Apollon
ISSUE VI
2016
UNDERGRADUATE DIGITAL JOURNAL FOR THE HUMANITIES AT FAIRFIELD UNIVERSITY
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1
CONTENT “From On Stage to in Office: Examining the Success of Political Actors in Eighteenth-Century France” by Catherine J. Bruns
pages 3-17 “Ormond’s Subversion of Heteronormative Gothic Characteristics: Constantia Dudley, Sophia Courtland, and Martinette de Beauvais” by Linsday Brents
pages 18-29 "Everything is True, Everything Anybody Has Ever Thought: (Im)possibility at the Interface of Science Fiction and Urban Fantasy" by Jeanette Tong Gin Yen
pages 30-40 "Artificiality, Blade Runners, and Capitalism: Examining the Postmodern in Philip K. Dick’s Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep and Ridley Scott’s Blade Runner" by Larisa Coffey-Wong
pages 41-51 "Legitimizing Illegitimate Power: Technology and Nature as Fictive Mediators" by Megan Krelle
pages 52-63 "A Story of Shifting Stone: Pygmalion in the Renaissance" by Grant K. Schazman
pages 64-75
2
“From On Stage to in Office: Examining the Success of Political Actors in Eighteenth-Century France” by Catherine J. Bruns
3
Over two hundred years after the
audience interaction that provided the
French Revolution, historians have yet
underrepresented public an opportunity
to reach a consensus as to what caused
to be heard. Author Michael McClellan
the bloody overthrow of one of Eu-
explains that during this time, theatres
rope’s leading political regimes. How-
served as venues for political ideas to be
ever, it has been agreed that the French
shared with empowered audiences who
Revolution marked “the beginning of a
then accepted, rejected, or changed
new world” (O’Brien, “Review: A Peo-
these messages (“The Revolution On-
ple’s History”) in its materialization of a
stage”). In this way, eighteenth-century
bourgeois public sphere that suppressed
French theatre both shaped and re-
individual interests to make room for
sponded to public opinion, effectively
the debate of public issues (Ravel 3). It
facilitating a discussion between the
is for this reason that eighteenth-century
people and the government. The inter-
France remains such a fascinating period
twining between the political and the
of history: not only was the French Rev-
theatrical allowed for “theatrico-politico
olution an uprising orchestrated by the
hybrids”
people and for the people, but it suc-
training and extended the power of
ceeded in restructuring the French po-
French theatre actors, resulting in per-
litical system and led to the attainment
formers being elected to high-ranking
of equal representation for the average
political and military positions (Fried-
citizen. However, while previous re-
land 2).
that
advantaged
theatrical
search has focused on the revolutionary
This unique involvement of thea-
policy and legislative changes that oc-
tre actors in eighteenth-century politics
curred during this period, there has
thus poses an interesting question: why
been little focus on the involvement of
was eighteenth-century France an op-
related subject – the political actor.
portune time for actors to transition
Eighteenth-century France has
into politics, and how were these actors-
been considered the country’s Age of
turned-politicians perceived by the pub-
Theatre, and French playwrights often
lic? By exploring how politics evolved in
used their writing to comment on polit-
eighteenth-century French theatre, ex-
ical, societal, and
economic issues
amining the theatricality of French Rev-
(Meeker, “Politics of the Stage”). This
olutionary politics itself, and studying
distribution of political messages on-
the actions of a selection of French po-
stage was also paired with a shift towards
litical actors, we can better understand 4
how the relationship between French
and audiences to be regulated and su-
theatre and politics set the stage for ac-
pervised
tors to transition into political roles and
Stage”). Playwrights were also forced to
how these roles were received by the
produce works that promoted the mon-
public.
archy and Catholic Church and whose
(Meeker,
“Politics
of
the
To begin, it is important to note
characters were of noble birth (Meeker,
that eighteenth-century France experi-
“Politics of the Stage”). Additionally,
enced not just a political revolution, but
plays were censored to reduce any allu-
also a theatrical revolution. Prior to the
sions or situations onstage that might
French Revolution, dramatic perfor-
rally the audience, and plays that
mance had proven to be of value be-
mocked or attacked public figures or re-
cause it provided an opportunity to
ligious beliefs were condemned or de-
communicate with an overwhelmingly
layed (Meeker, “Politics of the Stage”).
illiterate public (Hemmings 483). How-
Although the Crown yearned for
ever, in the seventeenth-century, John
plays that “extolled the monarchy and
Dennis, an English writing critic, began
perpetuated the powerful system of
noticing parallels between French thea-
privilege,” stories such as these did not
tre and the French monarchy (Ravel
resonate with average viewers (Meeker,
67). Whereas the impact of theatres had
“Politics of the Stage”). Molière’s early
previously been restrained to the public,
seventeenth-century work, for example,
Richelieu and Louis XIV began efforts to
was supported by Louis XIV, yet was
capitalize on the symbolic influence of
heavily criticized both personally and
theatre in court and in the city (Ravel
professionally by Parisian audiences
68), and French theatre soon became
(Leon 452). This public frustration bub-
seen as an opportunity for high-ranking
bled into the mid-1720s, when audience
individuals to impress others (Meeker,
reception in public theatres started to
“Politics of the Stage”).
play a role in “determining questions of
At the same time, French politi-
taste and repertory” and even impacted
cians and government officials adopted
productions’ financial success (Ravel
a hands-on approach towards theatre in
102). In 1724, a production of Voltaire’s
an effort to control public performances
Hérode et Mariamne, formerly a crowd
(Meeker, “Politics of the Stage”). In the
favorite, barely finished its evening per-
late seventeenth-century, the Crown
formance due to audience disruption,
called for productions, acting troupes,
eventually forcing Voltaire to withdraw 5
his work from the repertory (Ravel 128).
century, bourgeois dramatists such as
Author Kimberly Meeker adds that over
Denis Diderot, Pierre-Augustin Caron
time, “a system of market values
de Beaumarchais, and Louis-Sébastien
emerged to compete with the tradition
Mercier shifted to viewing theatre as a
of aristocratic sponsorship” and led to a
“didactic medium” that allowed them
major theatrical shift (“Politics of the
to educate the public on moral issues
Stage”).
(“Politics of the Stage”). As such, plays
Beginning in the mid eighteenth-
altered from aristocratic themes to mor-
century, artists, playwrights, and authors
alistic comedies and tragedies that
began creating works that better repre-
stressed realism over fantasy and inte-
sented public demand, allowing more
grated characters of varying economic
political and polarized theatrical con-
backgrounds (Meeker, “Politics of the
tent to become available (Friedland 55).
Stage”). Mercier wrote lines that aimed
Unbeknownst to the Crown, political
to “influence political or social senti-
theatre also made its way into the aris-
ment,” Beaumarchais used satire to
tocracy: during the 1750s and early
demonstrate “the abuses of the political
1760s, “radical assertions” were juxta-
system,” and playwrights across France
posed against “innumerable expressions
structured their works to incite societal
of loyalty and devotion,” and character
change
dialogue from nobility became less reli-
Stage”). The new purpose of theatre,
ant on abstract political models and
these playwrights believed, was to ap-
more focused on accurate French his-
peal to the masses and “be more acces-
tory (Friedland 58). The incorporation
sible to common contemporary inter-
of politics in theatre quickly escalated,
ests,” a revolutionary approach that
and from 1751 until the start of the Rev-
made the government increasingly wary
olution, soldiers were placed in Parisian
(Meeker, “Politics of the Stage”)
(Meeker,
“Politics
of
the
theatres in an effort to maintain control
Prior to 1789, only three Parisian
of an increasingly hostile public (Ravel
theatres – the Académie de Musique,
164).
the Comédie Française, and the ComéThis transition period not only
die Italienne – were officially recognized
transformed the content and perfor-
by the French government (McClellan,
mance of theatrical works, but also al-
“The Revolution On Stage”). Unfortu-
tered the purpose of French theatre.
nately, this relationship forced main-
Meeker explains that later in the
stage productions to emphasize the 6
values of the Crown and made venues
Stage”). Unfortunately, because the re-
of an “ambiguous legal position” more
forms of 1791 benefited the commercial
susceptible to censorship or governmen-
interests of playwrights, this enjoyment
tal attack (McClellan, “The Revolution
was short-lived (Ravel 223). Plays began
On Stage”). As the start of the Revolu-
to “pander to the least common denom-
tion neared, some public productions,
inator of taste,” a decision that increased
such as a 1770 performance of Mercier’s
the number of theatre closings (McClel-
Le Déserteur, began to take risks by in-
lan, “The Revolution On Stage”). In an
corporating propaganda to incite politi-
effort to regain control of the stage, the-
cal debate (Meeker, “Politics of the
atres were redefined as “venues of pub-
Stage”). The Crown, sensing unrest,
lic instruction” and thus subject to gov-
surrendered any hope of sponsoring its
ernmental supervision, but after the At-
own propaganda and instead main-
tack on the Tuileries and the subsequent
tained the defensive approach of editing
fall of the monarchy in August 1792, all
political theatrical content (Meeker,
theatres
“Politics of the Stage”). Soon, critics
(McClellan,
who had already found issue with the
Stage”).
country’s political system began attack-
were
temporarily
“The
closed
Revolution
On
As the Reign of Terror increased
ing the theatre system as well, arguing
radicalism
within
the
government,
that the monarchy’s continued control
French theatre underwent another large
of theatrical venues was “artificial,”
transition in terms of police surveillance
“outmoded,” and “kept other entrepre-
and demand for revolutionary opera and
neurs from succeeding” (McClellan,
drama (McClellan, “The Revolution On
“The Revolution On Stage”).
Stage”). The newly formed government
In mid-January 1791, a year and a
was uninterested in productions that
half into the French Revolution, the Na-
distracted publics from the task at hand,
tional Assembly passed legislation to
so the National Convention passed leg-
“free” the theatres (McClellan, “The
islation that required regular perfor-
Revolution On Stage”). The world of
mances of plays that represented the val-
French theatre transformed almost im-
ues of the Revolution and its defenders
mediately, as anyone with funds could
(McClellan,
open a theatre without fear of govern-
Stage”). The laws cautioned that any
ment
theatres that produced plays in an at-
interference
(McClellan,
“The
or
censorship
Revolution
On
tempt
to
“The
“revive
Revolution
the
On
shameful 7
superstition of royalty” would be closed
inciting debate, but as play content be-
and its directors arrested and punished
came more radical, audience behavior
(McClellan,
became more unpredictable. Not every
“The
Revolution
On
Stage”).
citizen agreed with the new reign of
In response, playwrights pro-
government, and the Government of
duced works that were even more polit-
the Directory was forced to begin con-
ical, this time embracing a genre known
trolling public opinion (McClellan,
as pièces de circonstance, or occasional
“The Revolution On Stage”). By the
or topical works (McClellan, “The Rev-
turn of the century, monitoring of play
olution On Stage”). Dr. Mark Darlow, a
content had effectively switched from
professor of eighteenth-century French
the aristocracy to the newly founded
theatre and opera at Christ’s College,
Revolutionary government, but unlike
elaborates that pièces de circonstance
previous
are “concerned with making explicit
maintained their individual political
connections with the world which is
identities when viewing productions
represented and that of the audience”
(Maslan 41). Dr. Susan Maslan, an early
and thus seek to portray realism (390).
modern French literary and political his-
As a result, these plays were often
tory professor at the University of Cali-
French military or current event dramas
fornia-Berkeley, notes that “These audi-
that supported the Revolution and its
ences declared their right, not to ram-
radical government (McClellan, “The
page and attack, but rather, to exercise
Revolution On Stage”). Some, such as
popular censorship,” demonstrating the
Jean-Louis Laya’s 1793 L’Ami des lois,
public’s desire and ability to regulate
focused on politicians’ attempts to ma-
themselves (41). In essence, the theatri-
nipulate the people and included exag-
cal medium during the French Revolu-
gerated characterizations of politicians
tion assisted in furthering public de-
(Maslan 38). Others, such as Louis Be-
mand for representation and demon-
noît Picard’s 1793 La prise de Toulon,
strated the strong relationship between
incorporated direct references to and
eighteenth-century French theatre and
speeches from current political leaders
French Revolutionary politics.
(McClellan,
“The
Revolution
On
Stage”).
years,
audience
members
But it was not merely theatre that became politicized, but also politics that
The politicized plays of the
became theatrical. Literary critic and
French Revolution were successful at
historian Marie-Hélène Huet explains 8
that the French Revolution utilized the-
(Friedland 181). Although the boxes
atricality in politics with the hope that
were removed due to the king’s de-
it would “make the people into an au-
mand, when the Estates General met at
dience that could be disciplined and re-
the Hôtel des Menus-Plaisirs two years
pressed ‘by means of the spectacle’”
later, the boxes had reappeared and
(qtd. in Maslan 29). The concept of
were joined by amphitheaters on the
spectacle was utilized politically as well,
sides that allowed for even more audi-
from the staging of debates to the con-
ence seating (Friedland 181).
tent of political speeches. Much like
Aside from aesthetics, one of the
campaigning or lobbying, politics was
most prominent examples of theatrical-
not merely telling the audience, but
ity in French Revolutionary politics was
convincing them, an art form that the
the way in which debates were con-
theatre had been using for hundreds of
ducted (Friedland 180). Starting in the
years.
latter part of the eighteenth-century, Theatricalization in politics was
English viewers of French political de-
apparent by looking at the architecture.
bates began commenting on the “disor-
Dr. Paul Friedland, a French Revolu-
derly” appearance of both politicians
tionary historian and professor at Cor-
and spectators (Friedland 180). How-
nell University, notes that “The phrase
ever, French observers argued that the
political stage was no mere metaphor
apparent chaos onstage was not due to
during the Revolutionary period,” as the
a lack of rules, but rather, the use of
various halls in which the National As-
rules that were ill suited for politics
sembly met and debated were con-
(Friedland 181). Because French Revolu-
structed like theatre venues, with each
tionary theatre audiences were highly
location more theatrical than the last
engaged and interactive, similar forms
(181). Though political venues are often
of audience communication carried
arranged for the benefit of the politi-
over to the political stage. Friedland
cian, the theatricality of politics im-
writes that in January of 1790, the mag-
pacted the internal setup of arenas in
azine Mercure de France commented on
that it prioritized the audience over the
a particularly unruly audience that had
politician. In 1787, the king came to in-
continuously interrupted a politician’s
spect one of the earliest structures and
speech with loud whistling – a common
was stunned by the inclusion of specta-
expression of displeasure primarily uti-
tor boxes on the sides of the hall
lized in the theatre (181). 9
In fact, it was the spectators who
critics. Mirabeu, for example, was rec-
often insisted on bringing theatrics and
ognized as one of the greatest orators of
spectacle into the field of politics.
the time due to his ability to balance
Maslan furthers that during the trial of
both politics and theatrics (Friedland
Louis XVI, Bertrand Barère, the Presi-
182). But despite being a prominent pol-
dent of the National Convention, de-
itician, Mirabeau was also questioned
manded viewers remain silent and out-
for his ability to utilize spectacle (Fried-
lawed audience applause and murmurs
land 183). Friedland explains that the
(27). However, the spectators were not
public struggled with how to identify
so easily contained, and their gallery
him, questioning, “Was he a great rep-
participation eventually resulted in Ba-
resentative of the nation, or a great ora-
rère shouting, “Silence! Leave the ap-
tor? Did one admire his speeches for
plause for the theater” (qtd. in Maslan
their content or for their delivery?”
