Archiprint \\ The Architecture of Design
June 2016 \\ Volume 05 \ Issue 01
AnArchi is proud to present to you the ninth issue of its architecture journal Archiprint;
The Architecture of Design As Study Association of the master Architecture at the Eindhoven University of Technology we strive to explore the current architectural polemic and contribute to it by means of the written word.
The Architecture of Design
Supporters of Archiprint:
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Archiprint - The Architecture of Design June 2016 \\ Volume 05 \ Issue 01 Eindhoven Free publication ISSN 2213-5588 Revised edition \\ October 2016 Journal for Architecture, created by students and graduates of the Department of the Built Environment, Eindhoven University of Technology and architecture study association AnArchi. anarchi@bwk.tue.nl www.anarchi.cc/archiprint facebook.com/pages/AnArchi issuu.com/anarchi Editor-in-chief Justin de Witte
Final editor Margit van Schaik
Editors Jesper Baltussen, Jasper Brus, Luuk van den Elzen, Eva Gutscoven, Gülce Onganer, Wendy Verhoef Guest Editors Daan Jenniskens, Krist Vaesen Advisory committee Bernard Colenbrander, Jacob Voorthuis, Juliette Bekkering, Hüsnü Yegenoglu Layout and cover design Jesper Baltussen and Gregor Roovers Language correction D’Laine Camp Printing Meesterdrukkers, Eindhoven www.meesterdrukkers.nl
Publisher AnArchi Eindhoven University of Technology Faculty of Architecture, Building and Planning Vertigo Building, Groene loper 6 5612 AZ Eindhoven, The Netherlands Previous issues Archiprint1 Archiprint2 - The Research Issue Archiprint3 - It’s All About Competition Archiprint4 - Show Us What You’ve Got! Archiprint5 - Movement in Architecture Archiprint6 - Creating & Experiencing Identity Archiprint7 - Influence & Inspiration Archiprint8 - The Ideal Profession This magazine or any of its content cannot be republished or reproduced without the express written permission of the publisher.
Editorial ‘When designers – especially skilled, successful
tools that can help during the process, such as
represented the phases one has to go through.
designers – talk spontaneously about what
technical knowledge, drawing techniques or
Soon a collection of thoughts on the structure
they do, they talk almost exclusively about the
exemplary cases of urban and architectural
of the design process, propagated by several
outcomes, not the activities. They talk about
design. Other than that, project work is clearly
tutors, was composed. Another attempt at
the products of their designing, rather than the
aimed at learning how to design. But here too,
didactically describing design activity can be
process.’1
designing is considered to be a skill that can
found in Design and Analysis by Bernard Leupen
be acquired by trial and error, not a form of
and his co-authors.4 In this book, the writers
observes
knowledge that needs to be taught by the theories
provide insights into what they think the process
something peculiar about the design discipline,
of others, and during tutoring sessions the focus
encompasses, and connect this to the work of
that can be experienced in both the professional
is often on what students have designed, not on
analysing architecture.
field of architecture and architectural education.
how they designed it.
In
this
statement,
Nigel
Cross
Discussions seem to focus on the design itself, but
On a more scientific level, there appears to be a
the question of how architects came up with their
Is this justified? I think partly it is. After all, our
research field called Design Thinking, of which
ideas often remains unanswered. Even in cases
goal in designing is not to have a good design
Cross is one of the prominent researchers. In this
where architects present their design process,
process, but to arrive at a good design. Besides,
field, the focus is on design-specific cognitive
such as in the lecture series Making Architecture,2
designing seems to be something so complex
activities, which means research is done into
they often present a sequence of diagrams that
that it might be easier to evaluate its results,
ways of thinking during designing. In general it
show how an idea is translated into a building,
rather than to try to explore each and every
seems the topic receives more attention in the
not how the idea itself came into being. The way
aspect of the process. And perhaps this process is
industrial design discipline than in architecture,
of thinking is evaluated through its results, and
so personal that communicating about it is found
but as Michael Arbib shows in his essay ‘Toward
most often the diagrams show a less complex
to be rather difficult. However, it could be useful
a Neuroscience of the Design Process’, the latest
process than what the initial design activity
to at least try to get an idea of what designing
findings in neuroscience can provide insights
must have been like. In some cases, ‘designers
encompasses and fortunately, there are different
into the work of a designing architect as well.4
can even seem to be wilfully obscure about how
ways to do so. As Cross shows, the process of
they work, and where their ideas come from’. As
Philippe Starck designing the lemon squeezer
As already becomes clear from the range of
an example, Cross explains how the renowned
can to some extent be reconstructed from the
literature that can be found on the topic, there
designer Philippe Starck claims that his ideas are
sketches he made, and observing architects at
are different levels at which one can speak of
spontaneous. His design for a lemon squeezer,
work or interviewing them can be useful sources
a design process. While neuroscientists are
like so many of his designs, just appeared to him,
as well. In fact, as Archiprint decided to devote its
interested in the most elementary forms of
in a seemingly magical way.
ninth issue to the topic, it became clear that much
processes that can be found in the brain, our
more research is done than we initially expected.
‘normal’
3
understanding
of
design
activity
concerns more strategic steps such as the analysis
The avoidance of discussing design activity can be traced in architectural education as well. Even
As we discussed the issue within the editorial
of the problem or the collection of different ideas.
though designing is one of the core activities
board, different members could recall moments
The selection of articles in this issue therefore
of future architects, courses rarely provide
in which tutors actually did give an idea on the
encompasses variating perspectives on the topic.
strategies for designing. More often they offer
process of designing, by drawing diagrams that
With articles ranging from research into brain
activity to abstract models of design processes,
In ‘Imitation and Innovation’, Jacob Voorthuis
To close off the range of articles, Nigel Cross
and from interviews with practitioners to the
expands this theme and shows how a continuity
presents the most important research that
written word of scientists, we hope to give a
between the concepts of imitation and innovation
has been done in the field of design thinking
somewhat complete picture of what is known
is essential to being able to design. By doing
throughout the twentieth century and over the
about design activity today.
this, he puts in perspective the disapproval
last decades. He shows what influence brain
of imitation and the great value that is being
damage can have on the design process, and
attached to innovation nowadays.
what this tells us about how we design. As in the
To start off, Bernard Leupen contrasts two visions on how design ideas are conceived.
previous articles, Cross proves that design ability
He claims that, on the one hand, designs are
The centre of this issue is formed by an
is something inextricably human, embedded in
based on the examination of other works of
intermezzo,
our brains as a natural cognitive function.
architecture. On the other, we need a certain
ten diagrams drawn by tutors of different
intuitive aspect to complement it. Leupen then
architecture schools in the Netherlands. Putting
Interestingly enough, there is a great variety
shows how these two ways of thinking are both
these perspectives together makes it possible
of connections that can be drawn between the
used by prominent architecture offices.
to compare them, and although some universal
articles, although the subject is reviewed by
elements can be found, it seems the idea of a
different writers from different disciplines. It
good design process takes many different forms.
shows there is a certain consensus on which
‘A Machine for Designing’ encompasses a report
which
shows
a
collection
of
of a discussion held by The Philosophical Table
themes play an important role in design activity.
Club. To understand what the club’s members
To get an idea of how these schematic design
The fundamental role of studying the existing
believe to be the fundamental nature of human-
processes
design
environment, the difficulty of representing a
design activity, they virtually created a design-
discipline, Archiprint interviewed design critic
complex and creative process and the observation
robot, by thinking about what properties this
Lucas Verweij. In this article he claims prescribed
that designing is an essential human feature are
robot should have. The report forms a useful
design processes as they are often presented do
good examples of this. So although the process of
exploration of the overall subject, and shows
not lead to good designs, as they ignore the
designing is still far from being unravelled, the
how close the ability to design is to being human.
much more complex and chaotic way in which
discoveries in this issue will bring you at least
designing actually takes place.
one step closer.
work
in
the
industrial
This intertwining of design ability and human nature is further explored by Daan Jenniskens
Another perspective from the practitioners’ side
and Jasper Brus, who try to find out what an
is presented in a conversation with MVRDV
evolutionary understanding of heritable traits
architect Klaas Hofman, where it becomes clear
can teach us about the origin and development of
how the office uses representations of the design
our mental ability to design buildings. In doing
process to structure its own ideas, communicate
so, they question our common understanding
them to the clients and sell them to the public.
of designing and show the important role of
The emphasis on collaboration of rationality
imitation.
in the form of Big Data and intuitive decisionmaking based on these data, lightly connects the interview with the ideas of Leupen and Verweij.
1 Cross, N. (2011). Design Thinking: understanding how designers think and work. London: Berg. p. 6 2 The lecture series Making Architecture took place in the spring of 2016 at Eindhoven University of Technology and consisted of presentations by, among others, Felix Claus, David Gianotten, Harm Timmermans and Liesbeth van der Pol. 3 Cross, N. (2011). Design Thinking: understanding how designers think and work. London: Berg. p. 6 4 Bernard Leupen et al., Design and Analysis (Rotterdam: nai010 publishers, 1997). 5 Arbib, M. (2015). Toward a neuroscience of the design process. In S. Robinson, & J. Pallasmaa (eds), Mind in Architecture (pp. 75-98). London: The MIT Press.
Contents
8
Designing Between Ratio and Intuition Bernard Leupen Jesper Baltussen (ed.)
13
A Machine for Designing
17
Design like an animal
24
Imitation & Innovation
29
Modelling Design Processes
32
Prescribed Design Processes: The End of Creativity?
36
Sense in Simplicity
41
Understanding Design Thinking
A discussion by the Philosophical Table Club Margit van Schaik (ed.)
Jasper Brus and Daan Jenniskens
Jacob Voorthuis Margit van Schaik (ed.)
A collection of typical design processes by project tutors Wendy Verhoef (ed.)
An interview with Lucas Verweij, design critic Jasper Brus and Eva Gutscoven (eds.)
A conversation with MVRDV-architect Klaas Hofman Jesper Baltussen, Luuk van den Elzen and Justin de Witte (eds.)
Nigel Cross Margit van Schaik (ed.)
1
Designing Between Ratio and Intuition Bernard Leupen Bernard Leupen, the author of both Design and Analysis and Housing Design – A Manual, has been practicing in the field of architectural design for over 45 years. His books, which have been translated into several languages, function as an important source for design theory in architectural education. Leupen’s work discusses, among other things, the method of plan analysis, the idea of type and notions about the design process. Leupen graduated from Delft University of Technology and also finished his PhD there. Besides writing, Leupen worked with Rem Koolhaas and was a guest professor at both Delft University of Technology and the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts.
Edited and translated by: Jesper Baltussen
The design process is taught throughout
beliefs was embedded in psychoanalysis.
In our book Design and Analysis (Ontwerp en
architectural education and constitutes the
The subconscious was needed to blend all
Analyse) we have tried to ‘capture’ this design
core of architectural practice. While I was
aspects of complex design commissions
process in a scheme.3 This scheme connects
studying at Delft University of Technology,
together in a harmonious way. There is an
the several influences we distinguished, and
two contradictory positions were embodied,
anecdote that Polak developed his design
relates these to the core elements of the process:
by Carel Weeber and Michiel Polak. Carel
for a community centre in Leiden while
the act of interpreting and the act of ordering.
Weeber, on the one hand, endorsed the
dreaming.
