STEMscopes Science Florida - Comprehensive 1

OKLAHOMA 3D K-12 SCIENCE Florida STEMscopes Science Comprehensive Science 1 STEMscopedia ISBN: 979-8-88826-212-2 Published by Accelerate Learning Inc., 5177 Richmond Ave, Suite 800, Houston, TX 77056. Copyright © 2024, by Accelerate Learning Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without prior written consent of Accelerate Learning Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.

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OKLAHOMA 3D K-12 SCIENCE

Comprehensive Science 1 STEMscopedia Table of Contents Lesson

Changing Earrth’s Lan ndform ms

Spheres and Layers of Earth h

Influences off Weathe er and Climatte

Natural Disas sters

Thermal Enerrgy

Distance-Tim me Graph hs

Forces on Ob bje ects

Net Force

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Page

1 15 29 49 59 73 85 99 iii

Comprehensive Science 1 STEMscopedia Table of Contents

OKLAHOMA 3D K-12 SCIENCE

Lesson

Page

Kinetic and Potentiall Energ gies

115 129

Cell Theory

143

Cellular Proce esses

153

Cell Organelles

Organism Org ganizatiion

Human Body System ms

167 181 197

Infectious Diseases

209

Taxonomy

Appendix Glossary iv

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Changing Earth’s Landforms

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1

STEMscopedia Have you ever been to one of Florida’s beaches and watched the sand? You may have seen the sand being moved by the water, but what about the wind? Whether in Florida, in another state, or just close to home, you may have noticed that the land changes and has different features.

many 1.. How do you ms landfor that can of know over time? e chang

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Changing Earth’s Landforms | 3

STEMscopedia There are a variety of landforms across Earth’s surface. Landforms are the physical features of the surface of Earth. Some examples are coastlines, dunes, rivers, mountains, glaciers, deltas, and lakes.

Landforms do not stay the same over time. Landforms are created and changed by processes such as weathering, erosion, and deposition.

Weathering is the process by which rocks are broken down into sediments slowly over time. There are two major types of weathering: physical and chemical. Physical weathering breaks down rocks into smaller pieces—called sediments—through physical processes. Physical weathering changes the shape and size of a rock, but it does not change the rock’s chemical composition. Chemical weathering breaks down rocks through chemical processes that change their chemical composition. Some rocks, such as limestone, can be dissolved by water. Other compounds that are dissolved in the water can cause additional chemical reactions with the elements in the rock. Chemical compounds in the air can also cause chemical reactions that weather rocks. Many rocks contain minerals that are composed of the element iron. Chemicals in water and air can cause the iron in these minerals to rust or oxidize, changing the iron into iron oxide.

4 | Changing Earth’s Landforms

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STEMscopedia locations. Although weathering and erosion often happen at the same time, they are not the same process. Weathering is the process by which rocks are broken down. Erosion is the process by which rocks, sediments, or soil is carried away. The main agents of erosion are water and wind, but gravity and ice can also cause erosion.

Sediments, rocks, and soil cannot keep moving forever. Eventually, the particles stop moving and settle where the erosional agents have carried them. This process is called deposition. When sediments are HURGHG E\ ZLQG ÀRZLQJ ZDWHU LFH RU JUDYLW\ WKH\ DUH JHQHUDOO\ GHSRVLWHG LQ KRUL]RQWDO OD\HUV 7KH oldest layer of sediments is positioned at the bottom, and the more recently deposited layers are at the top. Depending on which agents caused the erosion, the sediments may be deposited in different ways.

As we cover each type of landform in the coming sections, we will discuss the processes that form and change each of them.

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Changing Earth’s Landforms | 5

STEMscopedia thiink u o y 2. Can landforms e of som e changed r that a process of , ch by ea ring, erosion e weath deposition? and

6 | Changing Earth’s Landforms

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STEMscopedia There are seven continents on Earth. The United States is part of one continent, North America. Florida is one state that is a peninsula, bordered on the west by the Gulf of Mexico and on the east by the Atlantic Ocean. Millions of years ago, Florida was completely covered by the ocean and then resurfaced to create the landforms that you see today.

As a peninsula, Florida has 1,200 mi. of coastline, including 700 mi. of beaches. A coastline is a narrow area of land where the land meets a body of water. Along Florida’s beaches, the coastline is constantly changing due to physical weathering and erosion by water as the tides rise and fall and waves crash on VKRUH &RDVWOLQHV OLNH )ORULGD¶V DUH FDOOHG FRDVWDO SODLQV DQG DUH XVXDOO\ À DW DQG VDQG\ :DWHU HURGHV WKH beaches and moves materials to other locations. The coast can also be rocky and steep, like some places RQ WKH 3DFL¿ F 2FHDQ FRDVWOLQH 5RFN\ FRDVWOLQHV H[SHULHQFH SK\VLFDO ZHDWKHULQJ RI WKH URFN EUHDNLQJ LW down over time. A coastline can also be a place where land meets water in a lake or pond.

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Changing Earth’s Landforms | 7

STEMscopedia sand dune is a landform that forms when sand is deposited in one place by water or wind. Dunes form in windy places such as beaches or deserts. A dune in Florida is a structure that is always a part of a beach. Dunes run parallel to the coastline and are sandy. Most dunes in Florida have plant life growing on them.

