Languages of Ancient Southern Mongolia and North China
A Historical-Comparative Study of the Serbi or Xianbei Branch of the Serbi-Mongolic Language Family, with an Analysis of Northeastern Frontier Chinese and Old Tibetan Phonology
Harrassowitz Verlag · Wiesbaden
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ISSN 0946-0349
ISBN 978-3-447-10855-3
e-ISBN PDDF 978-3-447-19656-7
Dedicated to my wife Oyumaa and my son William Bilgun.
2.4.3.
3.4.
5.2.3.
5.2.4.
5.3.
5.6.
5.6.1.
5.6.2.
6.1. Historical
6.2. Sources on the T’u -yü-hun language ..............................................
6.2.1. Old Tibetan sources on the T’u-yü-hun language
6.2.1.1. T’u-yü-hun toponyms in Old Tibetan
6.2.1.2. T’u-yü-hun onomastica in Old
6.2.2. Chinese sources on the T’u-yü-hun language
6.2.2.1. Glossed Chinese transcriptions of T’u-yü-hun..........................
6.2.2.2. Unglossed
6.2.3.
6.3.
6.3.1.
6.3.2.
6.3.3.
6.3.4.
6.4.
6.5.
6.5
6.5
6.5.2.1.
6.5.2.2.
7.1.
7.2.
7.2.1.
7.2.2.
7.2.3.
7.3.
7.3.1.
7.3.2.
7.3.2.1.
7.3.2.1.5.
7.3.2.1.5.1.
7.3.2.1.5.2.
7.3.3.1.
7.3.3.2.
7.3.3.3.
8.4.1.1.
8.4.1.2.
8.4.3.
8.5.
8.5.1.
8.5.2.
8.5.3.
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Table 1. Mongol-Greek-Latin “resemblances” according to Edkins ...............
Table 2. Preclassical and spoken MMgl ‘winter’ and ‘day’ ............................
Table 3. Preclassical WMgl and spoken MMgl wordforms.............................
Table 4.
Table 5. Mongol-Korean correspondences
Table 6. Hong Kimun’s Mongol-Korean proposals with additional
Table 7.
Table 8.
Table 9. Periodization of the Serbi-Mongolic languages and speakers
Table 10. Northeastern
Table 12.
Table 13.
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table 29.
Table
Table
Table 32. Some attested Middle Kitan numerals 21-99 ...............................
Table 33. Morphological paradigm of Middle Kitan *kuyr- ‘arrive’ .......... 242
Table 34. Morphological paradigm of Middle Kitan *pɔǰ- ‘become’ ......... 245
Table 35. Morphological paradigm of Middle Kitan *sa- ‘reside, live’ ...... 246
Table 36. Middle Kitan case affixes (reconstructed forms) .........................
Table 37. Middle Kitan case affixes (orthographic forms) ..........................
Table 38. Case paradigms of Middle Kitan nouns ending in vowels ........... 249
Table 39. Case paradigm of Middle Kitan *ɔrdu ......................................... 250
Table 40. Case paradigms of Middle Kitan nouns ending in /w/ ................. 251
Table 41. Case paradigms of Middle Kitan nouns ending in /m/ and /n/ .....
Table 42. Case paradigms of Middle Kitan nouns ending in /m/ and /n/ .....
Table 43. Case paradigms of Middle Kitan nouns ending in velar nasals ...
Table 44. Case paradigms of Middle Kitan nouns ending in /r/ ..................
Table 45. Case paradigms of Middle Kitan nouns ending in /r/ ..................
Table 46. Case paradigms of MKit nouns ending in other consonants ........ 256
Table 47. Middle Kitan irregular (lexicalized) case forms .......................... 257
Table 48. Partially suppletive paradigm of Middle Kitan *mir ‘horse’ .......
Table 49. Paradigm of MKit *kuyr- with MMgl gür- ‘arrive’.....................
