters blessing. Here’s a night / pities neither wise men nor fools.”17 However, Lear ignores him, instead cursing his daughters as he and his Fool stand outside in the middle of a torrential downpour. The Fool’s interactions with Lear demonstrate that the former is definitely invested in the well-being of the latter and spends the majority of the play attempting to make Lear recognize the error of his ways and act to correct such follies. Although the Fool eventually succeeds in pushing Lear to realize his mistake in surrendering all of his power on the basis of false displays of affection by Goneril and Regan, the latter half of the Fool’s mission – to make Lear right these wrongs – proves unachievable, as Lear renders himself both powerless and mad by the end of the play. Thus, while the Fool proved himself entertaining and eye-opening, his “performances” (per se) failed to directly alter the course of the plot. This draws a parallel to today’s Saturday

Gatti, 151. Shakespeare, 1.5.17, 49. 17 Shakespeare, 3.2.12-15. 16

Night Live performances in that while certain skits might highlight issues that viewers otherwise might not have been considering, the show has often failed as a call to action. Think back to the 2016 election, for instance, during which SNL threw considerable support behind Hilary Clinton to no avail.18 Ultimately, their respective audiences keep watching the Fool and Saturday Night Live out of a desire for entertainment, not necessarily for motivation. I contend that Saturday Night Liveembodies the continuation of Shakespeare’s King Lear Fool into our modern world. However, one must also consider the possibility that this was not the Fool whom William Shakespeare created for King Lear.There are two widely accepted versions of King Lear: one published in 1623 as part of Shakespeare’s famous First Folio, and a Quarto version published in 1608. The character of the Fool differs significantly between the Quarto and Folio editions of the play, and scholars have debated for years as to which version should reign supreme. In “The Fool in Quarto and Folio King Lear,” Oglethorpe University professor and Folger Shakespeare Scholar Robert B. Hornback explains the debate: As a number of Renaissance textual scholars argued persuasively in the 1980s, notably in The Division of the Kingdoms,the Quarto and Folio versions of King Lear are distinct texts often producing different literary and theatrical effects. Unfortunately, interest in such variation was inadvertently quelled by the vast majority of “revisionist” critics who argued that the Folio text was simply an improved version of the earlier Quarto text. As a result, much of their work focused on zealously “proving” that the Folio renderings of characters were superior to their supposedly deficient counterparts in the Quarto. Ultimately, a sensible majority of critics were persuaded by arguments that the two texts were substantially different but nonetheless pointed out the flawed, subjective, and ultimately unprovable logic of authorial perfection as the sole motivation for substantive textual variants.19

Hillary Busis. “This Is How Saturday Night Live Mourned Hillary Clinton's Loss.” Vanity Fair,November 13, 2016. https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2016/11/snl-hillary-clinton-hallelujah-kate-mckinnon. 19 Robert Hornback, “The Fool in Quarto and Folio King Lear” in English Literacy Renaissance(Brookhaven, GA: Oglethorpe University, 2004), 306. 18

The book Hornback referenced, The Division of the Kingdoms, further explains that the differences between the Folio Fool and the Quarto Fool largely stem from a 54-line rewrite of the Fool’s part (which is only about 225 lines long to begin with) which “significantly alters the Fool’s personality and quite changes the direction of his dramatic development.”20 It seems that the role of the Fool in the original 1608 Quarto edition of King Lear was written by Shakespeare for the renown Shakespearean actor Robert Armin, “the self-proclaimed ‘Clown of the Globe’,” who played a very specific variety of fool.21 Armin essentially defined the early-17th-century trend of playwrights substituting fools such as Touchstone, Feste, Lavatch, and Carlo Buffone for the ridiculous, slapstick clowns of the 1580s and 1590s; from 1600 until Armin’s retirement in 1613, “artificial” fools ruled the comedic world of theater. Thus, Shakespeare may have written his Quarto King LearFool so as to capitalize on having London’s most popular “artificial fool” in his acting troupe;22 the Quarto Fool reads as a wiser, funnier, and more bitter character than the later Folio version as a result. Shakespeare’s 1623 First Folio presents a version of King Lear containing a sweet, natural Fool completely unlike the Quarto character of the same name. Viewed in context, this change is perfectly reasonable. Robert Armin, the clown for whom Shakespeare wrote the role of the Fool in Lear,retired in 1613. That year, in which it is also recorded that directors struggled to find suitable actors for the fool role in King Henry VIII,denotes the earliest reasonable date for King Lear’s revision. As Shakespeare retired by the end of 1613 (Hornback 313) and died in 1616, it is possible that William Shakespeare did not pen the Folio revision himself. This therefore may (albeit debatably) point towards the Quarto version as “Shakespeare’s” King Lear, and the Quarto Fool as “Shakespeare’s Fool.” John Kerrigan, “Revision, Adaptation, and the Fool in King Lear” in The Division of Kingdoms: Shakespeare’s Two Versions of King Lear, ed. Gary Taylor and Michael Warren (Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1983), 218. 21 Hornback, 350. 22 Robert Bell, “Motley to the View: The Shakespearian Performance of Folly” in Southwest Review(Dallas: Southern Methodist University, 2010), 60. 20

Several “Fool” characters from other Shakespearian plays reaffirm this characterization of the Fool in Lear and serve to further illustrate the ancestral line between Shakespearian fools and those of Saturday Night Live today. Touchstone, from As You Like It,is a quick-witted royal jester as well, and a likewise “astute observer of human nature” in his commentaries throughout the play.23 Much like Lear’s Fool, Touchstone exhibits notable linguistic savvy and is a frequent argument-twister. Twelfth Night’s Feste, another clown of the crown, showcases the same brand of extraordinary language command in his quips and observations as well. Furthermore, Feste is both a commentator and a directly-involved character in the play, too, paralleling Lear’s Fool even further. Given the striking similarities between these three Shakespearian “Fool” characters, it seems reasonable to assert the (Quarto) Lear Fool’s legitimacy as both the accepted version of his character and a predecessor to the public “court fools” of today. Nearly five hundred years after his death, William Shakespeare’s works still live on and remain relevant in our world today. One such exhibition of his literary legacy is Saturday Night Live, which can be viewed as a modern-day manifestation of “The Fool” from King Lear:an intelligent character who jabs and teases the powerful without fear of punishment, explicitly entertains his audiences, but implicitly tries to suggest and prompt change in them as well. Although multiple versions of King Learexist, and with them two differing versions of the Fool’s character, I contend that the Fool is the Shakespearian ancestor of today’s Saturday Night Live, and the latter can be strongly considered a modern-day manifestation of the former (and many of its Shakespearian clown-character colleagues). On a certain level, this lineage implies that anti-authoritarian, message-charged entertainment is hardly a twenty-first-century phenomenon, as many today who denounce it mistakenly assert. While Shakespeare himself is dead, his plays,

“The Ultimate Guide To Shakespeare's Fools.” No Sweat Shakespeare. No Sweat Digital,March 22, 2020. https://www.nosweatshakespeare.com/blog/ultimate-guide-shakespeares-fools/. 23

his characters, and his fools’ nuanced brand(s) of illuminatory entertainment are still very much alive; in fact, you can find traces of each just about every Saturday night on NBC.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Robert Bell. “Motley to the View: The Shakespearean Performance of Folly.” In Southwest Review,44-62. Dallas, TX: Southern Methodist University Press, 2010. www.jstor.org/stable/43473037?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents. Hillary Busis. “This Is How Saturday Night Live Mourned Hillary Clinton's Loss.” Vanity Fair, November 13, 2016. https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2016/11/snl-hillary-clinton-hallelujah-kate-mckin non. Genevieve Carlton. “Political Figures Share What They Really Thought of SNL's Impressions of Them.” Ranker,June 21, 2019.https://www.ranker.com/list/how-political-figures-feelabout-snl-impressions/genevievecarlton. Hilary Gatti. “Nonsense and Liberty: The Language Games of the Fool in Shakespeare’s King Lear.” In Nonsense and Other Senses: Regulated Absurdity in Literature,150-52. Edited by Elisabetta Tarantino and Carlo Caruso. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2009. Robert Hornback. “The Fool in Quarto and Folio King Lear.” In English Literary Renaissance, 306-17, 321, 333-35. Brookhaven, GA: Oglethorpe University, 2004. www.journals.uchicago.edu/stable/10.1086/elr.2004.34.issue-3. John Kerrigan. “Revision, Adaptation, and the Fool in King Lear.” In The Division of Kingdoms: Shakespeare’s Two Versions ofKing Lear, 218. Edited by Gary Taylor and Michael Warren. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1983. Don Roy King, transcriber. “First Debate Cold Open - Transcript.” SNL Transcripts Tonight, October 15, 2020. https://snltranscripts.jt.org/2020/first-debate-cold-open.phtml. “The Ultimate Guide to Shakespeare's Fools.” No Sweat Shakespeare. No Sweat Digital, March 22, 2020. https://www.nosweatshakespeare.com/blog/ultimate-guide-shakespeares-fools/. Olivia Nuzzi and Ben Jacobs. “The White House Is Spreading Virus and Lies.” Intelligencer. New York Magazine, October 4, 2020. https://nymag.com/intelligencer/2020/10/white-house-spreads-covid-19-and-lies-abouttrumps-health.html. Johan Persson. “Lloyd Hutchinson and Ian McKellen in King Lear.” In New York Stage Review. New York City: New York Stage Review, 2018. nystagereview/2018/09/03/mckellenslear-and-christies-witness-both-excellent-from-london/. Associated Press. “Donald Trump, Alec Baldwin Renew Twitter Feud.” Billboard, March 5, 2018. http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/8227763/president-donald-trump-alecbaldwin-renew-twitter-feud-snl-saturday-night-live

Albert Rose. “King Lear and the Use of Humor in Treatment.” In Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 927-32. Worchester, MA: American Psychoanalytic Association, 1969. Journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/000306516901700313?journalCode=apaa. Weekend Update: Mark Zuckerberg on Cambridge Analytica.” Saturday Night Live, Season 43, Episode 17, featuring Colin Jost, Michael Che, and Alex Moffat. Air April 7, 2018, in broadcast syndication on NBC, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GqRo9xYKnfA. William Shakespear, The Tragedy of King Lear, Edited by Barbara A. Mowat and Paul Werstine. New York: Washington Square Press, 2000-2009.

About the Author Maggie is a student at the University of British Columbia, currently finishing a degree in Music Composition. She enjoys creativity in all forms, including writing, music, and art.

Johann Sebastian Bach and the Style Galant: Progressive Elements in the Italian Concerto, BVW 91 As one of the most preeminent composers of the early eighteenth-century, Johann Sebastian Bach is associated most strongly with the height of the Baroque Era. Intricate polyphony and harmonic complexity remained defining characteristics of his style even toward the end of his life – features that were at times the subject of criticism from his own contemporaries. However, despite the view that Bach remained committed to the musical styles of the past during the emergence of the style galant, opuses from the composer’s mid-to-late career suggest that he was both capable and willing to adopt elements of the new fashion into select compositions. An instance of this integration occurs in his acclaimed Concerto nach Italienischen Gusto (“Concerto in the Italian taste”),otherwise known as the Italian Concerto, BWV 971. Published in 1735 as the first part of the Clavier-Übung II, it is among Bach’s most performed works for the double-manual harpsichord. This paper presents an examination of the piece through the lens of the galant manner, analyzing its incorporation of key traits from this developing style. Such an investigation is contextualized with a discussion of the historical background surrounding the work, surveying evolving artistic trends as well as eighteenthcentury attitudes regarding J. S. Bach, contemporary critical discourse, and the “newer” musical fashion. Through these explorations, Bach will be demonstrated as a composer who, though typically linked with conservative values such as strictly imitative counterpoint and denselywoven harmonic textures, was aware and receptive to modern stylistic qualities when desired. Widely used to refer to the eighteenth-century movement in the musical arts, the term “galant” originally stemmed from the French vernacular. By the 1700s, the word entailed a close association with the “French courtly manner”, with a particular “emphasis on social or amatory

grace”.1 Contemporaries of Bach – and not only modern historians – were well-acquainted with using “galant” in reference to the musical realm. This practice is in contrast with the designations of “Baroque” or “Classical” as applied to music from the 1700s – nomenclature which was popularized in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries and used in retrospect for those respective eras.2 However, employing these terms to generalize musical development from approximately 1720 to 1780 suggests somewhat of an oversimplification, compartmentalizing the stylistic fluidity found throughout these decades. As Robert Gjerdingen analogizes, “to call the music of the great galant musicians pre-Classical is no more enlightening than to call George Gershwin pre-Rockor Elvis Presley pre-Hip-Hop”.3 As such, exploring the galantstyle serves an important role in understanding the vibrant mid-eighteenth-century musical scene, which included celebrated figures such as Johann Christian Bach (the “London Bach”), Giovanni Battista Sammartini, and Johann Adolph Hasse. Initially popularized in Italian opera during the 1720s, the style galant is characterized by a set of aesthetic values influenced by the naturalisticphilosophies of the Enlightenment movement.4 As opposed to the “old contrapuntal virtues” that featured dense polyphony, lengthy harmonic progressions, and interwoven dissonances, the newer style prioritized clarity, elegance, and the immediacy of appeal.5 These attributes were exemplified especially through the “menuet galant” – a genre of instrumental works in the mid-eighteenth century showcasing the increasing importance of noble and “charming decency…united with simplicity”. 6 In particular, galant compositions upheld these aesthetic principles through the use of balanced,

Daniel Heartz and Bruce Brown, “Galant,” Grove Music Online,Oxford Music Online, 2001, https://doi .org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.10512. 1

Robert Gjerdingen, Music in the Galant Style (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 5. Ibid, 5-6. 4 Robert Marshall, “Bach the Progressive: Observations on His Later Works,” The Musical Quarterly62, no. 3 (1976): 329. 5 Heartz, “Galant.” 6 Ibid. 3

frequently cadenced phrase structures, with thinner textures that prioritized a single melodic line with accompaniment, and the integration of popular compositional schemata, as well as slower, aurally lucid harmonic progressions. This treatment of musical parameters signified a gradual shift away from the opaque complexities of the previous era, which was increasingly perceived as contrived and old-fashioned. The compositional language that Bach is known for today, and which dominated much of his output, represents a contrast with the more “modern” fashions of the galant. His Art of Fugue, which remained unfinished at the end of his life, is one of the epitomal examples of this rigorous, highly intellectual manner of composing. As such, this work has been viewed as emblematic of Bach’s lifelong dedication to “the venerable skills of strict counterpoint, canon, and fugue” 7– featuring meticulous, internally imitative musical construction. While Bach was recognized as an accomplished composer (in addition to his widespread appreciation as an organist), his stylistic tendencies occasionally proved to be the subject of criticism. In 1737, music critic and theorist Johann Adolf Scheibe published a well-known reproach of Bach’s compositional style in the journal Der critische Musikus.He declared that Bach, “by his bombastic and intricate procedures” had “deprived [his music] of naturalness and obscured their beauty by an excess of art”. 8 His view that Bach’s oeuvre represented an overload of contrapuntal complexity and artificiality was countered by Johann Abraham Birnbaum, initiating a debate that lasted through the late 1730s and early 1740s. This controversy is especially notable as an embodiment of the “clash of irreconcilable stylistic ideals”9 that took place throughout Bach’s mid-to-late career. The 1735 Italian Concerto,however, served a pivotal role in compelling Scheibe to reverse his initial statements, reconciling the debate with a stellar review: “Who is there who will not admit at once

Marshall, “Bach the Progressive: Observations on His Later Works,” 343.