27). Over the course of the revolution,
(183).
these audience responses approved or
The content of political speeches
denied political decisions, suggesting
thus came under consideration when
that the commentary French audiences
distinguishing a political actor from an
voiced in the safety of the theatre in-
average politician. Because politics and
creased their confidence to hold politi-
theatre was so closely interwoven, the
cians accountable in the real world
awe and spectacle of watching a politi-
(Maslan 27).
cian speak sometimes outweighed the
In order to accommodate such
value of what he or she was comment-
demands, politicians needed to become
ing on. Though some would think that
more engaging, a change that opened
actors’ training would make it easier for
the door for entertainers and actors.
them to appeal to audiences, traditional
Some accounts claim that many depu-
politicians and orators were criticized
ties of the National Assembly partook in
for prioritizing theatricality over rheto-
acting classes, while others took the eas-
ric. To sound convincing, some politi-
ier route of planting audience members
cians utilized abstract theories in their
in the gallery to applaud their speeches
speeches, and others faked intense en-
(Friedland 182). Rhetorical skills were
thusiasm about topics that were so dull
also of great importance, and the orator-
an average audience could not decipher
ical abilities of many politicians gained
what was actually occurring (Gay 665).
the favor of both political and theatrical
Peter
Gay,
an
Emeritus
Sterling 10
Professor of History at Yale University,
them. As such, it is important to con-
furthers this claim with the story of Ed-
sider how these actors’ political roles
mund Burke, an orator who attacked a
were perceived by the public.
fellow speaker’s speech as being “full of
It has taken years for scholars to
false philosophy and false rhetoric” that
understand the significance of French
was intended to permeate weak minds
dramatic actors in eighteenth-century
(qtd. in Gay 664). Even French critic
politics. In explaining the opportune
Hippolyte Taine found issue with politi-
timing of the French Revolution, Fried-
cians’ flimsy claims, stating “All is mere
land writes, “The Revolution had given
show and pretence… It is not a difficult
birth to a world in which actors mixed
job; the phrases are ready-made to
familiarly with politicians and in which
hand,”
politicians’
the political and the theatrical intermin-
speeched were laden with theatrics (qtd.
gled to such a great extent that neither
in Gay 665).
was properly distinguishable from the
suggesting
that
The use of political spectacle
other,” contending that it was this oc-
combined with the inclusion of politics
currence that permitted a relationship
in theatre set the stage for French actors
to develop between politicians and dra-
to take their skills to the political arena.
matic actors (Friedland 168). Friedland’s
Though average politicians were cer-
2002 book Political Actors: Representa-
tainly effective public servants, actors
tive Bodies and Theatricality in the Age
were advantaged in that the French Rev-
of the French Revolution further exam-
olutionary public – essentially another
ines this connection through a collec-
theatrical audience – desired a political
tion of accounts of French actors’ tran-
show. For decades, actors had been por-
sitions into politics.
traying politicians onstage, sometimes
One of the most famous exam-
even performing snippets from actual
ples of an actor turned politician comes
political speeches, so when the world of
in the form of Collot d’Herbois, a suc-
politics later began valuing the reaction
cessful dramatist and playwright who
of the spectator more than the argument
joined the Jacobin Club early in the
of the debater, actors knew how to work
Revolution (Friedland 172). Despite be-
the audience. However, by the end of
ing elected to the National Convention,
the Revolution, spectators were no
serving on the Committee of Public
longer passive and quiet, but highly crit-
Safety, and assisting in the overthrow of
ical of the messages being presented to
Robespierre, Collot was often accused 11
of being heavily reliant on theatrics and
Accusations of theatrical rhetoric were
was considered nothing but “an actor
also launched against Claire Lacombe,
pretending to be a politician” (Friedland
an actress known as one of the co-
172). In fact, when he was eventually
founders of the Revolutionary political
tried for plotting to destroy a federalist
organization La Société des citoyennes
rebellion, most of the pamphlets and ev-
républicaines révolutionaires (Friedland
idence against Collot argued that his
178). Lacombe’s political career began
plan had been motivated by revenge for
in 1792 when she gave a political speech
being booed offstage at a theatre near
on the Legislative Assembly platform
the rebellion a number of years prior
that proved to be so successful it was
(Friedland 174).
quickly ordered for publication (Fried-
Similarly,
Jean-François
land 179). Although she was well known
Boursault-Malberbe, an actor and direc-
for her rousing speeches, Lacombe’s el-
tor of the main theatre in Marseille, was
oquent speaking also received strong
also suspected of involving himself in
criticism and she was eventually jailed in
politics for personal reasons (Friedland
1794 (Friedland 179). Upon being re-
177). When Boursalt began his political
leased over a year later, Lacombe once
career, he was named an elector of the
more returned to a life onstage in the
city of Paris and quickly moved up to
safety of the theatre (Friedland 179).
“supplementary” deputy to the National
The last example Friedland pro-
Convention (Friedland 177). However,
vides of an eighteenth-century political
unlike Collot, Boursault later relin-
actor is Fabre d’Eglantine, who achieved
quished the deputy position and re-
success as a playwright and performer
turned to manage the Théâtre Molière,
(Friedland 175). Fabre engaged in poli-
choosing instead to focus his efforts on
tics early in the Revolution, acting as
producing
plays
secretary of the Cordeliers Club in 1790
(Friedland 177). But despite never at-
and deputy of Paris to the National Con-
taining the same political status as Col-
vention in 1792 (Friedland 175). Unlike
lot and later returning to a nonpolitical
other actors turned politicians, Fabre
life, Boursault was still said to have
continued to work in the theatre world
fooled the audience by performing in
while he served in office and wrote nu-
character on the political stage and pri-
merous plays that were well-regarded
oritizing theatrical training over reason
(though one of his works was reported
(Friedland 177).
to have been booed offstage by an
politically
neutral
12
unimpressed audience) (Friedland 176).
to remain transparent in relation to the
But like Lacombe, Fabre was later ar-
people (Kroen 1100). After 1750, the re-
rested for his role in politics on the
sponsibility of theatrical believability
grounds that he “trafficked his opinion
shifted to the audience, and the connec-
as representative of the people” (Fried-
tion between political representatives
land 176).
and
their
constituents
disappeared
Examples such as these demon-
(Kroen 1101). By the time actors began
strate that despite producing tangible
to transition into politics, the skeptical
results while in leadership positions,
French public believed that actors could
public opinion towards and perception
only be performers because they were
of political actors was mixed. Some be-
unable to distinguish understanding
lieved that actors who transitioned into
from copying and thus lacked the
politics did so out of a lust for power
knowledge to support a political posi-
and that the period’s reliance on specta-
tion (Ravel 227).
cle allowed actors to get by “with an
Public skepticism thus played a
aura of illegitimate and dangerous the-
large role in eighteenth-century politics.
atricality” - essentially, that the theatri-
As French politics and theatre became
cality of French Revolutionary politics
increasingly intertwined, actors and pol-
unfairly advantaged dramatic actors over
iticians began facing the same audience
those with more qualifications (Fried-
– the theatre audience. As French Revo-
land 198). Furthermore, some actors
lutionary theatre took on the new role
seem to have made questionable deci-
of a political forum, audiences were en-
sions that could have been perceived as
couraged to learn, critique, and interact
internally motivated or prioritized the-
in ways that had previously been
atrical performance and spectacle over
frowned upon. As a result, when the
reliable and trustworthy content.
world surrounding these theatregoers
It is likely that the disapproval to-
revolted and became more radicalized,
wards political actors was a result of the
this newfound confidence carried over
political and theatrical transition France
to the political arena and produced
underwent in 1750, in which public ex-
spectators who were more comfortable
pectation of actors shifted from re-
with calling out politicians when they
presentation to representation (Kroen
made grandeur claims. However, it is
1100). Before 1750, actors were expected
important to note that eighteenth-cen-
to “embody” their roles, and politicians,
tury France was known for tension, 13
paranoia, and impulses that often ended
the political stage were aided by sub-
in bloodshed, making it likely that at
stantive knowledge just as much as the-
least some of the skeptical allegations
atrics. In other words, while theatrical
against political actors were exaggerated
training may have made it easier for ac-
or false. Additionally, many of the
tors to enter the world of politics ini-
claims against political actors attacked
tially, spectacle could only get a person
their methods of delivery and internal
so far: at the end of the day, skeptical
motivations, and without further evi-
constituents wanted answers. Further-
dence or accounts from the actors them-
more, because the rhetorical and per-
selves, it is difficult to know whether
suasive skills of actors and politicians
any of the accusations had basis.
were so tightly interwoven, it is likely
Yet even political actors who
that theatre actors who did manage to
demonstrated credibility and capability
succeed in politics likely did so for good
faced skepticism and criticism from the
reason.
public. Friedland notes that regardless
Eighteenth-century
France
of their political role, actors who at-
marked an influential theatrical and po-
tempted to make the jump into the po-
litical period that has yet to be fully ex-
litical arena were “lambasted by journal-
plored. In a theatrical sense, the eight-
ists and pamphleteers who were quick
eenth-century saw a shift towards the in-
to unmask these migrations as evidence
clusion of more political themes in
of both the insatiable political ambitions
plays, and both actors and playwrights
of dangerous clowns and the inherent
were more inclined to produce work
theatricality of the Revolution itself,”
that caused audiences to react and cri-
leaving little opportunity for actors to
tique rather than passively accept. Polit-
demonstrate their competence (170).
ically, the French Revolution encour-
Furthermore, Gay contends that the
aged the use of theatrical spectacle, pro-
French Revolution’s best political rhe-
ducing theatre-esque political venues
toricians both talked and acted, suggest-
that could accommodate engaged con-
ing that French Revolutionary politics
stituents and inspire public officials to
itself may have been more than mere
converse with the audience instead of
spectacle (664). If applied to political
talking at them. However, while this in-
actors specifically, this could mean that
terconnectedness did make the political
French actors who successfully navi-
world more accessible to dramatic ac-
gated the transition from the theatre to
tors, public perception of political 14
actors was mixed. Additionally, while skeptical eighteenth-century audiences may have made it more difficult for actors to distinguish themselves as knowledgeable politicians, this skepticism also made it more difficult for incapable actors to trick or manipulate their way into long-term political success. The political theatrics of the French Revolution can still be seen today in the form of public debates, audience interaction, and political spectacle. Although the events during and leading up to the Revolution continue to be debated amongst scholars and historians, it can be agreed that eighteenth-century France displayed one of the most radical transformations of theatre and politics ever seen. The events of the French Revolution thus reveal that both politics and theatre play a monumental role in shaping society, and only by exercising the two equally will a nation be able to thrive.
15
BIBLIOGRAPHY Darlow, Mark. “History and (Meta-)Theatricality: The French Revolution’s Paranoid Aesthetics.” The Modern Language Review 105.2 (2010): 385-400. JSTOR. Web. 20 Feb. 2015. Friedland, Paul. Political Actors: Representative Bodies and Theatricality in the Age of the French Revolution. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 2002. Print. Gay, Peter. “Rhetoric and Politics in the French Revolution.” The American Historical Review 66.3 (1961): 664-76. JSTOR. Web. 20 Feb. 2015. Hemmings, F. W. J. “Review.” The Modern Language Review 87.2 (1992): 482-83. JSTOR. 19 April 2015. Kroen, Sheryl. “Paul Friedland, Political Actors: Representative Bodies and Theatricality in the Age of the French Revolution.” The Journal of Modern History 77.4 (2005): 1100-02. JSTOR. Web. 11 April 2015. Leon, Mechele. (2009). Molière, the French Revolution, and the Theatrical Afterlife [Adobe Digital Editions version]. Retrieved from ProQuest ebrary. Maslan, Susan. “Resisting Representation: Theater and Democracy in Revolutionary France.” Representations No. 52 (1995): 27-51. JSTOR. Web. 20 Feb. 2015.
16
McClellan, Michael E. “The Revolution on Stage: Opera and Politics in France, 1789-1800.” (2004): n. pag. Web. 20 Feb. 2015. Meeker, Kimberly. “Politics of the Stage: Theatre and Popular Opinion In Eighteenth-Century Paris.” Binghamton Journal of History (2000): n. pag. Web. 20 Feb. 2015. O’Brien, Laura. “Review: A People’s History of the French Revolution, by Eric Hazan.” The Irish Times. The Irish Times, 22 March 2015. Web. 19 April 2015. Ravel, Jeffrey S. The Contested Parterre: Public Theatre and French Political Culture, 1680-1791. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1999. Print.
17
“Ormond’s Subversion of Heteronormative Gothic Characteristics: Constantia Dudley, Sophia Courtland, and Martinette de Beauvais” by Lindsay Brents
18
Introduction
involved in an arcane secret order baf-
During his attempts to create American
fling to outsiders; although not a mem-
literature distinct from its European her-
ber of the nobility, he possesses land and
itage, Charles Brockden Brown wrote
wealth that give him power over the
Ormond; Or, The Secret Witness. Writ-
heroine. Most importantly, he poses a
ten and set in the 1790s in the United
sexual threat to the heroine. Ormond is
States, this novel establishes a recogniza-
more explicitly dangerous than other
bly Gothic plot, only to thwart the ex-
villains, whose threats are either indirect
pected sexual violence by allowing the
(Montoni, who tries to control Emily St.
heroine to kill the man who threatens
Aubert’s marriage in The Mysteries of
her. With this and other examples of fe-
Udolpho) or at least hidden from the in-
male empowerment, including the rev-
génues they pursue (Ambrosio, The
olutionary soldier Martinette de Beau-
Monk). By contrast, once he realizes
vais, Brown argues that women are not
that Constantia plans to leave him for-
the inherently weaker sex. In the unset-
ever, Ormond seeks her for the express
tled years after the American Revolu-
purpose of delivering a rape threat: “one
tion, when the new democratic society
more disaster remains….Thy reputation
was defining itself, Brown had the per-
will be spotless, for nothing will be done
fect opportunity to write about the pos-
by thee, unsuitable to the tenor of thy
sibility of a new position in society for
past life” (Brown 198). While Constantia
women. Influenced by Mary Wollstone-
is confused about his language, readers
craft and the revolutionary ideal of true
clearly apprehend that the entirety of
equality, Brown sharply critiques the pa-
this five paragraph monologue is an ex-
triarchal, heteronormative society of his
tended description of how Constantia
time by suggesting that an alternative
will suffer after the sexual assault, cou-
was not only possible, but indeed nec-
pled with the disconcerting idea that, if
essary to allow women the full joys of
she takes the right attitude toward it,
human dignity.
Ormond could be doing a favor for her emotional stability.
Ormond as the Patriarchy
The reader has good reason to be-
Despite the fact that Brown sets Or-
lieve Ormond’s threats. At least two of
mond primarily in America, the work’s
the deaths in the narrative are directly
titular character is a classic Gothic vil-
his doing. He manipulates Thomas
lain: although not Catholic, he is
Craig into murdering Mr. Dudley, and 19
then murders Craig. Both of these are
and that men are entitled to that pleas-
convoluted attempts to control Con-
ure. Furthermore, Ormond discusses
stantia. First, by removing her father,
the planned rape as if he cannot stop
who disapproved of Ormond and Con-
himself, playing into another ancient
stantia’s relationship, Ormond takes on
stereotype of men as sexually uncontrol-
the responsibility of providing for her,
lable brutes: “Come, it will….An inexo-
which earns him her esteem even while
rable and immutable decree enjoins it”
it gives him an astonishing amount of
(198). Not even Constantia’s death
power over her life. Second, by killing
could stop Ormond’s lust, as he informs
Craig, he serves a paltry vigilante justice
her that “living or dead, the prize that I
for the father’s death. Ormond believes
have in view shall be mine” (216). Such
that this will endear him further to Con-
a perversion, while hopefully uncom-
stantia, despite the fact that the murder
mon in the general male population,
of Mr. Dudley was Ormond’s orchestra-
serves to demonstrate the inhumanity to
tion in the first place. Ormond addition-
which male entitlement can lead. This
ally has the audacity to admit all of this
extremity in Ormond’s assumptions
to Constantia and claim it as advance
about his rights as a man and Constan-
payment for the sexual gratification he
tia’s role as a woman are established as
desires (213-214). His actions demon-
a direct critique of those ideas, which
strate male entitlement in extremis: he
Brown deconstructs at the climax of the
believes he knows more than Constantia
novel.
about what will make her happy.
When confronted with the im-
One of the most frightening as-
mediate threat of rape, Constantia
pects of Ormond’s character is how cas-
doubts her physical prowess in a fight,
ual he is about his premeditated rape.
so she resolves to kill herself rather than
He views it as a natural conclusion to
allow Ormond to assault her. She later
their relationship, asking Constantia,
describes rape as “an evil worse than
“Art thou still dubious of my purpose?
death” (220). According to the sensibil-
Art thou not a woman? And have I not
ities of the time, the word rape is actu-
intreated [sic] for thy love, and been re-
ally never once used in the text. All ref-
jected?” (215). Implicit are the values,
erences to the act are centered on
both of the Gothic tradition and of
honor: Constantia is concerned with her
Brown’s society in general, that women
ability to “find safety for her honor”
exist to provide sexual pleasure for men,
(215),
Ormond
mocks
her
for 20
“preferr[ing] thy imaginary honor to
which Sophia enters is radically differ-
life” (216), and Sophia asks Constantia if
ent. Ormond lies lifeless on the ground,
“nothing has happened to load you with
and Constantia lives, all through her
guilt or with shame?” (220). This was –
own doing (219). For a Gothic novel,
and in some places still is – common in
this is an astonishing occurrence. Not
the discussion of female sexuality; an
only does the heroine escape – which
unwed woman’s virginity gave her
does sometimes happen – but she also
honor and was inextricably linked to her
saves herself from the male threat with-
social standing.
out male aid – which liberates her femi-
Beyond the social ramifications,
ninity from masculine control.
Brown acknowledges the more significant effects of rape on the mental health
Sophia Courtland: Female Relationships
of the victim. Ormond’s threat includes
At the end of the novel, Constantia does
the assertion that the event “will be
not have an honorable young man to
thought upon with agony: It will close
sweep her away into marriage. How-
up all the sources of pleasurable recol-
ever, she does have an intimately close
lection: It will exterminate hope… and
female friend who also functions as the
push thee into an untimely grave” (199).
narrator of the story. When Sophia and
All this from an event that Ormond re-
Constantia are alone together, their in-
iterates will not be known to the wider
teraction is “of too intimate and delicate
world if Constantia does not speak of it.
a nature, for any but a female audience”
If she never tells anyone, society will be-
(197). Ormond was written too early for
lieve her honor to be intact. The horror
the modern construction of lesbianism
of the crime is not in the loss of honor,
to exist, but Constantia and Sophia cer-
but rather in the powerlessness of the
tainly share a relationship outside 1790s
victim, which crystalizes, in a physical
heteronormativity.
act, the oppression women face in a patriarchal society.