Table 50. Paradigm of MKit *sa- with MMgl sa’u- ‘sit, live, reside’ ......... 286
Table 51. Paradigm of MKit *pɔǰ- ‘become’ with MMgl bol- ‘become’ .... 286
Table 52. Cognate functional morphology between MKit and MMgl ......... 287
Table 53. The Common Serbi-Mongolic consonant inventory .................... 293
Table 54. The Common Serbi-Mongolic vowel inventory .......................... 293
Table 55. SM diphthong and vocoid sequences with *y in roots ................. 294
Table 56. SM diphthong and vocoid sequences with *y in affixes .............. 294
Table 57. MKit and MMgl cognate verbal suffixal morphosyntax.............. 295
Table 58. Taghbach, Late Kitan, and Middle Mongol cognate affix ........... 296
Table 59. Attested Middle Kitan and Middle Mongol case forms ............... 297
Table 60. Partial reconstruction of the CSM case system ............................ 298
Table 61. MKit and MMgl cognate number affixal morphosyntax ............. 299
Table 62. MKit and MMgl cognate number affixal morphosyntax ............. 299
Table 63. MKit and MMgl cognate number affixal morphosyntax ............. 299
Table 64. MKit and MMgl cognate number affixal morphosyntax ............. 300
Table 65. MKit and MMgl cognate number affixal morphosyntax ............. 300
Table 66. MKit and MMgl plural marking mismatch .................................. 300
Table 67. Common Serbi-Mongolic nominal number system ..................... 301
Table 68. Comparison of MKit and MMgl clausal order ............................. 302
Table 69. SM syntactic correspondences for [OV] clausal order ................ 303
Table 70. SM syntactic correspondences for [SV] clausal order ................. 303
Table 71. SM syntactic correspondences for [SOV] clausal order .............. 304
Table 72. SM syntactic correspondences for [SNP PredNP] clausal order ..... 305
Table 73. SM syntactic correspondences for [SNP PredNum] clausal order ... 306
Table 74. Middle Kitan and Middle Mongol [Adj N] phrasal order ............ 307
Table 75. Middle Kitan and Middle Mongol [Dem N] phrasal order .......... 307
Table 76. Middle Kitan and Middle Mongol [G N] phrasal order ............... 308
Table 77. Middle Kitan and Middle Mongol [Num N] phrasal order .......... 308
Table 78. Middle Kitan and Middle Mongol [Rel N] phrasal order ............ 309
Table 79. Middle Kitan and Middle Mongol [Adv V] phrasal order ........... 309
Table 80. Middle Kitan and Middle Mongol [Neg V] phrasal order ........... 310
Table 81. Middle Kitan and Middle Mongol [N Post] phrasal order ........... 310
Table 82. Comparison of MKit and MMgl phrasal order ............................ 311
Table 83. Common Serbi-Mongolic phrasal order....................................... 311
Table 84. Pro-drop in Middle Kitan and Middle Mongol ............................ 312
Table 85. Some attested Kitan-Taghbach-Mongol cognates ....................... 313
Table 86. Evidence of a *-sU ~ *-l alternation in Pre-Proto-Mongolic ....... 393
Table 87. Early Serbi-Mongolic words for ‘pig, boar’ ................................ 410
Table 88. Words for ‘pig’ in the modern Mongolic daughter languages ..... 411
Table 89. Phonological innovations distinguishing Mongolic and Serbi..... 415
Table 90. Mongolic morphological innovations .......................................... 416
Table 91. Phonologically conditioned readings of the grapheme ........... 419
Table 92. Phonologically conditioned readings of the grapheme ........... 420
Table 93. Phonologically conditioned readings of the grapheme ........... 420
Table 94. Phonologically conditioned readings of the grapheme ........... 420
Table 95. Phonologically conditioned readings of the grapheme ........... 421
Table 96. Phonologically conditioned readings of the grapheme ........... 421
Table 97. Previously identified common KAS typographical errors ........... 445
Table 98. Common KAS typographical errors............................................. 445
Table 99. Late Old Chinese glossed transcriptions of SM words ................ 447