2
idea of setting up a mental library of decent
When looking closely at the scheme (image
buildings that functioned as a foundation
no. 1), we first of all notice the interpretation:
and source for the subsequent design
an architect usually starts his commission by
process. Consequently, design was an activity that could be mastered by anyone. Michiel Polak, on the other hand, stated that a design was a product of the subconscious and dreams, consequently, were a cradle for design.
the design process will most probably be something between dream and deed for most designers
Weeber based his beliefs on the works of
developing a vision that is an interpretation of the design brief and the demands that the location poses. It comes about by specific choices of the architect, which are in turn influenced by the society that surrounds the architect. If such a vision is established, and thereby a
French architect Jean-Nicholas Durand.
But, having considered these two ends of the
position is taken, the actual designing begins.
Durand taught at the École Polytechnique
scale, the design process will most probably
The subsequent process includes documents,
in Paris and proposed typological building
be something between dream and deed
drawings and models that reflect the process
solutions in his book Précis des leçons
for most designers, more of a mediation
and form the basis for the following building
d’architecture données à l’école Polytechnique.
between ratio and intuition.
process.
1
The book had a great impact since a great need for public buildings followed the French revolution, and with it, a considerable need for a method that enabled architects to deal with this need. Durand’s writings therefore provided France with a multitude of architects, able to handle the comprehensive commission. The result is an abundance of governmental buildings throughout France, in a characteristic building-kit architecture. For Polak, however, the basis of his design
[1]
9
10
So far, this is a rather abstract story, but
is noticeable, whereby this repetition of
started with is rather peculiar, considering
to understand what interpretation and the
spaces makes up the church. The cluster
the great importance of the circle in his
ordering of material and space really mean,
of four octagons is flanked by two blocks
oeuvre. This rather intuitive and unusual
we will take a look at some examples of
that contain the serving spaces. Having
sidestep, which might have been taken to
design processes in the form of physical
drawn an ensemble of six octagons, his
explore new space configurations, is exactly
fragments, such as drawings and models.
interest in the octagon gradually changes
what typifies the design process: a process
into an interest for circular spaces, possibly
of
wandering
thoughts
that
develop
The image (no. 2) shows a composition of
erratically. It is only at the end that all falls
design sketches of the Wheels of Heaven, a
into place and the chosen path starts to
church-design by Aldo van Eyck in Doorn
make sense.
(never realized). Between the left top corner and the bottom right corner a part of the design process can be recognized. It progresses step by step in all its peculiarity. Based on the design brief and the position
It is only at the end that all falls into place and the chosen path starts to make sense.
of the architect, an idea of space, shape
In the end, Van Eyck shifts two of the circular spaces diametrically and this is the very moment that a clear structure is revealed in the plan: a system of double beams in two directions, supported by two
and configuration is established. Initially,
columns.
Van Eyck searched for a possible shape of
because he considers these to be more
spaces and a subsequent order. At the top
sacred and religious. But, taking Van Eyck’s
The developments of the Wheels of
left an interest in a repetition of the octagon
earlier work into account, the octagon he
Heaven is characteristic for the architect that designs and functions as an author. It all starts with thoughts that develop and manifest of
themselves
primary
spaces,
through
sketches
which
gradually
result in a certain order that determines mutual relations between spaces. Thus the wandering architect finds anchors and determines shape and structure. Finally, he refines, details and materializes his creation while testing its utility, appearance and structure (notice the resemblance to Vitruvius’s utility, beauty and durability: utilitas, venustas and firmitas).4 [2]
Although Van Eyck’s process is typified as a
with books, which was hollowed out, thus
and implicates a direction in which the
sequence of steps, with a single author that
creating very unique spaces. This selection
solution is to be found. The concept functions
wrestles himself through the challenges and
process is again something that encompasses
as an anchor point that rules out some paths
ends up with the right form, this is not true of
both the rational and the intuitive.
and favours others. In doing so, it strongly
all architects. Others work in a more parallel
organizes design decisions.5 Before even the
rather than a linear way, whereby different
first line has been drawn, extensive debates
ideas are developed simultaneously. This technique is used in offices like the Swiss Herzog and de Meuron and in that of the American Helmut Jahn. At the offices of OMA (Rem Koolhaas), it is the usual procedure. I remember seeing all kinds of blue foam
This selection process is again something that encompasses both the rational and the intuitive.
take place between designers and specialists in Nouvel’s office. The drawing doesn’t start until a description of the project – the concept – is clearly defined. This approach requires a thorough knowledge of possibilities, existing solutions and building types combined with
cubes there, occupying many tables at the
a considerable imagination.6 From the very
office. These were variants for the entry to
moment the concept has become clear, the
the Bibliothèque de France competition in
drawing starts: skething is of no use from
1989. After settling the cube as basic form,
Another procedure can be identified at the
this point on, since all important decisions
employees were asked to develop variants
architecture office of Frenchman Jean Nouvel.
have been made. An example of such a
for the embedment of the programme in
Here, the most important design decisions are
concept is Nouvel’s idea for the Tokyo Opera
this cube. Koolhaas eventually decided that
assembled into a vision resulting in a concept.
competition of 1988, a concept he developed
the design would consist of a cube filled
This concept is the basis for further decisions
with Philippe Starck. As a result of several
[3]
11
12
conversations in the office and with Starck,
development or innovation with such types
The theory one acquires will be stored
Nouvel chose the metaphor of the instrument
has played an important part in developing
somewhere; the more theory, the better.
case. The building was to be black and smooth
design skills. Students of architecture have
The mental library, that is constantly
on the outside, with a slight curvature near
been trained to draw the built environment
complemented, can function as a fruitful
the great hall. The inside would subsequently
for centuries. This tradition, which stems
source for design. Sometimes the architect
consist of three golden theatres (two with
from the Beaux-Arts academies, was still
consciously uses the organization of the
hall, stage tower and backstage, and one with
practiced in Delft during the 1950s and has
types he learnt and sometimes he will use
a flat floor), symbolizing the instruments
endured even longer at more traditional
them without consciously being aware of his
inside the case.
schools of architecture. During the 1970s,
usage. In the end, we might indeed dream
however, a different method began to prevail,
our buildings and these might, for that
Besides these architectural projects, there
a method based on analysing drawings and
matter, enrich the obtained rational theory
are
models called plan analysis.
with just the right gentle intuitive push.
A typology is considered here as ‘the
Without going into the differences between
1 Durand, Précis des leçons d’architecture données à l’école Polytechnique (Ecole Polytechnique, 1805).
reproducible system of design choices’.
these two, the awareness that is obtained in
Variations can be made according to situation
this way is much more than simply learning
and programme with respect to such types. A
buildings by heart. As for music: there is
type can be stored in a ‘mental library’ and
a difference between memorizing and being
can be retrieved when confronted with similar
able to play a sonata by Bach, being able to
design problems. The type is thus a carrier of
understand the sonata from its polyphony
design experience, a standardized solution.
and harmonics.
7
many
commissions
that
are
more
about building on experience or typology.
8
The study and the subsequent imitation,
2 Leen van Duin, Blok Architectuur, Inleiding (Delft: Faculteit Bouwkunde TH Delft, 1982), 41. 3 Bernard Leupen et al., Design and Analysis (Rotterdam: nai010 publishers, 1997). 4 Vitruvius (± 85-20 BC), De architectura libri decem. Dutch translation: Atheneum-Polak & Van Gennnep (1997), Handboek bouwkunde, 38. 5 See: Leupen, op. cit. (note 3), 12-13. 6 Bernard Leupen, ‘Een Nouvel concept’, de Architect 12/1989, 85. 7 Hubert Tonka, Opera de Tokyo (Seyssel: Champ Vallon, 1986). 8 For an elaborated explanation of type and typology, see: Leupen, op. cit. (note 3), 131-150; Leupen en Mooij, Housing design (Rotterdam: NAI Publishers, 2011), 35-58
[1] The design process, from: Bernard Leupen et al., Design and Analysis (Rotterdam: nai010 publishers, 1997), 17 [2] Aldo van Eyck, Design sketches of the Wheels of Heaven, from: Domus, May 1965, 2-3 [3] Aldo van Eyck, model of Wheels of Heaven, from: Domus, May 1965, 5 [4] Jean Nouvel, competition entry Tokyo Opera, from: Office Nouvel
[4]
2
A Machine for designing A discussion held by the Philosopical Table Club This article forms an exploration of the subject, in the form of a discussion held by the Philosophical Table Club, who met at Café de Spijker on 1 April 2016. The approach for the evening was as follows: as Nigel Cross states in his book Design Thinking, architects often talk about the end results of their designing, and not so much the processes. It seems the question ‘How do you design?’ is a very difficult one, and we tried to get one step closer to the answer by doing a thought experiment. In this thought experiment, we tried to create a robot that has the capacity to design. If we could find out what features we would need to give this robot, we might also find out what it means for a human being to design.
People present: Justin Agyin, Kiana Aryankia, Sahand Asgarpour, Jesper Baltussen, Hugo Beelen, Rik de Bondt (moderator), Mandy Booijink, Jasper Brus, Damion Dietz, Eva Gutscoven, Renée van Kemenade, Vincent Mulder, Margit van Schaik, Andreas Spahn and Jacob Voorthuis.
Edited by: Margit van Schaik
14
Our moderator opened the discussion
A node will be activated if these weighted
As our discussion continued, it became clear
by posing the statement made by Nigel
values satisfy the thresholds. This might be
that the robot needed something else to
Cross: ‘When designers – especially skilled,
an oversimplified version of reality, but it
keep it from making endless and inefficient
successful designers – talk spontaneously
was enough information to use in the rest of
calculations. The decisions designers have to
about what they do, they talk almost
the conversation.
make seem to be more complex than those of
exclusively about the outcomes, not the activities.’ Some of us noted that we, as 1
designers, sometimes make decisions in quite an intuitive way, which makes it harder to talk about it. We often rationalize our choices later, when we see the result. However, we realized we did not really understand what we meant by ‘intuition’, let alone ‘intuitive decision-making’. But we could agree on this: as a designer you make decisions that are often based on personal aspects (such as experience), and as a consequence one designer can make
chess players, as more options are available and not every variable is clear. As Cross
As a designer you make decisions that are often based on personal aspects (such as experience), and as a consequence one designer can make very different decisions than another.
explains in Design Thinking, designers not only have to find a solution to a problem, they often also have to find the problem itself.2 To create some order in this complexity, we need to give the robot a strategy or taste, or an end in view, according to which the designing can continue. But what does it mean for a robot to have a certain taste? How can we let it make decisions about what is preferable and what is
very different decisions than another. So
not? It seems the robot will need the capacity
the focus of our conversation shifted from
At this point Spahn told about a game
to register features of its environment. In
intuitive decision-making (whatever that
of chess that was played between world
other words, our robot needs experience
may be) to the role of these personal aspects,
chess
and
in its other definition: it needs emotions.
and very soon our design robot began to
chess computer Deep Blue. The latter
It somehow needs to feel something about
play its role.
won the game, because it based its moves
what it registers around it. But how could
champion
Garry
Kasparov
on a database of previous games, which
we design emotions? That seemed like a
As a start, Asgarpour explained how the
you might call experience. In that sense it
challenging question. Fortunately, some of
creation of a robot usually works. One
worked differently from most computers,
us had some ideas on this as well. When you
generally starts by calling the processes
which make endless calculations on what
have an emotion, you react in a certain way.
it needs a black box, and clarifying what
move will provide the best odds of winning
When, for example, you see someone you
inputs the robot needs to deal with and what
the game. It seems experience plays an
like, you become happy. It seems possible to
outputs it needs to produce. The inputs and
important role in designing as well, as some
program this into a robot, as you can tell it
outputs are then connected by a network of
choices can be made quickly because of
that seeing this person translates into being
nodes, in which relations are determined
remembered previous situations and their
happy. However, emotions can be much
by certain values, weights and thresholds.
consequences.
more complex than this. One might even
feel emotions when hearing a song that
be continued, as they serve other goals. It
with these two robots? And would one be a
was played during an emotional event in
seems the robot needs to be self-learning to
more successful designer than the other?
the past, and the processes needed for this
do so.
cannot be overseen.