Christoph Wolff and Walter Emery, “Bach, Johann Sebastian” Grove Music Online, Oxford Music Online, 2001, https://doi .org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.6002278195. 9 Ibid. 8

that this clavier concerto is to be regarded as a perfect model of a well-designed solo concerto?…[it is] a piece which deserves emulation by all our great composers”.10 As evidenced by the Italian Concertoand beyond, Bach’s compositional career was far from stylistically one-dimensional. Throughout his life, he took inspiration from both stile antico traditions and stile moderno mannerisms while absorbing multiple international influences. 11 In the 1730s and 40s, particularly, Bach’s desire to expand his artistic horizons was prompted by his dissatisfaction with his local Leipzig and a “heightened awareness of the excellent and varied musical life being cultivated in nearby Dresden”.12 The assimilation of galant traits is one facet of this stylistic synthesis – with notable examples including Cantata 201, Geschwinde, geschwinde, ihr wirbelnden Winde (composed in approximately 1729), certain portions of the Mass in B Minor, and the Coffee Cantata (composed between 1732 and 1735), among others. His secular vocal works, such as the Coffee and Peasant cantatas, especially exhibit an apparent “aesthetic tolerance and universality”13– treating the text with a strikingly light-hearted, humorous compositional approach that reflects influence from the then-modern opera buffa genre. As such, by the time Bach penned the Italian Concerto, he was well acquainted with integrating elements of the newest fashions into his own works. Published in 1735, the Italian Concerto marks the beginning of the last decade and a half of his life, a period which demonstrated more “conscious gestures toward the style of a younger generation”.14 This is not to say, however, that he abandoned his traditional views of musical ideals; the Canonic Variations and Art of Fugue are only a few instances in which his conservative rigor is exemplified in full effect towards 1750. The Italian Concerto represents an

Federico Garcia, “The Nature of Bach’s ‘Italian Concerto’ BWV 971,” Bach 36, no. 1 (2005): 5. Marshall, “Bach the Progressive: Observations on His Later Works,” 342. 12 Ibid, 354. 13 Ibid, 337. 14 Kenneth Noth, “‘Tilge, Höchster, meine Sünden’: Observations on Bach and the ‘Style Galant’,” Bach23, no. 1 (1992): 28. 10 11

openness to the style galant rather than a rejection of past values, and its incorporation of fashionable musical idioms makes further sense when considering its integration as part of the Clavier-Übung II – a publication compiled for widespread dissemination (especially the second and third movements, which were likely written specifically for inclusion in the volume).15 The pairing of the Italian Concerto with the French Overture exemplified Bach’s musical take on the clichéd rivalry of two prevalent styles of the time, both of which had developed in response to the increasingly popular galant style.16 While the music retains Bach’s contrapuntal affinity and sonoric subtleties, it is characterized by a lighter, more modern approach to writing than much of his earlier keyboard works.17 The constituents of the Clavier-Übung II, therefore, can be seen to deliberately showcase qualities meant to appeal – rather directly – to the contemporary forefronts of musical taste. Throughout the Italian Concerto,elements of the galantstyle are evident in Bach’s structural, harmonic, textural, and melodic decisions. Phrasal and cadential organization, in particular, constitutes one of the most revealing aspects of Bach’s integration of the latest fashion. As opposed to the freely spun-out, lengthy, and often improvisatory method of expanding thematic material, Bach chose to utilize balanced, clear-cut, and aurally divisible musical segments. This approach is a distinct contrast to the fortspinnung style of the late Baroque, which favored continuous musical drive characterized by asymmetry and extensive arabesques.18 The opening ritornello of the work presents a clear instance of the galant tendency for well-defined, proportionate phrase structure – the square, four-bar segment is immediately repeated a perfect fifth above, in measures 5-8 (see Example 1). Such distinctive motives, separated decisively by a quarter rest, represent a vivid

Federico Garcia, “The Nature of Bach’s ‘Italian Concerto’ BWV 971,” 19. David Schulenberg, The Keyboard Music of J.S. Bach(New York: Routledge, 2007), 348. 17 Ibid, 38. 18 Marshall, “Bach the Progressive: Observations on His Later Works,” 330. 15 16

embodiment of the arithmetic symmetry19 and clarity sought after in the galantera. In the third movement – written in the popular ritornello form as the first movement – a similar organizational lucidity can be heard. This time, however, elements of progressivity manifest more strikingly on a larger, more structural scale. Beginning at measure 155, for instance, Bach incorporates a “more thorough recapitulation of episodic material” that brings to mind the layout of the “through-composed sonata form common in galant concertos of the 1740s and later” (see Example 2).20 Recapitulatory gestures as such in the outer movements produce a heightened clarity in form that was emphasized in the newer style. Furthermore, a remarkable balance can be seen from Bach’s phrase-to-phrase structural unity. A prominent instance is found at the very beginning of the Presto movement – each musical idea is presented in orderly, four-bar segments, linked together through an audible harmonic and motivic cohesion. The first twelve measures, beginning with the memorable F major scalar motive, is “answered” through the following twelve bars, creating a natural sense of symmetry (see Example 3). This symmetry is heightened when considering measure thirteen’s thematic material, mirroring the introductory idea precisely while forming a resolution to the half cadence of the previous measures. A perfect authentic cadence at bar 24 produces a definitive close to the section (see Example 3). Bars 1-24, then, can be holistically thought of as reminiscent of the structural implications of a parallel period – a formal technique exhibiting essential traits of the style galant’s affinity for order, architectural elegance, and cadential punctuation. A defining element of the galantlies in its modest usage of sonorities and a relaxed harmonic rhythm. Whereas Bach’s predominant musical style emphasized complex

19 20

Ibid. Schulenberg, The Keyboard Music of J.S. Bach,351-352.

progressions and interwoven dissonances, the Italian Concertofeatures simplified harmonic trajectories and clarity when shifting tonalites. The rate of harmonic change is also slowed down, as typical of the newer musical trends.21 While these characteristics emerge throughout all three movements, they are especially woven into the musical fabric of the Andante.Bars 4-7, or the opening periodic theme, is based upon an underlying progression that returns throughout the movement (see Example 4).22 This short, repeated harmonic underpinning consists of only three chords: i, iv, and vii°7– a substantial reduction from the lengthy chordal trajectories found in more traditionally Baroque compositions. The harmonic rhythm associated with this recurring theme, furthermore, is at a consistently plodding one-change-per-bar, returning predictably to the tonic sonority with each iteration. On a larger scale, Bach’s treatment of key-changes and cadences are likewise indicative of the galantmanner. The tonicization of F major at measure 27, for example, is preceded by an extensive pedal point on the dominant from bar 19-25 – unambiguously foreshadowing the new key (see Example 5).23 This cadential preparation is a prime example of the galant practice of incorporating “long, expectant” passages leading organically toward “strongly-articulated … points of arrival”.24 In this case, the well-defined arrival point is established through a formulaic perfect authentic cadence, landing satisfactorily in the relative major. Furthermore, Bach’s assimilation of the newest cadential practices can be seen through his incorporation of popular schemata. In particular, the mifa-so-dobass pattern to signify musical closure had become a “prototypical, standard clausula in galant music”, referred to as the cadenza simplice.25 This figuration features at

Marshall, “Bach the Progressive: Observations on His Later Works,” 330. Schulenberg, The Keyboard Music of J.S. Bach,351. 23 Ibid. 24 Marshall, “Bach the Progressive: Observations on His Later Works,” 331. 25 Gjerdingen, Music in the Galant Style,141. 21 22

the end of the first movement, from bars 191-192 (see Example 6), serving as a hallmark of the emerging galant idiom. While counterpoint remains present in the Italian Concerto,Bach takes on a decidedly leaner approach to musical texture. Lightness and clarity in the galant style was favored over fugal counterpoint; this is evidenced through a transparent divide between melody and accompaniment, as well as a shift towards homophony.26 The use of vertical chordal figures is especially prominent in the first and third movements, with harmonies being presented in a clear-cut, blocked manner from the beginning (see Examples 1 and 3). From measures 30-41, furthermore, Bach utilizes a texture highly representative of galantprinciples (see Example 7). Here, a sprightly, equally-proportioned melody unfolds over an accompaniment characterized by repeated dyads – a simple figuration emphasizing its role as a harmonic backdrop against a graceful melodic foreground. This thin, yet effective passage is remarkably reminiscent of what could be found in an early Mozartian sonata, effectively embodying the light aesthetic values of the galant. In the Presto, though “the ritornellos are more contrapuntal than those of the first movement”, 27 Bach often limits the density of his polyphony to a single voice for each hand. Bars 25-32, for instance, are composed of only two individual lines – a simplified polyphony that is easily heard as a melody with an accompanimental countermelody (see Example 8). The simpler melodic idea is marked forteby Bach (rather than by a modern publisher), “allowing it to be heard more clearly against the livelier filigree of the other part”.28 This indication is also made possible by the instrumentation of a double-manual harpsichord, allowing clear dynamic distinctions to be made between the manuals. Such a texture emphasizing aural

Heartz, “Galant.” Schulenberg, The Keyboard Music of J.S. Bach,352. 28 Ibid. 26 27

clarity demonstrates the central galantideal of “disentangling … from fugue, complication and labored contrivance”.29 More than many of Bach’s other compositions, the concept of melody – as understood in the pre-Classical style – plays a central role in the Italian Concerto.This manifests through the composers’ choice of motivic and intervallic content, as well as a distinct sense of lyricism found particularly in the second movement. The melody of the Andante(see Example 9) is characterized by an expressive, textless melisma that is evocative of operatic arias from the talian bel canto tradition: an art form perceived as an aesthetic “ideal” of the galant period.30 Moreover, Bach’s melodic writing exhibits a conscious use of succinct, motivic repetition in addition to prototypical schemata. Measures 91-96, for example, feature three iterations of matching motivic content, leading towards a descending Fonte-type gesture (where a brief musical idea in the minor is repeated one step lower in a major mode) in bars 97-98 (see Example 10). This type of configuration can be found in numerous Italian partimenti, and is classified by eighteenth-century theorist Joseph Riepel as a standard galant schema.31 Bach’s usage of “short motivic units”32 and repetition in this passage are further characteristic of the latest musical fashion (see Example 10). From a more microscopic perspective, this progressivity is also reflected in the subtle intervallic organization of the work. Bach deemphasizes “difficult” – and as Robert Marshall puts it – “poignant” intervals common in the Baroque vocabulary, in favor of intuitive, graceful motion and “sweet” vertical combinations such as parallel thirds and sixths.33 These values are apparent in the ritornellos of the first movement, featuring

Heartz, “Galant.” Ibid. 31 Gjerdingen, Music in the Galant Style,61. 32 Marshall, “Bach the Progressive: Observations on His Later Works,” 353. 33 Ibid, 330. 29 30

stepwise parallel thirds (see Example 1), and the pervading, consonant octave-based flourishes in the third movement (Example 3). While Bach’s compositional style was often viewed as conservative, or even archaic during the emergence of the galantstyle, certain works from his mid-to-late career demonstrate a capacity for elements of the latest fashion. The Italian Concertoof 1735 presents an exemplary nstance of such an inclination, adopting the characteristic galant values of simplicity, elegance, and clarity. These principles manifest through various aspects of the musical fabric, and are evidenced through Bach’s periodic phrasal organization, textural lightening, and permeating harmonic and melodic choices. In addition, the incorporation of galantschemata represents a conscious, creative internalization of the newest musical prototypes. As such, the Italian Concerto sheds light on Bach as a multi-dimensional composer, absorbing idioms and influences from the increasingly popular style galant into his unique compositional language.

MUSICAL EXAMPLES Example 1. First movement, mm. 1-8.

Example 2. Third movement, measure 155 and onwards.

Example 3: Third movement, mm. 1-24.

Example 4: Second movement, mm 4-7.

Example 5: Second movement, mm. 19-27.

Example 6: First movement, mm. 191-192.

Example 7: First movement, mm. 30-41.

Example 8: Third movement, mm. 25-32.

Example 9: Second movement, mm. 1-12.

Example 10. First movement, mm. 91-98.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Bach, Johann S. Italian Concerto, BWV 971,ed. Carl Ferdinand Beckner. Leipzig: BachGesellschaft and Breitkopf und Härtel,1853. Garcia, Federico. “The Nature of Bach’s ‘Italian Concerto’ BWV 971.” Bach36, no. 1 (2005): 124. Gjerdingen, Robert. Music in the Galant Style.New York: Oxford University Press, 2007. Heartz, Daniel, and Bruce Alan Brown. “Galant.” Grove Music Online.Oxford Music Online. 2001. https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.10512. Marshall, Robert L. “Bach the Progressive: Observations on His Later Works.” The Musical Quarterly 62, no. 3 (1976): 313-57. Nott, Kenneth. “‘Tilge, Höchster, meine Sünden’: Observations on Bach and the ‘Style Galant’.” Bach23, no. 1 (1992): 3-30. Schulenberg, David. The Keyboard Music of J.S. Bach.New York: Routledge, 2007. Wolff, Christoph, and Walter Emery. “Bach, Johann Sebastian.” Grove Music Online.Oxford Music Online, 2001. https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.6002278195.