Table 100. Early Middle Chinese glossed transcriptions of SM words ....... 447
Table 101. Late Middle Chinese glossed transcription of SM words .......... 448
Table 102. Old Mandarin glossed transcriptions of SM words.................... 448
Table 103. Old Tibetan glossed transcription of SM ................................... 448
Table 104. Latin glossed transcriptions of SM words .................................. 448
Table 105. Persian transcriptions of Mongolic languages and dialects ....... 448
Table 106. SM correspondences indicating *-sU as Mongolic .................... 454
Table 107. Tungusic evidence of *-sU as a Mongolic innovation ............... 455
Table 108. Turkic evidence of *-sU as a Mongolic innovation ................... 456
Table 109. Tungusic and Turkic evidence of *-sU as Mongolic ................. 458
Table 110. Late Old Chinese evidence of pre-Proto-Mongolic *-sU .......... 458
Table 111. Japanese-Koguryoic evidence of pre-Proto-Mongolic *-sU ...... 458
Table 112. Serbi and Mongolic evidence of pre-Proto-Mongolic *-ɣU ...... 459
Table 113. Serbi-Mongolic evidence of pre-Proto-Mongolic *-bA ............. 459
Acknowledgements
In support of the research and writing which allowed me to significantly revise and expand my doctoral dissertation into this book, I was awarded a Postdoctoral Fellowship in Mongolian Studies by the Dipartimento Asia Africa e Mediterraneo of the Università degli Studi di Napoli “L’Orientale”. I am grateful to my fellowship advisor Donatella Guida and to Michele Bernardini, who have helped me immensely in many ways during my stays in Naples to undertake research to complete this book. Thanks to their many kindnesses and sincere desire to help me succeed, I have been able to bring this book to fruition.
I thank my teachers György Kara and Christopher I. Beckwith, for sharing with me their vast knowledge and passion for Central Eurasian Studies, linguistics, philology, and history. They have inspired me academically and encouraged me like no other teachers before them. I am greatly fortunate to have had the opportunity to study with such great mentors. I am also grateful to the other members of my doctoral committee Robert Botne, Ken de Jong, and Stuart Davis. Without their honest advice and helpful input, this book would have been greatly inferior to its present form.
I also thank everyone who wrote recommendation letters for grant and fellowship applications which supported the writing of this book, especially Christopher I. Beckwith, György Kara, Lim Seungcheol and Jang Deokjin. I am grateful to Professor Lim for being so understanding and accommodating of my research. Without his kindness and flexibility, this book would have taken much longer to finish.
I thank numerous people who have sent me articles, books, fonts, and other resources which I have used for research leading up to this book, including Kurban Niyaz, Yoshio Saitô, Takeuchi Yasunori, Daniel Kane, Oyuunch (Wu Yingzhe), Michal Biran, Gertraude Roth Li, Kiyose N. Gisaburō, Michele Bernardini, Jerry Norman,† Valerie Hansen, Yümjiriin MönkhAmgalan, Anya King, Seongyeon Ko, Otgon Borjigin, Jonathan North Washington, Sun Bojun, Viacheslav Zaytsev, Ko Dongho, Engkebatu, Kim Juwon, Guillaume Jacques, Alexander Vovin, D. Tömörtogoo, and Ts.
Shagdarsüren. For permission to reproduce part of my Acta Orientalia article, I thank István Vásáry. In general, I would also like to thank Jennifer Li-Chia Liu, Yu Wonsoo, Mikael Thompson, Yangbum Gyal, Rabsal Gedun, Niko Kontovas, and Tang Li. I also thank Michael Weiers for reviewing my manuscript and accepting it for publication in his series.
The Khamnigan Mongol data in this book is from my 2006 and 2009 fieldwork in Khentii funded by the American Center for Mongolian Studies (ACMS), the Council of American Overseas Research Centers (CAORC), the Institute of International Education (IIE), and the U.S. State Department. I am grateful to the many kind Khamnigan people I met, who generously shared with me their knowledge of their language and culture.