Florida is known for its beaches and attracts many tourists. As the tourism industry grew, people were disappointed that hilly dunes blocked their views of the beaches. Many places removed the plants and À DWWHQHG WKH GXQHV IRU YLVLWRUV WR KDYH EHWWHU YLHZV 6FLHQWLVWV KDYH VLQFH OHDUQHG WKDW WKH KLOO\ GXQHV with plants did the job of protecting the coastline and the sand on the beaches from erosion. When storms come in, the plants hold the sand in place so that it does not wash out to the ocean.

k that in h t you 3. Do houldd keep we s dunes? l natura replant we Should in areas them ey were th where d? Is the remove f a beach o health important more hat the than w want? visitors 8 | Changing Earth’s Landforms

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STEMscopedia Besides the ocean, there are landforms that are near water or contain water, such as lakes, rivers, and deltas. Florida is home to many lakes. Lakes are stable, nonmoving bodies of water that are surrounded by land and make up DERXW RI WKH IUHVK ZDWHU RQ (DUWK /DNHV IRUP ZKHQ ZDWHU ¿ QGV LWV ZD\ into a basin or low area of land. Many of Florida’s lakes are naturally occurring, meaning they were shaped by nature with little to no interference from humans.

Lakes must have a continual source of water, or they dry up. The shape, water À RZ DQG RWKHU IDFWRUV RI )ORULGD¶V ODNHV DUH YHU\ VLPLODU WR KRZ WKH\ ZHUH ZKHQ Florida began to be inhabited by European settlers. Humans use the water from the lakes in Florida for our purposes, but the structure and existence of the lakes have not been altered much. Lake Okeechobee is still the largest freshwater lake in Florida even though it has been changed somewhat by humans. Locating this lake on a map is easy!

Rivers DUH QDWXUDO À RZV RI ZDWHU WKDW À RZ WRZDUG DQ RFHDQ D ODNH D VHD RU RWKHU ULYHU 5LYHUV GHSRVLW VHGLPHQW RQ (DUWK¶V VXUIDFH $V ZDWHU DQG ZLQG EUHDN down rocks by physical weathering, rain falls and moves particles into the rivers by erosion and deposition. For this reason, land around rivers is often very rich in nutrients. The Everglades in Florida is a special kind of river. The water in it is exceptionally slow moving, sometimes shifting only one to two feet per day. However, it is very wide—up to 60 mi. in some places. Because the water moves, the Everglades is not considered a swamp; rather, it is a wetland, which is a unique type of habitat.

A delta LV D ODUJH À DW WULDQJXODU DUHD DW WKH PRXWK RI D ULYHU WKDW FRQQHFWV WR DQG À RZV LQWR DQRWKHU body of water. As a river moves, it carries sediments like soil and small rocks. When a river meets the ocean, it slows down and the sediment is deposited, forming a delta.

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Changing Earth’s Landforms | 9

STEMscopedia 4. What are the primary differences between lakes and rivers?

All of the landforms that have been mentioned prior to this point are found in Florida. Mountains are the largest landforms on Earth. They are created by either volcanic eruptions or plate tectonics. When ODYD À RZV IURP D YROFDQR LW KDUGHQV DQG EXLOGV XS WR IRUP D PRXQWDLQ RYHU WLPH :KHQ WHFWRQLF SODWHV push together, mountains are created as the land folds together. Each mountain usually comes to a peak. Some mountains have snow at their peaks all year because they are so tall that temperatures at the peaks do not get high enough to melt the snow. While Florida’s highest point is called Sugarloaf Mountain, at 95 m above sea level, it’s not truly a mountain.

7KH &DXFDVXV 0RXQWDLQV LQ 5XVVLD

10 | Changing Earth’s Landforms

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STEMscopedia most of your life. Glaciers are not found in Florida—now or ever before. Florida may see snow on rare occasions, but there is not enough snow or ice for it to stay on the ground and develop into a glacier.

As a matter of fact, Florida was where the Paleo-Indians relocated during harsh winters in the north because of its milder temperatures.

Glaciers are large bodies of ice that do not melt away in summer because they form where temperatures stay very cold for most of the year. Because they are miles and miles in size, they move across land due to their weight, removing soil and other structures that are in their way and revealing bare rock as they pass. Glaciers can erode soil and rock and deposit them in other locations.

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Changing Earth’s Landforms | 11

STEMscopedia Dr. Joni Mäkinen, PhD, and Dr. Kari Kajuutti, PhD University of Turku, Finland Joni Mäkinen and Kari Kajuutti studied landforms in Finland with the help of laser technology. They noticed something strange when they found triangular-shaped landforms that were created during the last ice age.

Because these areas are covered by forests and in remote areas, they had never been noticed before.

7KH DUHDV RI WKHVH ODQGIRUPV ZHUH ¿ OOHG ZLWK URFNV DQG ODUJH ERXOGHUV VR WKH\ QDPHG LW murtoo, which is a word that comes from the word for broken in Finnish. They have since discovered the same type of landforms in Sweden, which experienced the same ice age. As it turns out, when large sheets of glacial ice melted, the conditions were right for large amounts of melted ice to shape these areas.