Experience plays an important role in designing as well, as some choices can be made quickly because of remembered previous situations and their consequences.
Our first guess was that the first robot would Now that the focus shifted back from
be much better off than the second. You need
talking about babies to talking about robots,
real emotion to imagine what it is like to be
some attention was paid to a fundamental
in a building. However, one might wonder,
difference between the two. Whereas the
if the second robot is always pretending,
baby cares about what happens in its
how does it know how to pretend? And how
environment, the robot does not. No matter what its actions are, no matter how many days you cease to plug it in, it just doesn’t care. And this is rather problematic. Because if it does not care about this, how could it care about what it designs? How can it understand that one experience is better than another, that one design decision is better than another? Without being able to care, our robot would never be able to
To make our task a bit easier, Voorthuis
design.
proposed to shift the focus of our thought
There are scientists who say that at some point in evolution, inner life came to exist. Nothing magical was added, it was a continuity in the process of evolution.
experiment from a design-robot to a design-
So what does caring really mean? Just like
baby. If we could have a baby that would
emotion, it means that you react in a certain
become the best architect possible, what
way to certain situations. But is reacting
could we ever tell the difference between
special talents should it have? One of the
in a certain way enough? Here we found
the two? What kind of magical black box
first things a baby learns, is a simple causal
ourselves in a very profound discussion.
separates the first robot from the second?
relation between crying and getting milk.
Spahn asked us to imagine two robots: the
The answer became clearer as we thought
The nice experience of getting milk is then
first has comparable emotions to us human
about it: there probably isn’t a difference.
connected to the act of crying. In that sense
beings. It has a mental life, it truly feels
From an evolutionary point of view, there
our baby, and therefore our robot, needs
emotions just like we do. The second robot
are scientists who say that at some point in
to be able to make a posteriori causal
looks exactly the same from the outside,
evolution, inner life came to exist. Nothing
connections between actions and results.
but does not have this inner feeling. It looks
magical was added, it was a continuity in the
But more than that, even without a reward
happy when it should be happy, but it is
process of evolution.
such as getting milk, some actions should
always pretending. What would happen
15
16
It seemed right to take a moment and
In his book What Computers Can’t Do,
humans. Now what kind of paradise might
summarize the necessary properties we
Dreyfus explains what is keeping artificial
this computer be able to design for us? The
found for our robot so far. A design robot
intelligence from becoming like human
answer is as simple as it is paradoxical: it
needs to be: 1) able to acquire experience;
intelligence.
Humans developed their
would not change that much. Because as
2) able to give value to that experience, by
consciousness and states because of their
designing is such an integral function of a
attaching emotion; 3) able to make good design decisions, on the basis of those weights; 4) self-learning, so that it can create new emotions and improve itself; 5) empathic, so that it can also feel emotions towards situations of others. Now that we know this, what does it tell us about designing? There is one clear conclusion to be drawn from this: that being a designer is
human being, the imperfect world as we
There is one clear conclusion to be drawn from this: that being a designer is very close to being human.
very close to being human. Then, our conversation took a sidetrack on
so-called situatedness, the complete set of
the difference between consciousness and
characteristics that describe how they exist
subconsciousness, as some noted that ideas
in the world. For robots to achieve something
can come up spontaneously, after a night’s
like human intelligence, one would have to
sleep. It seems the edge between the two is
build in properties like mortality, a front
not a very sharp one. Again we approached
and back side, etcetera. Our conclusion that
the problem from an evolutionary point of
being able to design is to be human, and that
view. Spahn believed that once a system
to be human means being able to design,
becomes complex enough, consciousness
was only strengthened by this argument.
emerges. The ability to plan ahead, closely bound to having consciousness, is what
In the end we talked about the creation of
pushed evolution. For a moment it seemed
a supercomputer for designing. Because if
we were back to the necessity of a self-
we were able to create a robot that could
learning capacity, but then Brus noted
design as well as humans can, than we could
that the self-learning capacity of a robot is
maybe also create one that is even better.
fundamentally different from the process of
This computer would be superior to us in
evolution.
every way, including ethically, which is why it would even bother to design for us
know it is in fact quite perfect. We felt that this was the right moment to end our discussion. Satisfied with our surprisingly concrete answers, we paid for our drinks and left.
1 Nigel Cross, Design Thinking: Understanding How Designers Think and Work (London: Berg, 2011). 2 Ibid. 3 Hubert Dreyfus, What Computers Can’t Do (New York: MIT Press, 1979).
3
Design Like an Animal Learning from Evolution
Jasper Brus and Daan Jenniskens Jasper Brus (1993) and Daan Jenniskens (1992) are Master students of ‘Architecture, Building and Planning’ at Eindhoven University of Technology. They are interested in studying architecture within a broader framework of knowledge, and wrote this essay in a modest and far from comprehensive effort to better understand the human design ability from an evolutionary point of view. Krist Vaesen (1976) – an assistant professor of philosophy at Eindhoven University of Technology and research fellow at the Faculty of Archaeology, University of Leiden – played an important advisory role in this interdisciplinary exploration. He conducts a research programme on the Darwinization of cultural sciences. Furthermore, the present paper was motivated by two articles (co-)authored by Vaesen.
18
What can the evolutionary idea of heritable
Later, this notion was elaborated upon
that the discovery of these types of brain cells
traits teach us about the origin and
by French priest and architecture theorist
will help in understanding empathy, emotion
development of our mental ability to design
Marc-Antoine Laugier in his 1755 Essai
and feeling in relation to the phenomena
buildings? When and how did architectural
sur l’Architecture. In this essay, Laugier
that constitute our habitat. Mirror neurons,
design start? Is the ability to design solely
published the famous image of the primitive
as the name suggests, are neurons that fire
a human trait? And how did this ability
hut, which represented the supposed origin
both when an animal acts and when the
develop? We will try to answer these
and essence of architecture. Again, the origin
animal observes the same action performed
questions with the help of contemporary
of architectural design is described as the
by another, playing an important role in
insights from the fields of primatology,
1
inventive imitation of nature by humans.
imitative processes. Pallasmaa suggests that
evolutionary anthropology,2 neuroscience3
As a direct continuation of this, Laugier
these brain cells are also essential in the
and cognitive science, which we will link
connects the imitation of nature to the
experience of our environment. If we would
to prominent architectural theories on the
process of typification in architecture:
follow Pallasmaa’s interpretation of mirror
4
neurons, then their discovery might confirm
origin and essence of architecture. He wants to make himself a dwelling that protects Mud and Twigs
but does not bury him. Some fallen branches in
If we try to imagine what the earliest
the forest are the right material for his purpose; he
buildings made by humans might have
chooses four of the strongest, raises them upright
looked
cave-like
and arranges them in a square; . . . Thus, man is
structures made out of trees and rocks might
housed. . . . Such is the course of simple nature;
come to mind. Hence, it is not surprising
by imitating the natural process, art was born.
that the foundations of many architectural
All the splendours of architecture ever conceived
theories contain the notion that architecture
have been modelled on the little rustic hut I have
originated when humans started imitating
just described.6
like,
simple
tent
or
Vitruvius and Laugier’s theories, which
nature in order to build shelters. This is what Vitruvius wrote in his De architectura
Vitruvius
(around 15 BC):
the importance of imitation of nature in
and
Laugier
both
stressed
architecture, and recent findings from the They began . . . to construct shelters. Some
field of neuroscience might strengthen this
made them of green boughs, others dug caves on
idea. Architect and theorist Juhani Pallasmaa
mountain sides, and some, in imitation of the
believes that findings in neuroscience will aid
nests of swallows and the way they built, made
us in understanding ‘the deeply biological
places of refuge out of mud and twigs.5
and
ecological
roots
of
architecture’.7
Pallasmaa discusses the copying of feelings and behaviour by mirror neurons, believing
[8]
19
explain architectural design as an imitation of our natural habitat. Our primary aim here is not to assess the correctness of age-old architectural theories in the light of modern science. Instead, we seek to expand our knowledge by investigating the origin and development of architectural design within a longer timeframe than these architectural theories can offer us. In order to do so, we will construct a relatively neutral and everyday notion of architecture. Architects occupy themselves with the planning, design and construction of buildings. Architectural design, then, must be about the design of
When the chimpanzee starts stacking these crates in order to reach the banana, she displays the mental ability to design, plan and construct an object.
[10] is constructed in reality. Nigel Cross chiefly
Animal Architecture
understands design as a mental ability, and
Are there other animals with the mental
we will try to consider architectural design
ability to plan and construct objects similar
in the context of the mind as well.
to buildings? A convincing example is given
9
by Dutch primatologist Frans de Waal. In Darwin’s evolutionary theory has cleared
his book Are We Smart Enough to Know How
the way for understanding humans as a
Smart Animals Are?, De Waal describes an
species that has evolved from other species.
experiment in which a chimpanzee is put
Consequently, in this new conception of
in a cage with a banana that is hung from
continuity, specific human traits can be
a string and a number of crates.11 When the
viewed as genetically inherited. Thus,
chimpanzee starts stacking these crates in
recent insights from contemporary science,
order to reach the banana, she displays the
buildings, and the deliberate planning of
in particular the fields of primatology,
mental ability to design, plan and construct
their characteristics as objects. We believe
evolutionary anthropology, neuroscience
an object. The structure is stable enough to
that the word planning is of paramount
and cognitive science, may help us trace
serve her needs, and the ability of planning
importance, because it implies that you
the origin and development of our mental
is present in the fact that she is only awarded
construct the object in your head before it
ability to design.
after the tower is realized.
20
One might dismiss this example by calling it a simple utilitarian object, without the richness and refinement that we appreciate in human architecture. The structure of this tower is quite plain, and its construction does not demand a large amount of time and dedication. Let us then look at a strange bird that should weaken our condescending attitude. The Vogelkop bowerbird builds structures known as bowers or arbours, of which the main function is to attract female mating partners. The female birds inspect the nest, after which they decide whether they are willing to mate or not. The bowers
[12]
are usually about 100 cm high and 160 cm in width, and their structure is quite advanced,
our mental ability to design – or at least a
design efforts of other species? De Waal
with one or two supporting columns in the
substantial part of this ability – lies with our
shows, through a multitude of examples,
middle, supporting a lot of intertwined twigs.
predecessors. When we apply this insight
that the human brain is not superior to
The lawn in front of this arbour is decorated
to Vitruvius’s and Laugier’s theories, we
brains of other animals in many ways. For
with a multitude of small objects, sorted by
find that it is exactly this mental continuity
instance: the parts of the brain that support
colour. When looking at different bowers,
that is missing: Vitruvius and Laugier do
empathy, an ability that we believe to be
we can see that the choice of these objects is
emphasize the continuity between human
vital in architecture, are so old that we
not fixed, but that it is their composition that
architectural design and nature, but to
share them with animals such as dogs,
typifies them. The bowers have a complex
them this continuity only has the form of
elephants and apes. However, there is one
structure that requires rigid and long-term
inventive imitation of nature by humans.
thing that De Waal believes to be unique to
planning. The absence of some structural
In fact, however, this relationship is much
our species: language. ‘Outside our species,
parts could result in a collapse. Moreover,
more comprehensive and complex than they
we have found no proof of manners of
the bowers only serve their function after a
paint it to be.
communication with symbols, that are so rich and functional as ours. It appears that
long construction period. Language and Imitation
language is our magical source.’13
The ape’s tower and the bird’s bower
If the ability to design itself is not unique
provide us with examples that meet our
to humans, then what has caused human
Language supplies us with a clear and
description of design ability. Therefore,
design to – quite obviously – be so much
appealing
we must acknowledge that the origin of
more complex and widespread than the
complexity and extensiveness of human
explanation
of
the
higher
design compared to that of other animals.