My family has been very supportive of my education and research. I thank my grandparents Royal† and Alice Marsh, my parents Rick and Jean, my brother Thomas, my parents-in-law Yümjiriin Mönkh-Amgalan and Khaidawiin Suwdaa, and my grandfather-in-law Academician Tsendiin Khaidaw† for encouraging me in Mongolian Studies.
I also thank my son, William Bilgun, for understanding all the times I was busy writing, and for encouraging me in his own way every night before bed he made sure I was working on my book. Most of all, I thank my wife, Oyumaa, for constantly supporting me and my research, even when it meant increasing responsibilities for herself as I wrote this book. Without her love, support, and patience, this book would have been both impossible and meaningless.
Fonts Used in this Book
I have used a number of special fonts in preparing this book: For words in Kitan Assembled Script, Preclassical Written Mongol, and ‘Phagspa Script, I have used the Menksoft font set. For Chinese, I have used PMingLiu; for Japanese, MS Mincho; for modern Written Mongol, Mongolian Baiti; for phonetic and phonological transcriptions, Doulos SIL; for Korean, Haansoft Batang; and for Tangut, Mojikyo M202. For Jurchen, I have used Jason Glavy’s freeware Jurchen font. Tibetan words are given in the free true -type font Jomolhari, developed and distributed by Chris Fynn. Runiform Old Turkic words are given in the font Turik, developed by the Abai National Pedagogical University of Kazakhstan (Aбай
университет) and the Republic of Kazakhstan Ministry of Culture and Information (Қазақстан
министрлігі). 17th century Dutch transcriptions of Early Modern Korean appear in the Caslon font Wyld, created by David Manthey. The main text is in Times New Roman. The morphemic, phrasal, and clausal structures of reconstructed sentences (e.g. in 8.6) are given in Cambria Math. The symbols and are given in Arial Unicode MS. The Mongolian text of the dedication is in Menksoft Hawang.
General Abbreviations and Symbols
AKog Archaic Koguryo (Archaic Koguryŏ) 1
ATR advanced tongue root vowel harmony
ATrk Archaic Turkic (ca. 4th c. A.D.)
C consonant
c. century ca. circa
CChi Chin Chinese (i.e. Old Mandarin as spoken in the Chin Jurchen Empire)
Ch. Chinese chap. chapter
Chuv. Chuvash
CJK Common Japanese-Koguryoic (Common Japanese-Koguryŏic)2
CSer Common Serbi
CSM Common Serbi-Mongolic
Dem demonstrative
EMC Early Middle Chinese (ca. 4th to 6th c.)
EMK Early Middle Korean (ca. 918-1392)
EMMgl Early Middle Mongol
EOM Early Old Mandarin (ca. 10 th -12th c.)
Ewk Ewenki
G genitive
H high pitch
IDP International Dunhuang Project <idp.bl.uk>
IE Indo-European
intr. intransitive
IPA International Phonetic Alphabet
JK Japanese-Koguryoic (Japanese-Koguryŏic)
JM Jurchen-Manchu
Jur. Jurchen
KAS Kitan Assembled Script (often assumed to be the ‘Small Script’) 3
KDKE Khentii-Dornod Khamnigan Ewenki (Rinchen 1969)
1 Beckwith (2007a).
2 Beckwith (2007a).
3 See Kara (2005) for discussion.
KLS Kitan Linear Script (often assumed to be the ‘Large Script’) 4
KPEMC Korean Peninsular Early Middle Chinese (Beckwith 2007a)
L low pitch
LC Liao Chinese (i.e. Early Old Mandarin as spoken in the Kitan Empire)
LJur Late Jurchen (ca. 1550)5
LKit. Late Kitan (ca. 13th c.)
LMC Late Middle Chinese (Sui-T’ang, ca. 7th to 9th c.)