12 | Changing Earth’s Landforms

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STEMscopedia Earth’s surface has a variety of types of landforms. Landforms are natural formations or areas of land WKDW DUH IRXQG RQ WKH VXUIDFH RI (DUWK 6RPH ODQGIRUPV DUH À DW VXFK DV GHOWDV DQG PDQ\ FRDVWOLQHV Other landforms are raised, such as hills, mountains, and dunes.

Many changes occur to Earth’s landforms over time. Blowing wind, moving water, and freezing ice cause weathering, erosion, and deposition that can transform Earth’s surface. For example, young mountains are tall with steep slopes. They have sharp, jagged peaks. Over time, due to wind, their slopes become less sharp. Their peaks become rounded and smooth.

Connect It :KDW ZRXOG KDSSHQ WR DQ DUHD LI D ULYHU ZHUH WR VWRS À RZLQJ WKURXJK LW" 5LYHUV HURGH WKH ODQG DURXQG WKHP WUDQVSRUWLQJ VHGLPHQWV WR RWKHU ORFDWLRQV :LWKRXW ULYHUV WKH landforms would wear down less quickly over time and sand and dirt would not be carried downstream to deltas or oceans. Soil would build up in areas where it was previously eroded. This could impact soil health along river coastlines and farther downstream.

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Changing Earth’s Landforms | 13

STEMscopedia Summarize It 1

Which landform is created by the buildup of materials that are eroded and deposited by a river?

A Lake B Delta C Coastline D Dune

2

The large shapes of land that make up Earth are called– A glaciers.

B mountains.

C deltas.

D landforms.

3

Florida has all of these landforms EXCEPT– A mountains.

B rivers.

C dunes.

D coastlines.

4

Weathering is the– A movement of sediment from one location to another.

B breaking down of rocks and landforms.

C dropping off of materials to a new location.

D changing conditions of temperature and precipitation.

5

Which of the following would be the best model of erosion by a river?

A Dropping vinegar on chalk to show how acid can break down land B Creating puddles in dirt to show how water accumulates in a dry area C 5DLVLQJ RQH HQG RI D FRQWDLQHU WKDW LV ¿ OOHG ZLWK VDQG WR FUHDWH D UDPS DQG UHOHDVLQJ ZDWHU GRZQ the container D 5DLVLQJ RQH HQG RI D FRQWDLQHU WKDW LV ¿ OOHG ZLWK VDQG WR FUHDWH D UDPS DQG UHOHDVLQJ DQ LFH FXEH down the ramp

6

Describe each of the landforms in the table based on characteristics that we use to recognize them.

Landform Name

Characteristics

Coastline Delta Dune Glacier Lake 5LYHU Mountain

14 | Changing Earth’s Landforms

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Spheres and Layers of Earth

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15

STEMscopedia Imagine being a skydiver. You jump from a metal plane and free fall through the air until you are falling as fast as you can—at about 150 miles or 240 kilometers per hour. As you pull your parachute, you notice the puffy white clouds all around you and feel water vapor on your face. The air is freezing cold EXW EHJLQV WR ZDUP XS DV \RX JOLGH VRIWO\ XQWLO \RXU IHHW DUH ¿ UPO\ EDFN RQ WKH JURXQG How would you describe the individual parts of Earth that were part of your journey during this experience?

of parts iver t a h 1.. W s a skyd n doe Earth ct with whe intera ake a jump they m airplane? n from a

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Spheres and Layers of Earth | 17

STEMscopedia Earth is a complex planet that has undergone constant change since its formation. From the diverse plant and animal life to the colorful rocks, the weather and climate, and the oceans and ice, our home planet truly has everything.

To help us break this massive area of study into parts, let’s consider the shape of Earth. Earth is a sphere, or a ball-shaped planet. Inside this massive sphere are smaller spheres that contain various elements that make up the planet. Scientists think of these spheres as overlapping subsystems (subPHDQV ³SDUW RI´ WKDW FRQWDLQ HDFK RI WKH ¿ YH HOHPHQWV WKDW ZH NQRZ RI DV SDUWV RI (DUWK OLIH DLU ZDWHU ice, and land.

7KH LQWHUDFWLRQV EHWZHHQ YDULRXV HOHPHQWV LQ (DUWK¶V ¿ YH VSKHUHV UHF\FOH FKHPLFDO HOHPHQWV DQG EXLOGLQJ blocks of life, create geological events, give way to Earth’s weather conditions, and showcase the biodiversity on our planet. Let’s explore each of these spheres, their components, and the interactions between the spheres.

18 | Spheres and Layers of Earth

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STEMscopedia (DUWK FDQ EH GLYLGHG LQWR ¿ YH VSKHUHV²WKH JHRVSKHUH WKH K\GURVSKHUH WKH FU\RVSKHUH WKH ELRVSKHUH and the atmosphere.

The geosphere is the portion of Earth that includes hard land, rocks, and soil. It also includes the molten rock in Earth’s interior, rocks and minerals, landforms, and processes that shape Earth’s surface.