About the Author Tamiya Anderson graduated from Pfeiffer University in Misenheimer, North Carolina with a Bachelor of Arts in English and minor in Communication. As an undergraduate, she was a member of the Honors Program and served two years as Lead Fiction Editor, Creative Nonfiction Editor, and Co-Editor-in-Chief of her university’s literary journal, The Phoenix. As a writer and editor in the Tar Heel state, her favorite part of the job is connecting with local business owners and sharing their stories. Her work has been published in Our State, QC Exclusive Magazine, Blue Crow Publishing, and The Flexible Persona. 70

Abstract The last several decades have seen substantial fluctuations in the publishing industry and its ever-shifting understandings of experimentalism and small press success. Literary experimentation is rooted in a narrative that is heavily impacted by the reception of Modernist little magazines that were constructed, carefully, to expose avant-garde ideas and supply platforms for underrepresented voices in artistic and literary communities. Yet through the years, many critics and scholars undervalued little magazines, and many still do. With the industry’s fierce shift towards market-place autonomy, this paper presents two publishing companies— The Rumpus and McSweeney’s—that have fostered changes in fiction, flash fiction, and a variety of sub-genres deemed “daring” or less valuable to a traditionally structured canon. Through closely viewing the unified strength of the small press industry, this shift revels that success in not simply measured by profit or commercial commodification, but rather bythe ways small publishers have managed to withstand continuous fluctuations of the industry. In a case study analyzing the commercial practices of small publishers The Rumpus and McSweeney’s, this paper will defend the influence of twentieth-century little magazines on contemporary periodicals, expose reconstructed understandings of industry resilience, and offer a sound methodology for understanding this cyclical, reader-oriented paradigm.

A Case Study of Small Press Success in The Rumpus and McSweeney’s: How Valuing Experimental Work and the Avant-Garde Generates Community Introduction The publishing industry is in a time of continuous change. Small presses, or independent publishing houses, sustain an independent or fully staffed publishing team that manages a smaller enterprise than big-name publishers.34 As the industry moves in a direction that endures several transitions and developments, this paper works to catalog the efforts of certain small presses in this time of technological, operational, and structural flux. Since the fifteenth-century development of the printing press, the publishing industry has endured several core operational shifts. Market place pressure and the transition to a digital landscape have resulted in the development of power structures that work against experimental publishers who are grappling for a minor stake in the market. Literary experimentation is a practice, commonly used in fiction or poetry, that highlights stylistic variation in written form, structure, or techniques. Often, experimental works are less likely to be published. In recent years, however, loyalty in readership has been the driving force behind a small publishing company’s sustainability. As an outcome, the tangible connections that small presses are generating have made them a fierce competitor to larger industry corporations and have redefined success in the publishing industry. In a case study analyzing the commercial practices of small publishers, this paper will present two publishing companies—The Rumpus and McSweeney’s—that have fostered changes in fiction, flash fiction, and experimental prose. Both were established after the Modernist period, and as such, their recognition is pivotal to understanding how little magazines have impacted postmodern publishing houses. Little magazines in print were twentieth-century

Bill Henderson, “The Small Book Press: A Cultural Essential.” The Library Quarterly: Information, Community, Policy, vol. 54, no. 1, 1984, pp. 61–71. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/4307694. 34

periodicals devoted to literary experimentalism and avant-garde ideas.35 Modernist writers who have influenced experimental works of our time used twentieth-century periodicals as a platform for experimentation, and often rebellion. Yet, little magazines were undervalued in the scope of traditional forms of literary publishing. Using The Rumpus and McSweeney’s, I argue that literary experimentation supplies a platform for writers in defense of the avant-garde. While those who were published in these magazines were often unseasoned beginners, many of today’s wellknown writers, including T.S. Eliot and Ezra Pound, gained notable fame as a result of featured pieces in little magazines. Modernist periodicals, like these two companies, were essential to the development of American poetry, as they fused global relationships between artistic and literary communities. Today, The Rumpus and McSweeney’s depict the unified strength of the small press industry. In a competitive marketplace, building a community of readers and releasing publications in tandem is necessary to assure both become sustainable. Presently, writers Cheryl Strayed, published with The Rumpus and Robert Coover, published with McSweeney’s, embrace the shift that invites reader’s contributions, much like Ernest Hemingway, Ezra Pound, and Virginia Woolf, who set the baseline for a new understanding of the place of little magazines. Despite criticism, small presses have steadily maintained a community between writers and readers; and with it, a cyclical, reader-oriented paradigm has emerged that has redetermined understandings of industry resilience. With its reconstruction, publication success is no longer measured by profit or commercial commodification, but rather by the ways small publishers have managed to withstand the continuous fluctuations of the industry. By detailing the role of experimentation, this paper will defend the influence of twentieth-century little magazines on

John Frederick Hoffman., et al, The Little Magazine: A History and a Bibliography.New York: Kraus Reprint Corp., 1967.

contemporary periodicals, expose reconstructed understandings of industry resilience, and offer a sound methodology for analyzing the ever-shifting nature of the publishing industry that extends far beyond the pages of modernist little magazines.

Case Study I: The Rumpus Small presses call for a way to grasp the rapid technological, operational, and structural transformations in the publishing industry since Ralph Emerson’s creation of the first modernist little magazine, The Dial. A sound approach to conceive of such shifts is to explore presses that have fostered radical change. Similar to little magazines, independent publishers and small presses often stand in the shadows of companies within the industry’s “Big 5”: Hachette, Harper Collins, Macmillan, Penguin Random House, and Simon & Schuster. The publishing standards set by these companies provide a sense of structure, tradition, and guarantee excellence. Anything that challenges the top industry standards is often dismissed by the Big 5. Small presses battle this paradigm of tradition in their efforts to publish experimental work coming away with few victories. As contemporary digital publishers rely heavily on the rise and fall of the industry’s recurring changes, The Rumpuseffectively functions in a space of experimental publishing and supports the literary avant-garde. In 2009, Stephen Elliot founded The Rumpus,a digital literary magazine that features essays as well as perspectives on books, music, films, fiction, poetry, and interviews. However, in 2017, The Rumpus was bought out by Maris Siegel, who currently serves as editor-in-chief.36 The site operates two subscription-based book clubs and two subscription-based letter programs, “Letters in the Mail” and “Letters for Kids.”37 As a postmodern publisher, the literary

36 37

“What is The Rumpus?” The Rumpus, 2019,https://therumpus.net/about-4/ “The Rumpus Book Club.” The Rumpus, 2019,https://therumpus.net/bookclub/

magazine is devoted to providing its readers with works that feature voices that offer varied perspectives—writers such as Cheryl Strayed—who challenge literature’s canon much like twentieth-century writers during the Modernist period. The Rumpus emphasizes its mission by affirming, “we work to shine a light on stories that build bridges, tear down walls, and speak truth to power…We want to change the conversation.”38 With this goal, The Rumpus promotes itself by stressing the significance of spotlighting underrepresented voices alongside those of more established writers, emulating the mission of modernist little magazines. Changing the Conversation Just as commercial literature is designed to keep readers absorbed in a story, small presses strive to keep readers hooked on experimental prose. Through its digital medium, The Rumpus has managed to reach both artistic and literary communities that press toward the idea of pulp. The ability to cater to both audiences is a critically important facet, as experimental writing has become more acceptable in our postmodern literary community. Critics like Kenyon Cox worry that the soul of the avant-garde—innovation for its own sake39—will get lost by members of these communities with the desire to make progress in the industry: Let us clear our minds, then, of the illusion that there is in any important sense such a thing as progress in the fine arts. We may with a clear conscience judge every new work for what it appears in itself to be, asking of it that it be noble and beautiful and reasonable, not that it be novel or progressive.40

Experimental literature, however, is not a form solely adopted by artistic and literary communities amongst The Rumpus’ vast audience, but also by a gamut of professional and academic readers. Twentieth-century little magazines share similarities with this twenty-first “What is The Rumpus?” The Rumpus, 2019,https://therumpus.net/about-4/ Louis Torres, “Interminable Monopoly of the Avant-Garde.” After the Avant-Garde: Reflections on the Future of the Fine Arts,165-168. Edited by Elizabeth Millán. (Illinois: Open CourtPublishing Company, 2016), 168. 40 Torres, 168. 38 39

century publisher especially as it pertains to the variety of selected works. The Rumpus markets itself as a platform that shifts literature onto a community of voices and introduces readers to authors we have “never heard of before”41—a community that would otherwise not have access to these texts. One way they have built communities is through their feature of Cheryl Strayed’s collection of “Dear Sugar” columns. The goal of the online columns, which were later collected in the form of Strayed’s book, Tiny Beautiful Things: Advice on Love and Life from Dear Sugar, is to provide first-hand advice on love, life, and the greater complexities of human existence. The book has since transformed into a podcast run by Strayed and the column’s original writer, Steve Almond. Since 2010, “Dear Sugar” has mobilized The Rumpus’ mission to “speak truth to power.”42 Embracing the self-help genre in the form of an advice column captures the image of experimentalism as well as the ways in which it is communicated in a new decade. For contemporary literary magazines, publishing genre-bending texts, such as experimental fiction, holds an enduring history. Not only are traditional plot structures unnecessary in these works, but the genre is central to conversations about the reception of these texts and the boundaries they push. According to Ceridwen Dovey, a writer for The New Yorker,“reading fiction is one of the few remaining paths to transcendence, that elusive state in which the distance between the self and the universe shrinks.”43 Shortly after the publication of this piece, The Rumpus published this quotation to feature in their 2015 column. For the small press, experimental prose doesn’t always allow readers to stay comfortable. It keeps them vigilant, disempowers conventions, and pushes the envelope. With languid prose and outspoken candor, Strayed both challenges and complicates understandings of literary genre. While her column is

“What is The Rumpus?” The Rumpus, 2019,https://therumpus.net/about-4/ “What is The Rumpus?” 43 Ceridwen Dovey, Can Reading Make You Happier? New York: The New Yorker, 2015. 41 42

successful in offering comfort in the darkest pits of human suffering, it also exists as an example of the ways that The Rumpus has been receptive to the fluctuations of the publishing industry. Equally, the column is, in every respect, experimental, which upholds the nature of what little magazines have done in years past. Strayed focuses on the concerns of her readers, including the platforms supplied for marginalized voices. In Strayed’s forty-eighth column, an anonymous female writer reaches out to her regarding concerns over “writing like a girl.”44 In response, the author addresses that while society has come far in featuring the suppressed voices of women and people of color, these voices are still “often framed as specific rather than universal, small rather than big, and personal or particular rather than socially significant.”45 The dedication to supply this platform is also present in The Rumpus’ other featured columns, including “Rumpus Original Fiction” and “Rumpus Original Poems.”46 The columns headline a number of works produced by an assortment of everyday writers who vary in race, gender, and occupation. The platform supplied by The Rumpus exemplifies the very mission of both contemporary and modernist experimentalism: to starve, shatter, and dismantle our ordinary expectations of literature by drawing specialized attention to a wide array of topics originating from many different perspectives. Experimentalism in Practice The Rumpus acknowledges its indebtedness to literary techniques implemented during the twentieth-century. Steve Almond emphasizes the need to publish experimental works in the introduction of Strayed’s book, Tiny Beauty Things:

Cheryl Strayed, Tiny Beautiful Things: Advice on Love and Life from Dear Sugar (London: Atlantic Books, 2018), 53. 45 Strayed, 59. 46 “What is The Rumpus?”

Radical empathy isn’t the fashion of the day. Late-model capitalism works overtime to keep us focused on the product, not the people. That’s why we need Sugar so badly right now. You’ll see what I mean when you turn the page. Run toward the darkness, sweet peas, and shine.47 Almond’s introductory message reflects the mission of The Rumpus with the inclusion of the tag end of the quotation “Run towards the darkness, sweet peas, and shine.” His language suggests an intimate call to readers, much akin to the literary community formed between readers and publishers of experimental works. Modernist little magazines, like Dora Marsden’s The Freewoman Review, a short-lived weekly feminist review, are isolated from stigmatized conventions of the pre-twentieth-century literary canon. The periodical’s spotlight on minority voices is a poignant facet in the mission of little magazines. By choosing pieces that are often cast aside by the elite such as mixed-genre short stories in the “The Rumpus Original Fiction,” while showcasing experimental texts like Strayed’s that are seemingly untouchable, both The Rumpus and past little magazines publish work that some would argue to be illegitimate literary writing. Almond also addressed Strayed’s literature when he said: “She is able to transmute the raw material of the self-help aisle into genuine literature.”48 This genuine literature is still a challenge towards standardized practices of creative nonfiction, as the text inherently rejects traditional conventions of plot structure and aesthetic resonance. Publishing experimental writings in The Rumpusis a piercing transition from the concern that pervades other big house companies. The Rumpusworks to dismantle the stigma behind unpredictability of the public response to these texts. In the past, this uncertainty has often led presses to avoid publishing these works in their collections. According to Eric White, author of Transatlantic Avant-Gardes: Little Magazines and Localist Modernism:

47 48

Strayed, 9. Strayed, 6.

As Pound was aware, modernist print culture gave editors the chance to create a physical centre around which a vortex of ink and energy could flow. The little magazine inaugurated new aesthetic principles, or held existing ones in suspension before they were picked up or developed by the next generation.49

White’s stance speaks volumes to both the significance of little magazines as well as the purpose of publishers, like The Rumpus,in the small press industry. First, there is great value in his statement, “modernist print culture gave editors the chance to create a physical centre around which a vortex of energy could flow.”White emphasizes the freedom that idiosyncratic texts and forums have offered by dismissing stigmatized notions of the written form. The postmodern print culture which The Rumpusworks to normalize promotes the importance of publishing such experimental works. Additionally, White describes this development as “new aesthetic principles.” This is a peculiar phrasing since what was once viewed as experimental is not always viewed this way. Just as The Rumpusis the medium for these writings to reemerge, it was the little magazines that allowed experimental publications to dispense access to the larger public. Moreover, the current principles, “developed by the next generation,”50 speak to twenty-first century readers who have displayed a growing interest in the small press community. The Rumpus integrates twentieth-century methods of experimentation into their vessel of published works as a means to foster a bridge between underrepresented voices alongside more established writers. The magazine has crafted a platform where writers such as Cheryl Strayed illuminate the history of the modernist little magazine by pursuing literature

Eric White, Transatlantic Avant-Gardes: Little Magazines and Localist Modernism. (Scotland: Edinburgh University Press, 2013), 2. 50 White, 2.

unconventionally. The following section will cast light on McSweeney’s, as they have also championed Modernism’s literary avant-garde.