LMK Late Middle Korean (ca. 1445 - ca. 16th c.)
LMMgl Late Middle Mongol
LOC Late Old Chinese (Ch’in-Han, ca. 221 B.C. – 220 A.D.)
LOM Late Old Mandarin (ca. 13th to late 14th c.)
LOM.Ph Late Old Mandarin in ‘Phagspa script
Ma. Manchu
MChi. Middle Chinese (ca. 4th -9th c.)
MCR McCune-Reischauer romanization
MJur Middle Jurchen (ca. 1450)6
MKit. Middle Kitan (ca. 10th -12th c.)
MMgl Middle Mongol (ca. 13th – 15th c.)
MN Möllendorff-Norman Romanization of Manchu
MOC Middle Old Chinese (Beckwith 2007a) morph. morpheme, morphological
ms. manuscript
MSC Modern Standard Chinese
MSer Middle Serbi (ca. mid-3rd c. A.D. to ca. 9th c. A.D.)
MSJ Modern Standard Japanese
MSK Modern Standard Korean
MTrk Middle Turkic (ca. 11th – 14th c. A.D.)
n numeral
n. footnote (in bibliographical references)
N noun
Nan. Nanai
4 See Kara (2005) for discussion.
5 See Kane (2006) for the periodization of Jurchen. The primary source of data on Late Jurchen is the Nü-chen-kuan i-yü , studied by Kane (1989).
6 Kane (2006).
NLOC Northeastern Late Old Chinese
NP noun phrase
NTung Northern Tungusic 7
NWei Northern Wei Chinese
O object
OChi. Old Chinese (unperiodized)
OJpn Old Japanese (ca. 8th c. A.D.)
OJur Old Jurchen (ca. 1115-1234)8
OKit. Old Kitan (pre-10th c.)
OKog. Old Koguryo (Old Koguryŏ)9
OM Old Mandarin
OTDO Old Tibetan Documents Online <http://otdo.aa.tufs.ac.jp/>.
OTib. Old Tibetan
OTrk Old Turkic (ca. 8th – 10th c. A.D.)
OUyg Old Uygur
P phrase
p.c. personal communication
Pcl Preclassical Written Mongol phon. phonological
PIE Proto-Indo-European
PJpn Proto-Japanese
PMgl Proto-Mongolic
Possmpossessum
Possr possessor
Post postposition
Pred predicate
PSer Proto-Serbi
PSM Proto-Serbi-Mongolic
7 I follow Georg’s classification of Northern Tungusic as comprised of Ewenki, Ewen, Negidal, Solon, Orochen, Udihe, and Oroch (Georg 2004b: 55).
8 Kane (2006). Old Jurchen is the spoken language underlying the Jurchen Script. The only solid phonological data on Old Jurchen comes from Chinese transcriptions in the Chin Shih , although there are some clues on spoken Old Jurchen in the Jurchen Script and from internal reconstruction applied to attested Late Jurchen and Manchu.
9 Beckwith (2007a).
PTrk Proto-Turkic
PTung Proto-Tungusic
q.v. quod vide (which see)
R: ‘revised to …’
reconst. reconstruction
Rel relative clause
S subject
Sent sentence
SH Solar Hijri date
SM Serbi-Mongolic
STung Southern Tungusic 10
Tagh Taghbach11
TMA tense, mood, and aspect
trans. transitive
transcr. transcription
Tung. Tungusic
V vowel / verb
WMgl Written Mongol (unperiodized)
YR Yale romanization
‹ › transliteration or transcription of an orthographic form
[ ] phonetic transcription, including those in Chinese and other foreign scripts
σ syllable
σ[… denotes a syllable-initial segment (onset)
…
σ denotes a syllable-final segment (coda)
/ / phonemic transcription
* reconstruction from mainstream historical-comparative linguistic methods reconstruction from traditional Chinese fan-ch’ieh spellings or rhymes 12 incorrect or untenable reconstruction13
10 I follow Georg’s classification of Southern Tungusic as comprising Manchu, Nanai, Ulc ha, and Uilta (Georg 2004b: 55).