Sophia’s position as narrator, romantic interest, and actor in the main
Constantia is willing to die rather
narrative reifies the Gothic subversion.
than suffer sexual assault, and Ormond’s
In the role normally occupied by a vir-
feelings of sexual entitlement make her
tuous male suitor, Sophia is the one who
resolution appear to be the inevitable
cares for Constantia in the aftermath of
conclusion to the episode (216). How-
Ormond’s death. She rescues Constantia
ever, the scene of the aftermath upon
from the locked mansion, justifies 21
Constantia’s actions to the judicial sys-
common. The exemplary Gothic novel
tem and reader alike, and arranges for
The Monk uses this convention to en-
the pair to travel to Europe (220). Even
hance the sexual passion between Am-
before this, the “effects of [their] ro-
brosius and Mathilda, who modeled for
mantic passion for each other” assist
Ambrosius’ personal Madonna icon. Ad-
Constantia in deciding to turn away
ditionally, Constantia is bitterly ag-
from Ormond and seek happiness else-
grieved at having to part with a mere
where (197). While Sophia is married to
picture: “It seemed as if she had not
a Mr. Courtland, he is laughably unim-
thoroughly conceived the extent of her
portant to her in comparison to Con-
calamity till now… she could have en-
stantia and functions more like a mis-
dured the loss of eyes with less reluc-
tress than a husband. After spending
tance than the loss of this inestimable
scarcely a page on Courtland detailing
relique” (58). The portrait is so dear to
how they met in Europe and decided to
her because it is her only connection to
marry, Sophia returns to her primary fo-
Sophia after the Dudleys have to leave
cus: “It was my inflexible purpose to live
New York and change their names to
and die with [Constantia]” (178). To
hide their infamy. When Constantia’s
this end, she is willing to forgo living in
fortunes finally turn, she searches for the
Europe if Constantia refuses to move
portrait in vain hope of recovering at
across the Atlantic; she arranges plans
least that connection. Her search instead
such that Courtland will come stateside
yields Sophia’s person, and Constantia
to live with her and Constantia.
“[sinks] upon the floor motionless and
This female affection is not unrequited.
without sense, but not till she ha[s]
Constantia shows a similar devotion to
faintly articulated; My God! My God!
Sophia. When she is forced by desperate
This is a joy unmerited and too great”
poverty to part with a portrait of her
(171). This excess of emotion is not in-
friend, her regret is immense, for the
spired by simple friendship.
portrait’s “power of her sensation was
In the book Female Masculinity,
similar to that possessed by a beautiful
author Jack Halberstam (Judith at the
Madonna over the heart of a juvenile en-
time of publishing) traces the history of
thusiast” (58). Comparing friendship to
deviant
the idolatry reserved for the Virgin Mary
women. This intersects with historical
is unusual; comparing romantic passion
accounts of same-sex desire because, in
to such a sensation is much more
the
late
gender
1800s,
expression
early
among
sexologists 22
attributed
homosexual
behavior
to
with the extremely masculine Marti-
“gender inversion,” explicitly linking
nette de Beauvais. Before formally meet-
gender and sexuality (Halberstam 82).
ing her, Constantia is struck by Marti-
Before that time, including when Brown
nette’s “heroic and contemplative” ap-
wrote Ormond, there was little public
pearance, in which “the female was ab-
discussion of the cause of same-sex
sorbed…in the rational creature, and the
erotic activity. Women were viewed as
emotions apt to be excited in the gazer,
asexual beings, and so all female-female
partook less of love than of reverence”
relationships were classified as romantic
(60). The traditional association of the
friendships and therefore not a threat to
male with the rational and the female
the institution of heterosexual marriage
with the emotional plays out here to
(65). However, any reader attempting to
characterize Martinette as a masculine
place Constantia and Sophia’s relation-
woman. Additionally, Martinette has
ship in this category is thwarted by the
spent time actively living as a man: dur-
fact that Ormond, the allegorical patri-
ing the American Revolution, she “de-
archy, is extremely threatened by them.
lighted to assume the male dress, to ac-
When speaking of Sophia and Constan-
quire skill at the sword, and dexterity in
tia together, Ormond’s “countenance
every boisterous exercise” (154). Inter-
bespoke a deepening inquietude and
estingly, this transgression of gender
growing passion. He stopped at the
boundaries is connected to Martinette’s
mention of the letter, because his voice
deep love for her husband, who dies of
was overpowered by emotion” (Brown
complications from a wound received
197). If romantic friendship is non-
on the battlefield (155). In this way,
threatening, what Constantia and So-
Martinette’s transgression is simultane-
phia share is not a romantic friendship.
ously excused – it was spurred by her wifely loyalty – and punished – it causes
Martinette de Beauvais and Revolution-
her to lose her husband. Of course,
ary Gender
many women who conformed to femi-
At the conclusion of the novel,
nine expectations lost their husbands in
the reader discovers that Ormond is
the war as well, so her punishment is
right to feel threatened by Constantia’s
not unique to her “crime.”
same-sex proclivities; however, Sophia
Martinette’s military career is key
is not the true reason. Constantia, ear-
to the threat that Constantia poses to
lier in the story, becomes enamored
Ormond. When Martinette mentions 23
that she would have been willing to
coiffed hair, body-altering corsets, and
commit suicide for the sake of the
hidden bodily functions, for example
French Revolution (in which she also
(Halberstam 258). Therefore, femininity
fought),
“shudder[s]….
could be performed by either men or
Hitherto she had read in [Martinette]
women due to its stylized, theatrical na-
nothing that bespoke the desperate
ture. Performing masculine actions not
courage of martyr, and the deep design-
only indicated masculinity, but also in-
ing of an assassin” (159). While this vi-
dicated a male body. What then of
olence initially repulses Constantia,
women who performed masculine ac-
when Ormond threatens her with rape,
tions? They were much more threaten-
her “unalterable resolution is, to die un-
ing than women who merely had mas-
injured…. To save a greater good by the
culine temperaments or intelligences.
sacrifice of life” (216). Martinette’s ex-
This is part of why Constantia (like
ample allows Constantia to overcome
many other Gothic heroines) retains her
her reservations, and she finds herself
desirability as a single woman despite
able to contemplate suicide as a way to
her conventionally masculine educa-
prevent Ormond’s triumph. Not to be
tion.
Constantia
defeated, however, Ormond reveals that
Stabbing Ormond is the only ac-
Constantia’s death will not prevent his
tive physical expression of Constantia’s
sexual gratification. She is then forced
masculinity: every other masculine trait
to counter Ormond’s inexorable mascu-
is internal. From her years as the bread-
line desire with masculine behavior of
winner of her family, Constantia shares
her own: murder.
with Sophia “obligations and cares little
Understanding the concept of
suited to [their] sex and age…[that] en-
maleness as a performance becomes val-
larged [their] knowledge” (Brown 195).
uable here. Rape and other forms of
She rejects suitors based on rational con-
physical violence were actions associ-
clusions, not emotion, and her father
ated with men and masculinity in the
trains her in masculine languages and
1790s. Furthermore, the distinction be-
philosophy, while Ormond teaches her
tween masculinity and the unaltered
about politics and other traditionally
male body was, and continues to be,
male topics. However, these masculine
nearly non-existent, while culturally ac-
mental exercises do not serve to defem-
cepted standards of femininity involved
inize Constantia. Sophia’s femininity is
a great degree of artifice: elaborately
even less in question, as she too is 24
characterized as extremely feminine by
American Revolution, American culture
her miniature portrait, which so attracts
was renegotiating itself. In creating a so-
a male stranger that he claims to be her
ciety that lacked hereditary nobility or a
lover.
monarchy out of the Western European Neither Constantia nor Sophia
tradition, the United States had already
regularly perform physically recogniza-
challenged and changed fundamental
ble masculinity – their masculinity
concepts of how a society should be
comes from their mental abilities. Given
structured. Gender roles were equally
the influence Mary Wollstonecraft’s the-
entrenched in the societal structure, so
ories had on Brown, these so-called
they were as apt to be re-examined as
masculine qualities should not actually
everything else that had been previously
be considered masculine. Pragmatism,
held sacrosanct.
logical reasoning, and diligence are
With Martinette, a veteran of two
among Wollstonecraft’s “manly virtues”
revolutions, as the most gender deviant
which, “properly speaking, [are] those
character, Brown makes the connection
talents and virtues, the exercise of which
between gender and revolution explicit.
ennobles the human character” (7).
Specifically, Martinette is a woman as-
Wollstonecraft argues that qualities con-
suming traditionally male power, and
sidered manly should simply be consid-
she is not alone. She speaks of “whole
ered universally human. The “masculin-
regiments of women” who had joined
ity” of Constantia and Sophia, therefore,
the French army in male disguise
should not be read as such. Brown is
(Brown 159). With revolutions on both
characterizing them as fully competent
sides of the Atlantic Ocean spurring
people, properly educated and inured to
women into new roles, the old system
the realities of the world.
of gender division becomes outdated
So why does Brown agree with
and in need of its own revolution.
Wollstonecraft and question the proper
Brown proposes Wollstonecraft’s idea of
roles of women? Halberstam writes that
educating women to have the same vig-
“minority masculinities…destabilize bi-
orous mental faculties that are expected
nary gender systems” (29). Conversely,
in men as a suitable outcome of this
destabilized binary gender systems allow
gender revolution.
for the exploration of minority masculinities – female masculinity among
Reception and Authorial Intent
them. In the unstable time following the 25
Critics of Ormond have rejected the ho-
such attractive properties in a form thus
moeroticism in the plot as a character
vaguely seen” (Brown 61).
flaw in Constantia, used it to bolster his-
Comment accuses Brown of the
torical surveys of proto-lesbian desire, or
same xenophobia and racism (Marti-
treated it as a metaphor for social anxi-
nette has a dark complexion along with
eties. After rightfully acknowledging
her foreign birthplace) that Halberstam
that none of these approaches focuses
finds in Lillian Faderman’s Scotch Ver-
on the dialogue about women’s rights
dict, which defends the “pure” nature of
that Brown deliberately explores, Kris-
a romantic friendship by accusing an In-
tin M. Comment argues that Brown
dian girl of lying about the sexual ac-
treats homoerotic behavior in women as
tions
a source of anxiety (57). She claims
women. Faderman’s goal, however, is to
Brown meant to use Martinette to at-
defend “her belief in a pure lesbianism,”
tack the idea of sexual female relation-
and Brown has no such motive (Hal-
ships as too radical: he gives Martinette
berstam 65). Queer historians like
foreign origins and a name that sounds
Faderman try to interpret truths about
like Marie Antoinette, the public figure
the past, while novelists, particularly
most closely associated with debauchery
early American ones like Brown, pub-
and destructive femininity (68). She ar-
lished commentaries on the current
gues that Martinette takes the perver-
state of affairs with an eye toward chang-
sions associated with homosexual desire
ing the future. Connecting Martinette
to “make Constantia and Sophia inno-
with the French Revolution might have
cent by contrast” (69). However, the
made her undesirable for some readers,
only contrast Comment cites is Con-
but Martinette’s first experience in di-
stantia shrinking from Martinette’s mil-
rectly assuming a male role came in the
itary violence – which Constantia later
American Revolution, about which all
emulates. Furthermore, narrator Sophia
of Brown’s intended readership would
uses Constantia’s complimentary first
have had a positive view. Thus, for all
impression of Martinette to describe
that she is sometimes frightening, Mar-
Constantia herself. In fact, the narration
tinette is an example of positive change
suggests that Constantia is drawn to
in the world.
she
witnessed
between
two
Martinette because of this very similar-
Both Faderman and Comment la-
ity: “this resemblance….maybe sup-
bor under the assumption that people
posed to influence her in discovering
before the 1900s viewed homosexuality 26
with the same negative connotations
mismanaging the affairs in the first place
created by the gender inversion theory.
(Comment 70). As to intimacy, Sophia
Suggested first by Richard von Krafft-
speaks of “three days…spent in a state of
Ebing and expanded by Havelock Ellis,
dizziness and intoxication….amidst the
the theory states that a gender inverted
impetuosities of a master-passion” when
woman would take on masculine char-
she
acteristics that caused her to pursue
(Brown 191-192). With Mr. Dudley al-
women, while a gender inverted man
ready dead, the two women are free to
would take on female characteristics and
do what they will with each other. With
pursue men (Halberstam 76). This the-
Sophia as the narrator, high romantic
ory came to pathologize lesbianism and
diction elevates the experience. The
homosexual behavior, which had previ-
limits to female intimacy are wholly re-
ously been more of a curiosity than a
moved: Sophia says that “henceforth,
disease. However, with Wollstonecraft’s
the stream of our existence was to mix”
ideas making Constantia and Sophia’s
(193). She even plans to whisk Constan-
competence not a symbol of masculin-
tia away from Ormond, the last possible
ity, their relationship does not follow
male authority figure in her life. Rather
gender inversion. Furthermore, Marti-
than preventing female autonomy and
nette, the woman who performs the
intimacy as Comment claims, Brown al-
quintessentially masculine role of sol-
lows his protagonist to indulge in the
dier, does so because of her heterosex-
full glory of those possibilities.
and
Constantia
finally
reunite
ual relationship. These women counter the gender inversion theory of homo-
Conclusion
sexuality before it has even been pro-
With Constantia as a heroine capable of
posed, and so studying Brown’s inten-
defending herself, Sophia fulfilling the
tions in that light is anachronistic and
typically masculine role of romantic
incorrect.
protector, and Martinette as a radical ex-
Comment further insists that Or-
ample of the power women are able to
mond makes “efforts to contain female
command, Ormond becomes a subver-
intimacy and autonomy,” but then turns
sion of the Gothic mode and patriarchal
around and cites the manifold examples
society. As a book Brown wrote to es-
of women handling their own affairs
tablish a uniquely American literary
without the assistance of men and ad-
identity, it makes an impressively revo-
mits that men are usually the ones
lutionary
statement.
Not
only
do 27
American women not need men to save them, but they do not seem to need men at all. Heterosexual marriages serve important reproductive purposes for the continuation
of
the
republic,
but
women’s happiness and ability to survive do not hinge on them. Patriarchal society, present even in the so-called “New World,” restricts women’s independence by forcing them to rely on men. Implicit in that statement is the idea that women should in fact have independence. Brown also makes clear the damaging reality of male behavior. Ormond is an extreme case, but his candor reveals the beliefs ingrained in men that society refused to discuss in the 1790s. The issues brought up in Ormond are progressive for their time, and they are unfortunately topical in the present day. Perhaps if this novel and its message had been received more popularly, they would not be.
28
BIBLIOGRAPHY Brown, Charles Brockden. Ormond; or The Secret Witness. Ed. Philip Barnard and Stephen Shapiro. Indianapolis: Hackett, 2009. Print. Comment, Kristin M. "Charles Brockden Brown's Ormond and Lesbian Possibility in the Early Republic." Early American Literature 40.1 (2005): 57-78. JSTOR. Web. 14 Dec. 2014. Halberstam, Judith. Female Masculinity. Durham: Duke UP, 1998. Print. Wollstonecraft, Mary. A Vindication of the Rights of Woman: With Strictures on Political and Moral Subjects. New York: A. J. Matsell, 1833. Google. 18 Oct. 2005. Web.