Case Study II: McSweeney’s McSweeney’s provides the literary community an eccentric outlook on small press publishing. The company has contributed to launching the careers of several well-known authors, while also paying tribute to major, dominant voices in the industry. The recognition of tenured writers past alongside the debut of new ones is the brand of McSweeney’s publishing and separates them from companies like The Rumpus.The following section highlights the history of McSweeney’sand the long-standing literary community from which they developed. More specifically, the ways that the literary communities of McSweeney’semulate the communities formed through the modernist little magazine. Deep Roots in a New Decade In 1998, Dave Eggers established the publishing company McSweeney’s, an independent nonprofit firm located in San Francisco, California. The company manages a daily humor website, while it also publishes Timothy McSweeney’s Quarterly Concernand Illustoria, a family-friendly magazine that celebrates visual storytelling and DIY culture.51 Additionally, McSweeney’s has an augment of book collections created under several imprints such as Collins Library, reprints of forgotten classics and McSweeney’s McMullens, a children’s book department.52 Over the years, the company has devoted itself to pushing against standardized conventions of the traditional literary canon. On their website they state, “McSweeney’s exists to champion ambitious and inspired new writing, and to challenge conventional expectations

51 52

“McSweeney’s Internet Tendency.” McSweeney’s Internet Tendency,2020, https://www.mcsweeneys.net “McSweeney’s Internet Tendency.”

about where it’s found, how it looks, and who participates.”53 Their mission underscores the vocation of twentieth-century writers who sought to protect and advocate for the avant-garde, as it echoes modernist experimental principles. While publishing well-established and respected writers including Stephen King, Sarah Vowell, and David Foster Wallace, new writers and artists can till find a place for their work amidst McSweeney’svarious magazines and book imprints. McSweeney’s, therefore, markets itself by spotlighting the significance of challenging what was once deemed experimental and pursuing the most transcendent form of postmodern literature. In a column published in 2010, founder Dave Eggers revealed the long-awaited journey that led to the creation of McSweeney’spublishing. In 1998, he began collecting fiction, essays, and experiments that fell short of finding publication.54 Eggers stated, “Because the journal consisted of work that didn’t fit in mainstream publishing, I decided to name the journal Timothy McSweeney’s Quarterly Concern.”55 While the name Timothy McSweeney is not his own, the publishing company’s name represents a significant history. When he was young, Eggers and his mother—whose maiden name coincidentally was McSweeney—began receiving unusual letters from a man named Timothy McSweeney.56

This seemingly strange pattern of

occurrences later served as inspiration for the name of Eggers’ publishing company and speaks to the eccentric nature of the company’s experimental publications today. The collection of experimental writings, like the all-Latin-American-crime lineup in the forty-sixth issue and British novelist Adam Thrilwell’s serial translation project, is what has drawn unexpected parallels between modernist little magazines and this contemporary publisher. Its writers therefore wield

“McSweeney’s Internet Tendency.” Dave Eggers, “The Real Timothy McSweeney” McSweeney’s Internet Tendency, 2010, https://www.mcsweeneys.net/articles/the-real-timothy-mcsweeney 55 Ibid. 56 Ibid. 53

far more impact in their efforts to undermine reader assumptions by challenging literary tropes and genre rules. Allured by the unique originality of these texts, Eggers took it upon himself to find them a home. This resulted in the progressive powerhouse which continues to uphold the responsibility of twentieth-century forgotten experimentalists. In November of 2019, the Executive Director of McSweeney’sAmanda Uhle emphasized how much the company valued their supporters. In the letter, Uhle posits: In this current climate, where print books and magazines are beginning to feel like rare birds, where traditional publishing is ever more profit-driven, and the cost of paper and printing continue to rise, all of us at McSweeney’sare steadfast in our refusal to sacrifice the quality of our work. We’re able to hold down this fort, to continue breaking and remaking what literature can look like and what forms it can be found in thanks to our donors and readers, who have invested in this experiment…57 This sentiment conveys the company’s enduring determination which has persisted over the past twenty-two years. Uhle upholds McSweeney’smission to advocate for new writing and to challenge conventional expectations of literature that place more value in commercial gain than in the writers that make print culture possible. What once began as an “experiment” is now a company that has disproved the stigmas surrounding the literary canon. As we enter a new decade, McSweeney’s continues to display artful texts with roots that trace back to the influence of the very artists and writers who set the baseline for literary experimentalism. Small Press Autonomy In an article entitled McSweeney’s and the Challenges of the Marketplace for Independent Publishing, scholars from Purdue University Press deconstruct the ever-present conflict that several small presses battle: autonomy versus marketplace expansion.

Amanda Uhle, “A Letter From Our Executive Director.” McSweeney’s Internet Tendency, 2019, https://www.mcsweeneys.net/articles/a-letter-from-our-executive-director 57

Researchers Katrien Bollen, Stef Craps, and Pieter Vermeulen argue that this tension is rooted in a dynamic of commodification.58 After thorough evaluation, the scholars affirm: McSweeney’s redefines the terms of the debate about the difference between corporate and independent publishing values and practices: the magazine does not so much reject commercial publishers’ interest in economic gain as their lack of attention to graphic design and the aesthetic qualities of literary artifacts.59

The scholars draw attention to the tension that has built up between small presses and the industry’s “Big 5.” Though McSweeney’s does not match the magnitude of these larger companies, they broadcast gripping pieces that notable mainstream presses tend to overlook. One of their best pieces is Robert Coover’s Stepmother, a collection of fictional short stories that presents a reinvention of fairytale folklore. McSweeney’s identifies Coover as “a father of modern American experimental fiction,”60 as his piece upholds the mission of their experimental platform with linguistic vitality and satire. Embedded in the text are various uses of experimentalism that mirror those used in twentieth-century little magazines. The story addresses a stepmother’s dissatisfaction with the stereotypical fairytale conventions of being “wicked.” Coover battled the literary idea of “acceptable” twentieth-century literature as he worked to humanize the image of an otherwise “wicked” character. For example, while trying to save her stepdaughter from impending doom, the stepmother cries, “My poor desperate daughter, her head is locked on one thing and one thing only: how to escape her inescapable fate.”61 The compassion shown through a character, whose dark role has been experimentally reversed, depicts humanity in a new, complicated light that challenges the traditional good

Katrien Bollen, et al, "McSweeney's and the Challenges of the Marketplace for Independent Publishing." Perdue University Press. CLCWeb: Comparative Literature and Culture,vol. 15, no. 4, 2013, pp. 11. 59

Bollen, 11. “McSweeney’s Internet Tendency.” 61 Robert Coover, Stepmother.(California: McSweeney’s Books, 2004), 1. 60

versus evil framework in literature. Furthermore, this publication by McSweeney's challenges acclaimed publishers who often overlook works that break the conventions of traditional literature. From tongue-in-cheek columns in the Quarterly Concern to experimental books such as Coover’s Stepmother,works published under the McSweeney’s brand provide evidence which supports desired marketplace autonomy. In the spirit of taking risks, when McSweeney’s announced their decision to transition to a nonprofit business, the company stated, “We want to continue to pursue a wide range of ambitious projects—projects that take risks, that support ideas beyond the mainstream marketplace, and that nurture emerging work.”62 Indeed, this small publisher holds tight to its eccentric literary roots. With a desire to find a place for works that had been cast aside by the publishing elite, Eggers’ company was not originally established with the intent of commercial longevity, but he noticed the need to branch out and give a platform to a new literary community that pushes artistic boundaries. Without modernist writers of the twentieth century who have paved the way for contemporary periodicals such as The Rumpus and McSweeney’s, the literary canon would wither. Small presses nurture the development of the bond between reader and writer in the same way the literary community is boosted by The Rumpus and McSweeney’s.The following section unifies the overarching bond that has been established by experimental publishers. These publishers not only lift up underrepresented writers but also help them forge a stronger connection with their audiences.

Part III: A Unified Strength

“McSweeney’s Internet Tendency.”

The relationship between The Rumpusand McSweeney’spresents how significant it is for small presses to establish a bond between themselves and the readers who champion their development. These valuable connections commonly unfold as a result of the strategic use of social outreach by the companies. McSweeney’sin San Francisco has used its platform to strengthen philanthropic initiatives through the founding of a non-profit tutoring and writing center, 826 Valencia, located in the Mission District of the city.63 Their efforts have resulted in achieving fame for beginners in the industry, including publishing work written by their students. In a similar fashion, The Rumpus’ connection to their audience has grown from a desire to represent voices that are often unrepresented. The magazine was founded under the belief that “literature is community.”64 To forge this community, editor-in-chief Marisa Siegal offers free, personal emails through The Rumpusweekly newsletter. The efforts of both publishers have created poignant connections with their readers, an artistry that most small presses share due to their targeted approach to smaller, tight-knit communities. The development of readership connection leads us to an intricate model of each small press which exposes a solid, unified foundation offered by both publishers to their writers and their community. Community Building Navigating the connection between writer and reader offers a sense of unification. Because small publishing houses are more likely to seek out and publish new authors, whereas the larger companies look for authors with name recognition or a notable track record, the need for this connection is intricate. In the twentieth-century, little magazines functioned as a space for experimental writers, such as Gertrude Stein and Joseph Conrad, to publish their work and gain popularity in a modernist society that privileged traditional forms of literary expression.

63 64

“McSweeney’s Internet Tendency.” “What is The Rumpus?”

Their works represented a common trend of feelings of uncertainty and dissatisfaction with global conditions post World War I. Often they found these feelings reciprocated by their readers and other experimental writers. At the same time, the presentation of these ideas in little magazines threatened the traditional social and literary expectations of what big presses allowed and what they determined must be dismissed. The influence of the communities built by publishing companies that have been labeled “little” and “small” negates their value to our overarching literary community. However, these companies have fostered relationships that promote success in a continuously changing publishing industry. The debate between experimental literature and standard literary practices holds a controversial history. Discourses such as the reception of modernist writer Gertrude Stein’s nonlinear writing style spotlighted the forging of a progressive community between authors and readers. However, their practices were merely deemed “experimental,” rather than being acknowledged as the new wave of progressive literature which is here to stay. Harriet Monore, founder of Poetry: A Magazine of Verse,featured texts on a broad-spectrum of American poets, poets associated with the Harlem Renaissance, and several nonnative writers. 65 Her magazine’s diverse style and “Open Door” policy, which allowed writers to submit their work regardless of where, by whom, or under what theory of art it was written, speaks volumes to little magazine community-building efforts.66 These works expressed common feelings of dissatisfaction through the utilization of simplified language in order to open the conversation to all members of the community. At the same time, criticism of these periodicals persists because the publication of popular, mainstream works are often viewed as more valuable. Yet, this criticism did not halt the production of little magazines that were about to emerge. Dora

Susan Belasco and Linck Johnson, “Modernisms in American Poetry.” The Bedford Anthology of American Literature: 1865 To The Present,2nd ed. New York: Bedfrd / St.Martin’s, 2014. 66 The Modernist Journals Project. “Periodicals Directory.” Brown and Tulsa Universities, ongoing. www.modjourn.org 65

Marsden’s The Egoist,a direct continuation of The New Freewoman, ran as a bi-monthly issue from 1914 to 1919 in London.67 Magazines that have stood the test of time such as Monroe’s Poetry: A Magazine of Verse,founded in 1912 and still in print today, shamelessly opened a new conversation: “What is lost once small presses become big?” Today, small house publishers such as The Rumpus and McSweeney’s further the legacy of small press resilience that was paved by modernist little magazines. For The Rumpus, honoring this legacy not only meant establishing a platform for marginalized voices but also creating a forum where the works of these writers can be discussed. Each month, The Rumpus Book Club sends subscribers an unreleased book to discuss throughout the month. In the weeks following, The Rumpus holds an online discussion with the author and readers.68 On the other hand, McSweeney’sbecame a nonprofit organization in 2014, which resulted in a pressing need for their readers’ active support through subscriptions and donations.69 During this transition, the company stated, “We believe that becoming a nonprofit will allow McSweeney’sto sustain itself for many years to come, with the help of an expanded community of donors, writers, and readers.”70 Widespread interaction with literature is the foundation of each company and represents both an emulation and departure from little magazines past. Digital Networking The Rumpus and McSweeney’s demonstrate a fully established connection to the digital community while still releasing printed collections of their inventory. Their digital presence has opened a new door to writer-reader connections that add a complex, yet accessible layer to both companies’ marketing paradigm. Their online communities have also extended to

“The Modernist Journals Project.”

“The Rumpus Book Club.” “McSweeney’s Internet Tendency.” 70 “McSweeney’s Internet Tendency.” 68 69

modernist little magazines in places such as The University of Tulsa, which has worked to make twentieth-century periodicals accessible in a new age by providing public access to PDF files of magazines. Matthew Stadler, an author published in Literary Publishing in The Twenty-First Century,writes:

Reading is open-ended, provisional, conversational. It’s not solitary, but deeply collective. We might be alone with a book, but the book fills our heads with other voices and puts our thoughts into conversation, not only with the writer but with countless other readers, real and imagined.71

As an online literary magazine, The Rumpus rivals the disconnect between physical presence and cyber networking. However, their letter subscription program “Letters in the Mail” has perfectly substituted their lack of physicality. “Letters in the Mail” is a bi-weekly program in which subscribers receive typed or handwritten letters, some including illustrations, comics, or poems, signed by hand by authors.”72 The company states, “Think of it as the letters you used to get from your friends before email, except now your friends are your writers!” 73 As Stadler argues, reading is no longer “solitary,”74 due to contemporary presses that network through a digital medium. Similarly, McSweeney’s has opened its website to submissions all across the globe and their daily humor website works as a tool for further reader-author connections. McSweeney’s tells their growing mass of readers and writers, “All of the satire and comedy we publish on this website comes from complete strangers such as yourselves.” Through the

Matthew Stadler, "The Ends of The Book: Reading, Economies, and Publics." Literary Publishing in The Twenty-First Century,14-31. Edited by Tavis Kurowski, et al. Minnesota: Milkweed Editions, 2016. 72 “McSweeney’s Internet Tendency.” 73 “McSweeney’s Internet Tendency.” 74 Stadler, 14-31.

agency of this program, writers who are often considered strangers to their readers are made present, which further supports Stadler’s argument of reading collectivism. To keep pace with changes in the industry, the transition to digital platforms for output and marketing enhances proliferate strength in the publishing industry. One of their most significant developments is their utilization of Search Engine Optimization (SEO). SEO places the name and link of a website at the top of a list of keywords provided by a search engine. Publishing companies that have implemented this approach have utilized the digital age as a blueprint for advanced promotional strategy and global outreach. The Rumpusand McSweeney’s have incorporated strategies like SEO, transforming digitized media into a means of networking and recruitment with readers and experimental writers through their digital and printed publications. At the same time, the rivalry between physical and digital publications has created a chasm that continues to fuel the age-old debate since Michael Stern Hart’s digitization of the United States Declaration of Independence in 1971.75 Since then, the onslaught of digitization has been used by larger presses as a marketing approach that aims toward increasing accessibility and promotion. For small presses like The Rumpus and McSweeney’s who thrive on their digital community, this progress emulates an even greater mission to bridge the gap between reader and writer. Both small presses work to advance the same objectives of twentieth-century little magazines and reveal the unified strength of the small press industry.