11 Also known in English as Tabghatch ~ Tabgatch ~ T’o-pa (Tuoba). The form tabγač ‹t1b1γč› ‘China’ (specifically denoting T’ang China) is a metathesized innovation in Old Turkic satisfying phonotactic constraints in that language (Shimunek 2007: 14).
12 Following Beckwith (2007a, 2009, etc.)
13 Following Campbell (1999).
▓ problematic or illegible grapheme in a text
■ orthographic segment whose phonological value is not currently decipherable
… in phonological reconstructions, a segment or morpheme that is not reconstructible due to the fact that the grapheme or graphemes representing it have not been fully deciphered yet
< language-internal change
> language-internal change
→ (same as below)
← loanword or borrowing between languages (directionality known)
↔ loanword or borrowing between languages (directionality unknown)
/ separates two or more equally plausible forms (in reconstructions)
~ variation between two or more forms (free or conditioned variation)
( ) indicates an uncertain or problematic segment (in reconstructions)
♂ masculine gender
♀ feminine gender
❍ unmarked (unspecified) for gender
? uncertain or problematic reading of a grapheme
≈ approximation (e.g. approximations of foreign phonological segments) pulmonic ingressive
ʰC preaspirated consonant
V full devoicing low pitch/tone
V high pitch/tone
V rising pitch/tone
V long vowel (e.g. in philological transcriptions of Late Middle Mongol)
General Sigla
AHD Watkins, Calvert. The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots. Second edition. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Ben. Benedict, Paul K. Sino-Tibetan: A Conspectus. Cambridge, 1972.
Cob. Coblin, W. South. A Handbook of ‘Phagspa Chinese . Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2007.
Cs.1952
Cs.1954
Csongor, B. Chinese in the Uighur script of the T’ang period. Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 1952, 2: 73-121.
Csongor, B. Some more Chinese glossed in Uighur script. Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 1954, 4: 251-257.
DTS Наделяев, В. М., Д. М. Насилов, Е. Р. Тенишев, А. М. Щербак. Древнетюркский словарь. Ленинград: Наука, 1969.
EDT Clauson, Sir Gerard. An Etymological Dictionary of Pre-Thirteenth-Century Turkish. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1972.
GOrkT Grammar of Orkhon Turkic (Tekin 1968)
HM Historia Mongalorum, 13th c. (Carpini 1989).
JTRM Rashīdu’d-dīn Faḍlul’lāh. Jāmi‘u ’t-tawārīkh. early 14th c. (ed., Muḥammad Rawshan & Muṣṭafá Mūsavī, 4 vols. Tehran: Nashr-i Alburz, 1373 SH [1994]).
JTTh Rashīdu’d-dīn Faḍlul’lāh. Jāmi‘u ’t-tawārīkh. early 14th c. (trans. Thackston 2012).
Kow. Kowalewski (1964, originally published 1844-1849)
KYS Kyerim Yusa (Sasse 1976)
Mat. Mathews, R. H. Mathews’ Chinese-English Dictionary. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1975.
NT Chin Ch’i-tsung. Nü-chen-wen tzu-tien . 1984.
PED Davids & Stede. The Pali Text Society’s Pali -English Dictionary. London: The Pali Text Society, 1921-1925.
Pok. Pokorny, Julius. Indogermanisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch . Bern: Francke Verlag, 1959.
Pul. Edwin G. Pulleyblank. Lexicon of Reconstructed Pronunciation in Early Middle Chinese, Late Middle Chinese, and Early Mandarin. Vancouver: UBC Press, 1991.
Roz. Rozycki, William. Mongol Elements in Manchu . 1994.
Sch. Schuessler, Axel. A Dictionary of Early Zhou Chinese. 3 vols. Honolulu. 1987.