(DUWK¶V JHRVSKHUH JHWV LWV QDPH IURP WKH SUH¿ [ geo-, meaning “Earth.” It is uneven, stretching from the tops of mountains to the core of Earth. Earth’s geosphere is made of all the solid and molten rock, soil, and sediments of the planet. The solid portion of the planet under our feet includes dirt, mountains, and any other hard surfaces, such as continental and oceanic crust. The molten portion of the planet, which you cannot see, includes lava, magma, and the mineral compounds in the ground.

The geosphere serves as the foundation on which everything else on our planet has built habitats. It is the land that we plant crops in, the land that we mine ore from, and the materials that we use to make bricks.

The geosphere is all of the land, rocks, and soil that we see and the materials inside Earth.

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Spheres and Layers of Earth | 19

STEMscopedia hydrosphere consists of all the water on (DUWK¶V VXUIDFH DQG WKH ZDWHU EHORZ WKH VXUIDFH 7KLV VSKHUH JHWV LWV QDPH IURP WKH SUH¿ [ hydro-, which means “water.” The hydrosphere includes all water in its different states—from freshwater bodies like ODNHV DQG ULYHUV WKDW À RZ WR RFHDQV WR WKH JODFLHUV WKDW PHOW LQWR WKH RFHDQV :DWHU FDQ EH IRXQG LQ WKH atmosphere as water vapor, in clouds, on the surface as groundwater, falling as precipitation, and frozen at the poles.

The frozen water on Earth is part of the hydrosphere but is also given its own name. Because so much of Earth’s water is tied up in a frozen state, this is known as the cryosphere. This sphere gets its name IURP WKH SUH¿ [ cryo-, which means “icy cold” or “frost.” Some places on Earth are so cold that the water is frozen solid. The cryosphere is composed of areas of snow or ice that are subject to temperatures below 32°F for at least part of the year.

Ice and snow on land are part of the cryosphere. In fact, the largest parts of the cryosphere include the continental ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica as well as ice caps, glaciers, and areas of snow and SHUPDIURVW 3HUPDIURVW LV ZKHQ WKH VRLO LV SHUPDQHQWO\ IUR]HQ &RQWLQHQWDO LFH À RZLQJ RXW IURP WKH ODQG to the sea surface produces shelf ice.

The other part of the cryosphere is ice that is found in water. This includes frozen parts of the ocean, such as in the water surrounding Antarctica and the Arctic. It also includes frozen rivers and lakes, which occur mainly in polar areas.

7KH FRPSRQHQWV RI WKH FU\RVSKHUH SOD\ DQ LPSRUWDQW UROH LQ (DUWK¶V FOLPDWH 6QRZ DQG LFH UHÀ HFW KHDW from the Sun, helping regulate our planet’s temperature. Polar regions are some of the most sensitive to FOLPDWH VKLIWV ZKLFK LV ZK\ WKH FU\RVSKHUH LV RQH RI WKH ¿ UVW SODFHV ZKHUH VFLHQWLVWV FDQ LGHQWLI\ JOREDO changes in climate.

Glaciers, ocean water, and clouds are all parts of the hydrosphere.

20 | Spheres and Layers of Earth

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STEMscopedia is the n t a h 2. W etwee d b e c n n differe rosphere a yd the h osphere? cry

The fourth of Earth’s spheres, called the biosphere, is the sum of all living matter on Earth, including KXPDQV 7KH SUH¿ [ bio- means “life.” This includes all the plants and animals that live on Earth, including those that live in caves, rivers, deserts, and arctic regions. Organisms in six kingdoms, including fungi, bacteria, and plants, are included in the biosphere.

The biosphere has smaller parts called biomes, which contain different living organisms. Earth is divided LQWR VHYHUDO ELRPHV DQG HDFK ELRPH IDOOV LQWR RQH RI WZR FDWHJRULHV ODQG RU DTXDWLF /DQG ELRPHV are large landmass areas, such as the tropical rain forest (jungle), savanna (grassland), taiga, tundra, PRXQWDLQ DQG WHPSHUDWH IRUHVW $TXDWLF ELRPHV LQFOXGH PDULQH HVWXDULQH DQG IUHVKZDWHU ELRPHV

Both this porcupine and the plant that it is eating are part of Earth’s biosphere. © Accelerate Learning Inc. – All Rights Reserved

Spheres and Layers of Earth | 21

STEMscopedia atmosphere is the thin layer of gas that surrounds and insulates our planet and is held in place by (DUWK¶V JUDYLW\ 7KLV VSKHUH JHWV LWV QDPH IURP WKH SUH¿ [ atmo-, which means “air.” The atmosphere makes life possible on Earth. Earth’s atmosphere is approximately 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen. $OPRVW DOO IRUPV RI OLIH RQ (DUWK DQG FHUWDLQO\ LWV PRVW FRPSOH[ IRUPV UHTXLUH R[\JHQ WR SURGXFH WKH energy that is needed to survive.

The amount of solar radiation WKDW LV UHÀ HFWHG DQG DEVRUEHG E\ (DUWK¶V DWPRVSKHUH DQG VXUIDFH LV WKH PDLQ IDFWRU WKDW LQÀ XHQFHV (DUWK¶V JOREDO FOLPDWH $ERXW KDOI RI WKH HQHUJ\ IURP WKH 6XQ LV DEVRUEHG E\ Earth’s surface. Earth’s surface reradiates the energy that it absorbs from the Sun as thermal energy.