Conclusion Literary experimentation faces the twenty-first century in a time of continuous change and challenges. Now, concerns veer toward the question of whether or not contemporary periodicals are able to maintain this experimental path. The philosophy of instituting 75

Marie Lebert, A Short History of eBooks.Project Gutenberg, 2009. PDF.

experimentalism in modern-day practice presents us with a vivid snapshot of the literary culture built by our community of small presses, authors, and readers. In terms of autonomy, this concern is a continuous battle as small presses strive to maintain the integrity of what charters their companies’ worth—the spirit of writer-reader intimacy, and the communities that are birthed out of the ingenuity of experimentalism. Throughout the last fifty years of publishing, the literary community has seen several shifts, including the transition from the industry’s “Big 12,” a nickname given to the top twelve trade publishers, to the “Big 5.” The twenty-first century introduces a fascinating time for publishing. Contemporary periodicals, digital and print, are moving at warp speed. The drive to write against the “capital ‘L’ literature” and some of the companies within the publishing world’s “Big 5” threatens a tradition that has been defined since the introduction of the first modernist little magazine. As the literary community has witnessed, these changes have often included the transition from profit to nonprofit, as done by McSweeney’s in 2014. This transition has also resulted in a major shift toward a primarily digital medium, as we have seen in the conception of The Rumpusin 2009. Despite continual shifts in the market, there persists a strong appeal to the value of a small press, and the experimental variety that is championed through these companies. Therefore, these houses offer a collective network of patrons for the avant-garde. Undeniably, literature evolves over time and continues to develop each year in the industry. Steve Wasserman, publisher and director for Heyday Books,writes, “The history of writing, however, gives us every reason to be confident that new forms of literacy excellence will emerge, every bit as rigorous, pleasurable, and enduring as the vaunted forms of yesteryear.”76 Wasserman’s statement hits at the core of the current and past state of our literary community.

Steve Wasserman, "The Amazon Effect." Literary Publishing in The Twenty-First Century,32-57. Edited by Tavis Kurowski, et al. Minnesota: Milkweed Editions, 2016.

The breach between experimentalism and mainstream conventions of the literary canon has, and will most likely continue, to unfold as a sharp division in small press readership. The “confidence,” that Wasserman speaks of, however, can be comforted with the assurance that what was once viewed as “experimental” is becoming slowly accepted into today’s new age. Publishing houses like The Rumpusand McSweeney’shave supplied a space where these works can be recognized outside of the industry’s schism between established tradition and experimentalism. The narrative of the small press rooted in little magazines of the past continues to challenge the established canon as that which defines literary greatness.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Belasco, Susan and Linck Johnson. “Modernisms in American Poetry.” The Bedford Anthology of American Literature: 1865 To The Present,2nd ed. New York: Bedford / St.Martin’s, 2014. Bollen, Katrien, et al. "McSweeney's and the Challenges of the Marketplace for Independent Publishing."Purdue University Press. CLCWeb: Comparative Literature and Culture, vol. 15, no. 4, 2013, pp. 11. Coover, Robert. Stepmother.California: McSweeney’s Books, 2004. Dovey, Ceridwen. Can Reading Make You Happier?New York: The New Yorker, 2015. Eggers, Dave. “The Real Timothy McSweeney.” McSweeney’s Internet Tendency, 2010, https://www.mcsweeneys.net/articles/the-real-timothy-mcsweeney Henderson, Bill. “The Small Book Press: A Cultural Essential.” The Library Quarterly: Information, Community, Policy,vol. 54, no. 1, 1984, pp. 61–71. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/4307694. Hoffman, Frederick John., et al. The Little Magazine: A History and a Bibliography.New York: Kraus Reprint Corp., 1967. “McSweeney’s Internet Tendency.” McSweeney’s Internet Tendency,2020, https://www.mcsweeneys.net Lebert, Marie. A Short History of eBooks.Project Gutenberg, 2009. PDF. Stadler, Matthew. "The Ends of The Book: Reading, Economies, and Publics."Literary Publishing in The Twenty-First Century,14-31. Edited by Tavis Kurowski, et al. Minnesotta: Milkweed Editions, 2016. Strayed, Cheryl. Tiny Beautiful Things: Advice on Love and Life from Someone Who's Been There. London: Atlantic Books, 2018. The Modernist Journals Project. “Periodicals Directory.” Brown and Tulsa Universities, ongoing. www.modjourn.org “The Rumpus Book Club.” The Rumpus, 2019,https://therumpus.net/bookclub/ Torres, Louis. “Interminable Monopoly of the Avant-Garde.” After the Avant-Garde: Reflections on the Future of the Fine Arts,165-168. Edited by Elizabeth Millán. Illinois: Open Court Publishing Company, 2016. Uhle, Amanda. “A Letter From Our Executive Director.” McSweeney’s Internet Tendency, 2019, https://www.mcsweeneys.net/articles/a-letter-from-our-executive-director

Steve. "The Amazon Effect."Literary Publishing in The Twenty-First Century, 32-57. Edited by Tavis Kurowski, et al. Minesotta: Milkweed Editions, 2016. “What is The Rumpus?” The Rumpus, 2019,https://therumpus.net/about-4/ White, Eric. Transatlantic Avant-Gardes: Little Magazines and Localist Modernism. Scotland: Edinburgh University Press, 2013.

By Shafeli Golchha Jyoti Dalal School of Liberal Arts, NMIMS University, Mumbai.

The Principles of Trauma Informed Care in the Context of Childhood Domestic Violence I. Introduction With the global discussion surrounding human rights constantly expanding, people express continued concern about their own safety, vulnerability, and agency. This is reflected in the number of crimes against children, women, and minorities that surface each day and the scholarly work that is derived from these experiences. Patricia Uberoi, known for studying family, marriage, and kinship systems in India, mentions that, while the family is imagined as a safe space, it is also a site of exploitation and violence. The mystification of the ideal family as a source of love, care, and sacrifice, “quarantines it against interrogation, criticism and intervention.”1 Similarly, Leela Dube brings attention to feminist scholarship developed in the 1970s, wherein the family was seen in the light of, “conflicting gender interests, gender hierarchy, inequity and abuse of women."2 As a contribution to this discourse, Malavika Karlekar calls for wider attention to be paid to the “mental health aspect of violence.”3 Karlekar references many studies in her work that prove marriage and family are the main stressors when it comes to the mental health of women in India.4 Karlekar calls attention to children, especially girls subjected to violence and discrimination within the family. However, the impact of domestic violence on children remains insufficiently discussed within the Indian context. Namy et al. studied the overlap of violence against women and children, perpetuated and normalized by patriarchal family structures in

Uberoi, Patricia. "Sociology, Gender, Family Studies: Regressive Incorporations." Economic and Political Weekly 29, no. 27 (1994): 1686-687. 2 Dube, Leela. "Women and kinship: Comparative perspectives on gender in South and South East Asia." (1997). 3 Karlekar, Malavika. "Domestic Violence." Economic and Political Weekly 33, no. 27 (1998): 1741-751. 4 Karlekar, 1741.

Uganda. This type of violence is a recurrent theme in Indian literature as well.5 A majority of work focused on domestic violence solely discusses physical child abuse, but Brain F. Martin makes a point to differentiate abuse from childhood domestic violence (CDV). According to Martin, the founder of The Childhood Domestic Violence Association, different types of violence do overlap, but there needs to be separate terms to distinguish each type from the next. Specifying these terms will be a key element in raising awareness, as well as identifying the relationships between different forms of violence. Trauma Informed Care (TIC) is an approach which raises awareness and sensitivity to trauma, by encouraging institutions to “realise” its pervasiveness, “recognise” its symptoms and “respond” in a manner that does not re-traumatized individuals.6 The rest of the essay will explore the way childhood domestic violence is conceptualized in feminist and childhood studies, and elaborate on the importance of TIC in these fields. As opposed to applying a universal approach to trauma, TIC brings power and agency to victims of domestic violence, adhering to their strengths instead of pathologizing their experiences.

II: Trauma Informed Care The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), presents a limited understanding of trauma, defining post-traumatic stress disorder as a result of, “exposure to actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violence.”7 Stressors that do not fit into those categories are excluded. Therefore, there is a need to move away from universalization and

Namy, Sophie, Catherine Carlson, Kathleen O'Hara, Janet Nakuti, Paul Bukuluki, Julius Lwanyaaga, Sylvia Namakula et al. "Towards a feminist understanding of intersecting violence against women and children in the family." Social Science & Medicine 184 (2017): 40-48. 6 Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. “SAMHSA’s Concept of Trauma and Guidance for a Trauma-Informed Approach.” Rockville, MD, 2014. https://ncsacw.samhsa.gov/userfiles/files/SAMHSA_Trauma.pdf.9. 7 Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5.(2017). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association. 271.

compartmentalization of traumatic experiences, in order to acknowledge the subjective experiences of children, including the context of domestic violence. The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services (SAMHSA), a branch of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, defines individual trauma as, “resulting from an event,series of events, or set of circumstances that is experienced by an individual as physically or emotionally harmful or life threatening and that has lasting adverse effects on the individual’s functioning and mental, physical, social, emotional, or spiritual well-being.”8 This definition places the emphasis on the individual’s experience. This way, what is deemed to be traumatic is dependent on an individual’s judgment; there are no set criteria or precipitating events which an outsider uses to determine the severity of one’s trauma. This understanding of trauma is called the Trauma Informed Approach. SAMHSA defines, “6 guiding principles” of this approach: Safety, trustworthiness and transparency, peer support, collaboration and mutuality, empowerment and choice, and cultural, historical, and gender issues.9 Drawing from this approach, the mental health community created the practice of Trauma informed Care (TIC). According to SAMHSA, TIC identifies the signs of trauma correctly, acknowledges the widespread impact of the trauma, and responds to trauma holistically through its policies and procedures.10 It reflects a paradigm shift from diagnosing and supposedly treating trauma to creating a safe environment, careful not to pathologize or re-traumatize the individual. Trauma specific care, different from TIC, aims to unmask trauma and help children work through the effects it has left on their lives. TIC works at a larger, systemic level, where creating a supportive environment takes priority over the disclosure of the trauma. This is important since disclosure of trauma might be an added source of distress for the child, or professionals that

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 7. Ibid, 10. 10 Ibid, 9. 9

provide trauma specific services may not be accessible. A report published by Udayan Care, a non-profit organization based in Delhi, India, found that there is a lack of IC research, training, and intervention in the South Asian regional context. More often than not, the element of addressing trauma is usually limited to counseling; there is a need for trauma-informed alternative care systems for children. This can be done by training the staff at juvenile justice centers, child care facilities, educational institutions, mental health services and hospitals in the delivery of trauma informed care. When the entire network is made ware about trauma and its impact, children gain better access to support and can rely on individuals at various levels.11 Therefore, in the absence of trauma specialists, trauma-informed individuals offer comfort and safety, by delivering their services in a way that does not re-traumatize the children. India’s cultural norms and alarming rates of domestic violence call for the development of a trauma informed approach for victims of these instances. Based on the United Nations Secretary-General’s Study, about 27.1 to 69 million children in India were exposed to domestic violence in 2006.12 However, such data may not be a true representation of reality. The patriarchal norms and concerns in India related to, “propriety, honour ('izzat') and reputation,” often act as a cultural barrier to subjecting the family to public investigation.13 The millions of children affected by domestic violence in India should have access to TIC in all institutions. With trauma informed protocols in place, children will be able to cope with trauma in a healthier manner.

Udayan Care. Consultation on Trauma Informed Care Concepts and Practices for Children in Alternative Care ,March 17, 2017. https://udayancare.org/sites/default/files/Trauma%20Informed%20Care%20final%20report.pd f. vi. 12 United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), United States of America, United Nations Secretary-General's Study on Violence Against Children, The Body Shop International, and United Kingdom. "Behind Closed Doors: The Impact of Domestic Violence on Children." (2009). 13 Karlekar, 1741.

Training professionals to be trauma informed in their approach is essential. As Gordon Hodas notes, trauma informed professionals connect the presenting behaviors with the child’s trauma; the intention is not to diagnose the behavioral problems but evaluate the underlying trauma to improve the child’s well-being. This is important because children who do not meet the limited criteria for a trauma or stress disorder diagnosis are overlooked. These children are often misdiagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder, juvenile bipolar disorder, or borderline personality disorder. They might be given side effects producing medications even if they do not need them. The goal of traditional interventions is to correct negative behaviors, whereas TIC ensures that the child is supported as they unpack their experience. For Hodas, the problem lies in assuming that the child’s negative behavior is intentional, instead of looking at it as a, “consequence of neurobiological factors and prior adaptation to dangerous circumstances.”14 This point becomes particularly important since a large number of feminist and childhood scholars emphasize the importance of looking beyond surface behaviors that might actually be manifestations of an unhealthy environment. Feminist and childhood studies possess a multitude of overlapping themes, which highlight the agency of children and women with an emphasis on cultural diversity, especially those who discuss TIC.