29
"Everything is True, Everything Anybody Has Ever Thought: (Im)possibility at the Interface of Science Fiction and Urban Fantasy"
by Jeanette Tong Gin Yen
30
Science fiction and Fantasy, fall-
For clarity, this essay begins with some
ing under the general classification of
expository detail on the two novels ex-
imaginative literature, have an estab-
amined. Wilson’s Bildungsroman tracks
lished tradition of charting the impossi-
teenager Alif as he traverses the contem-
ble through narratives that verge on pos-
porary urban setting of The City, an un-
sible, often articulating underlying con-
named Middle Eastern security state.
cerns about our social worlds through
Alif’s knowledge of technology and
the paradox of ‘(im)possibilities’. The
awareness of government control has
term ‘(im)possibilities’ is understood in
led him to identify as a ‘hacktivist’, a so-
this essay to describe that precarious and
cial activist who primarily undermines
uncertain divide between what seems
state control through data programming
objectively possible and impossible. G.
and hacking computer systems. He re-
Willow Wilson’s Alif the Unseen (2012)
sentfully develops a computer program
and Philip K. Dick’s Do Androids
called ‘Tin Sari’, which electronically
Dream of Electric Sheep? (1968) rely on
shields him from his ex-lover Intisar, but
conventions of other-worlds and keenly
also proves unexpectedly useful to the
observe these (im)possibilities to reveal
security agents of his government. The
the liminal fabric of reality as a nebulous
latter’s acquisition of Tin Sari triggers
uncertainty while questioning the tradi-
his flight into the underbelly of The
tion of secular rationalist discourse of
City, a techno-magical world of jinn
the Western Age of Enlightenment. De-
that defies the laws of reality and chal-
spite being written and published nearly
lenges its limits through an exploration
40 years apart, these texts share a rejec-
of the fantastic. There, Alif encounters
tion of rationalistic secularist thought,
Vikram, an animalistic, shape-shifting
adopting ‘(un)real’ narratives – a term
jinn who assists him on his quest to un-
which expresses a similarly located in-
derstand the Alf Yeom, or ‘The Thou-
stability of a pre-existing empirical real-
sand and One Days’, a book of tales nar-
ity and which therefore undermine the
rated by the jinn and the inverse to The
possibility of certainty of knowledge as
Thousand and One Nights.
such. A comparison of these novels re-
Dick’s science fiction novel, in
veals that their evocation of the (im)pos-
contrast, is set in a futuristic, dystopian
sible complicates and puts at stake the
San Francisco and tracks a single day in
knowledge system that underpins con-
bounty hunter Rick Deckard’s life as he
temporary Western liberal democracy.
pursues a group of fugitive androids (the 31
latest design by multi-terrestrial corpo-
(im)possible, producing an (ir)rational
ration Rosen Industries). The dominant
lens for readers to re-examine the world.
religion within this techno-future of hu-
Typically grounded in scientific
manoid androids and flying cars is Mer-
or technological ‘nova’ (“Latin for ‘new
cerism, in which the collective con-
thing’”) which are of “material, physical
sciousnesses
are
rationalization, rather than a supernatu-
merged through the use of an Empathy
ral or arbitrary one”, SF narratives rely
Box. In Do Androids?, the ability to ex-
on materiality to generate a credible
perience empathy delineates ‘human’
contextual reality.1 Literally, then, SF
from ‘android’, and as a signifier of em-
hinges on both matter and reality, a sort
pathic emotion, the moment of fusion
of ‘mater(reality)’, a neologism con-
through Mercerism significantly en-
structed in this essay which ties reality
twines humanism with a transcendental
into materiality. This mater(reality) sup-
religious belief.
ports those modes of (im)possibilities
of
its
proponents
Within contemporary Western
which are essential to SF narratives. Ma-
liberal democracy, the continued devel-
ter(reality) provides the “discourse of
opment and prioritisation of scientific
possibility” which further demarcates
rationality as the primary mode of phil-
SF’s split from fantasy, where fantastic
osophical thought has caused this frame-
elements of the text are not necessarily
work to permeate the discursive habits
grounded in demonstrable possibilities.2
of liberal subjects and innately con-
However, in introducing the
strains alternative modes of action. By
novum of the Empathy Box, Dick re-
manipulating genre, place, and realities,
jects these strict distinctions in Do An-
Alif the Unseen and Do Androids? pro-
droids? in order to manifest a world
duce a critique of the widely-held as-
which is simultaneously hyper-realistic
sumptions of that rationalistic episte-
and other-worldly. In disrupting the es-
mology as the pinnacle framework of
tablished SF conventions of using nova
philosophical thought. In transgressing
to generate mater(reality), Dick blurs
established conventions of their genres,
the barriers between reality and (un)re-
subverting and re-newing them, these
ality, unsettling the rationalist secular-
works insistently collide against the
ism of Western discourse. The unfathomable design of the Empathy Box blurs
1
Ibid.
2
Roberts, "Defining Science Fiction," 6.
32
‘hard science’ with the ethe(real) reli-
whose
gious experience of Mercerism: upon
mountainside against an unceasing vol-
contact with the box, users enter not
ley of rocks is simultaneously Sisyphean
virtually but actually “into the landscape
and Christ-like, imbuing the figure of
of drab hill, drab sky” that is shown on
Mercer with cultural significance but
the television screen it is connected to.3
also connotations of being mythical –
This shared empathic experience, “fu-
fictitious. However, though popular tel-
sion,” is only ever explained as a cross-
evision host Buster Friendly apparently
ing over “in the usual perplexing fash-
exposes Mercer as a Hollywood-esque
ion; physical merging – accompanied by
hoax relying on fake backdrops and
mental and spiritual identification –
cheap
with Wilbur Mercer”.4 Though propo-
physically “manifest(s) himself and of-
nents of Mercerism never physically
fer(s) aid” to prevent Rick’s death
leave their originary location, the emo-
through his omniscient knowledge and
tional experience of fusion during
presence.7 This moment becomes ut-
which rocks are thrown at Wilber Mer-
terly inexplicable: this dissonant event
cer leave material traces on the users
where the intangible intervenes in the
sharing in his experience; they find
tangible world births an (un)reality
themselves bleeding corporeally from
which rejects not only the strict distinc-
cuts left behind by the virtual rocks
tion between spiritual mysticism and re-
hurled at them.
Not only does Dick
ality, but also questions contemporary
blur the liminal line between the virtual
reliance on tangible, evincible rational-
and the real through this novum, this
ity as a system of knowledge that can be
embodied corporeality of psychological
trusted. By merging rational experience
experience also resists the dominant
with supernatural intercession, Dick
mode of thought which delineates the
tests the limits of rationality and rejects
separation between mind and body ex-
accepted SF conventions in order to
periences.
produce a new, provocative mode of
5
struggle
acting,6
up
a
never-ending
Mercer
nevertheless
Dick further blurs the dichotomy
thinking. By expounding on Mercerism
of science and mysticism through the
as a legitimate religious experience
uncertain existence of Wilbur Mercer,
where
3
5
Philip K. Dick, Do Androids Dream Of Electric Sheep? (London: Phoenix, 1968), 16. 4 Dick, Do Androids, 17.
the
moment
of
fusion
is
Dick, Do Androids, 17. Dick, Do Androids, 162-165. 7 Dick, Do Androids, 175. 6
33
experienced in the Real and leaves visi-
opening” between two walls is, signifi-
ble, corporeal markers on the body after
cantly, out of sight;10 Vikram finds it
the fact, Dick insistently presses at the
through its smell of “vagrant air…water
space between real and spiritual, reject-
in pools of quartz…garlic”.11 The hidden
ing the binary distinction between these
space is only accessible through an un-
modes to create an (im)possible world
orthodox
that poses inherent challenges to the na-
which Wilson strives to disrupt ‘ways of
ture of reality.
seeing’ or understanding – the presup-
sensory
faculty,
through
Wilson similarly melds the para-
posed essential conditions of epistemol-
normal with the rational through the
ogy as known in modern discourse. By
presentation of the jinn (an incredible
embedding the jinn and their living
phenomena) through Alif’s manifest,
spaces as embodied and manifest reli-
credible experiences, and in doing so
gious beings within The City-scape, the
de-familiarises the urban cityscape pre-
novel borrows from the SF convention
sumable known to that reader, compel-
of mater(eality) to lend credence to the
ling them to revaluate that familiar
real potential actuality of the para-nor-
world and begin to re-view it as some-
mal, merging urban modernity with ar-
thing that is simultaneously alien and fa-
chaic religiosity to upset modern secu-
miliar: the (un)known. Wilson im-
larism’s emphasis on scientific rational-
merses the world of the jinn within The
ity.
City, implanting “fantastic pocket uni-
Furthermore, stylised as a proper
verse(s)” such as the Immoveable Alley
noun, The City is simultaneously signi-
within the otherwise recognisable ur-
fied as unique even as it remains gener-
banity of The City.8 In doing so, Wilson
ically unnamed: it becomes “an any-
literally locates “the sublime in the ir-
where and a nowhere,” an “ultimate
ruption of reawakened supernatural
zone of uncanny spectrality”.12 The City
powers into the urban landscape”.9 The
becomes “a plural space” of “hidden
Immoveable Alley, accessible through
and liminal sites” which challenge and
the Old Quarter down a “slender
re-make
AC. Irvine, “Urban Fantasy,” in The Cambridge Companion to Fantasy Literature, eds. Edward James, Farah Mendlesohn (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 205. 9 Irvine, “Urban Fantasy,” 201.
10
8
our
perceptions
of
urban
Willow G. Wilson, Alif The Unseen (Crows Nest, N.S.W: Allen & Unwin, 2012), 160. 11 Wilson, Alif The Unseen, 160. 12 Maria Beville, "Zones Of Uncanny Spectrality: The City In Postmodern Literature," English Studies 94.5 (2013): 616.
34
modernity, de-familiarising the familiar
taken to a police department which
by invoking the (im)possible.13 Where
claims to be the only San Francisco Po-
impossible loci emerge as existent, the
lice Department (SFPD) to exist.14 He
para-normal is joined with the Real,
has no knowledge of these “parallel po-
generating a meta-physical space that in-
lice agencies,” nor they knowledge of
nately redefines reality. Just as Dick in-
him: they repeatedly refute Rick’s
terrupts SF conventions with a fantasti-
claims to being a bounty hunter, under-
cal techno-spirituality, legitimising Mer-
mining his knowledge of his own iden-
cerism as a religion based on a genuine
tity.15 Significantly, they are not just not
omniscient power to invite a reconsid-
known to each other but (un)known to
eration of secularist rationalism, Wilson
each other: Rick recognises the building
borrows from SF’s mater(realities) to
and all its internal functionality as “Like
create an (im)possible world which in-
this, but not this”.16 This moment trig-
tertwines magical impossibilities with
gers Freud’s ‘uncanny’, where that “spe-
scientific rationality. Alif the Unseen
cies of the frightening that goes back to
thus complicates the apparently strict
what was once well known and had long
disjunct between unbelievable magic
been familiar” (emphasis added) marks
and tangible rationality as well as the
the tangible dissonance between inverse
tendency
philosophical
realities, and this (un)familiar moment
thought to prioritise the latter abso-
highlighting the absolute (un)know-
lutely.
ability of the city.17 Briefly, Rick begins
in
modern
Where Wilson’s city stands for
to question his own being and his per-
the tension between strains of thought,
ceived reality, invoking the paranoiac
Dick’s San Francisco in Do Androids? is
fantasy where an individual, suspicious
a dark, inverted mirror city that stands
that “the world he lives in is a fake” rec-
for an uncanny unreal which challenges
ognises “its very hyper-reality” as that
the limits to individualist objectivity.
which makes it “irreal, substanceless,
Plunged into the ‘fake’ San Franciso,
deprived of the material inertia”.18 Just
Rick becomes “bewildered” when he is
as Rick’s knowing of reality as such
Beville, "Zones Of Uncanny Spectrality,” 616. Dick, Do Androids, 86. 15 Dick, Do Androids, 89. 16 Dick, Do Androids, 89. 17 Sigmund Freud, The Uncanny (London: Penguin Books, 2003), 124.
18
13 14
Slavoj Žižek, “Passions of the Real, Passions of Semblance,” in Welcome to the Desert of the Real!: Five Essays on September 11 and Related Dates, (London: Verso, 2002), 13.
35
within that inverted San Francisco be-
grasping of which elevates Alif’s intel-
comes confused and made (un)familiar,
lectual prowess.
so Dick complicates the potential recog-
Yet at this literal height of tri-
nition of any existing objective truths or
umph, during an allegorical dream se-
realities.
quence in which Alif rides atop “the col-
Wilson similiarly constructs a cri-
umns of code on his computer screen”
tique of epistemology and the ability to
that have become “a tower of white
know (empirically and objectively) in
stone”,23 he realises the “nature of his
Alif through the inverse relationship be-
coding scheme” can “no longer com-
tween Alif’s knowing and the function
pensate for its inherent instability” and
of his coding. Alif successfully develops
his tower begins to crack.24 Ironically,
the code for Tin Sari, a “software pro-
the knowledge Alif has used to form his
gram” that impossibly identifies “com-
code and programmed to “be anything
plete, individual personality,”19 based
it wanted” has “degenerate(d) into
on metadata, but he has no “under-
nothing at all”.25 The inverse parallel be-
standing [of] how it work(s)”.20 In con-
tween these two instances highlights the
trast, he believes that he is able to un-
disjunct
derstand the intrinsic truth behind the
knowledge, where they do not accord
Alf Yeom as a series of jinn tales that
but instead contradict. The reference to
have “developed a system of transmit-
the ‘ivory tower’ of academia further
ting knowledge that could accommo-
suggests a deep critique of institutions
date
infor-
which lay claim to knowledge, of know-
Wilson alludes here to meta-
ability itself, highlighting these things as
the
mation.21
contradictions”
of
phor as such, of “knowledge existing in
between
functionality
and
(im)possible fallacies.
several states simultaneously and with-
Besides inherently critiquing no-
out contradiction”.22 The shift in Alif’s
tions of objectivity and secularist ra-
mode of acquiring knowledge appears
tional modes of thought, Alif the Un-
to mark his fundamental understanding
seen also implicitly undermines liberal-
of how knowledge as such exists, the
ism and its claims to an objective mode of internalised subjectivity, exposing it
19
23
20
24
Wilson, Alif The Unseen, 46. Wilson, Alif The Unseen, 44. 21 Wilson, Alif The Unseen, 230. 22 Wilson, Alif The Unseen, 228.
Wilson, Alif The Unseen, 235. Wilson, Alif The Unseen, 240-241. 25 Wilson, Alif The Unseen, 240.
36
instead as hypocrisy. Wilson positions
until it makes some kind of rational
Alif
liberalist
sense” (emphasis added), advocating an
(mis)recognition, where Alif views him-
internalised rationalistic framework of
self as free-from-ideology in his belliger-
thinking that refuses to allow for gaps in
ent claim that “anyone who could pay…
knowledge.29 Dina, Alif’s childhood
was entitled to” his hacking protec-
friend, exposes the incongruity of this
tion.26
Yet even as Alif positions himself
mode of thinking when she calls him
as non-partisan and truly neutral, this
out for belittling her “for believing
liberalist statement, in espousing a par-
things [he] only read(s) about”.30 As
ticular construction of ‘free-for-all’, is al-
Dina accuses of him, he has “reactions,
ways-already ideologically constructed.
not convictions”; Wilson hints that Alif,
In presenting Alif’s mindset as a locus
a representative of the liberal mode of
where freedom from ideology is con-
thought, fundamentally and function-
ceptually possible, Wilson inherently
ally philosophises a priori but which rec-
critiques the dominant mode of liberal
ognises itself as functionally philosophis-
ideology by manifesting this (im)possi-
ing a posteriori.31 Wilson’s intuitive cri-
bility within her (im)possible world.
tique of contradictory modes of think-
within
the
apex
of
This (im)possibility is further pre-
ing here expressly lays bare the discrep-
sented rhetorically in Alif’s resistant mis-
ancy in liberal thought where its notions
recognition of the actuality of the jinn’s
of subjectivity and objectivity lies firmly
existence in the material world he be-
within what it holds already as an a pri-
lieves he understands and recognises,
ori truth, exposing the foundations of
despite his repeated encounters with the
liberalism as false ideology.
fantastic. In relation to Vikram’s “leonine joints”
Dick
similarly
addresses
the
and “improbable knees,”
(im)possibilities of true subjectivity as
Alif recognises the cognitive dissonance
such by highlighting Rick’s gradual loss
of what he can see encountering the
of liveliness as he grows to empathise
limits of his belief, but continues to re-
with androids and begins to recognise
ject the improbability of Vikram’s
(un)humanness as human. Rick origi-
(un)humanness.28 He wants instead to
nally understands his world as a straight-
“break it down into its composite parts
forward one where the human-android
26
29
27
30
27
Wilson, Alif The Unseen, 15. Wilson, Alif The Unseen, 93. 28 Wilson, Alif The Unseen, 129.
Wilson, Alif The Unseen, 93. Wilson, Alif The Unseen, 354. 31 Wilson, Alif The Unseen, 354.
37
binary is absolute and clear. This lack of
constitution of entangled agencies”.35
ambiguity is upset by his introduction to
Rick’s sexual relationship with Rachael,
Rachael Rosen, an android that initially
which is representative of his existential
passes for a “schizoid girl” with “under-
relationship to her, is thus not a point of
developed empathic ability”
and to
‘interaction,’ as assumed, but “intra-ac-
whom Rick is attracted.32 During his
tion”.36 This ‘intra-action’ is a “mutual
sexual encounter with Rachael, she re-
constitution of entangled agencies,”
flects on the violation of her existential
positing that “distinct agencies” do not
sense of self, questioning the “illusion
intrinsically exist, but follow on from
that [she] personally – really exist(s)”
“intra-action” as the very concept of
when, as an android, she is only a “rep-
“separate individual agencies” rely on a
resentative of a type”.33 Rachael’s intro-
“mutual entanglement”.37 Rick thus
spection, following a dispassionate but
recognises that his existential identifica-
nevertheless intimate sexual liaison, be-
tion as human is the obverse to
comes a powerful catalyst for Rick’s
Rachael’s identification as non-human –
cognisance of androids’ ability to recog-
their self-identification requires being
nise their own existentiality as such.
recognised in relation to what they are
Rick’s ontological re-cognition of Rachael Rosen as such literally human-
not in order for any meaningful perception to emerge at all.
ises her, through which Dick compli-
Exposed to the terror of this mu-
cates not just the categorisation of hu-
tual entanglement, Rick’s unambiguous
mans but “upends notions of auton-
dis-identification with the androids be-
omy”, another essential principle that
comes impaired. Physically and psychi-
supports the tenets of liberalism.34 In
cally connected to Rachael, Rick can no
humanising and existentially re-cognis-
longer bring himself to kill her.38
ing Rachael, the novel suggests “an on-
Rachael previously declares that she’s
tology of intra-action and entangle-
“not alive! You’re not going to bed with
ment,” postulated by Barad as the in-
a woman… it’s convincing if you don’t
stance of recognizing the “mutual
think too much about it”; Rick must not
32
35
33
36
Dick, Do Androids, 43. Dick, Do Androids, 149. 34 Jennifer Rhee, "Beyond The Uncanny Valley: Masahiro Mori And Philip K. Dick’s Do Androids Dream Of Electric Sheep?," Configurations 21.3 (2013): 316.