This thermal energy is absorbed by greenhouse gas molecules in the atmosphere, including carbon dioxide gas, further warming Earth.

The angle of the solar radiation that reaches Earth’s surface also affects the amount of solar radiation that is absorbed. At latitudes closer to the poles, solar radiation hits Earth’s surface at a low angle. This PHDQV WKHVH UD\V PXVW WUDYHO D JUHDWHU GLVWDQFH WKURXJK WKH DWPRVSKHUH ZKHUH LW LV UHÀ HFWHG DQG scattered) and are less intense at the surface because their energy is not as concentrated. Receiving less direct solar radiation causes the poles to be colder than the tropics, which receive more direct solar radiation. Uneven heating of the atmosphere by the Sun’s energy causes weather patterns on Earth, impacting our daily living experience.

cted surface an tmosp p out to o spac

Most radia absorbed byy Earth surface and warms it.

byy g gas mo m further w Earth.

(DUWK¶V DWPRVSKHUH FRQVLVWV RI ¿ YH GLVWLQFW OD\HUV 7KH ORZHVW OD\HU WKH WURSRVSKHUH DFWV DV WKH LQYLVLEOH VKLHOG WKDW NHHSV WKH 6XQ¶V ZDUPWK LQ :LWKRXW WKH DWPRVSKHUH WKH VXUIDFH RI (DUWK ZRXOG GURS WR extreme freezing temperatures every night. The troposphere begins about 12 km (approximately 7.5 mi.) above Earth. The molecules in this layer are densely packed together. The troposphere also contains evaporated water vapor and therefore is the site of atmospheric weather.

The layer directly above the troposphere is the stratosphere. The stratosphere contains the ozone layer DQG LV WKH KLJKHVW DUHD WKDW KXPDQ PDGH DLUFUDIW FDQ WUDYHO WKURXJK :KLOH KHDW DQG OLJKW DUH QHFHVVDU\ for life on Earth, there are other forms of dangerous energy from the Sun, such as ultraviolet radiation.

The ozone layer protects life from harmful radiation by absorbing ultraviolet radiation, which can cause VXQEXUQV FDWDUDFWV LQ KXPDQ H\HV DQG GDPDJH WR FURSV DQG RFHDQ OLIH :LWKRXW WKH R]RQH OD\HU PRUH harmful radiation would reach the surface and cause stronger effects.

22 | Spheres and Layers of Earth

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STEMscopedia Have you ever seen a shooting star streak across the sky at night? Is it really a falling star? No. It is, however, a meteor falling toward Earth. Most meteors burn up in the mesosphere.

The fourth atmospheric layer above Earth is the thermosphere. Because it is located above the ozone layer, the temperature in this layer can reach 1,500°C. This layer is the site of the aurora borealis, PRUH FRPPRQO\ UHIHUUHG WR DV WKH QRUWKHUQ OLJKWV 7KH H[RVSKHUH LV WKH ¿ IWK DQG ¿ QDO OD\HU RI (DUWK¶V DWPRVSKHUH 0ROHFXOHV DUH VR ORRVHO\ SDFNHG KHUH WKDW VRPH RIWHQ À RDW RII LQWR VSDFH 7KLV LV WKH OHDVW GHQVH OD\HU RI WKH ¿ YH 0RVW RI WKH VDWHOOLWHV WKDW RUELW (DUWK GR VR LQ WKLV OD\HU

t would h a h W t 3. on Ear n e p hap t the u o h it w ere? h p s o m at

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Spheres and Layers of Earth | 23

STEMscopedia 7KHUH DUH FRXQWOHVV LQWHUDFWLRQV EHWZHHQ WKH ¿ YH VSKHUHV RI (DUWK 7KH ZDWHUIDOO VKRZQ LV SDUW RI WKH hydrosphere. It interacts with land in the geosphere by weathering and eroding rocks. The waterfall sends water droplets into the atmosphere as water vapor. There are also clouds in the image, which are a result of an interaction between the hydrosphere and atmosphere. The moss on the rock in the image is an interaction between the biosphere and the geosphere. The waterfall provides moisture to allow moss to grow on the rock.

7KH JHRVSKHUH LQWHUDFWV ZLWK WKH DWPRVSKHUH ZKHQ URFNVOLGHV HDUWKTXDNHV RU YROFDQRHV DGG GXVW to the air. The geosphere provides the hydrosphere with a means for bodies of water or ice that have PHOWHG WR À RZ EDFN WR RFHDQV 7KH JHRVSKHUH LV WKH IRXQGDWLRQ IRU PDQ\ RI WKH ELRPHV RI (DUWK ZKLFK LV D YHU\ LPSRUWDQW LQWHUDFWLRQ ZLWK WKH ELRVSKHUH 7KH JHRVSKHUH UHÀ HFWV WKH 6XQ¶V HQHUJ\ EDFN LQWR WKH atmosphere, helping regulate Earth’s temperature.