III. Intersectionality & the Ecological Model of TLC Feminism and the Politics of Childhood,published by University College London Press, traces the emergence of the feminist movements in the 1960’s which ran parallel to the growth of childhood studies. The text deemed this period “a social phenomenon.”15 Children were seen

Hodas, Gordon R. "Responding to childhood trauma: The promise and practice of trauma informed care." Pennsylvania Office of Mental Health and Substance Abuse Services 177 (2006). 25. 15 Mayall and Oakley. “Feminism and the politics of childhood: friends or foes?”. UCL Press (2018). ix.

as a “social minority group” whose interests had been largely ignored, but during this time, efforts were being made to address their subordination.16 As a result of this, feminists and those who study childhood engaged in a deeper conversation, comparing their shared theoretical bases. One of the main concepts put forth by both these groups was that of intersectionality. Rosen and Twamley write that while women and children are often imagined to be, “vulnerable victims” and, “angelic innocents,” limiting their agency, “generation should not be superimposed on gender.”17 Work that focuses on conceptualizing family violence calls for a, “more complex and contextualized response to domestic violence.”18 This response must be sensitive to diverse sexualities, genders, ages, cultures, and relationships.19 Synthesizing intersectionality and domestic violence reflects the power dynamics within macro-structures of society. For example, patriarchy, capitalism, heterosexism, racism, and “temporal vulnerability” of children are taken into consideration while addressing trauma.20 This helps in breaking the pattern of universalizing the category of childhood, particularly the Western concept of childhood which is symbolic of exemption from responsibilities. The assumption that children are passive, vulnerable victims in comparison to protecting and active adults needs to be questioned. For instance, such notions leave behind those children that are contributing to the labor force and fulfilling other social roles.21 In the Indian context, Susan Seymour’s research explores the responsibilities borne by children in Bhubaneshwar, Orissa, largely determined by gender binaries and oppressive structures like caste and class. The data

Ibid, x. Rosen, Rachel, and Katherine Twamley. “The Woman–Child Question A Dialogue in the Borderlands.” Essay. In Feminism and the Politics of Childhood Friends or Foes? London: UCL Press, 2018. 3. 18 Nolas, Sevasti-melissa, Rachel Rachel, Erin Sanders McDonagh, Lucy Neville, and Katherine Twamley. “‘Gimme Shelter’? Complicating Responses to Family Violence.” Essay. In Feminism and the Politics of Childhood Friends or Foes? London: UCL Press, 2018. 225. 19 Ibid, 225. 20 Rosen, Rachel, Katherine Twamley, Gina Crivello, and Patricia Espinoza–Revollo. “Care Labour and Temporal Vulnerability in Woman–Child Relations.” Essay. In Feminism and the Politics of Childhood: Friends or Foes?London: UCL Press, 2018. 21 Ibid. 17

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showed that children were involved in chores including childcare, hospitality, household work, running errands, and schoolwork. The lower the status of the family in terms of class and caste, the higher the responsibilities of the child were.22 The realities of differing cultures challenge the idea that childhood is a period free of responsibilities and burdens. In fact, research also shows that bearing these hardships during childhood, including poverty and violence, “fosters an older subjective age.”23 It is important to acknowledge that each child’s experiences and articulations may be very different depending on their cultural background. The kind of support each child needs based on the roles they already perform at home would differ. In a nation like India, it becomes important to develop interventions that work with diversity rather than creating a one-size-fits-all approach to support and prevention. This is reflected in the larger ecological model that TIC draws upon. Gordon R. Hodas mentions that the trauma informed approach follows the biopsychosocial perspective while looking at the risk and protective factors surrounding the individual. This includes biological factors, the unique psychology of the child, and the larger social environment.24 One way to work within this framework is to recognize the positive factors present for each child, increasing the probability of a positive outcome and preventing any further negative ones. These outcomes cannot be specifically defined since they require an examination of the unique context each child belongs to.25 This approach also recognizes that there can be multiple ways to respond to trauma, to cope, and to survive. There can be no prescription or healing modality that can work better than what the person, in this case the child and their caregiver, deem fit for themselves.

Seymour, Susan. "Expressions of responsibility among Indian children: Some precursors of adult status and sex roles." Ethos 16, no. 4 (1988): 360. 23 Johnson, Monica Kirkpatrick, and Stefanie Mollborn. "Growing up faster, feeling older: Hardship in childhood and adolescence." Social psychology quarterly 72, no. 1 (2009): 6-7. 24 Hodas, 41. 25 Ibid, 37.

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IV. Recognizing the Agency of the Child Most literature on caregiving has focused on what Erica Burman term “unnuanced polarities: women and children.”26 The relation between women and children is represented in ways that binds them, “in their fates and public imaginaries.”27 Such imaginaries are reductionist; the child becomes the, “object of care,” and the woman’s role reduces to the caregiver.28 These labels perpetuate inequalities, missing the point of their actual value in society. The imaginative roles of women, children, and “women and children,”29 must be reconsidered. Adopting a “relational lens” allows for an altercation of these fixed ideologies.30 As Rachel Rosen and Katherine Twamley say, we need to re-conceptualize the way we understand care, moving beyond interpersonal and gendered understandings and looking at it as a, “fundamental human concern.” Humans are interdependent on each other for care. It is “profoundly interactive and transactional.”31 While emphasizing the reciprocity of care, the boundaries between women and children are challenged, along with their socially constructed roles. In other words, we must move from a unilateral model to a bilateral model, where influence flows in both directions. This model assigns equal agency to both parent and child.32 Our understanding of children as victims shifts to viewing children as agents. Carolina Overlien and Margareta Hydén interviewed children who grew up in homes where domestic violence occurred. They recorded instances of when these children took actions, whether overt or covert, to protect their mothers and siblings from the violence of their fathers.

Burman, Erica. "Beyond 'women vs. children' or 'Womenandchildren': Engendering childhood and reformulating motherhood." The international journal of children's rights 16, no. 2 (2008): 180. 27 Rosen, Rachel, and Katherine Twamley, 1. 28 Ibid, 2. 29 Burman, Erica, 2008. 30 Ibid, 9. 31 Ibid, 10. 32 Katz, Emma. "Domestic violence, children's agency and mother–child relationships: Towards a more advanced model." Children & Society 29, no. 1 (2015): 71.

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One of the principles of Trauma Informed Care as stated by SAMHSA is, “Collaboration and Mutuality.”33 While this is framed in the context of the helper and the child, it is still applicable in terms of the parent-child collaboration. The parent’s recognition of the child’s action, as Emma Katz observed, increases the well-being of both. She mentions an instance where, upon the insistence of her child, the mother was able to leave the perpetrator of violence and seek safety.34 The unilateral model, which assumes that support flows solely from the parent to the child, would misjudge this instance as a failure on the mother’s part to protect her child from threat. Additionally, it misunderstands the child’s support to their mother as “parentification”, and a cause of “high emotional distress” for the child.35 However, the bilateral model acknowledges the mutual exchange of support and influence in the parent-child relationship. The child’s advice to the mother would be seen as an acknowledgement of the child’s agency and ability to make decisions. In fact, Katz mentions a research which suggested that excluding children from decision-making may cause them higher distress, but “valuing and reciprocating” their support may produce better results.36 Children’s voices and actions have been marginalized as just witnesses of domestic violence or objects exposed to it, distancing them from their own lived experiences. Overlien and Hyden play close attention to how children make sense of these toxic environments, often creating their own ways to cope. Children who experience domestic violence have different perceptions of their futures, creating worlds in which they have control in their imaginations.37 This shifts the focus from understanding how children are supposedly damaged, therefore

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 10. Katz, 74. 35 Ibid, 75. 36 Ibid, 76. 37 Överlien, Carolina, and Margareta Hydén. "Children’s actions when experiencing domestic violence." Childhood 16, no. 4 (2009): 479-496. 34

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needing to be treated, to understanding how they take actions and responsibility, in various forms, in order to survive. Such research also helps in shaping the principles of Trauma Informed Care, wherein the child is given space to articulate their own interpretations of the situation. Applying the fifth principle of TIC, “empowerment, voice and choice,”38 an effort is made to, “return a sense of control and autonomy” to the child.39 Particular attention is also paid to children’s coping responses. Overlien and Hydén explain the active and passive coping strategies that the children they interviewed utilized, whether it was shutting out the trauma or intervening during acts of violence. 40 However, these survival strategies, more often than not, are misrecognized as, “antisocial and/or self-destructive responses” resulting in the misdiagnosis of behavioral disorders.41 A trauma informed approach would, instead, acknowledge the fact that every child has different strategies of dealing with the environment at home, which may become their way of responding across situations. Children treated with TIC become competent informants, enabling the child rather than excluding them.42 In the context of the justice system in India, Asha Bajpai mentions that, for matters related to child rights and child abuse, the “child is unrepresented” in family courts.43 This is due to the fact that the courts operate on the paradigm of proofs and facts. While the constitution provides the freedom of expression under Article 19 (1) (a), the exclusion of children’s voices takes place due to the patriarchal norms that implicitly govern how most systems of the nation function. Therefore, Bajpai calls for a greater effort on behalf of these structures to increase the

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 10. Hodes, 34. 40 Överlien, Carolina, and Margareta Hydén, 13. 41 Hodes, 30. 42 Øverlien, Carolina. "Children exposed to domestic violence: Conclusions from the literature and challenges ahead." Journal of social work 10, no. 1 (2010): 80-97. 43 Bajpai, Asha. "Protecting India’s Children: Vulnerabilities and Challenges." Macalester International 29, no. 1 (2012): 8. 72. 39

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participation of the child. Such steps of change, emphasizing empowerment and inclusion of children’s perspective, reflect how a particular system can incorporate the principles of TIC. TIC operates on a strength and resilience based paradigm, producing healthy outcomes despite trauma. As Hodas states, the assumption lies in the fact that the child is doing the best they can. It is the responsibility of the helper, whoever it might be, to support the child and build on their strengths instead of pointing out their limitations.

V. Conclusion This essay aimed at tracing some of the basic principles of the Trauma Informed approach in the context of childhood domestic violence. It discussed how understanding intersectionality helps us grasp the ecological model of TIC, along with the importance of collaboration and mutuality through a relational lens. Most importantly, it acknowledged the agency of the child, a reflection of the principle of TIC, “Empowerment, Voice and Choice.”44 When one begins to realize that the ideal family may not be the norm and macro structures of oppression may be perpetuating dysfunctionality and violence, one also begins to realize that trauma is pervasive. Andrea Papin, a trauma informed counselor, highlights the importance of TIC in a simple way, “No matter who you are or what you do, being trauma informed will change your relationship with others and the way you show up in the world.”45

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 10. Papin, Andrea (@traumaawarecare). “We often think of being trauma informed in the context of being a practitioner or service provider, but the trauma informed lens is important no matter what.” Instagram, May 27, 2019. https://www.instagram.com/p/Bx-CzbGANjw/. 45

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Burman, Erica. "Beyond 'women vs. children' or 'Womenandchildren': Engendering childhood and reformulating motherhood." The international journal of children's rights 16, no. 2 (2008): 177-194. Bajpai, Asha. "Protecting India’s Children: Vulnerabilities and Challenges." Macalester International 29, no. 1 (2012): 8. Crivello, Gina, and Patricia Espinoza-Revollo. "Care labour and temporal vulnerability in woman–child relations." (2018). Damant, Dominique, Simon Lapierre, Anne Kouraga, Andrée Fortin, Louise Hamelin Brabant, Chantal Lavergne, and Geneviève Lessard. "Taking child abuse and mothering into account: Intersectional feminism as an alternative for the study of domestic violence." Affilia 23, no. 2 (2008): 123-133. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-5.Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association, 2013. Dekel, Bianca, Naeemah Abrahams, and Michelle Andipatin. "Exploring the intersection between violence against women and children from the perspective of parents convicted of child homicide." Journal of family violence 34, no. 1 (2019): 9-20. Dube, Leela. "Women and kinship: Comparative perspectives on gender in South and South East Asia." (1997). Featherstone, Brid, and Barbara Fawcett. "Feminism and child abuse: opening up some possibilities?." Critical Social Policy 14, no. 42 (1994): 61-80. Hodas, Gordon R. "Responding to childhood trauma: The promise and practice of trauma informed care." Pennsylvania Office of Mental Health and Substance Abuse Services 177 (2006). Johnson, Monica Kirkpatrick, and Stefanie Mollborn. "Growing up faster, feeling older: Hardship in childhood and adolescence." Social psychology quarterly 72, no. 1 (2009): 39-60. Karlekar, Malavika. "Domestic Violence." Economic and Political Weekly 33, no. 27 (1998): 1741-751. Katz, Emma. "Domestic violence, children's agency and mother–child relationships: Towards a more advanced model." Children & Society 29, no. 1 (2015): 69-79. Mayall and Oakley. “Feminism and the politics of childhood: friends or foes?”. UCL Press (2018). Namy, Sophie, Catherine Carlson, Kathleen O'Hara, Janet Nakuti, Paul Bukuluki, Julius Lwanyaaga, Sylvia Namakula et al. "Towards a feminist understanding of intersecting

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violence against women and children in the family." Social Science & Medicine 184 (2017): 40-48. Nolas, Sevasti-Melissa, Erin Sanders -McDonagh, and Lucy Neville. "“Gimme Shelter”? Complicating responses to family violence." (2018). Papin, Andrea (@traumaawarecare). “We often think of being trauma informed in the context of being a practitioner or service provider, but the trauma informed lens is important no matter what.” Instagram, May 27, 2019. https://www.instagram.com/p/BxCzbGANjw/. Pingley, Terra. "The impact of witnessing domestic violence on children: A systematic review." (2017). Rosen, Rachel, and Katherine Twamley, eds. Feminism and the politics of childhood:friends or foes?. UCL Press, (2018). SAMHSA. “SAMSHA’s Concept of Trauma and Guidance for a Trauma”. (2014) Seymour, Susan. "Expressions of responsibility among Indian children: Some precursors of adult status and sex roles." Ethos 16, no. 4 (1988): 355-370. Øverlien, Carolina. "Children exposed to domestic violence: Conclusions from the literature and challenges ahead." Journal of social work 10, no. 1 (2010): 80-97. Överlien, Carolina, and Margareta Hydén. "Children’s actions when experiencing domestic violence." Childhood 16, no. 4 (2009): 479-496. Uberoi, Patricia. "Sociology, Gender, Family Studies: Regressive Incorporations." Economic and Political Weekly 29, no. 27 (1994): 1686-687. Udayan Care. Consultation on Trauma Informed Care Concepts and Practices for Children in Alternative Care ,March 17, 2017. https://udayancare.org/sites/default/files/Trauma%20Informed%20Care%20final%20rep ort.pd f. vi. United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), United States of America, United Nations Secretary-General's Study on Violence Against Children, The Body Shop International, and United Kingdom. "Behind Closed Doors: The Impact of Domestic Violence on Children." (2009).inser

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By Lauren Wilbur The University of Texas at Austin

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A Battle, Two Buildings, and One Battle During the Crusades Historical archaeology attempts to understand cultures of antiquity by studying written primary sources in conjunction with archaeological analysis. The Crusades present a challenge in using this method because many physical spaces have not been excavated due to political strife, or they had only been excavated in a biblical context with little regard to any other period. However, the discipline has recently started to see some success in the areas that the Latin Christians occupied and material evidence is more readily available to fill in the holes of Crusader history. The Crusades began when Emperor Alexius, afraid of the Seljuk Turks encroaching on the Byzantine capital Constantinople, requested aid from the Roman Catholic church. In response, Pope Urban II held the Council of Clermont to call on the Princes and Lords of Western Europe and to offer remission of sins to those who would help defend the Eastern Christians. Despite this original purpose of assisting Emperor Alexius with the defense of Constantinople from the Seljuk Turks, the First Crusade quickly became imperial in nature. The next few hundred years were spent trying to capture Jerusalem from Muslim control, launching several Crusades and bringing significant changes to the holy city. The conflict of the Crusades was religious and political at its core, but religious institutions and the states were not the only ones involved. People were influenced by propaganda, personal opinions, and societal biases, thus making primary sources questionable at best. Therefore, the following essay argues that the inclusion of archaeology allows researchers to better understand the history of the Crusades with far fewer constraints of influence, gaps in information, or a lack of written sources common with Crusader chronicles. To make this case, I consider archaeological evidence as it pertains to the Battle of Hattin (July 4, 1187), the Temple Mount Mosque or Dome of the Rock, and the intricacies of daily life as seen in evidence of Jerusalem’s market.