Rhee, "Beyond The Uncanny Valley,” 316. Rhee, "Beyond The Uncanny Valley,” 316. 37 Rhee, "Beyond The Uncanny Valley,” 316. 38 Dick, Do Androids, 158.
38
think about it, because his belief in ob-
challenge to the trajectory of secularist
jectivity will be shattered – like Alif, he
thought emerging from the Age of En-
does not have convictions, but beliefs
lightenment, putting at stake the ration-
and reactions which, dangerously, can
alistic frame of thinking which pervades
be changed, disrupted.39 Faced with a
contemporary
world that strips him of his fundamental
within genres that already diverge from
principles through his exposure to a
realism, the narratives both Wilson and
(mis)recognition of bionic entities as or-
Dick re-present insistently disrupt genre
ganically alive, Rick Deckard’s dimin-
and narratively represent (im)possible
ishment of self is illustrated by the shift
worlds in order to re-present and reveal
in narrative at the end of Do Androids?
the (im)possibilities of our own world.
where his wife Iran’s perspective on
They rupture the foundations of the En-
events takes priority.40 Rick’s subjective
lightenment and that which follows
perspective becomes expressed in spec-
most pervasively – Western secularist
ulative terms: Iran, and thus the reader,
liberalism and its ethos of individualist
can only guess at his emotions, and it is
rationalism. By imbuing cities with
only ever “as if [he is] baffled,” “as if
(un)familiarity, these texts further sug-
perplexed,” or “as if hearing himself”
gest alternative opportunities to read the
(emphasis added).41 The loss of defini-
liminal spaces between what is known
tive expressive voice here marks Rick’s
and what is always-already (un)known
withdrawal from not only the novel, but
in order to experience the terrifying and
symbolically, his own world. The im-
terrific locus of existence. What is at
possibilities of retaining a sense of Self
stake in these (im)possible worlds is thus
in a world where the boundaries be-
a challenge to orthodoxy and a passively
tween subjectivities collapse put at stake
internalised rationality which precludes
the principles of liberalism which lays
and excludes disruptions. By bringing
claim to recognising subjectivity, expos-
forth these essential eruptions of dis-
ing it as the ultimate (mis)recognition
jointed disbelief, Wilson and Dick make
and a false ideology.
possible a mode which celebrates imag-
discourse.
Embedded
Despite being written out of dif-
inative potentialities and reinvigorates
ferent historical context, Alif the Un-
the dominant (and stagnant) mode of
seen and Do Androids? share an implicit
rationalistic secular thought.
39
41
40
Dick, Do Androids, 152. Dick, Do Androids, 189-193.
Dick, Do Androids, 191.
39
BIBLIOGRAPHY Dick, Philip K. Do Androids Dream Of Electric Sheep?. London: Phoenix, 1968. Freud, Sigmund. The Uncanny. London: Penguin Books, 2003. Irvine, Alexander C. “Urban Fantasy.” In The Cambridge Companion to Fantasy Literature, edited by Edward James and Farah Mendlesohn, 200213. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012. Rhee, Jennifer. "Beyond The Uncanny Valley: Masahiro Mori And Philip K. Dick’s Do Androids Dream Of Electric Sheep?," Configurations 21.3 (2013): 301-329. Roberts, Adam C. "Defining Science Fiction." In Science Fiction, 1-46. Routledge. Cornwall: Taylor & Francis Books, 2000. Wilson, G. Willow. Alif The Unseen. Crows Nest, N.S.W: Allen & Unwin, 2012. Žižek, Slavoj. “Passions of the Real, Passions of Semblance.” In Welcome to the Desert of the Real!: Five Essays on September 11 and Related Dates, 5-32. London: Verso, 2002.
40
"Artificiality, Blade Runners, and Capitalism: Examining the Postmodern in Philip K. Dick’s Do Androids Dream of
Electric Sheep and Ridley Scott’s Blade Runner"
by Larisa Coffey-Wong
41
Introduction Despite
well-docu-
tion of artificial life. It is ultimately these
mented differences that exist between
divergent central concerns that account
Ridley Scott’s loose filmic adaption of
for many of the disparities between
Philip K. Dick’s novel Do Androids
Dick’s novel and Scott’s film, and this is
Dream of Electric Sheep, as first and
demonstrated in the following examina-
foremost an adaptation, Blade Runner
tion of the points of variation between
necessarily has some points of similarity
Androids and Blade Runner, focusing
with its source text. In disagreeing with
particularly on setting, the characterisa-
the above statement, Paul Sammon in-
tion of the protagonist, and the repre-
sists that “the philosophical, ecological
sentation of women. However it is not
and social concerns” of the novel have
just the texts’ different central concerns
been “faithfully transplanted” into the
that reveal themselves where novel and
film, particularly noting the preserva-
film
tion of themes such as paranoia, aliena-
emerges at the points of divergence be-
tion, and ecological ruin at the hands of
tween Blade Runner and Androids.
mankind (20). Specifically, this paper
Thus an examination of the differences
will focus on two elements that remain
between Dick’s novel and Scott’s film
defining features of both texts: the reli-
will demonstrate that in spite of their
ance on Capitalist modes and structures
varying central concerns, both texts can
in the presentation of a dystopian world,
be firmly situated within the category of
and
postmodernism.
the
the
morality of both creation and destrucnumerous,
concern
surrounding
the
deviate;
the
postmodern
also
real/artificial dichotomy, both of which
Dick’s novel portrays a dystopian,
are key elements of Jay Clayton’s post-
post-apocalyptic view of future Earth, in
modernism (55). In spite of these key
which the majority of the human popu-
points of similarity between the texts, a
lation have migrated to a better life on
closer analysis reveals that Scott’s film
the off-world colonies. Those who re-
and Dick’s novel have, crucially, differ-
main behind are the unfortunate ones;
ent central concerns. Blade Runner’s
either too poor or too obtuse to emi-
foregrounding of the uncertainty re-
grate, they inhabit a dust-clogged, dete-
garding Rick Deckard’s status as human
riorating world. As a small-time bureau-
constructs this as the film’s central con-
crat within the Police Department, pro-
cern, while Androids concentrates on
tagonist Rick Deckard fits into the for-
the protagonist’s struggles regarding the
mer category, yearning for enough 42
wealth to purchase a genuine animal (all
Setting Up the Postmodern
but extinct in this future world) to se-
While the settings for both Blade
cure both his and his wife’s happiness.
Runner and Androids are quite differ-
After a senior member of the Police De-
ent, both texts succeed in producing a
partment is incapacitated by an escaped
postmodern aesthetic. From the very
android from the off-world colonies,
opening sequence of Scott’s film, Blade
Deckard is called upon to finish the task
Runner establishes itself as a split from
of discovering and ‘retiring’ the rest of
Dick’s novel with regards to setting.
these fugitive, superior robots known as
Text across the screen informs the
Nexus-6 types. The remainder of the
viewer that it is the year 2019 in Los An-
narrative sees the protagonist’s initial in-
geles, but the “de-familiarised urban
difference to his targets become more
landscape” does not reflect the 1992 San
and more compromised, especially after
Francisco setting that is described in An-
his meeting, and subsequent relation-
droids (Lussier & Gowan 165). Instead
ship with, a corporation Nexus-6 an-
of the pervasive dust, there is the omni-
droid named Rachel. Scott’s adaptation
present rain, and where Dick’s universe
follows the same basic plot as Dick’s
is a mostly uninhabited one that falls,
novel, but has several noteworthy differ-
day by day, “into greater entropic ruin,”
ences, which will be outlined and exam-
Scott’s is a “portrait of ecological disas-
ined in what follows. Although it may
ter and urban over-crowding, of a visual
have been these divergences from the
and aural landscape saturated with ad-
novel that resulted in the film’s initial
vertising, of a polyglot population im-
flop at the box office due to “befud-
mersed in a Babel of competing cul-
dled” audience members, there is no
tures” (Dick 15; Clayton 54). Mirroring
doubt that Blade Runner has gained mo-
the work of other critical commenta-
mentum and accreditation over time to
tors, Kevin McNamara notes that Scott’s
become a “science fiction cult film
visually striking juxtaposition of the
turned classic” (Kaplan). However, the
primitive and the technologically ad-
film’s standalone success does not ren-
vanced, as well as the miscellany of cul-
der it detachable from its source text,
tures and images, succeeds in embody-
and thus this essay will analyse Dick’s
ing Fredric Jameson’s postmodern no-
novel and Scott’s film in conjunction
tion of the pastiche, in which the post-
with one another.
modern text “cannibalizes all the […]
43
styles of the past and combines them in
divergent landscapes both include nota-
overstimulating ensembles (66).
ble features of postmodernism.
Scott’s use of this visual pastiche has two effects: firstly, it results in the
Capitalism and Career
creation of “a world in which the body
As indicated earlier, the use and repre-
cannot locate itself in space, or con-
sentation of Capitalist modes, a key ele-
sciousness in history” — another charac-
ment of postmodernism, is one of the
teristic typical of Jameson’s postmod-
strongest points of similarity between
ernism, which he calls the ‘postmodern
Blade Runner and Androids. Of partic-
hyperspace’ (McNamara 423). While
ular note is the emphasis placed on pro-
Blade Runner is much more effective at
duction and commodification, espe-
conveying this sense of an overwhelm-
cially in the case of the artificial humans.
ing, unidentifiable landscape than An-
Termed “androids” or “andys” in Dick’s
droids is, it must be noted that Scott had
novel, and “replicants” or “skin jobs” in
the benefit of using a multitrack me-
Scott’s adaptation, these artificial beings
dium which included moving visual im-
are created largely for slave labour on
ages and sound rather than Dick’s reli-
the off-world colonies and are viewed as
ance on the written word as a single
commodities to be exploited for labour
method of expression (Stam 56). Thus,
until their pre-programmed lifespans
while the hyperspace is discernible in
expire. In fact, the high demand for
Dick’s novel, as evident in the presence
these humanoid robots constructs them
of the permeating, suffocating dust that
as a key catalyst for technological re-
renders the world of the book largely
search and, consequently, economic de-
unmappable, it is Scott’s film that ex-
velopments in both the book and film
tends and foregrounds these elements.
(McNamara 422). However the constant
Secondly, the use of the iconographic
demand for development and refine-
pastiche denotes an “increasing conver-
ment in the sphere of production in an
gence of cultural and the economic,”
attempt to meet the “growing wants of
which Aris Mousoutzanis suggests is
the new market” introduces complica-
“symptomatic” of the cultural logic of
tions for humankind (Marx 35) — or,
late capitalism (161). Thus, while the set-
more specifically, for the protagonist,
ting of Scott’s film and Dick’s novel is a
Rick Deckard.
point of variation between the texts, the
In both Dick’s novel and Scott’s film, Deckard has made his career as a 44
dispatcher of escaped artificial humans.
“brooding, burned-out detective” who
In both instances, like the rest of the so-
is coerced into taking on the assignment
ciety, Deckard initially views his targets
by an authority figure within the police
as objects: “A humanoid robot is like
force (Sammon 20). This alteration of
any other machine; it can fluctuate be-
the protagonist’s character and career
tween being a benefit and a hazard very
situation in Scott’s film is significant be-
rapidly” (32). This boundary between a
cause it changes Deckard’s motivation
benefit and hazard is complicated when
for undertaking the retirement of six an-
the production of androids reaches a
droids.
level such that they are almost indistinguishable from humans. This new
Artificial Anxieties
model of superior artificial beings,
The nature of the protagonist’s job nec-
known as Nexus-6 in both novel and
essarily situates him within the “unsta-
film, is at least of the same standard as a
ble boundary between humans and an-
human in terms of intelligence and
droids”, which threatens to compromise
physically superior in many ways, such
not only his physical safety but also his
that Deckard wonders if “the servant
status as human (Vint 125) — so why
had in some cases become more adroit
does he do it? In the case of Dick’s
than its master” (23) — highlighting the
novel, Deckard’s primary motivation
anxiety that exists surrounding the
can be understood through the modes
real/artificial dichotomy.
of Capitalism — put simply, he desires
The narrative of both novel and
wealth. From the very beginning of the
film begin after a senior member of the
novel, it is clear that Deckard is unsatis-
police force in charge of the eradication
fied. Though he is fortunate enough to
of androids is incapacitated following an
have a large, comfortable apartment, a
attempt to identify and “retire” a group
pet (though artificial), and a wife, the
of escaped Nexus-6 robots. It is here
domestic argument that opens the novel
that another point of divergence occurs
suggests underlying tensions. It quickly
between the texts; as a ‘Bounty Hunter’
becomes
in Androids, Deckard is presented as a
source of this discontentment is Deck-
“petty bureaucrat” who eagerly takes on
ard’s inability to acquire a real animal,
the job in the hope of increasing his in-
which are all but extinct on this future
come levels, but as a ‘Blade Runner’ in
Earth. As a result, a real living creature
Scott’s adaptation, the protagonist is a
is
not
evident
only
that
absurdly
the
primary
costly,
but 45
commodified to represent the ultimate
headquarters, where a superior, his for-
status symbol (Vint 116). This desire for
mer boss, explains, “You wouldn’t have
an authentic animal is so strong that the
come if I just asked you to”. In the con-
protagonist develops an “actual hatred”
versation that ensues, the superior, Bry-
for his own electric sheep, resenting the
ant, tries to convince Deckard to take
reminder that it brings of his inability to
on these four “skin jobs”, to which
realise his dream (33). However, in his
Deckard refuses several times, insisting,
discontented musings, Deckard draws a
“I don’t work here anymore”. However,
parallel between his electric creature
eventually the old Blade Runner be-
and the humanoid robots: “Like the an-
grudgingly gives in: “No choice, huh?”
droids, [the sheep] had no ability to ap-
he asks, to which Bryant responds, “No
preciate the existence of another” (34).
choice pal”. It is unclear whether this
It is this comparison between the two
acceptance is a favour for an old friend,
artificial creatures that begins, for Deck-
simply something to break the monot-
ard, the spiral of “diminishing certainty
ony, or, as McNamara suggests, a neces-
with which the demarcation lines be-
sary effort to maintain the “social privi-
tween animal, android and human can
lege” that comes with being a retired
be agreed upon” — a realisation that
cop (431).
leads him to consider the moral impli-
In any case, while Deckard’s own
cations of his extermination of the an-
motivations for agreeing to retire these
droids, an act which he ultimately re-
advanced replicants are not as clear as
jects (McCarron 264).
those of Dick’s protagonist, his diver-
While it is Deckard’s desire for an
gent professional and personal situation
authentic animal that drives much of the
in the film suggest that an alternative
narrative plot and feeds the central con-
central concern may be at stake. As sug-
cern in Androids, the motivations of
gested above, Scott’s film is primarily
Blade Runner’s Deckard are not so
concerned with the identity of its pro-
clear. The Blade Runner depicted in
tagonist — specifically, whether he falls
Scott’s film is a retired member of the
into the category of human or replicant.
police department, who, in the brief
It is the representation of the Blade Run-
opening moments of the film, seems to
ner as a character with an indistinct past,
be living a rather mundane, purposeless
and as someone who is not particularly
life. However this soon changes when
anchored anywhere — emphasised both
he is coerced into visiting the police
by his preoccupation with photos, and 46
his frequent placement amongst the pol-
subdue this characterisation, but makes
yglot, lower-class masses throughout the
it overt: “Talk about beauty and the
film — which indicates that these small
beast”, Bryant says of Zhora, “She’s
variations in character portrayal from
both”. The lithe movement and partial
the novel can be seen to enhance the
nakedness exhibited by both escaped fe-
uncertainty and anxiety surrounding
male replicants furthers their sexualisa-
Deckard’s human status.
tion, but it is Pris’ creation as a “pleasure model” that firmly establishes the fe-
The Importance of Women
male androids, and, by extension, the
The postmodern anxiety surrounding
women of the film, as “models pro-
the real/artificial dichotomy is perhaps
duced by economic domination and
most pronounced in the portrayal of
male fantasy” (McNamara 439).