In Vitruvius’s description of the origin
powerful couple, as language assists refined
An emphasis on language is also notably
of
of
imitation. Furthermore, both the recently
less anthropocentric14 than the widespread
fundamental importance. So let us reflect on
discovered existence of mirror neurons
belief that the human brain is fundamentally
the role of language in architecture. De Waal
and
different from animal brains. De Waal
explains that the human use of language
learning processes suggest that imitation
describes this belief as a phenomenon of
supports the storage and communication
is of fundamental importance. When we
neo-creationist thinking. People who think
of functional, detailed knowledge. With
thus combine the aforementioned ideas
in a neo-creationist manner tend to accept
this in mind, we can commit to the idea
about culture, imitation and typification
evolution when thinking about our bodies,
that language plays a major role in cultural
with De Waal’s stress on the uniqueness
but will simultaneously regard our brains
evolution18 within architecture, for example
of language, it becomes probable that
as a unique creation, unrelated to any sort
with the accumulation of ever more
the development of humankind’s more
of evolution.15
intricate and effective ways of constructing
complex design ability compared to other
buildings. In genetic evolution, genes
animals is, in fact, due to the interplay of
are
language and imitation.
‘It appears that language is our magical source’
architecture,
language
seems
17
responsible
for
the
storage
and
the
bowerbird’s
imitation-based
accumulation of information, whereas in cultural evolution, the transmission of behaviour, or information, is believed to be supported by social learning, language, or other cultural replicators.19
Did our ability to design develop with the aid
when we consider language and imitation together, they make a powerful couple
of our ‘magical source’, language? Vitruvius
It is this process of cultural development
did not fail to recognize the importance of
supported by language that many theorists
language when he described how men began
– including Vitruvius – regard as essential
to talk during their early gatherings by the
for architectural design. Rafael Moneo, for
fire, even before they started constructing
instance, stresses that the importance of
Culture and Evolution
their primitive shelters:
language lies in the fact that it is used for
However sympathetically biocentric21 De
naming classes of artefacts with similar
Waal’s language-centred stance may be,
In that gathering of men, at a time when utterance
characteristics, leading to architectural
its plausibility has been put into question
of sound was purely individual, from daily habits
typology.
by Vaesen. In an article about the cognitive
they fixed upon articulate words just as these
development
had happened to come; then, from indicating by
named
name things in common use, the result was that
facilitates
in this chance way they began to talk, and thus
evolution. And when we consider language
tool use.22 These abilities range from hand-
originated conversation with one another.
and imitation together, they make a
eye coordination to causal reasoning and
16
20
Language thus supports the of
types;
the
architecture use
cumulative
of
through
bases of human tool use, Vaesen shows
typologies
quite a few higher cognitive abilities in
architectural
humans compared to apes with regard to
21
22
social intelligence. We believe that the same
If Vaesen et al. are correct, then perhaps
be the oldest architecture by humans. Terra
cognitive abilities also play an important role
a consequence of this could be found in a
Amata is contemporary to the Acheulean
in design thinking. Thus, the development of
widespread tool called the Acheulian Handaxe.
Handaxe. If the design of the Acheulean
humans’ greater design ability compared to
Used by early hominins in a time period
Handaxe was controlled by evolution,
other animals may not be due to language
between 1.76 million and 200 thousand years
then maybe some aspects of the earliest
alone, but to a range of cognitive functions
ago, it is often considered to be an object
human architecture were too. The fact that
that are enhanced in comparison to other
of culture. However, there are convincing
the structure is similar to that made by the
species; language is only one of multiple
arguments that support the hypothesis that its
bowerbird supports this idea; the borders
distinctive traits.
form was at least in part under genetic control.
between nature and culture are blurring.
Vaesen et al. argue that the assumption that it Considering this evidence from cognitive
is an object of culture, merely because it was
With all this in mind, let us now return to the
science, do architectural theorists perhaps
used by early hominins – and not animals –
context of this Archiprint, and try to reflect on
overestimate the importance of cultural
betrays a form of anthropocentrism that does
Cross’s understanding of design thinking.
evolution? Vaesen et al. give examples of
not fully recognize the rich behaviour shown
Cross has a very wide and all-encompassing
animals that exhibit design-like behaviour.
by species other than humans.
view of design and design thinking, but
These
behaviours
and
their
resulting
structures are usually considered to be primarily genetically controlled.23 This is furthermore observable in nature all around us: birds build nests, ants build ant hills and bees construct beehives. Given this, it is not entirely improbable that some essential roots of our ability to design buildings are, or have been, partly under genetic control.
when we consider the scientific findings
when we consider any thinking being chiefly as a designing being, could our conception of design acquire a new depth and richness?
discussed in this essay, we have to admit that his understanding of design thinking is still rather anthropocentric: Everyone can – and does – design. We all design when we plan for something new to happen, whether that might be a new version of a recipe, a new arrangement of the living room furniture, or a new layout of a personal web page. The evidence from different cultures around the world, and from designs created by children as well as by adults, suggests that everyone is capable of designing.
In complexity, early human architecture
So design thinking is something inherent within
does not exceed the animal design that we
human cognition; it is a key part of what makes us
have shown. The archaeological site of Terra
human.25
Amata in France, dated a stunning 380
[24]
thousand years ago, consists of the remains
When
of a small wooden hut that is considered to
anthropocentrism in Cross’s conclusion,
we
attempt
to
leave
out
the
we come to the slightly altered but highly
we might well be standing on the brink of a
interesting hypothesis that design thinking
new architecture. An architecture that unites
is something inherent to cognition in
knowledge of culture and nature, and benefits
general. This reminds us of Daniel Dennett’s
from and excels through this union.
description of a tiny creature called the sea squirt:26
1 Primatology: the scientific study of primates.
The juvenile sea squirt wanders through the sea searching for a suitable rock or hunk of coral to
2 Evolutionary anthropology: the interdisciplinary study of the evolution of human physiology (bodily functioning) and behaviour and the relation between hominids and nonhominid primates. Evolutionary anthropology is based in both natural science and social science.
18 Cultural Evolution: the collective and continuous accumulation and development of knowledge within a culture. 19 Richard Dawkins applies the theoretical framework of biological evolution to culture. 20 Rafael Moneo, ‘On Typology’, Oppositions, no. 13 (1978). 21 Biocentrism: the belief that not just humans, but all living things, have an intrinsic value. Biocentrism is basically the opposite of anthropocentrism. 22 Krist Vaesen, ‘The Cognitive Bases of Human Tool Use’, Behavioral and Brain Sciences, no. 35 (2012), 203-262.
3 Neuroscience: the scientific study of the nervous system.
23 Raymond Corbey et al., ‘The Acheulian Handaxe: More Like a Bird’s Song Than a Beatles’ Tune?’, Evolutionary Anthropology, no. 25 (2016), 6-19.
its spot and takes root, it doesn’t need its brain
4 Cognitive science: the interdisciplinary scientific study of the mind.
24, figure: The Terra Amata Hut. [http://whitenoise.kinja. com/otters-oddities-1625365421]
anymore, so it eats it! It’s rather like getting
5 Marcus Vitruvius Pollo, De architectura (15 BC).
25 Cross, Design Thinking, op. cit. (note 9).
tenure.
6 Marc-Antoine Laugier, Essai sur l’Architecture (1755).
26 This anecdote was introduced to us by Jacob Voorthuis in his lectures on philosophy and architecture.
7 Juhani Pallasmaa, Body, Mind and Imagination: Neuroscience and the Mental Essence of Architecture (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2016).
27 Daniel C. Dennett, Consciousness Explained (Boston: Little, Brown and Company,1991).
8, figure: Frontispiece of the second edition of Essai sur l’Architecture (1755) by Charles Eisen.
28 Göran Schildt, Alvar Aalto In His Own Words (New York: Random House, 1998).
cling to and make its home for life. For this task, it has a rudimentary nervous system. When it finds
27
Maybe the sea squirt not only shows the intricate relationship between designing and placing, but also that design is the main issue that a thinking being thinks about. And when we consider any thinking being chiefly as a designing being, would our understanding of design lose its essential meaning? Would we
replace
anthropocentrism
with
an
undesirable ‘designer-centrism’? Or could our conception of design acquire a new depth and richness? In this regard, we would like to point to Alvar Aalto, for whom a biological understanding of architecture was of great personal importance in design.28 Aalto’s work
9 Nigel Cross, Design Thinking: Understanding How Designers Think and Work (London: Berg, 2011). 10, figure: Grande the chimpanzee stacks crates in order to reach a banana. Picture by Lilo Hess. [http:// www.humancondition.com/beyond-how-we-acquiredconsciousness/] 11 Frans de Waal, Are We Smart Enough to Know How Smart Animals Are? (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2016). 12, figure: A Vogelkop bowerbird in front of his nest. [http://www.thesun.co.uk/sol/homepage/news/2719989/ Nest-display-of-Vogelkop-bowerbird-used-to-woo-female. html] 13 Frans de Waal, Our Inner Ape: The Best and Worst of Human Nature (London: Granta Books, 2005). De Waal, Are We Smart Enough, op. cit. (note 11).
biological conception of architecture. Given
14 Anthropocentrism: the belief that human beings are the central or most significant species on the planet, or the assessment of reality through an exclusively human perspective (source: Wikipedia).
the
15 De Waal, Are We Smart Enough, op. cit. (note 11).
proves that there are great opportunities in a continuously
expanding
knowledge
of humanity as a product of evolution,
16 Vitruvius, De architectura, op. cit. (note 5).
through neuroscience and related fields,
17 De Waal, Are We Smart Enough, op. cit. (note 11).
23
4
Imitation & Innovation The study of an irksome relationship
Jacob Voorthuis Jacob Voorthuis is an associate professor Philosophy in Architecture at the Eindhoven University of Technology. After completing his doctorate in Art History, (architectural theory and aesthetics) at Leiden University in 1996, he has worked at different institutions, such as the University of Technology in Jamaica and the Rotterdam Academy of Architecture. In the following article, he shows how both imitation and innovation are not to be seen as goods in themselves, and how design presupposes a continuity between the two.
Edited by: Margit van Schaik
What I am concerned with in this essay is
political and juridical advantage. That process
Innovation is certainly no good-in-itself. With
the problem of a conceptual interruption
is as old as Jericho whose inhabitants invented
this I mean a good that is good without
in the continuity between imitation and
the city wall 9,000 years ago to protect their
reference to some higher or further good. It
innovation. The thesis that will be defended
exclusive claim to a scarce commodity in a
is not that we can sensibly or convincingly
is that any ability to learn and explore and
desert, namely water. What is probably just
say that we innovate for innovation’s sake. If
therefore to design must presuppose a
as old is the way some, often those who have
we say that someone is innovative, we are
continuity between those two concepts.
an advantage to protect, present the world as
certainly paying her a compliment but for the
they find it as a fait accompli, a ‘just so’ story that
compliment to stick we would need more.