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Archaeological evidence, supplemented with the two written sources, helps decipher the contradictory accounts given by William of Tyre (1130-1186) and Imad Ad-Din (1125-1201). In researching the Crusades, it is quickly understood that chronicles often conflict and only supplement part of the history. Many accounts of battles in Crusader Chronicles are contradictory, or stem from one biased source. This creates problems when historians attempt to compare sources in order to recount the most accurate order of events that took place, as well as to understand the motivations and the social climate at the time of the event. The Battle of Hattin exemplifies this problem well as the sources come from both Christian and Islamic Chronicles, each with their own biases, predispositions, and elements of political propaganda. In 1187 the Latin Christians were struggling to control Jerusalem, the city the Crusading armies captured almost one hundred years prior in the First Crusade. Saladin rose to power as Sultan by uniting the Muslim world by promoting jihad against the Crusaders, leading his armies to the occupied Crusader states under the guise of holy war.1 As Saladin moved toward the holy city, the King of Jerusalem Guy de Lusignan (1150-1194) called on all his forces to defend the previous Crusader army’s conquests, including both the Knight’s Templar and Hospitallers.2 On July 3rd, King Guy received news of Saladin’s army attacking Tiberias, a nearby Latin Christian occupied city located on the coast of the Sea of Galilee.3 The march lead to defend the city was plagued with harassment from Saladin’s army and a route without water.4 King Guy’s army suffered from exhaustion into the next day, but were pushed to meet their slaughter and the waiting Muslim forces. Saladin defeated King Guy on July 4, 1187, at the Battle of Hattin, acting as the most important catalyst for the launch of the Third Crusade.

Encyclopædia Britannica,s.v.“Saladin,” February 29, 2020, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saladin. Encyclopædia Britannica, s.v.“Battle of Hattin,” June 27, 2020, https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Hattin. 3 Encyclopædia Britannica,s.v.“Battle of Hattin.” 4 Encyclopædia Britannica s.v.“Battle of Hattin.” 2

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Since the Battle of Hattin was such an embarrassing loss for the Latin Christians and ignited another Crusade, there was a burning desire to know what happened. However, the unknown author of the French “Continuation of William of Tyre” was not at the battle and only wrote the chronicle from the perspective of a historian, whose work was based on the historian William of Tyre.5 While William of Tyre died almost a year prior to the Battle of Hattin, he had written exhaustive chronicles about the Latin controlled Kingdom of Jerusalem and the kings who ruled over it up to 1184.6 Thus, the Christian source continues William of Tyre’s historical account and will be referred to as “William of Tyre” throughout the remainder of this article since the author is not known. It is important to note that this chronicle is only considered a primary source because of how soon it was written after the Battle of Hattin, information might have been gathered from people at the battle, or from those only loosely associated with people who had been at the battle. In the leading Christian “primary” source, it seems William of Tyre negates any good strategies employed by the Crusaders, as the criticisms he makes work to show what a “bad” Christian is and how to avoid loss by acting as a “good” Christian. By doing so, the chronicle was written in a way to support this argument, while also making many details inaccurate. William of Tyre is critical of the king’s decisions leading up to the battle. With great condemnation, William of Tyre claimed that “the king and all his men were too spread out and did not know what to do,” while following Saladin.7 The implication that the Crusaders should have been relentless in their pursuit, though he was not present at the Battle of Hattin himself, only exemplifies William of Tyre’s predispositions against the king and bias in favor of the church. However, William of

Peter Edbury, Conquest of Jerusalem and the Third Crusade: Sources in Translation. (Routledge, 2017).

Encyclopædia Britannica, s.v.“William of Tyre,” September 25, 2020, https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-ofTyre. 7 Peter Edbury, Conquest of Jerusalem and the Third Crusade. 6

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Tyre acknowledged that the Crusader army was far from any source of water and were being taunted by Saladin’s forces, as they lit fires to create disruptive plumes of smoke, which “caused the Christians considerable discomfort.”8 It is impossible to know what would happen if the tired Crusading armies were pushed forward by the king rather than resting for the night, but on their current course of action, defeat was imminent. Despite William of Tyre’s disapproval of the fate of the Crusaders, it was not the King that he directly blamed for the loss. Instead the entire Crusading army and their sins were held responsible. Rather than the superior military strategy of the opposing army, William of Tyre declared that Saladin only defeated the “Christian host” because “the anger of God” assisted the Muslims. 9 In William of Tyre’s opinion, a more pious Crusading army would have easily been able to triumph over the Islamic forces and he even connected Pope Urban’s untimely death to the defeat of the Christian Franks. Tyre asserts that after the battle of Hattin “Pope Urban... died of grief” upon hearing of the loss to the Christian world.10 This account depicts a harsh retelling of the Christian embarrassment at the Battle of Hattin, riddled with religious propaganda as it attempts to save face for the Catholic church. The chronicle is less about what actually occurred, but rather why the church believes the Crusaders were defeated. Unsurprisingly, the Muslim chronicler had a much different perspective of the Christians during the Battle of Hattin. Acting as Saladin’s secretary for many years, Imad Ad-Din (11251201) was present for the full battle and everything leading up to and following the fateful clash. Since Imad Ad-Din saw the Battle of Hattin firsthand and wrote the chronicle himself, this perspective comes from a true primary source, though Imad Ad-Din still had strong biases toward the Muslim army. One could argue that Imad Ad-Din’s positive representation of the Latin

Peter Edbury, Conquest of Jerusalem and the Third Crusade. Peter Edbury, Conquest of Jerusalem and the Third Crusade. 10 Peter Edbury, Conquest of Jerusalem and the Third Crusade. 9

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Christian opposition army works to emphasize Saladin’s superiority as a military leader and makes the chronicle unreliable on its own. While Imad Ad-Din embellishes his writing with poetic elements throughout the chronicle, his descriptions also depict important Islamic attitudes towards the Crusader army, along with including details absent from Christian sources. If the Latin Christians were “hardened warriors and heroes of battle,” then Imad Ad-Din implies that by eventually defeating them, the Muslim force was still superior to the “mutilated barbarian warriors.”11 As the Crusaders are compared to mountains and crashing waves, both immovable and unstoppable forces, Imad Ad-Din asserts the explicit message that Saladin is more powerful than nature’s strongest creations. Saladin “cut off their access to water” as part of his military strategy before meeting in battle “when the bows stirred and the fire glowed.”12 Descriptions of fire use are more discrete than in the account by William of Tyre, but Imad Ad-Din does hint at it by discussing how the enemies “burned... in a frenzied ferment.”13 More emphasis is placed on the Muslim army’s use of archery as “the arrows beat them down and opened great gaps in their ranks” so that the Christian army fell, “scattered... on the hillsides.”14 While Imad Ad-Din purposefully wrote this chronicle to exhibit Saladin’s superiority over the Crusaders, the descriptions show great respect for their enemies. Still, the actual description of the Battle of Hattin and what transpired differ between the Christian and Muslim sources. Historical primary sources provide a great wealth of content for the Crusades and contribute to the conversation of their battles, but questions and irregularities arise when attempting to understand exactly what happened. William of Tyre likens the King’s army to a

S. Allen and Emilie Amt, “Imad Ad-Din on the Battle of Hattin.” In The Crusades: A Reader (Ontario: University of Toronto Press, 2014), 152. 12 S Allen and Emilie Amt, “Imad Ad-Din on the Battle of Hattin,” 152. 11

13 14

S Allen and Emilie Amt, “Imad Ad-Din on the Battle of Hattin,” 153. S. Allen and Emilie Amt, “Imad Ad-Din on the Battle of Hattin,” 153.

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disorganized unit that was ill-prepared for conflict, whereas Imad Ad-Din credits the Latin Christians for their cohesion and great might. William of Tyre claims that Saladin’s army purposefully lit fires and caused great destruction to the land, while the chronicle written by Imad Ad-Din seems to indicate that the use of fire was limited to archer’s burning arrows. Portraying the Crusading army and the king as incompetent worked in favor of the Catholic church and the Pope, as William of Tyre blamed the loss on an individual unit of Crusaders and not the Crusader ideology itself. By including the embarrassment and grief of the Pope, William of Tyre pushes the religious discourse supported by the Catholic church, in which piety rules. While the chronicles of William of Tyre and Imad Ad-Din discuss the same battle, their accounts contradict one another since they had different objectives for writing. As Saladin’s personal assistant, Imad Ad-Din wrote as all historians do when they have won. It is so much more glorious to win a battle against a seemingly unbeatable force than an army of a lesser size and competency. So, as with Roman literature on wars and battles, Imad Ad-Din exaggerated the size and power of the Christian army in order to emphasize Saladin’s victory. The irregularities in the two accounts allude to the Chroniclers predisposed notions of their enemy and to the widespread use of propaganda. As a newer sub-field, environmental archaeology aims to recreate the environments that past societies lived in. In understanding the Battle of Hattin from a scientific standpoint, Archaeologists look at environmental evidence and factors in order to understand the terrain, weather, and overall climate at the time. Elements not often mentioned in literature, such as “sunlight and moonlight,” still “have a great effect on organisms.”15 As William of Tyre placed emphasis on the exhaustion of the Crusading army prior to their clash with Saladin, “time calendars of sunlight and moonlight” from the period suggest a new perspective.16 Other than 15 16

Adrian Boas, The Crusader World (London: Routledge, 2016), 551. Adrian Boas, The Crusader World, 551.

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traveling without enough supplies, why were the Crusaders tired and uncomfortable as they advanced toward the Muslim forces? Explained in part by the “cosmological data” from the days leading up to the Battle of Hattin, the Christian’s had to cross thirty kilometers in about “fourteen hours of daylight” while “facing the sun.”17 This was, and still is, an incredibly challenging feat for an army at war, as the summer heat and general climate of the area took a toll on the foreign Crusader army. Ultimately the disadvantage for the Christians doubled as an advantage for Saladin’s army. After the sun had set around seven in the evening, “five hours of complete darkness” concealed the approaching Muslim army before the moon illuminated the landscape.18 It would have been difficult terrain to navigate on cavalry, but nightfall provided the perfect cover for Saladin to march forward and continue to harass the Crusading army. Thus, Saladin’s forces advanced undetected by the Christians before they would meet in battle the next day. Along with the data collected from astronomy to account for the Crusading army’s depleted energy, both William of Tyre and Imad Ad-Din discussed Saladin’s total control of the water sources on the landscape of modern-day Northern Palestine. Not only did the July heat and scorching sun add to the Crusader’s exhaustion, but the Christian army would have to travel the thirty kilometers in armor while carrying their supplies.19 There was no hope for the Crusaders as they trekked “in the valley of Turan... with no water cisterns on their way, while the Muslims were controlling the hills” and harassing them.20 Unable to carry enough water to supply an entire army, the Crusaders suffered due to Saladin’s dehydration strategy. The landscape only allowed for water cisterns to develop in the limestone hills, while the alluvial soil in the valley prevented

Adrian Boas,The Crusader World, 552. Adrian Boas,The Crusader World, 552. 19 Adrian Boas,The Crusader World, 552. 20 Adrian Boas,The Crusader World, 556. 18

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their formation.21Although “the artifacts distribution” of the Christians show that the route they would have taken would have been close to two water cisterns, it is unlikely they would have been accessible.22 In the lead up to the Battle of Hattin, the Crusader army was already at a disadvantageous position geographically, worn out, and without necessary hydration. While propaganda and biases heavily influence the Crusading chronicles written by William of Tyre and Imad Ad-Din, research in environmental archaeology works to explain this discrepancy. When the two armies finally met, William of Tyre and Imad Ad-Din both accounted for the use of fire during the battle to different degrees. This discrepancy can be accounted for in the study of “wind direction and velocity.”23 Because “the wind on the Hattin plain...tends to blow from west or south-west,” any army shooting arrows from the west would have a significant advantage over the East facing army.24 The wind direction would also have impacted the use of fire. Considering Imad Ad-Din’s chronicle, and the discussion of fire in the context of archery, “the Muslims could only light a fire after the Franks” advanced past a certain point due to wind direction and velocity.25 Saladin’s army had to wait until the Crusaders were positioned to the East, lest they fire their arrows to the West, create a smoke screen, and jeopardize the safety of their own forces.26 This aspect of the environment tied with the Muslim army's strategy could explain why the two sources had such different accounts in regard to the use of fire. Saladin’s forces only saw the use of fire as a slight strategic advantage because it could only be used at a certain point in the battle, therefore they may not have seen it as a significant impact on their victory. Imad Ad-Din also only mentions the use of fire against the Latin Christians in the context of archery, where the wind speed and velocity were an advantage for ballistic weapons.