women in both novel and film, who are
Unlike the physical threat that
also key actors in constructing the cen-
Pris and Zhora pose to Deckard, realised
tral concern of each text. In many cases
through the close range violent encoun-
in both the print and cinematic versions
ters between protagonist and both rep-
it is women who emerge at this point of
licants, Rachel poses a different, more
the “unstable boundary” between hu-
subtle kind of danger: that of destabili-
mans and androids, though the manner
zation. It is only through his interactions
in which the two texts address the rep-
and subsequent relationship with Rachel
resentation of women is quite divergent
that Deckard is able to develop a level
(Vint 125). The dystopian landscape of
of empathy for the artificial humans, not
Scott’s Blade Runner features very few
simply viewing them as “jobs” to “re-
female characters, and it is prudent to
tire”. The film climaxes these anxieties
note that all of these representations of
surrounding women and artificiality in
women are highly sexualised and artifi-
its final scene, when Deckard, having
cial. Existing almost exclusively as the
completed his assignment, retrieves Ra-
female presence in the film, the three fe-
chel from his apartment whereupon
male replicants, Rachel, Pris and Zhora,
they enter the elevator. As the doors
are all depicted as seductive, desirable
close on the protagonist and the repli-
beings that pose a threat to Deckard in
cant standing beside him, the viewer
some form or another — key character-
cannot help but wonder what the impli-
istics of the cinematic ‘femme fatale’
cations of Deckard’s proximity to this
(Bade 10). The film does not attempt to
“unstable boundary” of authenticity and 47
artificiality are — thus epitomising the
of copulating with Rachel — a crime
central concern of the film.
that exists in Scott’s film only as an act
In contrast to the film, Androids
against the rule of law, rather than a
features a greater number of women,
moral sin; Iran, or any other wife figure
both android and human alike. The
for that matter, is absent from the film.
most significant of these characters is
However, just as Rachel’s pres-
Deckard’s wife, Iran, who plays a similar
ence in the final moments of Scott’s film
role to that of a moral compass for her
heightens and illuminates the central
husband. In the argument that opens
concern of Blade Runner, so too does
the novel, Iran very quickly expresses
Iran’s presence at the conclusion of An-
her distaste at Deckard’s job, calling him
droids emphasise the novel’s key con-
“a murderer hired by the cops”, and be-
cern. When Deckard finally returns
moaning
(1).
home after completing his “marathon
Though Deckard is initially deaf to her
assignment”, weary and disheartened,
sympathies, after his first meeting with
his wife is the one who provides him
Rachel, his encounter with“predatory”
with some measure of comfort: “”Do
bounty hunter Phil Resch, and then his
you think I did wrong?” he asked.
retirement of three androids, Deckard
“What I did today?” ‘No’”, she replies
admits his growing moral uncertainties
(192). Iran’s reassurance establishes her
to his wife: “I’ve begun to empathise
as a site of support for her husband, but
with androids” (137). It is in this mood
also indicates her status as the most im-
of doubt that he buys a genuine goat
portant female character, as it is she who
with his bounty money — a deed that,
is there both at the beginning and end
though making Iran ecstatic, leads her
of the narrative. Primarily, though, the
to pressure him to continue doing his
novel’s conclusion serves to foreground
job: “We need [the bounty money] or
the issues of morality that Deckard
they’ll repossess the goat!” (138). Iran’s
struggles with, thus clearly reflecting the
prioritising of a commodity over her
central concern of the novel.
“those
poor
andys”
husband’s moral conflict in this instance further emphasises the prodigious value
A Postmodern Conclusion
that is placed on genuine animals in this
The key difference between Dick’s An-
Capitalist society. It is perhaps this tem-
droids and Scott’s Blade Runner is the
porary lack of concern for her husband
divergent central concerns of both texts;
that spurs Deckard to commit the crime
while
the
novel
focuses
on
the 48
protagonist’s moral struggles concerning artificial life, the film concentrates on Deckard’s status as human. As demonstrated in the above analysis, these two differences can be seen to generate many of the smaller points of variation between the two texts, particularly in the case of the characterisation of Deckard, the way in which women are represented, and the closing moments of the narratives. Although a comparison of the two divergent settings of the texts at the beginning of this paper reveals that not all differences directly inform the central concerns of the text, they do, however, succeed in establishing both texts as postmodernist. Indeed, by adopting Clayton’s approach, all major points of variation between the text can be seen to contribute to this establishment of postmodernism: “Artificial life, commodification, and gender… are places […] where the transfer from modernity to postmodernity is accomplished” (55). Thus, as Sammon contends, more than just the “core” of Dick’s novel is maintained in Scott’s filmic adaptation. The heavy reliance on Capitalist modes in the creation of the dystopian future, and the anxiety surrounding the real/artificial dichotomy are cornerstone elements of both texts – ultimately enabling the realisation of the postmodern in both novel and film. 49
BIBLIOGRAPHY Bade, Patrick. Femme Fatale: images of evil and fascinating women. London: Ash & Grant, 1979. Blade Runner. DVD. Directed by Ridley Scott. Burbank, CA: Warner Home Video, 2007. Clayton, Jay. “Concealed Circuits: Frankenstein’s Monster, the Medusa, and the Cyborg.” Raritan 15 (1996): 53-69. Dick, Philip K. Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? London: Phoenix, 2012 Jameson, Frederic. Postmodernism, or The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism. Durham: Duke University Press. 1991. Kaplan, Fred. “A Cult Classic Restored, Again”. New York Times, September 30, 2007: n. pag. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/30/movies/30kapl.html?pagewanted=1&_r=0 Lussier, Mark & Gowan, Kaitlin. “The Romantic Roots of Blade Runner.” Wordsworth Cycle 43, 3 (2012): 165-72. Marx, Karl & Engles, Friedrich. The Communist Manifesto. London: Pluto Press, 2008. 50
McCarron, Kevin. “Corpses, Animals, Machines and Mannequins: The Body and the Cyberpunk”. In Cyberspace/Cyberbodies/Cyperpunk: Cultures of Technological Embodiment, edited by Mike Featherstone and Roger Burrows, 261-80. London: Sage, 1995. McNamara, Kevin R. “Blade Runner’s post-individual worldspace.” Contemporary Literature 38, 3 (1997): 422-47 Mousoutzanis, Aris. “The Science Fiction Film”. In The Science Fiction Handbook, edited by Nick Hubble and Aris Mousoutzanis, 143-66. London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2013. Sammon, Paul M. Future Noir: The Making of Blade Runner. London: Orion Media, 1996. Stam, Robert. “Beyond Fidelity: the dialogics of adaptation”. In Film Adaptation, edited by James Naremore, 54-76. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2000. Vint, Sherryl. “Speciesism and Species Being in Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?” Mosaic: a Journal for the Interdisciplinary Study of Literature 40, 1 (2007): 111-26.
51
"Legitimizing Illegitimate Power: Technology and Nature as Fictive Mediators" by Megan Krelle
52
Within both Philip K. Dick’s Do
intelligent group of organic robots
Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? and G. Willow Wilson’s Alif the Unseen,
called the Nexus-6 androids. Originally
technology is used to challenge the heg-
caped from the colonies on Mars to seek
emonic ideal that the natural is of more
emancipation and freedom by masquer-
value than the artificial. This prevailing
ading as humans on Earth. As Rick
valuation is explored through the exam-
hunts the ‘andys,’ he starts to question
ination of the societal power structure,
the morality of retiring the androids,
which asserts the dominance of one
particularly as he becomes emotionally
group and their ideals over any other,
attached to an andy named Rachael
and the way that value is constructed
Rosen, who is revealed to be protecting
and legitimized by the ruling centre of
a group of escaped androids.
built as servants, these androids have es-
the society. Consequently, both An-
Alif the Unseen is set in ‘The
droids and Alif are texts in which the use
City’, an unstated location in the Persian
of technology is legitimized if it is used
Gulf in the Arab Emirates. The book fol-
to support the hegemonic ideal (and
lows Alif, a hacker who works to secure
thus to assist in legitimizing the ruling
various groups on the Internet against
class’ power), yet is deemed illegitimate
the state security censors and the figure
if it threatens to replace or seriously
known as The Hand. After being trusted
challenge the central power’s position.
with a manuscript of a mythical book
The legitimacy of the central power
called the Alf Yeom wa Yeom — or The
structure in their claim to dominion is
Thousand and One Days, purportedly a
therefore at stake in the valuation of the
work by the jinn — by his former lover
natural/artificial, and technology is used
Intisar, and while being hunted by state
to mediate and undercut the centre’s au-
security, Alif and his friend Dina stum-
thority.
ble upon the world of the Unseen,
Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? is set on an Earth contaminated
where they are helped by a shape-shift-
by radioactive dust, resulting in the
Alif is assisted by Sheikh Bilal, a reli-
deaths of a large portion of animals and
gious leader who attempts to hide him
affecting human reproduction and ge-
from the State’s forces. Both are arrested
netic material. The novel follows Rick
and tortured, but escape State custody
Deckard — a bounty hunter charged
with the help of NewQuarter, an ex-
with ‘retiring’ (i.e., destroying) a highly
hacker. The novel ends when Alid and
ing jinn named Vikram. Additionally,
53
The Hand use two computer programs
society are located. In contrast, S. Pie-
that Alif had designed to engage in a vir-
tikainen and H. Kelly-Holmes consider
tual battle that is tied closely with a spir-
the periphery to be “marginal, the op-
itual battle taking place between the
posite of the centre, the boundary or
Unseen jinn. They inadvertently crash
outer part of it”;4 those who are most
the Internet and the utility grids, plung-
marginalized and least valued according
ing the city into chaos, which instigates
to the values and ideals of the centre are
a revolution in the streets.
therefore positioned further out in the
The power structures of the societies within the two texts can be considered
that the relationship between the legiti-
model, a “spatial metaphor used to de-
mization of values and the centre is cir-
scribe and explain the unequal distribu-
cular: “the central values are those es-
tion of power in the economy, society,
poused by the ruling authorities, the rul-
In this essay, the centre is
ing authorities are those whose power is
conceived of in terms of being both the
legitimated by the central values”;5 the
“people who occupy positions” of au-
centre therefore privileges and legiti-
thority — those who are the “top deci-
mizes values which reasserts its own au-
sion makers” — as well as a space in
thority and hegemony. In order to posi-
which people and values are located.2 As
tion one particular group as superior or
Edward Shils notes, the centre exerts
worth greater value, there must be an
dominance over those who live in the
oppositional group with which to judge
particular society, and the “order of
it against — an ‘Other’ which the hege-
symbols, of values and beliefs, which
monic group defines itself against.6
govern the society” are located in this
Value is therefore “relational and practi-
central space.3 The centre is therefore a
cal, the outcome of processes of negoti-
position where the ruling authorities of
ation and contestation,” and hegemonic
S. Pietikainen and H. Kelly-Holmes, “Multilingualism and the Periphery,” in Multilingualism and the Periphery, eds. S. Pietikainen and H. Kelly-Holmes (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 3. 2 Sivert Langholm, “On the Concept of Center and Periphery,” Journal of Peace Research 8.3/4 (1971): 274, 273. 3 Edward Shils, “Centre and Periphery,” in The Logic of Personal Knowledge: Essays Presented to Michael
Polyani on his Seventieth Birthday 11th March 1961, (Illinois: The Free Press, 1961): 117. 4 Pietikainen and Kelly-Holmes, “Multilingualism,” 3. 5 R.D. Jessop, “Exchange and Power in Structural Analysis,” Sociological Review 17.3 (1969): 417. 6 Patricia Kerslake, Science Fiction and Empire (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2007), 8.
1
polity.”1
the
Furthermore, R.D. Jessop notes
centre-periphery
and
through
periphery.
54
ideals must therefore be considered in
discusses this notion in the figure of the
contrast to the ideals of an Other.7
‘double’, and posits that, “there is often
Within both Androids and Alif, those
competition or rivalry between doubles
who occupy the centre have their hege-
for the same space or location, the same
monic position threatened by another
position or rank, the same right to ex-
group through the use of technology: in
istence…This competition further im-
Androids, this centre-space is occupied
plies the threat of displacement: the
by a human faction which is threatened
original self may lose its uniqueness and
by the group of escaped androids, while
its identity to the other self which re-
in Alif, the central position is occupied
places the original.”8
by the ruling government, and they are
Within Androids, the androids
threatened by a number of groups who
function as the double for the human
oppose their rule - more specifically,
subject — apart from a bone marrow
groups who express discontent on the
test, the only way to discern an android
internet.
from a human is to test for a lack of em-
However, technology itself does
pathy. The fact that androids are visually
not threaten the centre; rather, it is
indistinguishable from humans is an is-
when technology is used in an illegiti-
sue because they are an artificial con-
mate manner that it is threatening to the
struct which can easily replace a human
centre’s hegemony. Of course, it is the
subject. Eventually created for colonists,
centre which has the power to define
the TV asserts that androids are “cus-
what is legitimate and what is not —
tom-tailored…designed specifically for
therefore, anything which threatens the
YOUR UNIQUE NEEDS, FOR YOU
centre’s power will be considered ille-
AND YOU ALONE” — they are explic-
gitimate, in order to ensure hegemony
itly created to be subservient to humans,
is maintained. Within both Androids
to be treated as inferior beings.9 The dis-
and Alif, technology is used in a way
tinction between human and android
which contests the centre’s hegemony
must be maintained in order to legiti-
by presenting an artificial construct as a
mate the humans’ power over the an-
possible replacement. Joseph Francavilla
droids, and to validate the way non-
7
Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, ed. J. B. Kerman, 2nd ed. (Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1997), 7. 9 Philip K. Dick, Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, (London: Phoenix, 2012), 13.
John Frow, Cultural Studies & Cultural Value (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 5. 8 Joseph Francavilla, “The Android as Doppelganger,” in Retrofitting Blade Runner: Issues in Ridley Scott’s Blade Runner and Philip K. Dick’s Do
55
humans are treated (as inferior); there
allows anonymity, and therefore it can
must therefore be a distinction which
obscure the social class of the user when
defines them as being non-human.
they operate within the virtual space.
Yet the distinction between an-
The obscuring of social status online is
droid and human becomes extremely
in contrast to the clearly defined and ob-
blurred - the Voigt-Kampff scale, used
servable social stratification in the real
to determine empathic response, is not
world — the City was “a place that
infallible, for “a small class of human be-
boasted one of the most sophisticated
ings could not pass the Voigt-Kampff
digital policing systems in the world,
scale,” and, though official ideology
but no proper mail service. Emirates
states that androids cannot feel empathy
with princes in silver-plated cars and dis-
for each other, Rachael sleeps with
tricts with no running water.”11 This so-
bounty-hunters in order to protect
cial division highlights the fact that
other androids, so that the bounty-hunt-
there is a specific ruling class which oc-
ers “won’t be able to retire more an-
cupies the space of the centre — the ar-
droids; it won’t be just me, it’ll be the
istocracy, the princes and their wealth
Batys and Stratton too.”10 Officially, a
— and the centre therefore wishes to
distinguishing characteristic (lack of
maintain this hegemony. The internet
empathy) is identified which positions
presents itself as a new space (though
androids as inferior and this is used to
virtual) where the government must
reassert the centre’s hegemony over
also maintain and assert its hegemony
them; however the fact that this distinc-
over; it is dangerous if the government
tion is repeatedly called into question
does not censor the virtual space of the
throughout the text is problematic for
internet because it would allow conflict-
the legitimacy of the centre’s power and
ing ideals an equal platform to be ex-
threatens to undermine it.
pressed on, and if this space of equality
In a similar manner, the internet
transitioned into the real world, then
acts as the double in Alif — the virtual
the government’s hegemony is threat-
space being a double for the ‘real’
ened. The internet is therefore tightly
world, which threatens to displace the
controlled, and “every forum is moni-
government’s authority. The virtual
tored for illegal expressions of distress
space of the internet is a place which 10
Dick, Androids, 30, 158.
11
G. Willow Wilson, Alif the Unseen, (Melbourne: Allen & Unwin, 2012), 15.
56
and discontent” to prevent the loss of control.12
Yet it is precisely because the virtual space does represent a serious threat
Despite the internet presenting a
that the State must continue to assert
palpable threat to the government, the
the hegemony of the real over the arti-
virtual realm is considered to be a space
ficial; if the virtual space, which allows
of less value than the real world, which
multiple valuation systems to be consid-
assists in constructing the assumption of
ered equally valid at once, is considered
illegitimacy and ineffectiveness of the
to be as equally valid as the real-world
online
real
space, then resistance to a hegemonic
change. Alif’s assumption that the “State
regime is given legitimacy. NewQuarter
crushed people like him because it
notes of the revolution that, “[c]om-
could, not because it saw them as a real
puter geeks did this. We told these ruf-
threat” demonstrates that Alif himself
fians they could all have a voice, but
does not consider his actions to be a le-
they had to share the same virtual plat-
resistance
in
gitimate threat to the
affecting
government.13
His
form15 — this idea that “they could all
assumption on why the government tar-
have a voice” undercuts the State’s
gets hackers, because “it could” as op-
claim that their value system is more val-
posed to being a “real threat,” high-
uable than any other regime. For the
lights the way Alif buys into the govern-
government, the virtual space threatens
ment’s construction of the virtual space
to replace the real-world space with a
as an illegitimate threat which cannot af-
system that values multiple viewpoints,
fect the real-world hegemony and con-
which would destabilise the centre’s
trol of the State. For Alif, there is a clear
power and position as the only valid sys-
division between online and offline re-
tem; the virtual must therefore be sup-
sistance against the government, for he
pressed and considered as a space which
had not considered the online resistance
can have no impact on the real world
to be able to have real consequences in
and the legitimacy of the government’s
the real world — “[h]e had not believed,
claim to power.
not truly. To choose a new name, to sit
The legitimacy of the centre’s
behind a screen and harry a few elites;
power is therefore seen in both texts as
the Hand was right, it had felt like a
contingent on maintaining the current
game, a fiction.”14
hierarchy,
12
14
13
Ibid. Ibid., 236.