René Girard convincingly argued that to
somehow justifies the status quo and seeks
What improvement did she bring about?
innovate, as we commonly understand the
to keep things stable and in place. During
How did the innovation make things better?
verb, came to be seen in the positive light
the hegemony of Christianity in Europe for
We innovate in order to achieve a greater
it is seen in today only after the model of
instance, all innovation was, according to
good. It would be silly to say: I see innovation
God’s perfection was discarded in favour of
Girard, looked upon as destructive to the
as the ultimate reward. There is no doubt
the more dynamic model of technological
perfection of God’s creation.
‘progress’ and ‘perfectibility’.1 It was the
Innovation has become a selfevident necessity, apparently.
consistent improvement of technology that
But all that has changed, innovation has
gave new impetus to the age-old economic
become a self-evident necessity, apparently.
model whereby those who had an artisanal or
That is not to say that the word is free of a
material advantage made a secret of it so that
certain aftertaste. Its overuse in slogans
they could derive the benefits of an exclusive
advertising this university or that company
privilege of use. In this way the Venetian
has made many people understandably
glass-blowers protected the secrets of their
fed up with the word. It is everywhere, the
that innovation is a virtue under certain
extraordinary craft; in this way the masons of
word is pushy, glib and quite frankly too
conditions, but it must serve a purpose
the middle ages protected the secrets of the
much concerned with the money to be made
beyond itself; we innovate in order to . . .
pointed arch, the rib and the flying buttress;
in the unattractive world of cut and thrust
improve our technology, improve our social
in this way the inhabitants of Çatalhüyük in
competition. But here we have to be careful. If
institutions, to become rich, to have fun,
Turkey some 7,000 years ago sought to protect
we were to turn against the idea of innovation
because we enjoy the process of designing
the secret of their source of natural obsidian
what would we be turning away from? And
and improving things, etcetera.
glass, which they exported to the four corners
why, with the birth of modernity, did we so
Innovation would not be needed if we would
of their known world. To learn the secrets was
tortuously turn away from imitation as an
be able to say, with conviction, that our world
akin to being initiated into a cult. Imitation
intrinsic good? It might be worthwhile to look
is perfect as it is. In fact, if we were foolhardy
was a sacred act. A technological or material
at our ordinary use of language here to test
enough to say that at this moment and tie to
advantage gives an economical and perhaps
some of our assumptions.
it the idea that we need do nothing to change,
military advantage and these in turn lead to a
we would be sure to destroy the world as
25
26
we know it. We have ourselves created the
to mental exhaustion or atrophy and to give
The problem is not imitation itself, but
conditions that make innovation a necessity
up on our quest of ceaseless innovation.
rather what is being imitated, how it is
a posteriori. The irony is that it is precisely
Those who imitate are dismissed by others
being imitated and what this says about us
our innovative minds that got us into that
as no longer able to think for themselves.
in the minds of others. The metaphysics of
predicament. We now need to innovate to
Imitators are thought of as not autonomous,
imitation is complicated, very subtle and
survive our earlier innovations and their
they have given themselves over to walking
rich in potential hypocrisy. Part of the reason
effects. We could have quite happily survived
in the shadow of their models. And even
we get ourselves into such a muddle about
for millennia in the way we exploited the
the models find this irksome if they are
imitation is that we do not have a clear model
earth before the emergence of modern science
not paid copyright. The problem with this
of how imitation fits into the bigger picture of
and technology, but there is no longer a way
commonplace view is that it is banal and itself
learning. How then can we restore our own
back: we need further innovation to survive in
the product of uncritical imitation. Ironically,
awareness of the continuity that always exists
a world that, as far as our habitat is concerned,
we imitate each other’s norms and values
between imitation and innovation, whatever
has been brought to the edge of disaster by our
with a vengeance whenever we look down
we think, and show that the one cannot in
very urge to innovate. The important point to
on imitation. We have imitated each other’s
fact do without the other? Girard rightly
make is that innovation can be shown to be
dislike for imitation without really having
points out that imitation, when looked at
a necessity a posteriori: because the world is like it is, we now need to innovate to flourish, that is, to stay alive, happy and healthy. We might even call innovation a necessary evil in that innovation has brought us to the abyss and now, standing at the edge of the abyss (just to overdramatize the image for the sake
historically, appears to be a necessary condition
Those who imitate are dismissed by others as no longer able to think for themselves.
for innovation. It is important to familiarize yourself with something thoroughly through imitation before you can even hope to innovate. He cites, among other things, the clear example of the Japanese who, after the Second World War started by copying the
of romantic effect) we look to innovation to
technology they found in Europe to become
show us a safe way forward.
one of the most innovative economies of taken stock of what we are doing. The fact is
the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s. How would this
Another anomaly that Girard’s essay shows
that we are all a little two-faced when it comes
have worked? To get a clearer idea about the
up is a conceived discontinuity between
to such things. We positively encourage
process of imitation let me tell you a personal
imitation and innovation. In the time of
imitation as long as those we advise are busy
story.
Thomas a Kempis it was considered good
copying the right models. We are very happy
to imitate a model of perfection. Thomas a
for people to imitate a particular procedure
I have a colleague who is extremely good
Kempis encouraged us to imitate the way
if it is the right one. Most blatantly, we are
at sketching 3d objects that we use in our
that Christ lived his life.2 Today the politics of
ecstatic when someone is happy to adopt our
discussions when supervising the students of
imitation and innovation has become more
ideology regarding a particular topic.
our graduation studio. The sketches are neat,
complex. To imitate is, apparently, to admit
elegant, clear and informative, little works [1]
of art, the purpose of which is to illustrate
which I had previously thought made up
You could say then that imitation describes
and explore possibilities. A sheet of paper
part of the sketch I was trying to copy. But
a collection of activities that starts with
scrawled on by him will generally show a
watching him draw shows me how much of
the act of trying to copy, to repeat. But do
few alternatives thought up as the discussion
his sketches are in fact completed in my mind.
not underestimate this activity, it is where
unfolds, regarding solutions about where, for
Now when I try to sketch like him, it becomes
analysis and critical reflection take their most
example, to put a door or a window, how a
an interesting mess. At first it does not work
important first steps. The appropriate critical
set of stairs might be arranged, how a façade
so well, but as I persevere, it is not that my
question to ask yourself when copying is ‘Did
could be composed. It is not easy to copy the
sketches begin to look like those by him
I get it right?’ To get an answer you will need
sketches. To do this I take out my pencil, look
(if only!), but rather that my own sketches
to analyse the object to be copied by asking
carefully at the form in front of me and copy
acquire a confidence, clarity and structure
questions about what it is you are presented
those forms I see and select those lines and
they never had before.
with in terms of form, colour, proportions, texture, light and shade, and so forth. At this
surfaces that I feel help to shape what I want to shape. In order to make a successful copy
Can we generalize this? I believe we can.
point you are looking at the object as it appears
of my colleague’s sketches, I have to look
Imitation and innovation are both ways
to you. A next level of complexity is reached
analytically and critically at the forms that
of typifying explorative excursions into
when you ask the critical question: ‘Is that the
have been generated by him and lie there,
our environment. The exploratory process
only way it might work, are there alternatives,
visible to me, on the surface of the sheet of
ricochets between an analytical stance asking
why do we need such things anyway, what
paper. If I am very keen, I might even consider
a ‘What have we got here?’ kind of question,
is the good they are trying to serve, can we
the way the sketches are composed on the
to a critical stance that asks a ‘What do I think
arrive at that good any other way?’ To answer
page and take all that into account. When I
of it?’ kind of question, to eventually reach
these you need to ask analytical questions
compare the result, his sketches are elegant
a normative stance that might ask: ‘What
such as: ‘What is this bit for and how does it
and crisp and mine are hesitant and botched.
should I do with this knowledge?’ Needless
connect with that bit? Why is it shaped that
But then, in my disappointment, I try another
to say, this process of exploration is rarely
way? How does it all work and why does it
approach. Instead of concentrating on the
linear in a neat and tidy way. I think the word
work that way?’ This is the point at which
end product, I now watch him sketch. I no
ricochet is well chosen because it models
innovation enters the equation. Soon enough
longer look only at the forms he generates
our attentive and selective gaze, which picks
you will be happily absorbed in thinking of
with his pen, but I look critically at the way
out and focuses on what is of interest to it at
ways to improve a particular system or object
he holds his pen, the angle at which he holds
any given moment. This gaze moves about
relative to some point of view. When you
it, I look at the movements he makes, how
from one point to another and might switch
then start questioning the point of view from
his hands and his eyes work together. I am
from one way of looking, say analytically, to
which you take your analytical and critical
absorbed in studying his movements and his
another way of looking, say critically and so
stance, you arrive at a yet more involved level
conversation, what he is doing and how he is
gradually complete the picture.
of abstraction. At this point you might even
doing it. Suddenly I discover that he leaves
decide to do things altogether differently,
out information that I thought essential and
decide to pursue different goods. It is at such
27
28
intersections that we often speak of paradigm
my goal in life is to make the most exact copy
correct those whose analysis is slovenly and
shifts.
of the Mona Lisa. And while he is absorbed in
whose critique is unhappy and whose norms
this task and books some success on the way,
cannot be properly justified. All phases and
Now the important bit is that we cannot
he is flourishing and if he succeeds he will
aspects of imitation and innovation can be
dismiss any part of the process as ‘bad’
triumph. And who are we to question his goal
useful in our efforts to flourish. Imitation
or unimportant. It is important for me to
in life? The same can be said for the innovator.
has acquired a bad name, but not because
familiarize myself with the shapes and
While he is absorbed in his task and booking
imitation is a bad activity in the formation
configurations of the sketches I find attractive
the occasional success we can say that he is
of a healthy and flourishing human being,
enough to wish to learn from. At the same
flourishing. He is enjoying himself. And if he
it is rather that imitation, like innovation,
time I discover it to be useful to look not only
succeeds he will triumph. And that is what it
should not be seen as an end in itself. When
at the forms themselves and their disposition
is all about.
they are, things become a little silly. When
on the paper, but to also observe the process of the master at work. By trying to do what he does I fail to become like him, but I do learn a lot and discover a new me. Now, as I continue to practise, I start exploring hopeful paths in my own development and frequently test them against other examples. Perhaps one day I shall become a great and original sketcher. We can run through that process of repetition to innovation on various sorts of
we disapprove of imitation we disapprove
We should not worship at either altar, instead we should learn to analyse and criticise in copying, imitating and innovating.
things. We can do it with objects and systems,
of imitation as an end in itself, which is justified. When we disapprove of innovation we disapprove of it being seen as an end in itself, which is quite right. The only proper end of human beings is to create a world in which we can flourish and live good lives. This requires us to understand ourselves, our bodies and our environment in their relation to each other. We should undertake to copy, imitate and innovate without shame and
we can do it with processes and procedures
If, as Girard argues, we used to worship at
always consider critically what it is we want
and we can do it with ideologies. In every one
the altar of imitation to vilify innovation and
and how we want to achieve it in order to
of them we go through the whole process. But
we now worship at the altar of innovation
flourish and for that we need to start talking
what happens if we get stuck on one stage?
and vilify imitation, we are doing something
sense.
There is one more point to make before we
that might fairly be described as absurd,
can call our model complete. It is that none of
stupid and destructive. We pay a high price
the excellences we pursue as we imitate and
for our stupidity, not least that of hypocrisy.
innovate are a good in themselves. Innovation
We should not worship at either altar, instead
is no better than imitating or copying, in itself.
we should learn to analyse and criticise
They become virtues only in the service of
in copying, imitating and innovating. We
some greater good. It is possible, theoretically
should not look down on copying, imitation
at least, for a copyist to say quite sincerely:
or innovation, we should gently and kindly
1 René Girard, ‘Innovation and Repetition’, in: Robert Doran (ed.), Mimesis and Theory, Essays on Literature and Criticism, 1953-2005 (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2008). 2 Thomas a Kempis, De imitatione Christi (1441 and many later editions).