Adrian Boas,The Crusader World, 555. Adrian Boas,The Crusader World, 555. 23 Adrian Boas,The Crusader World, 557. 24 Adrian Boas,The Crusader World, 557. 25 Adrian Boas,The Crusader World, 557. 26 Adrian Boas,The Crusader World, 557. 22

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Therefore, the Crusading army could not have possibly used fire in any successful fashion due to the wind direction and saw it as an unfair advantage in an already impossible battle. The emphasis on the use of fire made by William of Tyre also fits into the context of how the attack would play out as the wind blew the fire directly into the lines of the Crusading army. In this respect, the more accurate account would be William of Tyre, backed up by significant physical evidence. Imad Ad-Din wrote a detailed chronicle to record the victory and glory of Saladin, rather than diminish Saladin’s greatness with accuracies. Throughout the years of the Crusades, both the Latin Christians and Muslims fought for control of Jerusalem, where significant physical artifacts contribute additional valuable evidence on how we judge the accuracy of chronicles and strive to write the most objective historical accounts possible. During the period of the Latin Kingdom (1099-1187), the same Templars and Hospitallers who fought in the Battle of Hattin called Jerusalem home. Historical accounts of this city can be told in a multitude of perspectives, the most well-known being those from the three Abrahamic religions as the city developed through time as the holy land of Jews, Christians, and Muslims. Jerusalem’s prominence extends long after its biblical history, but the connection to religion has intertwined with every facet of politics and history. Going through many periods of peace and hostility, Jerusalem often saw construction and deconstruction of religious landmarks within the city. From its defensive refortification to the development of new art and architecture during the Crusading period, Jerusalem experienced one of its most significant changes during this time of continuous conflict with the reconstruction of the Temple Mount Mosques. These structures were built on a significant site recognized as holy to both the Jewish and Islamic faiths, and the buildings themselves are Islamic in construction. For Islam, the Mosques represent an important site because Muslims believe that the Prophet Muhammad ascended into heaven at

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the Temple Mount, where the remains of the Temple of Solomon had been. It was “in the heavenly Jerusalem, [where] he led all the prophets in prayer” that Muhammad solidified his position as the final prophet of the Abrahamic religions.27 After the prophet Muhammad’s death, many followers of Islam began to make pilgrimages to Jerusalem to visit this holy site. In the seventh century, the Umayyad caliphate built a mosque to enshrine the night journey of the prophet. This project was completed around “fifty-five years after Muslim armies captured Jerusalem” and remains on the Temple Mount to this day.28 While the city would change hands many times over the course of the centuries leading up to Latin Christian occupation, the Dome of the Rock would continuously be part of traditional Muslim pilgrimages. However, this pilgrimage would be disrupted shortly after Pope Urban II called for the First Crusade in 1096. Once the Crusaders took Jerusalem, they could either destroy and rebuild existing structures, or repurpose them. Some of the Latin Christians knew that the Dome of the Rock was a mosque, but many mistook the structure for the Temple of Solomon, a holy site from the First Testament. While those in power would have been aware of its status as a Muslim shrine in the very least, ultimately the Franks decided to claim the Dome of the Rock as a Christian church and repurposed the building. Before construction began on the Dome of the Rock, Saewulf, an English pilgrim visiting Jerusalem, would describe “the Holy of Holies” as a place existing in the canon of Christendom.29 The site was where “Solomon placed the Ark of the Covenant” as recounted in the Old Testament, and where “Jesus was offered by his parents” as recounted in the Christian gospel.30 It was clear what narrative the Catholic church wanted to

Jonathan Brown, Muhammad: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 23. Encyclopædia Britannica,s.v. “The Dome of the Rock,” May 24, 2019, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dome-of-theRock. 29 S. Allen and Emilie Amt, “The Travels of Saewulf.” In The Crusades: A Reader(Ontario: University of Toronto Press, 2014), 99. 30 S. Allen and Emilie Amt, “The Travels of Saewulf,” 99. 28

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push, claiming all of Jerusalem and the structures inside of the city for the Christian religion. To defend this ideology, work on the Dome of the Rock began sometime between 1114 and 1115, adding Christian motifs and implementing practical changes to transform the mosque.31 The rock itself was covered with an “iron grille” and “marble slabs” to prevent pilgrims from removing any of the materials as relics, as well as “for aesthetic purposes.”32 The Latin Christians also placed an altar and two candelabra inside of the Dome of the Rock and painted the interior walls with frescoes that depicted biblical scenes, such as “Jacob’s vision at Bethel”.33 The German priest John of Wurzburg made pilgrimage to Jerusalem in the 1160’s and described the Dome of the Rock after the conversion had been completed for some time. The chronicle detailed his interpretation of the church, in which John of Wurzburg acknowledges that it was “very offensive for the Saracens,” a term used in Christian antiquity to refer to Muslims.34 However, John of Wurzburg still described the Temple Mount in the context of the Christian Gospel and mentions, for the first time, “the figure of the holy cross” having been put up inside of the dome.35 The cross replacing the crescent on top of the Dome of the Rock would have been powerful symbolism in literature at the time, and even today. However, written sources from pilgrims and Crusader chronicles rarely tell the full story. Rather than correcting conflicting sources, in the case of the Dome of the Rock archaeology serves to supplement a lack of written evidence. After Saladin retook Jerusalem and converted the Dome of the Rock into a mosque, many of the Christian additions were taken down and destroyed. This forces scholars to rely on written sources and archaeology to help

Adrian Boas, Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades (London: Routledge, 2001), 110. Adrian Boas, Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades,110. 33 Adrian Boas, Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades,110. 34 S. Allen and Emilie Amt, “John of Wurzburg‘s Pilgrim Guide” In The Crusades: A Reader (Ontario: University of Toronto Press, 2014), 101. 35 S. Allen and Emilie Amt, “John of Wurzburg‘s Pilgrim Guide,” 101. 32

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piece together what the Dome of the Rock would have looked like as a Christian church. Archaeological excavations show that “the iron grille and the candelabra survived,” as the artifacts are now being displayed in the Islamic Museum. Believed to have been donated by Queen Melisende, the grille was in use at the Dome of the Rock from 1140 until the 1960’s, the iron work French Romanesque in style.36 The repairs of 1873 uncovered the remains of partial frescoes described by multiple pilgrims, however there is no evidence that they still exist today. 37 While the Dome of the Rock is still an important site with religious and historical significance for three different faiths, the converted mosque did not exist alone on the Temple Mount, nor did it face repurposing alone. On the Temple Mount, both the Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aqsa Mosque have gone through numerous changes through the centuries and primary sources must be supported by archaeology to help describe what no longer exists. Also known as Solomon’s Temple, the Al Aqsa Mosque’s Latin Christian repurposing was inevitable. The Mosque was initially used as a palace and construction on the building continued throughout the Latin occupation of Jerusalem. Approximately five years after construction on the Temple Mount had already begun, the Order of Solomon, or the Knights Templar, was founded in 1119.38 The Catholic military order would then begin to convert the al-Aqsa Mosque into their headquarters. The Knights Templar would make “fundamental structural changes” to the Mosque in order to transform it into their living quarters, including the addition of a dividing wall and an apse.39 While occupying the Mosque, the Templars also began constructing a new building to function as a storehouse, amongst other things, which still exists as the Islamic Museum today.40 At the time, it made sense to have the

Adrian Boas, Crusader Archaeology(London: Routledge, 1999), 156. Adrian Boas, Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades, 231. 38 Adrian Boas, Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades, 27. 39 Adrian Boas, Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades, 91. 40 Adrian Boas, Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades, 91. 37

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Knights Templar headquarters on the Temple Mount because Christian canon law would have the structures exist as shrines to Solomon and the house of God.41 There is also evidence that a monastery had been built in conjunction with the reconstruction of the Al-Aqsa mosque; however, this structure would have been destroyed in 1187 by Saladin. 42 Two arched entrances have “Crusader capitals” and exist as the only remaining archaeological evidence of the monastery.43 Latin Christian occupation of the Temple Mount only ended when Saladin took back the city of Jerusalem, whence most Crusading evidence was destroyed, or removed from the holy sight. Thus, archaeology on the Temple Mount is imperative in understanding Crusader occupation of the city. However, the political conflict surrounding Israel and Palestine prevents any archaeological excavations from being performed today and researchers must use older evidence to supplement for the lack of materials available. Still, archaeological data confirms the descriptions found in the few primary source’s known today, and reinforces historian’s understanding that the city of Jerusalem was fundamentally changed during the Latin Christian occupation. One topic chroniclers and other written accounts rarely discussed were the intricacies of daily life. It is likely that this important topic was avoided because it seemed so mundane compared to the great battles and explosive politics at the time. However, studying the daily life of the people in the Latin Kingdom can help to explain why Crusaders fought to control this territory for so long and the lasting impacts it had. Archaeological evidence from markets and trade help to tell this story. Jerusalem fell to the Christians in 1099 when the entire population of the city was slaughtered by the Crusading army, killing off all Jews, Muslims, and Eastern

S. Allen and Emilie Amt, “The Rule of the Templars” In The Crusades: A Reader(Ontario: University of Toronto Press, 2014), 133. 42 Adrian Boas, Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades, 91. 43 Adrian Boas, Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades, 91. 41

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Christians within the defensive walls. After this massacre, the Latin Christians established Jerusalem as a Latin kingdom and began to reoccupy the city. In order to understand the impact this had in the Latin world, it is important to study the nuances of daily life in Jerusalem. Immediately after the slaughter, the Crusading army was let loose inside of the city of Jerusalem and they were allowed to enter “the houses of the citizens, seizing whatever they found there.”44 While the acquisition of wealth only existed as a minor motivator for those participating in the First Crusade, once the army was in Jerusalem it quickly descended into a chaos-induced sack of the entire city. However, it is unlikely any destruction of pre-Latin Kingdom houses took place, as the Crusading army would have looted them and then likely occupied the buildings, thus leaving almost no evidence of any Latin Christian “domestic architecture,” such as homes.45 After the initial sack of Jerusalem, the Latin Christians had to settle down in their new city and develop new lifeways. The Crusaders and other immigrant Latin Christians had traveled long distances to start a new life in a foreign place, all for many different reasons, not just their religious beliefs. Thus, many Latin immigrants would find themselves settled into cities, and in this period urban life was only separated from rural life by the existence of lasting and stable markets.46 Luckily, many markets appearing in pilgrimage accounts still exist in contemporary Jerusalem. Since some areas even keep the street name well after the twelfth century, many markets have been easy to locate and study contemporarily. During the period of the Latin Kingdom, most markets were owned by the King and specialized in one type of good, with exceptions made for religious groups such as the Covenant of Saint Anne, the Hospitaller's, and the Knights Templar. 47 These exceptions were

Fulcher of Chartres, The Sojourn of the Christians in the City,trans. Martha Mcginty (University of Pennsylvania, 1941), 70. 45 Adrian Boas, Crusader Archaeology, 30. 46 Adrian Boas, Crusader Archaeology, 25. 47 Adrian Boas, Crusader Archaeology, 25.

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significant because it gave Christian organizations funds to continue operating in their new contexts. The central market street was known as Malquissinat, or “the street of evil cooking,” which sold prepared foods.48 In the nineteenth century, physical evidence of Latin Kingdom’s market specialization was discovered with the appearance of a large stone with the inscription “COQUUS” on it, meaning “cook.”49 Before the twelfth century, the Malquissint market street was covered by stone louvres that allowed for natural light, prevented “rain from coming in,” and allowed for the “smoke from cooking to escape.”50 Evidence of these arches appear in surviving photographs from 1918 through 1921 and from medieval carvings found on the roof.51 The twelfth century street “Vicus ad Montis Syon,” meaning “the mountain village of Sion,” has been fully excavated and restored and is the “best-preserved Frankish market” today.52 This archaeological site allows for an understanding of how shops were constructed and operated, along with how people would have simply moved through the streets. The movement of people within a city street brings understanding to how people would have interacted with each other along class and cultural lines through the economics of trade. Markets were important in the daily lives of those living in the Latin East because they would have been visited every day. Trade was also important to daily life because it dictated what goods were available to those living in Latin controlled Jerusalem. Fulcher of Chartres (1124) claimed that those Latin Christians “who were occidentals have now become Orientals” by asserting citizenship in the Latin Kingdom and settling down into new lifeways. 53 This important institution led to an increase in interactions between the Latin Christians and all other

Adrian Boas, Crusader Archaeology, 25. Adrian Boas, Crusader Archaeology, 25. 50 Adrian Boas, Crusader Archaeology, 26. 51 Adrian Boas, Crusader Archaeology, 26. 52 Adrian Boas, Crusader Archaeology, 27. 53 S. Allen and Emilie Amt, “Fulcher of Chartres’s History” In The Crusades: A Reader (Ontario: University of Toronto Press, 2014), 88. 49

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cultures in the Latin East. In quick fashion, the Kingdom would begin to tax imports to bring in revenue for the city, providing researchers with solid written evidence to supplement archaeological material evidence. Items such as silk, cotton, spices, sugar, salt fish, incense, fruits, and certain wines were all taxed upon entering the ports and depict how extensive the trade routes were.54 Many items found in the markets of Jerusalem had never been seen before in Western Europe and exposure to the new items would create a demand for Eastern goods inaccessible before the Crusades. As the field of historical archaeology develops and more Crusading sites are studied, it will become easier to understand the written accounts that have existed for centuries alongside the corresponding material evidence. While knowledge is still limited due to restraints on excavations in Jerusalem, as well as in other areas the Crusaders existed, comparing written sources and material culture benefit the study of the Crusades as a whole. Conflicting sources of warfare, as exemplified by the Battle of Hattin, are resolved with the study of environmental archaeology. Not only does this comparison of historical materials and archaeological evidence prove which primary source is most accurate, it adds additional information for how the Battle of Hattin was won by Saladin. Written sources and material remains work together to reconstruct ancient architecture, an important study in both history and archaeology. The structures on the Temple Mount have been rebuilt and reimagined by diverse cultures, and it is important to accurately reconstruct the Christian interpretation of the two Mosques since there exists so much conflict between the religions. Archaeology also provides a way to study and understand topics ignored by chroniclers, such as what mundane things happened every day. Latin Christians experienced Jerusalem in their daily lives, and ultimately changed and were changed by a city

S. Allen and Emilie Amt, “Laws of the Kingdom of Jerusalem” In The Crusades: A Reader (Ontario: University of Toronto Press, 2014), 93-97. 54

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that fought for over the course of hundreds of years and in multiple crusades. It is only when history and archaeology are studied together along the lines of battles, architecture, and everyday life that the whole of the Crusades can become better understood in the context of the Medieval period.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Adrian Boas. Crusader Archaeology.London: Routledge, 1999. Adrian Boas. Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades.London: Routledge, 2001. Adrian Boas. The Crusader World.London: Routledge, 2016. Encyclopædia Britannica,s.v. “Battle of Hattin.” June 27, 2020. https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Hattin. Encyclopædia Britannica,s.v. “Saladin.” February 29, 2020. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saladin. Encyclopædia Britannica,s.v. “The Dome of the Rock.” May 24, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dome-of-the-Rock. Encyclopædia Britannica,s.v. “William of Tyre.” September 25, 2020. https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-of-Tyre. Fulcher of Chartres. “The Sojourn of the Christians in the City.” Translated by Martha Mcginty, University of Pennsylvania, 1941. Jonathan Brown. Muhammad: A Very Short Introduction.Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011. Peter Edbury. Conquest of Jerusalem and the Third Crusade: Sources in Translation. Routledge, 2017. S. Allen and Emilie Amt. “Fulcher of Chartres’s History.” In The Crusades: A Reader.Ontario: University of Toronto Press, 2014. S. Allen and Emilie Amt. “Imad Ad-Din on the Battle of Hattin.” In The Crusades: A Reader, Ontario: University of Toronto Press, 2014. S. Allen and Emilie Amt. “John of Wurzburg‘s Pilgrim Guide.” In The Crusades: A Reader. Ontario: University of Toronto Press, 2014. S. Allen and Emilie Amt. “Laws of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.” In The Crusades: A Reader. Ontario: University of Toronto Press, 2014. S. Allen and Emilie Amt. “The Rule of the Templars.” In The Crusades: A Reader.Ontario: University of Toronto Press, 2014. S. Allen and Emilie Amt. “The Travels of Saewulf.” In The Crusades: A Reader,Ontario: University of Toronto Press, 2014.

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