-XVW DV WKH JHRVSKHUH SURYLGHV WKH K\GURVSKHUH ZLWK D PHDQV RI GLUHFWLQJ ZDWHU À RZ WKH K\GURVSKHUH LQWHUDFWV ZLWK WKH JHRVSKHUH DV ZDWHU À RZV FDXVLQJ ZHDWKHULQJ DQG HURVLRQ RI URFN 7KH 6XQ¶V HQHUJ\ causes water from the ocean and other bodies of water to evaporate, moving water particles from the hydrosphere into the atmosphere. The water vapor might remain in the atmosphere as clouds or return to Earth as precipitation. Maybe one of the most important interactions of the hydrosphere is providing water to habitats in the biosphere.

24 | Spheres and Layers of Earth

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STEMscopedia IUHH]LQJ :KHQ ZDWHU IUHH]HV LQVLGH URFN LW FDQ FDXVH ZHDWKHULQJ RI URFN E\ FUDFNLQJ DV WKH LFH H[SDQGV Ice from glaciers interact with the geosphere as sheets of ice from the cryosphere move and erode land.

The atmosphere, hydrosphere, and geosphere all interact as a connected system that shapes the ways that all living things in the biosphere experience daily life, weather, climate, and their environments. %LUGV À \ DWPRVSKHUH ¿ VK VZLP K\GURVSKHUH DQG IRVVLO IXHOV IRUP IURP WKH UHPDLQV RI SODQWV DQG animals (geosphere). $V KLJKOLJKWHG LQ WKH SULRU SDUDJUDSKV WKH DWPRVSKHUH LQWHUDFWV ZLWK RWKHU VSKHUHV LQ PDQ\ ZD\V :KHQ hurricanes form, the atmosphere and hydrosphere work together to move the storm through the water.

The atmosphere is another medium for weathering and erosion of rock.

There are many, many examples of how the spheres of Earth interact and impact one another. Studying these interactions is important to understand the world around us and what impacts we have on the spheres of Earth.

le examp n a e 4. Giv least three of at s of Earth e spher cting. Be inntera ame the o n sure t s and the e spher nents in compo res that he the sp choose. you

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Spheres and Layers of Earth | 25

STEMscopedia Dr. Ben Kirtman, MS, PhD University of Miami Ben Kirtman is a professor at the University of Miami in Florida. He teaches graduate courses on atmospheric movements and patterns, such as El Niño and La Niña, as well as climate prediction.

He is a mentor to advanced students who are studying weather and the oceans. Kirtman is also the program director for climate and environmental hazards at the Center for Computational Sciences. He investigates and researches how climate changes over various periods of time, from days to decades.

Kirtman has published many research papers, including one discussing the effect of climate change on 1RUWK 3DFL¿ F WURSLFDO F\FORQH WUDFNV

26 | Spheres and Layers of Earth

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STEMscopedia (DUWK FDQ EH GLYLGHG LQWR ¿ YH PDLQ VSKHUHV 7KH ¿ YH PDLQ VSKHUHV LQFOXGH WKH JHRVSKHUH K\GURVSKHUH biosphere, and atmosphere. The geosphere is solid Earth, the hydrosphere contains all of Earth’s water, the biosphere contains all of the life on Earth, and the atmosphere involves Earth’s air resources. Each KDV GLIIHUHQW FKDUDFWHULVWLFV DQG LQWHUDFWV ZLWK WKH RWKHUV LQ XQLTXH ZD\V

Connect It What spheres of Earth are involved in skydiving?

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Spheres and Layers of Earth | 27

STEMscopedia Summarize It 1

:KDW LV WKH GLIIHUHQFH EHWZHHQ WKH K\GURVSKHUH DQG WKH DWPRVSKHUH" A The hydrosphere contains water, and the atmosphere consists of air.

B The hydrosphere contains the air on Earth, and the atmosphere contains water.

C The hydrosphere contains life, and the atmosphere contains land.

D The hydrosphere contains land, and the atmosphere contains water.

2

:KLFK WZR VSKHUHV DUH LQYROYHG ZKHQ URFNV XQGHUJR ZHDWKHULQJ" A Biosphere and geosphere B Atmosphere and biosphere C Geosphere and atmosphere D Atmosphere and hydrosphere

3

:KLFK RI WKH IROORZLQJ LV 127 D ZD\ WKDW (DUWK¶V DWPRVSKHUH VXVWDLQV OLIH" A The atmosphere protects Earth from space objects.

B The atmosphere regulates the temperature of Earth.

C The atmosphere provides the right mix of breathable air.

D The atmosphere provides fresh water for organisms.

4

Fill in the table with the correct spheres that are described (geosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, biosphere, or atmosphere).

Name of Sphere

Features Variety of ecosystems and organisms :DWHU RI ODNHV ULYHUV RFHDQV DQG ZDWHU YDSRU Solid and molten rock, soil, and sediment Air, oxygen, and insulating layer of the planet Ice, glaciers, and the frozen water at the poles

5

*LYH DW OHDVW RQH H[DPSOH RI D FRPSRQHQW RI HDFK RI (DUWK¶V ¿ YH VSKHUHV²WKH JHRVSKHUH hydrosphere, cryosphere, biosphere, and atmosphere.

28 | Spheres and Layers of Earth

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Influences of Weather and Climate

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29

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snows, it n 1. Whe are the how e and r e h p hydros re involved? he atmosp

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,nÀXenFes of :eather and COimate | 31

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STEMscopedia

e an iv G .