5
Modelling Design Processes A collection of typical design processes by project tutors The next two pages show a collection of ten diagrams that represent the design process, drawn by tutors from different architecture institutions in the Netherlands. To give an idea on the great amount of ideas on good design processes, Archiprint decided to collect and present them in a way that enables the reader to make comparisons. The collection is meant as a source of discussion, therefore an extensive analysis and interpretation has been omitted. However, a few recurring themes can be distinguished. First, the most recurring idea is iteration, which represents designing as a non-linear process, whereby there is a need to go back to earlier decisions. In some way this idea contradicts with the idea of diverging and converging, here there is an increase and towards the end a decrease of design options during the process. This decrease of options is also visible in the diagrams that represent how the design becomes more concrete towards the end, and consequently the space to make decisions shrinks. Despite these recurring aspects, however, the diagrams differ in many ways. Apparently architects do have ideas of what a good design process is, but are quite personal.
Edited by: Wendy Verhoef
30
Wouter Hilhorst
Pierijn van der Putt Alijd van Doorn
Wouter Hilhorst
Alper Alkan
Arjen Oosterman
Pierijn van der Putt
Reinder Rutgers
Alijd van Doorn
Reinder Rutgers
Pierijn van der Putt
a
Ruurd Roorda Jarrik Ouburg
Alper Alkan Ralph Brodruck
Arjen Oosterman
no predeter Ruurd Roorda
Tom Bergevoet
Tom Bergevoet Alper Alkan
Ralph Brod Jarrik Ouburg
Alijd van Doorn (Delft University of
Tom Bergevoet (Academy of Architecture
Technology)
Technology)
Amsterdam)
Designing is an iterative process that largely
The spiral of Zeisel has an iterative character
The design process looks like circles that
consists of divergent thinking. In this way the
and is based on new insights gained during
move bit by bit towards the end goal. Every
designer can alter his focus and collect the
the design process. One must first properly
time you’ve drawn something you should
data he or she needs.
analyse the problem before looking for
step away from it and reflect. Does the
Alper
Alkan
(Delft
University
of
solutions. Then, as the designer gets closer
drawing fit your intentions? Intuition plays
Wouter Hilhorst (Eindhoven University of
to the solution, the space to make decisions
an important role in these decision-taking
Technology)
shrinks.
moments.
of all the relevant information. Subsequently,
Jarrik Ouburg (Academy of Architecture
Ruurd Roorda (Eindhoven University of
this information is structured and a direction
Amsterdam)
Technology)
is determined, although the direction might
Designing
change in a later phase of reflection. Towards
of
diverging
the end, the design becomes more concrete.
are
synonymous
The design process starts with the collection
is
a
process
and
that
converging, with
consists
In the beginning of design process, I am in
which
a hyper-associative state and I would like to
inspiration
and
integrate virtually everything in the design.
concentration in my opinion.1 This means a
After some time I am going to start with the
Pierijn van der Putt (Delft University of
designer first has to open up to new ideas,
form in which I intuitively proceed, applying
Technology)
and then has to adopt a certain stance. At this
and testing certain ideas and rejecting others.
Designing is an iterative process that requires
point the design concept is determined.
Towards
reflection on earlier decisions. Still, there is
the
end,
all
superfluous
or
ineffective concepts need to be out of my
some linear element in the design process
Ralph Brodruck (Eindhoven University of
to keep it manageable, often in the form of
Technology)
different working scales.
A good design process is not predetermined! There is no action plan that can be used for
Reinder Rutgers (Eindhoven University of
every project. As the designer is working on
Technology)
the design, ideas often change.
The designer starts with islands of knowledge that he has obtained in previous experiences.
Arjen Oosterman (Academy of Architecture
These islands function as a foundation for
Amsterdam)
generated ideas, and they are expanded and
Designing is an iterative process that goes
connected until the design is finished.
up and down. The designer is constantly testing and evaluating new ideas, which can subsequently be implemented in the design.
head. 1 Jarrik Ouburg, De witte ruimte / The White Space, inaugural address held on 6 September 2012 (Amsterdam: Architectura & Natura, 2013), 8
31
6
Prescribed Design Processes: The End of Creativity? An interview with Lucas Verweij, design critic The main field of Lucas Verweij, a Berlin-based design critic, is design in its broadest sense. His educational roots and first practical experiences lie in the field of architecture, as he studied construction at the University of Applied Sciences in Utrecht and public space at the Design Academy of Eindhoven. He founded his own design studio Schie 2.0 in 1996. Furthermore, he was dean of the Academy for Architecture and Urban Design in Rotterdam. Nowadays, Verweij writes for offline and online architecture magazines and tutors students in designing and communicating their designs at various design schools throughout Europe.
Edited and translated by: Eva Gutscoven, Jasper Brus
Verweij noticed how publications in the
clear-cut what design was about. During the
There are many books about architecture
design industry seem to agree on how
last 20 years, however, the scope of what we
and design, but most fail to describe the
design processes work, even though there
understand as design has become incredibly
process with greater precision than these
is little agreement on what designing
broad. Nowadays, there is experience design,
five distinctive phases. We can intuitively
actually is. As a reaction to Verweij’s article
social design, and approximately more than
feel that this is a simplified representation,
‘Prescribed Design Processes Are for Bad
20 other branches. And ever since design was
but nonetheless, there is a certain consensus
Designers’, Archiprint asked him to explain
separated from industrial manufacturing
on what a design process encompasses.
his perspective on the subject, based on his
processes, it has been all over the place. It has
When I reflected on these representations,
experiences as a designer and his presence
become unclear what design is. Consequently,
I began to realize that I and the designers I
in the ‘world of design’. What is the role of
we – designers – believe that nobody knows
am surrounded with do not work like this.
creativity during design activities? And in
what design is, but think we know what a
Creativity is not something that is locked
which kind of contexts and conditions can
design process is.
up in the middle phase, it is present during
1
the whole process. Many representations
it thrive? If you look critically at what is often
of the design process fail to fully recognize
considered to be a design process, you can
this creative dimension and the complexity
see that what you’re looking at is actually a
it brings. When you talk to architects, you
Design, as a discipline, is really difficult to
project management process. More precisely,
realize that this is true. When I worked
describe. Compared to design, architecture is
a design process is considered to be a project
for Willem Jan Neutelings, he told me that
more thoroughly defined. Not everyone can
management process with an element of
they once drove to a client with a model
call himself an architect, while everyone can
creativity in the middle. In general, if you
in the back of the car. The model fell, and,
call himself a designer. And in practice, there
break up the design process into different
on the spot, they decided to present it the
are often relatively concrete ideas of what
phases, you can distinguish five clear phases
other way around. Everyone knows these
architecture is. In the field of design, you
(see figure 1).
kind of stories, and they do not fit in any
How would you define a design process?
don’t have anything like this, nor is there a regulated mandate. Right
after
the
Second
World
War,
design formed an alliance with industrial production, hence the term industrial design. Industrial designers designed products that were industrially made and mass produced. So, when we – from a contemporary perspective – try to understand the meaning of design in this period, it may seem pretty
[1] The five stages of the architypal design process
33
34
known description of the design process. In
and so on. We attach so much value to
to be open to the unexpected, to work
addition to this, designers agree that when
creativity, but we don’t really have an idea
without a plan and to accept accidents and
you don’t open up to these kind of moments,
of what it actually is. Therefore, trying to
arbitrariness. So, for everyone who already
you are a bad designer. We consider such
gain a better understanding of creativity is
knows beforehand precisely how he is going
moments as an essential part of design. You
worthwhile. What is this? In what are we
to spend his vacation and how he will do his
should be open to the unexpected and to
investing so much money? Of what do we
grocery shopping: the more you know about
taking alternative mental actions. The design
have such high expectations?
how things will go, the smaller the opening
process is much more chaotic, unstructured and unplanned than is told and taught to us. Besides, there are as many design processes as there are people and this is a good thing, too. Why are design processes this chaotic and unpredictable? According to me the answer has something to do with creativity.
for creativity.
Creativity is not something that is locked up in the middle phase but it is present during the whole process
Why should we attempt to further explore the
What you can learn from research is that creative people don’t earn that much compared to people who have other college degrees. At the same time, these ‘poorly paid’ designers are happier than their college counterparts with higher incomes. This implies that creativity has a bigger
creative aspect of the design process?
cohesion with happiness and satisfaction. So design, and consequently creativity, is all over
It is sometimes said that creative people are
I am currently writing a book about design.
the place. But what does ‘being creative’ actually
more resilient because they can better cope
Its relevance lies in the fact that the creative
mean?
with uncertainties. And this, of course, is
industry is growing really fast. Some people
very important in the design process.
even say that it is the economy of the
First of all, according to me, the drawings
future. There are big European subsidiary
or little paintings in the art academy don’t
programmes to contribute to the flourishing
tell me anything about creativity. I think that
of the creative industry. The strategy behind
creativity is something that is independent
this is that when everything is, more cheaply,
of artistic expression. I was not very good
produced in China and engineered in India,
at sketching, and this was a problem, since
the thing of distinctive added value we have
I wanted to go to the design academy. So, I
in Western Europe is creativity.
attended drawing courses. I became better at it, but I never truly excelled. Talent for
The power of a creative designer is that, every time, he opens himself up again to another manner of solving a problem
The value attached to creativity increases
drawing and sketching is not the same
daily. Nowadays, we think that we will solve
thing as creativity. Being creative is about
Is there any way that a person can enhance his
all the big world problems with creativity,
being bold enough to think differently, to
or her creative capability? Or are there certain
like the smog problems, mobility problems,
do something that is not socially accepted,
conditions in which creativity has more chances?
Learning to be creative is difficult, but the
project management is needed to function
personal agenda or obsession. For Zaha
context and the conditions that support it
in practice, but design and creativity should
Hadid, this was her formal vocabulary. And
are manufacturable. In a free society, or a
never be limited by a prescribed process.
people knew what they got when they hired
democracy, you will find more creativity.
And in practice, a question is never the
her. It was her right, and you certainly don’t
But even within free societies, there are
same. The design process will be completely
have to be a starchitect to claim that right as
differences, I think. For example, a less
different if the commission comes from a
well.
strict household can already provide a
big company or from – for example – the
better environment for creativity to thrive. Also, cultural values that limit the role of the individual are not favourable for creativity. For example, in some cultures it is better accepted to acknowledge your own ego, while other cultures are more focused
Creativity is something that is independent of artistic expression
on the group or family. Individuals in the latter group will try to avoid conflicts and sometimes limit their input in collaborations.