15
one
which
identifies
a
Ibid., 423. Ibid., 381.
57
specific ruling group as the legitimate
he had of course never nosed into the
source of power; in both texts, this hi-
matter any more than they, his neigh-
erarchy can be seen to be upheld
bours, had pried into the real workings
through a valuation of the natural/real
of his sheep”;16 this passage illustrates
over the artificial/fiction. However,
that the electric animals serve an im-
both texts are shown to question the le-
portant function in maintaining the so-
gitimacy of this natural/real versus arti-
cial expectation of animal ownership,
ficial/fiction valuation, as sanctioned by
and, moreover, that it is a understood to
the centre, by questioning the right and
be a widespread practice.
logic the centre uses to maintain its po-
However, it is critical that the il-
sition through the way technology is
lusion of owning a real animal is main-
portrayed and used.
tained — if maintenance is required for
Within Androids, it is through
an electric animal “[t]he repair outfit’s
the contradictions presented between
truck is of course marked ‘animal hospi-
the officially sanctioned view — that hu-
tal something.’ And the driver dresses
mans (and the natural) are more valua-
like a vet,” an important fraud required
ble than the artificial — that the centre’s
to maintain the visibility of adherence to
legitimacy is undermined. Empathy is
the ideal of real animal ownership.17
used as a marker by the centre as that
Electric animals are, in a sense, a neces-
which defines a human, and it is there-
sary evil — Rick acknowledges that
fore important for humans to visibly
“[o]wning and maintaining a fraud had
demonstrate empathy to reinforce this
a way of gradually demoralizing one.
value. The ownership of a real animal
And yet, from a social standpoint it had
therefore becomes an important social
to be done, given the absence of the real
marker, as well as proof of one’s identity
article.”18 The fact that real and electric
as a human and morality. Yet the own-
animals are practically indistinguishable
ership of electric animals also occurs,
is condoned instead of condemned by
and is socially acceptable as long as it re-
the centre is because it (ironically) reas-
mains unknown that an animal is elec-
serts the centre’s notion that empathy is
tric. Rick asserts of his neighbours that
the distinguishing characteristic of hu-
“some of their animals undoubtedly
manity, and animals do not threaten to
consisted of electronic circuitry fakes; 16 17
Dick, Androids, 5. Ibid., 9.
18
Ibid., 6.
58
replace the centre in the way that an-
valuation within society, thereby chal-
droids do.
lenging the State’s hegemony. Sheikh
Yet Rick comes to an understand-
Bilal’s comment, “[w]e are living in a
ing that “[t]he electric things have their
post-fictional era…we can sit in a
lives, too. Paltry as those are,” and is
mosque and have a debate about the fic-
therefore satisfied with his fake toad.19
tional pork a fictional character con-
Iran’s commitment to look after the
sumes in a video game, with every grav-
electric toad, and claiming that “[m]y
ity we would accord something quite
husband is devoted to it,” is crucial be-
real,” highlights the way Alif undercuts
cause the toad is an extinct species —
the value in distinguishing the real and
any neighbours would know that the
the artificial.21 By positing that they live
Deckards’ do not own a real animal.20
in a “post-fictional era,” the novel as-
The toad is unable to enact its role legit-
serts that the virtual or artificial does in-
imately (i.e., to maintain the idea that
deed impact the ‘real’ world by collaps-
one must own a real animal) because the
ing the distinction between the two. If
Sidney’s catalogue clearly defines it as
there is no fiction — and therefore eve-
being extinct. Rick therefore explicitly
rything is ‘real’ — then everything has
rejects the value placed on the natural
impact and can influence the ‘real’
over the artificial, and also rejects the
world. If eating fictional pork can have
concept that empathy defines what it
moral or religious implications in the
means to be human. This has further im-
real world for a person, then any ‘fic-
plications for human hegemony — if the
tional’ thing can also have real-world
artificial and natural both have a right to
value and effects; it cannot be consid-
their lives, then the poor treatment of
ered inferior to ‘real’ concerns, because
androids, and the central position hu-
it has a real impact.
mans have in power relations, no longer maintains legitimacy.
Furthermore, NewQuarter raises the fact that the tendency to devalue the
In a similar manner, technology
fictional/artificial is because of the im-
in Alif is used to explore and highlight
portance placed on rationality: “I think
the impact the artificial has in ‘real’ life,
we’re going back to the way things used
and undercuts the notion that there can
to be, before a bunch of European intel-
only be one valid perspective and
lectuals in tights decided to draw a line
19
21
20
Dick, Androids, 191. Ibid., 193.
Wilson, Alif the Unseen, 370.
59
between what’s rational and what’s not.
of the jinn because the delineation of ra-
I don’t think our ancestors thought the
tionality was considered unnecessary.
distinction necessary.”22 His comment
However, the modern emphasis
highlights the value their society placed
on rationality and the ‘real’ affected the
on the rational, and notes it as a modern
way people approached religion, which
valuation which has been endorsed by
consequently impacted the jinn’s posi-
the centre — a distinct shift from the
tion in society. The jinn who escorts
past which allowed the rational and ir-
Alif, NewQuarter, and Sheikh Bilal
rational to co-exist.
through the Empty Quarter asserts, “Be-
The accepted blurring of rational
lief is dying out. To most of your people
and irrational in the past meant that hu-
the jinn are paranoid fantasies who run
mans and the jinn , “acknowledged one
around causing epilepsy and mental ill-
another,” and could co-exist together.23
ness. Find me someone to whom the
Vikram recalls “there were days when
hidden folk are simply real, as described
the world was crawling with walis and
in the Books. You’ll be searching for a
prophets who could stare right at us, but
long time”;26 despite their explicit doc-
that was a long time ago. Now it’s dif-
umentation within religious texts, the
ferent.”24 Moreover, the walis and
jinn are now discounted as “paranoid
prophets — those who could see the
fantasies” — a devaluation which cate-
jinn — are affiliated with Islam, suggest-
gorises belief in jinn as irrational and de-
ing that religious belief in the past
nies them an existence in the ‘real’
acknowledged the jinn and their do-
world. The modern religious belief sys-
mains as real, and allowed them a more
tem adheres to the centre’s valuation of
central position within society. Indeed,
rationality, and therefore rejects the jinn
the jinn are “straight out of a holy
as imaginary beings; Intisar writes in her
book,”25 and the validation of the jinn’s
thesis, “The suggestion that the Alf
position in society (as real beings) stems
Yeom is the work of jinn is surely a cu-
from people’s acceptance and belief in
rious one. The Quran speaks of the hid-
the religious text — a belief which
den people in the most candid way, yet
acknowledged the existence and reality
more and more the educated faithful will not admit to believing in them,
22
25
23
26
Ibid. Ibid., 312. 24 Ibid., 106.
Ibid., 93. Ibid., 303.
60
however readily they might accept even
considered “a little mad” because he as-
the harshest and most obscure points of
serts the reality of the existence of the
Islamic law.”27 Increasingly, religious
jinn — a claim contrary to the centre’s
belief is based on rationality, a view-
position, which thus pushes him to the
point
widespread
fringes of human society. Indeed, Alif
among “the educated faithful” — a term
initially rejects that Vikram could be a
which itself suggests a rejection of the
jinn because it would be irrational for
irrational within religious belief. Conse-
him to believe otherwise; despite realis-
quently, it is the burgeoning mass of
ing that Vikram’s legs were “leonine,”
“educated faithful” who discount the
Alif nevertheless asserts, “Of course he
existence of jinn because the centre pos-
was human. What else could he be?”29
its it as irrational for them to exist.
Alif clearly rejects the possibility that
becoming
more
Since the centre now places im-
Vikram is not human precisely because
mense value on the rational, it relegates
he values the rational over the irrational
belief in the jinn to the periphery. To a
– a valuation endorsed by the centre.
rational mind they cannot exist, and
However, the fact that the jinn do exist
they subsequently remain unseen to the
and affect the ‘real’ world undermines
majority of humans who share this be-
the centre’s valuation of the rational,
lief. Vikram comments, “You think I am
and thereby challenges the legitimacy of
an ordinary man who has gone a little
the
mad. Well, that’s what I get for spend-
NewQuarter’s assertion of a return to
ing too much time hanging around the
the past valuation system — which pos-
periphery of the seeing world. There is
its the distinction between rational and
danger in being seen as too real”;28 in
irrational as unnecessary — presents the
order for Vikram to exist in the eyes of
idea that contradictory systems can co-
the (human) society, he cannot be con-
exist equally and operate within the
sidered to be a jinn. When he is visible
same space, even if it defies rational
to humans, he must be defined as a man
thought.
centre’s
hegemony.
Instead,
in order to remain as a legitimate sub-
Technology within these texts is
ject within human society. Yet, even as
used to explore and question the idea
a man, he can only exist on the “periph-
upheld by the central power that the
ery of the seeing world,” and must be
natural or real is more valuable than the
27
29
28
Ibid., 111. Ibid., 109.
Ibid., 93.
61
artificial. Within Do Androids Dream of
also challenges the validity of one hege-
Electric Sheep?, the androids are posi-
monic power asserting control over oth-
tioned as the Other in order for human-
ers, and consequently undermines the
ity to be defined and asserted as being
validity of the government. Thus, the
of central importance. Yet ironically the
representation of technology within
society is heavily reliant on technology,
both texts is used to contest the legiti-
and relies on artifice to maintain the il-
macy of a central hegemonic power by
lusion that the natural is of more value.
contesting the way value is placed upon
This valuation, in turn, is used to justify
that which is considered natural and
the right for humans to treat anything
that which is considered artificial.
non-human as inferior, yet the logic used to reassert human hegemony is shown to be extremely problematic; in light of the logic of society, androids and humans are actually indistinguishable, and therefore the hegemonic legitimacy of humans is non-existent. Technology destabilises the human identity and the power structure which asserts it as supreme. In Alif the Unseen, the main piece of technology is the internet — a virtual space in which resistance against the State can occur. It is through this medium that different groups can exist and be considered equally, which undermines the prevailing idea of a hegemonic power. Despite being a virtual space, the internet is ultimately shown to be as important a space as the real world in allowing disparate groups to come together as equals and enact real change. The emphasis on considering different perspectives as equally valuable 62
BIBLIOGRAPHY Dick, Philip K. Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? London: Phoenix, 2012. Francavilla, Joseph. “The Android as Doppelganger.” In Retrofitting Blade Runner: Issues in Ridley Scott’s Blade Runner and Philip K. Dick’s Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, edited by J. B. Kerman, 2nd ed. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1997, 4-15. Frow, John. Cultural Studies & Cultural Value. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995. Jessop, R.D. “Exchange and Power in Structural Analysis.” Sociological Review 17.3 (1969): 415-437. Kerslake, Patricia. Science Fiction and Empire. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2007. Langholm, Sivert. “On the Concept of Center and Periphery.” Journal of Peace Research 8.3/4 (1971): 273-278. Pietikainen, S. and H. Kelley-Holmes. “Multilingualism and the Periphery.” In Multilingualism and the Periphery, edited by S. Pietikainen and H. Kelley-Holmes. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013, 1-16. Shils, Edward. “Centre and Periphery.” In The Logic of Personal Knowledge: Essays Presented to Michael Polyani on his Seventieth Birthday 11th March 1961, n.ed. Illinois: The Free Press, 1961, 117-130. Wilson, G. Willow. Alif the Unseen. Melbourne: Allen & Unwin, 2012 63
"A Story of Shifting Stone: Pygmalion in the Renaissance" by Grant K. Schazman
64
The metaphor of living artwork is
the effects of Ovid’s Pygmalion in a
interestingly appropriate to the history
wide swath of English culture during the
of Ovid’s Metamorphoses. The explo-
16th and 17th centuries. By peering into
sion of translation in the Renaissance
the religious work of Thomas Adams,
turned the dusty tomes of Greece and
the
Rome face up once more, but it is for
Francis Bacon, and the poetic work of
very good reason that the movement is
John Marston, we can gain a notion of
called a “rebirth” rather than a “redis-
the interpretations available to Shake-
covery”. Even a cursory comparison of
speare’s own reincarnation of Pygma-
early modern English texts and their
lion in The Winter’s Tale. Bearing in
classical shadows will show how often
mind that these works point not to a
ancient works display distinctly Angli-
consistent societal understanding, but
can features. This is especially visible in
rather to a clash of understandings—a
Arthur Golding’s work with Ovid,
dynamic Shakespeare often plays upon,
where monotheistic piety juts out like
as we shall see with The Winter’s Tale,
an aquiline nose from the pagan pages.
to great dramatic effect—we may also
Golding provides his own apology for
gain an inkling of the Poet’s own cul-
this in his opening epistle to the Earl of
tural meta-criticism.
scientific-philosophical
work of
Leicester, in which he openly states that
Because it is didactic as well as ac-
“in interpreting theis few I attrib-
ademic, Renaissance religion provides a
ute/The things too one, which heathen
context of broad cultural interpretation.
men to many Gods impute” (“The Epis-
The clergy were disseminators as well as
tle”, lines 306-307), with the ultimate
thinkers, and their ideas had a long
goal of reinterpreting the Metamorpho-
reach. Take the sermons of Thomas Ad-
ses to align with and further the morals
ams in the early 17th century, which
and teachings of “the whole true pat-
demonstrate a series of convenient ap-
terne”, or Christian scripture (379). It is
propriations of the Pygmalion story ra-
no surprise, then, that other Renais-
ther than a steady perspective on it. Ad-
sance writers also “rebirthed” Pygma-
ams seems to use the popularity Pygma-
lion with a new interpretation for every
lion’s tale as an endless parable, adding
cultural criticism and moralization. The
new (and often opposing) morals to
close ties between the Renaissance dis-
each iteration. Contextually, Adams
ciplines of religion, philosophy, litera-
wrote in an increasingly iconoclastic
ture, and the sciences allow us to inspect
culture, in which Protestants began to 65
extend the definition of idolatry until, as
Pygmalion to illustrate the natural love
Margaret Aston observes, it “became a
of Creator for creation rather than the
household word in the sixteenth cen-
impious dotage of idolaters. It is “natu-
tury” (Lee 52). As the 16th century con-
ral” for man “to love the work of his
tinued,
and
own hands,” just as Pygmalion does, for
thereby the English government, de-
God Himself “loves us…because his
claimed more and more fiercely the
own hands have fashioned us” (Adams
Catholic interpretations of the Eucharist
367). Pygmalion, then, represents both
as a vessel for the presence of Christ and
pride and proper love, the practice of
holy statues as vessels for the presence
idolatry and the paradigm of Creation—
of saints (51). In two of his sermons,
all from the mouth of a single clergy-
Thomas Adams takes up myth of Pyg-
man. Interpretation, we see here, tends
malion to cast down idolatry. “The
to flow according to the message rather
Black Devil” reprimands the apostate
than the myth, a quality not exclusive to
for the way they “deck the world, as the
Adams nor confined to the pulpit.
the
Anglican
church,
Israelites did their calf; and then super-
From the realm of philosophy, Sir
stitiously dote upon it, as Pigmalion on
Francis Bacon appropriates the myth of
his carved stone” (Adams 41). In “The
Pygmalion as well as the moralisation of
White Devil”, Adams directs this decla-
the iconoclasts in his critique of philos-
mation of impious dotage against the
ophy and the sciences. For him, the true
hypocrite who “Pigmalion-like…dotes
sin of idolatry is the love of a lifeless im-
on his own carved and painted piece”
age, a soulless body; philosophers that
(30). This latter passage criticizes the
love their own pure abstraction, their
false “statue” of themselves that hypo-
syllogism that lacks “the ‘soul’ of mat-
crites create, much as we might criticize
ter”, are as guilty of sacrilege as the pa-
a deceptive “mask”. In both cases, the
gans and the idol worshipers (Tillman
interpretation of Pygmalion is explicit,
71). Religion and philosophy are not as
demonstrating the direct influence of
separate in Bacon’s work as he some-
iconoclasm on the English understand-
times professes, Tillman argues. Bacon
ing of ancient myth.