2 le of p m a x e d er an h t a e w ample an ex ate. of clim

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,nÀXenFes of :eather and COimate | 33

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Arctic Circle 66.6° N 30° N Tropic of Cancer

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Equator Tropic of Capricorn 30° S 66.6° S Antarctic Circle

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34 | ,nÀXenFes of :eather and COimate

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STEMscopedia

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,nÀXenFes of :eather and COimate | 35

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Atmosphere e

Air pressure 8,000 m

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36 | ,nÀXenFes of :eather and COimate

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STEMscopedia High pressure

Low pressure

Wind More dense

Less dense

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,nÀXenFes of :eather and COimate | 37

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STEMscopedia a lowe s o s pp 4. Su re air mas u press th of your e is nor winds ar and e state, g from th d comin at kin h W . north ther would a of we ect in the , p s you ex uple of day co next d why? an

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,nÀXenFes of :eather and COimate | 39

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40 | ,nÀXenFes of :eather and COimate

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STEMscopedia

Wind

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,nÀXenFes of :eather and COimate | 41

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42 | ,nÀXenFes of :eather and COimate

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,nÀXenFes of :eather and COimate | 43

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44 | ,nÀXenFes of :eather and COimate

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STEMscopedia Monthly Averages of Atlantic Storms with Sustained Winds > 74 mph 7

Monthly average

6 5 4 3 2 1 0 May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

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,nÀXenFes of :eather and COimate | 45

STEMscopedia June Bacon-Bercey NOAA’s National Weather Service and US Atomic Energy Commission -XQH %DFRQ %HUFH\ ZDV WKH ¿ UVW ZRPDQ DQG WKH ¿ UVW $IULFDQ $PHULFDQ WR EH DZDUGHG WKH $PHULFDQ 0HWHRURORJLFDO 6RFLHW\¶V 6HDO RI $SSURYDO IRU RQ FDPHUD PHWHRURORJLVWV 6KH ZDV DOVR D 0LQRULW\ 3LRQHHU IRU $FKLHYHPHQW LQ $WPRVSKHULF 6FLHQFHV E\ 1$6$ 6KH ZDV WKH ¿ UVW $IULFDQ $PHULFDQ ZRPDQ ZLWK WUDLQLQJ LQ PHWHRURORJ\ WR UHSRUW WKH ZHDWKHU RQ WHOHYLVLRQ *URZLQJ XS %DFRQ %HUFH\ HQMR\HG RXWGRRU DFWLYLWLHV LQFOXGLQJ *LUO 6FRXWV $ KLJK VFKRRO VFLHQFH WHDFKHU HQFRXUDJHG KHU WR VWXG\ PHWHRURORJ\ ZKHQ VKH DWWHQGHG FROOHJH ZKLFK VKH GLG 6KH JUDGXDWHG IURP WKH 8QLYHUVLW\ RI &DOLIRUQLD /RV $QJHOHV 8&/$ ZLWK D EDFKHORU¶V GHJUHH LQ PHWHRURORJ\ WKH ¿ UVW $IULFDQ $PHULFDQ ZRPDQ WR GR VR 6KH ZHQW RQ WR HDUQ D PDVWHU¶V GHJUHH IURP WKH 8QLYHUVLW\ RI 6RXWKHUQ &DOLIRUQLD DV ZHOO 6KH ZRUNHG IRU WKH 8QLWHG 6WDWHV $WRPLF (QHUJ\ &RPPLVVLRQ WR XQGHUVWDQG KRZ K\GURJHQ DQG DWRPLF ERPEV EHKDYHG LQ (DUWK¶V DWPRVSKHUH DQG ZKDW IDOORXW SDWWHUQV WKH\ FUHDWHG 6KH DOVR ZRUNHG DV D UDGDU PHWHRURORJLVW QHZV UHSRUWHU DQG VXEVWLWXWH WHDFKHU 6KH HVWDEOLVKHG D VFKRODUVKLS IRU ZRPHQ LQWHUHVWHG LQ DWPRVSKHULF VFLHQFHV WR KHOS SD\ IRU FROOHJH +HU JRDO LQ GRLQJ VR ZDV WR LQFUHDVH WKH QXPEHU RI IHPDOH $IULFDQ $PHULFDQV LQ PHWHRURORJ\ 7R WKLV HQG VKH KHOSHG HVWDEOLVK WKH PHWHRURORJ\ ODE DW -DFNVRQ 6WDWH 8QLYHUVLW\

7KH ERPELQJ RI +LURVKLPD DQG 1DJDVDNL KDSSHQHG DERXW \HDUV EHIRUH -XQH %DFRQ %HUFH\ ¿ QLVKHG FROOHJH 6KH EHFDPH LQWHUHVWHG LQ WKH HIIHFWV RI ERPEV RQ (DUWK¶V DWPRVSKHUH 7KLV ZDV RQO\ RQH RI PDQ\ HYHQWV WKDW OHG WR KHU LQWHUHVW LQ DWPRVSKHULF VFLHQFHV 46 | ,nÀXenFes of :eather and COimate