Serpentine Gallery in Milan. And even in
This is not good for creative processes.
case of the same commission, sometimes one can be interested in a certain material
‘Prescribed design processes are for bad designers’
and sometimes one can focus on a specific
is one of the statements you make in an article on
method. On the other hand, there has to
Dezeen. What is the reasoning behind this?
be some structure: When do you meet with clients? When and how do you carry out
Some people say that they only became good
experiments in the factory?
architects after developing a kind of fixed process, or method. They then plead for a
But even in this context of practice, I think
fixed design process as a supreme ability.
that we, as designers, need to claim the right
Well, if a design process could be modelled
to refurnish the design process over and
and thus simulated, then there would be
over again, depending on the question and,
no room left for creativity. The power of a
equally important, on your own fascinations.
creative designer is that he opens himself up,
Letting the organization of the process
over and over, to another manner of solving
depend solely on the question of the client
a problem. This is something different than
is still too obedient, or too craven, maybe.
project management, which has a regulated
Instead, a powerful designer refurbishes
form of dealing with problems. Of course,
the process continuously according to a
1 The architypal design process, from: EDEO, Design Thinking for Educators (2013).
35
7
Sense in Simplicity A conversation with MVRDV-architect Klaas Hofman
Klaas Hofman has been working at MVRDV for eight years, and is currently both architect and senior project leader. The projects he has worked on include the Roskilde Rock Museum, Cultural Centre Zaanstad and urban projects such as the Master Plan Floriade 2022 in Almere and S(L)IM CITY in Moscow. Archiprint is curious about the role of the design process in the work of MVRDV, especially since their diagrams seem to suggest a connection to both their buildings and the design process. Nevertheless, the exact use and the connection of these schemes to the actual complexity of the design process is still rather unclear to us. Klaas Hofman explains the function of the design process diagram in their work.
Written by: Jesper Baltussen, Luuk van den Elzen and Justin de Witte
Nigel Cross, the writer that inspired us to
subsequently used to create and compose an
also communicate the work we do. Apart
choose our theme, states: ‘When designers
innovative whole that establishes something
from publishing and organizing lectures,
– especially skilled, successful designers –
unexpected. The strength of MVRDV is
they also provide our customers and the
talk spontaneously about what they do,
thereby to have fun in interpreting this data,
public with information about how we
they talk almost exclusively about the
to make sure the process will not result in a
work. Developers and other commercial
outcomes, not the activities.’ We wonder
high-tech, largely complicated building that
parties receive a booklet that explains the
what you think, do you agree?
is composed as a collection of parameters.
MVRDV methodology. It illustrates our
We always aim for a simple design process
research-oriented way of working and
I disagree 100 per cent with this statement,
that results in a clear building. With simple
the use of diagrams, something they will
especially for our office. I do have to add
we mean: easy to explain and motivate. It
consequently expect from us.
to this that I don’t precisely know how
should be explainable in a diagram, no
this works at other architecture offices,
personal aesthetic judgements or biases that
What are the consequences of working with such
but for us I would say that the process is
are not clearly and logically justified should
a diagram?
as important as the result. We do, in fact,
be involved in arriving at such a design.
communicate and talk about this very
Well, as I said, the diagrams really are a way
process. As part of this, a lot of our time is
to clarify an idea, as opposed to renderings
spent on research: in studying options and looking at all possible solutions that are applicable to a brief. This always results in
For us, the process is as important as the result.
plenty of options. Although this sometimes
that aim to give more of a general impression or atmosphere; they really go hand in hand. Complications happen when one is viewed while the other is ignored by the reader. Our project The Cloud, in Korea, for example,
leads to discussions about the sense of such extensive documentation, we all realize
So the diagram is used to simplify, thereby
was
that such a study, researching such a broad
creating an understandable process that does
diagrams that illustrated our building were,
variety of options, is part of the DNA of
not involve any vague, intangible steps. Is it
by a small group of readers, overlooked and
MVRDV.
true, then, that the diagram can also be read as
only the images were taken into account. As
something that supports the result, something
a result the project was perceived as two
I would like to think that we work with a
design-oriented that provides insight to the
towers with an explosion in between them,
strong sense of intuition on the one hand,
result, maybe even ‘sells’ the result in a way?
while the schemes we provided explained
and an extensive amount of input and data
kind
of
‘lost-in-translation’.
The
that this cloud was the result of a process
to guide that intuition on the other. The
I think it does both. The diagram can indeed
in which we wanted to design a village-like
term Datascapes has been used to identify
help to sell a certain design. We have our
atmosphere, a liveable neighbourhood, in
these amounts of data: everything that
own PR and business department, which
such a highly urban context, something that
adds important knowledge to the design
is constantly obtaining new commissions,
would normally be impossible because of
process is eagerly applied. The intuitive is
new projects and new customers. They
the small footprint of such towers. The
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38
village was lifted for a nice view, and by
yet our earlier projects seem more complex
The simplification of a design process does,
taking small ‘bites’ out of it we created a
to me than the projects we work on today.
of course, play an important role, for it is
multitude of terraces that resulted in the
I would say this is something we need to
impossible to tell everything. In some cases
pixelated cloud-like shape.
reflect on, to see if it is an intuitive answer to
therefore, diagrams are made afterwards,
an architecture that is becoming more and
to show the simplified design process.
One could almost state that the diagram was
more complex because of developments
This is done in order to keep track of the
even more important than the iconic image,
in technology; almost making all of these
concepts in your schemes: Are they still
which unfortunately was read differently than
things simply easier to digest. But, whether
understandable and justifiable? A design
intended and thus seen as a provocative image
this is a result of the avoidance or the
should not be too complex to explain. When
by the public.
encasement of this complexity, I dare not say.
I am working on a project, and notice that
Indeed, and similar discussions gather
The Almere Oosterwold project (see fig.
in eight comprehensible steps, I think
around the function of the rendering.
1) is in fact a good example to illustrate
something is wrong.
Although, of course, it’s great to see the
the function of encasing the complexity
ongoing debate that questions the role
that accompanies a design process. This
of the rendering, the discussion of the
project needed diagrams to make the
use of trees and playing children as a
design comprehensible to the municipality.
‘happiness filter’, I also think the rendering
The blue stripe, for instance, represents
has a different function than the diagram.
a
We often generate such images at the end
ownership
of a project, for a different purpose. The
At this very moment the project is being
diagrams should always be included. It is
implemented; people are building their
an important rule here, a project without
houses and roads while trying to organize
any diagrams cannot be.
their garbage collection systems.
So, given that a design process becomes too
I do, however, think it is interesting, to
complex to capture in a scheme, would MVRDV
oppose all possibilities and to take limitation
then take a step back, reconsider and try to do
and simplification as a challenge. The
it differently or do you abstract that complexity
Markthal (Market Hall) is becoming an icon,
into an understandable representation?
a known form within the skyline of the city,
I am not able to explain what I have done
complete
discussion and
about
water,
environmental
issues.
and is therefore a good example of a simple That is hard to say, for I think this office has
thought. The building has become a diagram:
developed and changed over time. I have
How to make a hall with a programme, and
been working here for eight years now and
how to use the space underneath? (see fig. 2)
[1]
Sometimes you want to add a certain step
Well, that schematic approach of parameters
Will MVRDV ever design a building that cannot
that does not fit the storyline. The term
is actually continued throughout the process
be captured in a diagram?
storyline is used a lot here. Every design
at many levels. In that sense it can therefore
should consist of a clear storyline, which
become complex again. As for the Glazen
I would like to invert the question, would
starts at A and ends with Z.
Boerderij, different concepts are embedded
MVRDV ever design a building that is too
in one project: that of the farm materialized
much of a diagram? The danger that would
Then what happens next? The amounts of data
in glass, that of the print, the ‘average’ farm
consequently arise is a building that is too
have been considered before. At the Glazen
and also the resulting scale of this farm.
cliché, or too literal.
Boerderij (Glass Farm) these amounts of data,
These are all separate sub-concepts that, in
the so-called Datascapes, were also an important
the end, blend in well together.
Indeed, the avoidance of a populist Las Vegas
stimulus of the process. We have learned that
iconology, ‘the duck’, that radiates easily consumable
all farms in Schijndel were measured, and the
messages to the public is important in your work.
interpretation of this amount of data was: ‘Let us compose an average Schijndel-farm.’ This goes into the rational on the one hand, and the intuitive on the other. Bernard Leupen also discusses these two aspects of design in his article. Do you think it is the intuitive interpretation that allows you to simplify your process and building?
When I am working on a project, and notice that I am not able to explain what I have done in eight comprehensible steps, I think something is wrong.
It is surprising that some of our projects are on the edge of the building as diagram. Nevertheless, we provide our buildings with just the right ambiguity, which allows us to tell the story in a convincing way. As for the Roskilde Rockmuseum in Denmark, the shape could have been anything. An actual storyline became the subject of our storyline-like design method: our answer to the question of what a rock
Is the eventual building more a representation
museum should look like was found in the
of the scheme, or is the scheme a representation
experience of being a rock star, not only in
of the building?
the building itself, but also in the journey towards and through the building. We
[2]
I think this differs per project. For the
used a sketch that displayed the arrival
Market Hall, the scheme was very present
in the limousine, the red carpet, signing
from the start. The idea and the form
autographs, the elevator as a career-boost
both sit well in the scheme: when the two
upwards, on top of the world and finally
buildings are connected at the top, a space
‘life after fame’. For all those moments
in the form of a hall is created.
within the building our storyline was key.
39
40
The eventual shape is the iconographic
panels lying around. The area we found
the festival site, and on it, three buildings,
translation of that feeling into mass and
was already inhabited by youths that
the ‘band members’ were performing. This
material.
were hanging around there. We wanted
was important throughout our process.
to maintain that image of this rough
The bass player is a bit bashful and more
environment where the future visitors of
in the background, for instance. The type
the building feel at ease and comfortable.
of buildings also dictates how far to go in
The eventual shape is the iconographic translation of that feeling into mass and material.
your concept. When designing dwellings, An important starting point, therefore, was
the symbols need to be much more modest
to maintain the context of the building, also
compared
to contrast with the environment as much
museum. Naturally, the latter also demands,
as possible. We didn’t want to just demolish
in a way, to be designed expressively.
everything
The
Otherwise we would probably never have
Was this image a guiding principle throughout
surrounding halls needed to be preserved
won. In the end the rock star or lead singer
that design process from the beginning?
to support the activities that were already
was more of an overdone stereotype,
these
youths
liked.
to
designing
a
rock-’n-roll
there beforehand. It was then that we came
with a shiny jacket, always standing in
Yes, the storyline was about an old concrete
up with the idea: the surrounding buildings
the foreground, which is, of course, quite
factory with old halls and rough concrete
symbolized the stage, the entire factory
literal. But the building contains just the right ambiguity, we didn’t physically shape our building as an oversized Mick Jagger!
1] Conceptual diagram Almere Oosterwolde © MVRDV. 2] Conceptual diagram Markthal Rotterdam © MVRDV. 3] Roskilde Rockmuseum in Denmark, Ragnarock, by MVRDV. Photo by Ossip van Duivenbode.
[3]
8
Understanding Design Thinking Nigel Cross Nigel Cross, emeritus professor of Design Studies at The Open University in the United Kingdom, spent most of his academic career on research into the processes that take place during design activity. In 1982 he published the article ‘Designerly Ways of Knowing’, in which he contrasts the way designers think with that of, for example, scientists. One of his latest works, Design Thinking: Understanding How Designers Think and Work, is an accumulation of his findings, and served as a basis for this issue. In the following article he provides insights into the most interesting discoveries that have been done on the subject, both currently and throughout the twentieth century.