easily extends the religious critique of
Religious interpretations of Pyg-
false love into a scientific critique of
malion were not confined to the nega-
false learning, which he represents
tive, however. In another pair of ser-
through Pygmalion’s false image. Ba-
mons,
con’s contextualization of Pygmalion is
Adams
uses
the
myth
of
66
useful to us not because it accounts for
won. The absurdity of the ideal when
the “idolatry” of philosophy, but be-
incarnate, complete with polished stone
cause it gives a philosophical account of
bosoms, lifts Marston’s criticism into
idolatry. Our goal is to understand the
the realm of hyperbole. But though
versions of Pygmalion available to
Marston’s interpretation of Pygmalion is
Shakespeare, and while it seems unlikely
guided by his message—a satire on Pet-
that the playwright would steer his sub-
rarchan love and, more broadly, “the
tle commentary toward the champions
swaggering humour of these times”
of syllogism, Bacon grasps at the root of
(Marston 211)—the poet exhibits a real
idolatry much like Shakespeare himself
loyalty to this interpretation. His poem
does.
demonstrates a consistency that Adams Both Adams and Bacon incorpo-
lacks and an interest in the myth’s orig-
rate Pygmalion into their didactic. (It is
inal context that Bacon overlooks.
hard to say they incorporate Ovid’s Pyg-
Whereas Adams wields the myth of Pyg-
malion, for ownership here seems either
malion as a convenient popular refer-
transient or non-existent.) But to see
ence and Bacon extends it into a useful
how the story of Pygmalion fares in the
analogy, Marston holds it up as a mirror
realm of literature, the womb in which
to Petrarchan love. His understanding of
Ovid originally conceived it, we turn to
Petrarch and of Pygmalion are almost
the satire of John Marston.
the same; the two are nearly inter-
Marston is the first of our exam-
changeable. Marston provides a serious
ined authors to emphasize a visceral, ra-
criticism that ranks among the most sig-
ther than a religious or intellectual, per-
nificant Renaissance interpretations of
version in Pygmalion. What Ovid origi-
Pygmalion.
nally wrote in a largely romantic tone,
Such a variety of interpretations
Marston casts as sexual vice and perver-
float on the fringes of Shakespeare’s
sion. This “maggot-tainted lewd corrup-
stage, each of them echoed in many tiny
tion,” as Marston calls it, is satire di-
pockets of early modern England. “Dot-
rected against the Petrarchan attitude of
ing upon one’s own work” became as
romance (Santano 261). The story of
commonplace a condemnation as the
Pygmalion is used to amplify the criti-
iconoclastic aversion to “idols”. The de-
cism; the tale of a marble lady literalizes
piction of physically perverted love re-
the Petrarchan ideal of a stony-hearted,
sounds in Chapman’s Monsieur d’Olive,
indifferent mistress to be wooed and
where the “soulless image” is a corpse 67
rather than carved marble. But there is
idolatry, the rational uncertainties of
one conspicuously absent interpretation
which he ultimately turns into a poign-
that we notice precisely because we in-
ant cultural analysis. Having tallied the
vented it. Marston and Chapman satiri-
total number of new appendages to the
cally reprimand the perversion of Pyg-
Pygmalion, he reimagines the myth by
malion’s passion for something that is
recasting the characters of Carver and
part stone, part himself. But his over-
Image.
controlling character, which is one of
The language of Marston’s “The
our primary focuses today, is only shal-
Metamorphosis of Pigmalions Image”
lowly criticized. To most Renaissance
viciously and directly satirizes the Pet-
men, the issue with Pygmalion’s desire
rarchan lover for his “feigned decency”
was deviancy, not domination. Any
as well as his idolatry, which parrots that
trace of a feministic critique of Pygma-
of “the peevish Papists” (Marston 206).
lion is absent in Marston and opposed
Marston’s poem criticizes and in a sense
outright in Brathwaite, who discourages
punishes the Petrarchan lover. Shake-
Pygmalion’s vanity in young men only
speare’s play, on the other hand, simply
so that the lady that they choose “may
shows the Petrarchan lover punished
be
embrace”
and criticized. The sense of judgement
(Brathwaite 262). It is little surprise that
is more difficult to locate in The Win-
not much criticism of male dominance
ter’s Tale than in Marston’s poem be-
arose from a society still largely centred
cause the part of the Petrarchan lover,
upon primogeniture. Shakespeare is one
or Pygmalion, is split throughout the
of the first to give any altitude to the
play, as is the part of the statue. Until
feminist attitude, though we must take
the fifth act, the play’s connection to
care to bring his Renaissance attitude
any iteration of the Pygmalion myth is
forward rather than retroactively insert-
tenuous. There are a couple of telling
ing the modern. He does this partly in
instances: before Time trots out on stage
The Winter’s Tale through a version of
and dismisses sixteen years, Leontes’
the critique of the Petrarchan lover,
jealousy is certainly a dominating force,
which we are already familiar with
and the sudden shift where his suspicion
through Marston. But Shakespeare pro-
is sparked reveals his preference for a
ceeds to take a closer look at Pygma-
cool and passive mistress instead of Her-
lion’s overall evolution, playing with the
mione’s active force. “Too hot, too
problems of the iconoclasts and ideas of
hot!” (1.2.139) are the first lines of
worthy
of
[their]
68
burning jealousy from Leontes, who
Our praises are our wages. You may ride
thereafter stops his ears when he cannot
‘s
stop Hermione’s mouth, turning his heart to stone to resist the reasoning of
With one soft kiss a thousand furlongs…
his queen of flesh and blood. For
(1.2.18-21)
whereas Pygmalion’s statue was stonelipped and wordless, Hermione speaks
Her verbiage suggests comparison with
volumes in her defence—only Leontes
slavish livestock, but the speech itself re-
does not hear. When Hermione says,
veals her insight into her position as his
“My life stands in the level of your
queen. She plays the game of clueless-
dreams,” Leontes responds, “Your ac-
ness well enough to show her clever-
tions are my dreams” (3.2.86-88). This
ness. Again, when she stands on trial be-
speaks not to Leontes’ ability to create
fore Leontes, she expresses the power he
or shape Hermione—she is innocent
holds over her, calling Leontes’ favour
quite independent of his dreams—but to
“the crown and comfort of my life”
his inability to reshape, or allow to be
(3.2.101). Quite paradoxically, Hermi-
reshaped, his own bitter fantasies.
one states her helplessness so lucidly that we are assured of her awareness.
Furthermore,
Hermione’s
lines
Her character avoids the classical role of
throughout the first three acts reveal far
Pygmalion’s statue just as Leontes’ does
too self-aware a statue. When speaking
the role of Pygmalion. Leontes finds in
to Leontes before his fit of envy, she
his wife not the malleable marble figure
paints her passive role in very acute lan-
of his desires, but a recalcitrant charac-
guage:
ter that does not, in fact, alter to fit his unhappy dreams.
I prithee tell me. Cram ‘s with praise, and make ‘s
The first three acts in The Winter’s Tale construct the characters of Leontes and Hermione with some small
As fat as tame things. One good deed
resemblances to Pygmalion and his carv-
dying tongueless
ing. Marston’s criticism of the worshipful lover with his idealistic construct is
Slaughters a thousand waiting upon
somewhat worked into Leontes, though
that.
it is tweaked by madness—for though the king ostensibly desires Hermione to 69
fit his definition of a perfect, faithful
statue’s steady posture, the supreme pa-
wife, his determination to condemn her
tience that Hermione demonstrated
suggests that he more truly desires her
with her poignant analysis of her posi-
to fit his suspicions. And yet what sort
tion in Act I and with her attitude of ac-
of Carver is Leontes, who cannot
ceptance and even “pity” (3.2.131) when
change his wife, nor even his own mind?
she stood at the very doorway of a death
And what sort of Statue is Hermione,
sentence in Act III. Then we are seized
who is so resistant to the chisel of her
by uncertainty as to whether we truly
husband’s accusations, and so aware of
behold a living Hermione or a statue. As
her own shape and character? The com-
Mueller says, “The audience is expected
plexity of these two characters and their
to be…naïve about the resurrection of
incongruity with the Ovidian myth, or
Hermione,” which comes as a sort of
even Marston’s reimagining of it, pre-
“rude awakening” (229). He argues that
vent predictability as well as certainty.
the signs that Hermione still lives are
As Act V builds toward the reanimation
“necessarily lost on a naïve spectator,”
of the Statue, the connections between
one who has not read the play at least
Shakespeare’s characters and their clas-
several times, which we can presume to
sical counterparts become even more
encompass nearly all of Shakespeare’s
obscured. The playwright, it seems, re-
original audience (227). This edge of
fuses give his audience the sense of di-
uncertainty provides for more than just
rect judgement that Marston provides or
dramatic bombast, however. We lack
the didactic that Adams demonstrates.
the crucial knowledge of whether or not
Instead, he uses the uncertainty of the
the statue has a soul—whether Leontes
fifth act as a means of exploring the
and Perdita stand in awe of Hermione’s
clash of ideals and understandings in the
presence or merely of her absence.
16th century, addressing most especially
The question of presence is criti-
the issue of idolatry and iconoclasm
cal to the 16th century cultural critiques
through the vehicle of his reimagined
that appropriate Pygmalion. By sus-
Pygmalion narrative.
pending the certainty of Hermione’s
When at last, after the speedy pas-
presence, Shakespeare is able to suspend
sage of sixteen years, we are presented
the audience’s judgements on the sub-
with Hermione’s statue on stage, we are
jects of idolatry and morbidity of love.
caught by a handful of realizations and
Jongsook Lee observes in an essay on
doubts. First we see accented, by the 70
presence, Pygmalion, and iconoclasm in
Social sentiment was increasingly in-
Shakespeare:
clined to condemn both of these in its war on icons. However, if we recall Ba-
Whether images were numinous or
con’s identification of idolatry and false
dead, whether pictures and statues of
love as that which fixates upon an image
the saints and the Virgin were vivacious
“without the ‘soul’ of matter”, we see
or inert…whether the real presence of
that Shakespeare has left out the most
Christ was in the bread and wine of the
important bit of information from the
Eucharist—all come down to that initial
accusers’ case. When Perdita first bows
question about how to imagine the dia-
and implores a blessing, does she do so
lectic between immanence and
at the foot of a statue or of her mother?
tran-
scendence. (51)
And when Leontes attempts to kiss the ruddy lips, does he lean toward his wife
Marston’s criticism of the Petrarchan
or merely her likeness? Much like the
lover also rests upon the question of
audience, the two find themselves una-
presence. To Marston, Pygmalion’s suit
ble to believe that they behold a mere
to “his remorsles image, dum and mute”
statue—for “What fine chisel/Could
(Marston 206) is a foolish result of lov-
ever yet cut breath?” (5.3.97-98)—and
ing a construct—an image that is sepa-
yet unable to reconcile the alternative
rate from any real substance, following
they faintly perceive. “Let no man mock
the Petrarchan habit of abstracting a
me,” says Leontes (5.3.98); “do not say
woman. The artistic representation of a
‘tis
woman, Marston concludes, is not a
(5.3.50). For as long as the audience is
woman at all, and therefore to worship
forced to suspend judgement on the
the representation is tantamount to
statue and Hermione’s presence, it must
idolatry. Adam’s idea of idolatry is, quite
also suspend judgment on Perdita and
simply, the worship of lifeless matter.
Leontes, the idolater and the Petrarchan
Shakespeare, however, pauses upon this
lover.
point in the final scene of the play.
superstition,”
insists
Perdita
Some will think that this moment
Julio Romano, whose skill, like
of suspended judgement requires an
Pygmalion’s, allows him to “beguile Na-
over-dumb audience, and that it is quite
ture of her custom” (5.2.105-106), cre-
obvious early on that Hermione never
ates a statue so perfect that it stirs Leon-
actually died. If this is the case, then
tes with love and Perdita with worship.
Shakespeare’s message to us becomes a 71
little clearer: what looks to be a statue
Paulina, not Leontes, demonstrates the
truly is a woman, filled with soul rather
power to shape the other characters af-
than stone. Marston, Adams, the icono-
ter the sixteen year intermission. It is
clastic Englishman: all are mistaken. But
she who echoes Ovid’s Pygmalion when
Shakespeare is not in the habit of giving
she speaks of Hermione’s perfection as
plain messages, and a good production
“unparalleled” by anything the world
ought to hold the non-dogmatic intel-
could contrive (5.1.16-18) and insists,
lect in at least partial suspension. That
“There is none worthy,/Respecting her
uncertainty serves as a catalyst for the
that’s gone,” (5.1.42-43). She holds Le-
reconciliation of England’s ideological
ontes to a vow of bachelorship and re-
culture war, but it is only accomplished
minds him regularly of Hermione’s vir-
through the rife uncertainty of charac-
tues, preparing and shaping his love so
ters. If we look back upon our earlier
that she can bring Hermione back to
conundrum of who is what in this ap-
him. Before performing her ritual of re-
propriation of Pygmalion, we find our-
animation, she admits to the enthralled
selves even further from an answer than
Leontes, “The stone is mine” (5.3.70).
before.
But Paulina does not only play
Leontes, who began to look a bit
the part of the now many-faced Carver.
like our Pygmalion when he held Her-
In the reanimation scene, Paulina adopts
mione helpless at her trial, now seems
a Venus-like role, both in the power she
far too clueless to be the Carver. He is
demonstrates and in the match she
surprised by the wrinkles beneath her
makes. It is she who binds Leontes to
eyes and taken aback by her beauty. He
Hermione again in love, with something
exclaims, “Does not the stone rebuke
between a blessing and a warning: “Do
me/For being more stone than it?”
not shun her/Until you see her die
(5.3.43-44). Though he plays the role of
again,” (5.3.131-132). Moreover, it is she
old bachelor like Pygmalion does, he
who (like Venus in Ovid’s myth) bids
shows himself to be something far dis-
Hermione,
tant. It is clear that Leontes did not
(5.3.125). Whether we are meant to be-
shape the statue to fulfil his desire; ra-
lieve, for a moment, that Hermione was
ther, his desire has been shaped to fit the
really resurrected from stone matters lit-
statue.
tle; a very real change comes to Hermi-
“Be
stone
no
more,”
one. The power of action, which she had been stripped of in her trial before 72
Leontes, is restored her. No longer does
misguided in their idea of artistic crea-
her husband wield the only potent voice
tion. The question it comes down to—
and complete control. The next com-
the question that tends to be assumed
mand that Hermione is given by Paulina
rather than analysed—is simple: can cre-
is “Approach” (5.3.125). And, quite un-
ation have soul? Though the culture
like Marston’s statue that “suffered” the
wars have subsided, that question is
embrace of her suitor’s arms (Marston
more confused than ever. Should we
206), Hermione extends her arms first.
ever stumble across its answer, we
“When she was young, you wooed her;
would find a much fuller understanding
now in age/Is she become the suitor?”
of what it is to be human, what it means
says Paulina to Leontes (5.3.134-135).
to create, and what sort of thing art re-
Hermione, who is “stone no more”, ex-
ally is. Quite possibly, though, that is
hibits her own agency. She acts for her-
more than can be answered. At least,
self and thus creates herself. The queen,
without depriving us of our favourite
like Paulina and Leontes, plays a bit of
points to quibble over.
Pygmalion’s part. Shakespeare seems to carefully avoid direct character parallels between The Winter’s Tale and any of the available interpretations of Pygmalion. Leontes is too clueless a carver, Hermione too aware and active a statue, Paulina too manipulative to avoid Pygmalion and too powerful but removed (recall her desire to go off alone and “Lament ‘til I am lost” [5.3.169]) to dodge the part of goddess. Through the mystic sense of uncertainty surrounding the final scene, Shakespeare prompts a closer look at some of the big cultural and artistic views of the day. It is possible that the iconoclasts are misguided in their conception of idolatry, just as it is possible
that
Petrarch’s
critics
are 73
BIBLIOGRAPHY Adams, Thomas. “The Black Devil or the Apostate.” London: 1615. “The Happiness of the Church.” London: 1619. “The White Devil, or the Hypocrite Uncased.” London: 1613. “Heaven and Earth Reconcil’d.” London: 1613 Braithwaite, Richard. “The English Gentleman.” 1630. Chapman, George. Monsieur D’Olive. 1606. Lee, Jongsook. “Numinous or Dead? Real Presence, Iconoclasm, and Pygmalion’s
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Marston, John. The Metamorphosis of Pigmalions Image and Certaine Satyres. London: 1598. Print. Mueller, Martin. “Hermione’s Wrinkles, or, Ovid Transformed: An Essay on The Winter’s Tale.”Comparative Drama. 5.3 (1971): 226-239. Print. Ovid, Arthur Golding, Jonathan Bate. “Ovid’s Metamorphoses: The Arthur Golding Translation, 1567.” Paul Dry Books, 2000. Print.
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Santano, Sonia Hernandez. “Marston’s The Metamorphosis of Pygmalion’s Image: The Ovidian Myth Revisited.” Sociedad Espanola de Estudios Renacentistas Ingleses. 12 (2001): 259-268. Print. Shakespeare, William, Barbara A. Mowat, Paul Werstine, and Folger Shakespeare
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