Edited by: Margit van Schaik
42
Extracts from: Nigel Cross, Design Thinking:
the artificial’.4 This view was significantly
practice – a ‘kind of knowing’, he argued,
Understanding How Designers Think and Work
challenged by Schön’s interpretation of
which is different from the knowledge found
(London: Berg, 2011)
5
professional ability as a reflective practice.
in textbooks. In his analysis of the case studies
Probably the most influential study of a
that provided the foundations for his theory,
Everyone can – and does – design. But
designer at work has been the one reported
he began with the assumption ‘that competent
although there is so much design activity
in his chapter on ‘Design as a Reflective
practitioners usually know more than they
going on in the world, the ways in which
Conversation with the Situation’, in a context
can say. They exhibit a kind of knowing-in-
people design were rather poorly understood
of architectural design. The influence of the
practice, most of which is tacit.’ He identified a
for a long time. Design ability has been
study is largely due to it being set within
cognitive process of reflection-in-action as the
regarded as something that perhaps many
his broader series of studies of professional
intelligence that guides ‘intuitive’ behaviour
people possess to some degree, but only a few
practice (ranging from psychotherapy to
in practical contexts of thinking-and-acting
people have a particularly strong design ‘gift’.
management) that he used to establish
– something like ‘thinking on your feet’. At
Even designers themselves are often not very
his theory of reflective practice, or ‘how
the heart of reflection-in-action is the ‘frame
good at explaining how they design. When
professionals think in action’. The study has
experiment’ in which the practitioner frames,
they talk spontaneously about what they
also been influential because Schön’s analysis
or poses a way of seeing the problematic
do, they talk almost exclusively about the
of what he observed is acute and sensitive;
situation at hand.
outcomes, not the activities.
both designers and design researchers (those with personal design experience) recognize
So in the early 1980s there was a significant
However, there has been a growing body of
the veracity of the analysis. What is surprising
shift in perspectives on design thinking, from
research into understanding design expertise
is that such an influential study is based on
criticizing the limitations of design cognition
and design cognition, or the nature of design
just one, partial example of design activity –
to recognizing its strengths and potential. The
thinking. The origins of this research-focus
and even that is not a ‘real’ design example,
emphasis changed from trying to formulate
on design thinking, lie in the attempts to
but is taken from observing an experienced
design as a science to recognizing the merits of
define design as a discipline in its own right
designer tutor a student in a university
the natural, ‘intuitive’ processes of designing.
in the mid-1970s and early 1980s. Lawson
architectural design studio.
This was well represented in the work of
1
introduced the study of ‘how designers
Davies and Talbot,6 who studied the processes
think’,2 and a little later Rowe produced
Schön established his theory of reflective
of a large number of outstanding designers.
his studies of ‘design thinking’. Both were
practice as a counter to the prevailing theory
They summarized the characteristics that
predominantly addressing design thinking in
of technical rationality, or the constrained
seemed key to making these people successful
architecture.
application of scientific theory and technique
in dealing constructively with uncertainty,
to practical problems. He was seeking a new
and the risks and opportunities that present
Previously, a dominant view in design
‘epistemology of practice’ that would help
themselves in the process of designing, as
research had been represented by Simon’s
explain and account for how competent
follows:
interpretation of design as a ‘science of
practitioners actually engage with their
One of the characteristics of these people is that they
are very open to all kinds of experience, particularly
some degree by everyone. What I attempted
which does not seem appropriate. It seems
influences relevant to their design problem. Their
to show is that design ability is a multifaceted
reasonable, therefore, to try to separate out
awareness is high. They are sensitive to nuances
cognitive skill. What I have also tried to show
design ability as a form of intelligence in its
in their internal and external environments. They
is that there are particular, ‘designerly’, ways
own right.
are ready, in many ways, to notice particular
of thinking and working, that set design apart
coincidences in the rhythm of events which other
from other forms of cognitive skill.9
people, because they are less aware and less open
From case studies of design activity we have seen that good designers have a
to their experience, fail to notice. These designers
In fact, it seems possible to make a reasonable
way of thinking that involves operating
are able to recognise opportunities in the way
claim that design ability is a form of natural
seamlessly across different levels of detail,
coincidences offer prospects and risks for attaining
intelligence, of the kind that psychologist
from high-level systemic goals to low-level
some desirable goal or grand scheme of things.
Howard Gardner identified. Gardner’s view
physical principles. Rather than solving
They identify favourable conjectures and become
is that there is not just one form of intelligence
merely ‘the problem as given’, they apply
deeply involved, applying their utmost efforts,
(as conventionally identified in forms of
their intelligence to the wider context and
sometimes ‘quite forgetting’ other people and/or
‘intelligence tests’), but several, relatively
suggest imaginative, apposite solutions that
things only peripherally involved.
autonomous human intellectual competences.
resolve conflicts and uncertainties. They
He distinguished six forms of intelligence:
have cognitive skills of problem framing, of
So, for outstanding designers, at least,
•
linguistic
gathering and structuring problem data and
design thinking is an absorbing, demanding,
•
logical-mathematical
creating coherent patterns from the data that
sometimes obsessional activity.
•
spatial
indicate ways of resolving the issues and
•
musical
suggest possible solution concepts. Design
•
bodily-kinaesthetic
intelligence involves an intense, reflective
•
personal.
interaction with representations of problems
7
Design Intelligence
10
In an early paper reflecting on some of the
Aspects of design ability seem to be spread
and solutions, and an ability to shift easily and
first studies and investigations into design
through these various forms of intelligence
rapidly between concrete representations and
activity and designer behaviour, I tried to
in a way that does not always seem entirely
abstract thought, between doing and thinking.
begin to clarify and categorize the nature
satisfactory. For example, spatial abilities in
Good designers also apply constructive
of design thinking. I summarized design
problem-solving are classified by Gardner
thinking not only in their individual work but
thinking as comprising abilities of resolving
under spatial intelligence, whereas many
also in collaboration in teamwork.
ill-defined
8
solution-
other aspects of practical problem-solving
focussed cognitive strategies, employing
ability (including examples from engineering)
abductive or appositional thinking and using
are
bodily-kinaesthetic
The nature of design intelligence becomes
non-verbal modelling media. I suggested that
intelligence. So in this classification, for
particularly – and tragically – highlighted
these abilities are highly developed in skilled
example, the inventor’s competence is placed
in rare cases where it is impaired by
designers, but also that they are possessed in
together with that of the dancer and the actor,
neurological damage in the brain, such as
problems,
adopting
classified
under
43
44
through a stroke. One of these cases was Start State
Preliminary Design
Refinement
Detailing
reported by cognitive scientists Goel and Grafman, who studied an architect who had had a seizure, associated with a meningioma tumour in his right prefrontal cortex, a region
(a)
(c) “Circulation Pattern”
(i) Section
(j) “Final Proposal”
at the front of the brain that is associated with high-level cognitive functions.11 Before his
+
attack, this person had practiced successfully
Control State Space
as an architect. Goel and Grafman compared his post-attack design ability with that of
(b)
(d) “Social Organization & Placement”
a ‘control’ subject, another architect with
(g) “Better, Proposal 2”, Keep wall conditions, rearrange middle
similar education and design experience, on being given a relatively simple task of redesigning a laboratory space. The sequences of design sketches that the two subjects produced are shown in Figures 1 and
(f) “Proposal 1” Patient
(e) “Permanent & Transient Spaces, and Circulation”
(h) “Doesn’t Work” State Space
[1] The design sketches made by the healthy (control subject) architect
2. Each began by making a survey drawing of the existing laboratory and its furniture. The healthy control subject then produced a coherent series of sketches, beginning with
Start State
abstracted considerations of circulation and organization, then developing proposals and refining the preferred one. The neurological patient produced three separate, basic and (b) Idea 1
(a)
Patient State Space
incomplete proposals, finishing with a ‘final proposal’ that was still inadequate and incomplete.
Start State
(c) Idea 2
The differences in the thinking processes of the two subjects became clear in graphs of the amount of time each devoted to different cognitive activities, as revealed by their
(d) Idea 3
(a)
(b) Idea 1
(e) “Final Proposal”
[2] The design sketches made by the architect with brain damage
(c) Idea 2
‘think aloud’ comments made during the experiments. The control subject focused
initially
on
‘problem
structuring’,
with
periodical returns to this. He then moved to
In short, the patient simply could not perform
Like other forms of intelligence and ability
the elatively simple design task.
it may be possessed, or may be manifested
‘preliminary design’ and on to ‘refinement’
in performance, at higher levels by some
and ‘detailing’. The graph of the control
In this unhappy case we can see exposed some
people than by others. And like other forms
subject clearly showed a controlled but
of the considerable complexity that there is in
of intelligence and ability, design intelligence
complex pattern of activities, with overlap
normal design thinking, and evidence that the
is not simply a given ‘talent’ or ‘gift’, but can
and quick transitions between activities. In
brain has high level cognitive functions that
be trained and developed. Otherwise, what
contrast, the patient subject spent a huge
control or process activities that are essential
would be the point of having design schools?
amount of time on attempting ‘problem
aspects of design ability and that contribute
structuring’, and only small amounts of time
to design thinking as a form of intelligence.
on ‘preliminary design’ and ‘refinement’. Studies of brain activities have identified The experimenters reported that:
specific areas of the right hemisphere of the brain as being active during design
The patient understood the task and even
thinking.12 The two hemispheres of the
observed that ‘this is a very simple problem’. His
brain, right and left, appear to have different
sophisticated architectural knowledge base was
cognitive specialisms. Neuroscience studies
still intact and he used it quite skilfully during
tend to confirm that the right hemisphere of
the problem structuring phase. However, the
the brain is more specialized in spatial and
patient’s problem-solving behaviour differed from
constructional tasks, in aesthetic perception
the control’s behaviour in the following ways: (1)
and emotions. The left hemisphere is more
he was unable to make the transition from problem
specialized in language abilities and verbal
structuring to problem solving; (2) as a result
reasoning. Damage to the left hemisphere
preliminary design did not start until two-thirds
often results in the loss of some speech
of the way into the session; (3) the preliminary
functions, whereas damage to the right
design phase was minimal and erratic, consisting
hemisphere, as we have seen, can result in the
of three independently generated fragments; (4)
loss of design ability.
there was no progression or lateral development of these fragments; (5) there was no carry-over of
A view of design thinking as a distinct form
abstract information into the preliminary design
of intelligence does not necessarily mean that
or later phases; and (6) the patient did not make it
some people ‘have it’ and some people do
to the detailing phase.
not. Design ability is something that everyone has, to some extent, because it is embedded in our brains as a natural cognitive function.
1 L. Bruce Archer, ‘Whatever Became of Design Methodology?’, Design Studies, vol. 1 (1979) no. 1, 17-20; and Nigel Cross, ‘Designerly Ways of Knowing’, Design Studies, vol. 3 (1982) no. 4, 221-227. 2 Bryan Lawson, How Designers Think (Oxford: Architectural Press/Elsevier, 1980). 3 Peter Rowe, Design Thinking (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1987). 4 Herbert A. Simon, The Sciences of the Artificial (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1969). 5 Donald A. Schön, The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action (New York: Basic Books, 1983). 6 R. Davies and R.J. Talbot, ‘Experiencing Ideas: Identity, Insight and the Imago’, Design Studies, vol. 8 (1987) no. 1, 17-25. 7 Ibid. 8. Nigel Cross, ‘The Nature and Nurture of Design Ability’, Design Studies, vol. 11 (1990) no. 3, 127-140. 9 Nigel Cross, Designerly Ways of Knowing (London: Springer-Verlag, 2006). 10 Howard Gardener, Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences (London: Heinemann, 1983). 11 Vinod Goel and Jordan Grafman, ‘Role of the Right Prefrontal Cortex in Ill-Structured Planning’, Cognitive Neuropsychology, vol. 17 (2000) no. 5, 415-436. 12 Katerina Alexiou et al., ‘Exploring the Neurological Basis of Design Cognition Using Brain Imaging: Some Preliminary Results’, Design Studies, vol. 30 (2009) no. 6, 623-647. Figures 1 & 2 from: Vinod Goel and Jordan Grafman, ‘Role of the Right Prefrontal Cortex in Ill-Structured Planning’, Cognitive Neuropsychology, vol. 17 (2000) no. 5, 415-436
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