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STEMscopedia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²D ZDUP IURQW DQG D FROG IURQW 0HWHRURORJLVWV FDQ PDNH SUHGLFWLRQV E\ ORRNLQJ DW WKH PRYHPHQW RI DLU PDVVHV DQG WKH WHPSHUDWXUH GLIIHUHQFHV EHWZHHQ WKHP 2FHDQ ZDWHU LV FRQVWDQWO\ FLUFXODWLQJ DURXQG WKH ZRUOG EHFDXVH RI WKH PRYHPHQWV RI RFHDQ FXUUHQWV 2FHDQV DOVR DEVRUE WKH 6XQ¶V HQHUJ\ VWRUH LW DQG UHOHDVH LW ,QWHUDFWLRQV RI WKH 6XQ DWPRVSKHUH DQG K\GURVSKHUH QHDU FRDVWOLQHV DOVR FUHDWH ZLQG

Connect It How are the hydrosphere and atmosphere involved in snow? ,Q RUGHU IRU LW WR VQRZ WHPSHUDWXUHV PXVW EH FROG HQRXJK WR IUHH]H 7KHUH PXVW DOVR EH HQRXJK PRLVWXUH SUHVHQW LQ WKH DLU IRU VQRZ WR IRUP :DWHU LQ WKH K\GURVSKHUH HYDSRUDWHV FRQGHQVHV DQG IRUPV FORXGV DQG WKHQ IDOOV DV SUHFLSLWDWLRQ 6QRZ RIWHQ IDOOV DORQJ WKH OLQHV RI D FROG IURQW ZKHUH FORXGV KDYH IRUPHG GXH WR DLU PROHFXOHV EHLQJ SXVKHG XSZDUG E\ DQ DGYDQFLQJ DLU PDVV

In cold temperatures, water droplets supercool into ice crystals. crystals.

Ice crystals collide, grow together, and form snowflakes.

Clouds form.

Warm, moist air rises.

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When snowflakes are large enough, they fall to Earth.

,nÀXenFes of :eather and COimate | 47

STEMscopedia Summarize It 1

:KLFK RI WKH IROORZLQJ LV 127 D ZD\ WKDW WKH 6XQ K\GURVSKHUH DQG DWPRVSKHUH LQWHUDFW WR LQÀ XHQFH ZHDWKHU" A 7KH 6XQ XQHYHQO\ KHDWV (DUWK FDXVLQJ WHPSHUDWXUH GLIIHUHQFHV LQ WKH DLU DQG ZDWHU B 7KH 6XQ IXHOV ZLQG ZKLFK KHOSV DLU PDVVHV PRYH RYHU FRQWLQHQWV DQG RFHDQV C :DUP KLJK SUHVVXUH DLU PDVVHV SXVK FROG DLU XS FUHDWLQJ FORXGV DQG VWRUPV DV WKH\ PRYH RYHU ERGLHV RI ZDWHU D 7KH 6XQ KHDWV WKH RFHDQV ZKLFK KHOSV KXUULFDQH IRUPDWLRQ GXULQJ WKH VXPPHU PRQWKV

2

+RZ GRHV WKH 6XQ LPSDFW FOLPDWH LQ DUHDV QHDU WKH SROHV" A 7KHVH DUHDV KDYH FROGHU FOLPDWHV GXH WR UHFHLYLQJ LQGLUHFW UDGLDWLRQ IURP WKH 6XQ B 7KH 6XQ ZDUPV (DUWK HYHQO\ EXW RFHDQ FXUUHQWV FDQ PRYH ZDUP DLU DZD\ IURP WKH SROHV WRZDUG WKH HTXDWRU C 7KHVH DUHDV DUH ZDUPHG E\ WKH 6XQ¶V PRVW GLUHFW UD\V DQG KDYH WKH ZDUPHVW FOLPDWHV D 7KH FOLPDWH DW WKH SROHV FDQ FKDQJH IURP GD\ WR GD\ GHSHQGLQJ RQ KRZ PXFK FORXG FRYHU EORFNV WKH 6XQ¶V UDGLDWLRQ

3

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4

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5

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6

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48 | InÀuences of Weather and Climate

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Natural Disasters

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49

STEMscopedia On August 13, 2004, Hurricane Charley shocked Floridians after making a surprise turn and hitting the state. Three weeks later, on September 5, Hurricane Frances struck Florida as well. The country watched as Hurricane Ivan hit Florida’s east coast only 11 days later, on September 16, and then reorganized and crossed the southern part of the state again on September 21. A fourth storm, Hurricane Jeanne, made ODQGIDOO LQ )ORULGD MXVW ¿ YH GD\V ODWHU RQ 6HSWHPEHU ZLWK ZLQGV RI PSK ,Q D OLWWOH PRUH WKDQ VL[ weeks, these four storms caused more than $42 billion in damage and 109 deaths in Florida alone. How can places prepare for storms such as hurricanes?

Hurricanes are not the only natural disasters in Florida—despite these shocking facts about the GHYDVWDWLRQ WKDW WKH\ FDXVH )ORULGLDQV H[SHULHQFH WKXQGHUVWRUPV IUHTXHQWO\ DQG ZLOG¿ UHV DUH QRW uncommon either! Even with these potentially life-threatening hazardous weather events, Florida is still a very common place for vacation or relocation. Theme parks, beaches, and thriving cities bring many people to Florida, making the economic effects of natural disasters that much more noticeable.

do you t a h e 1. W es som o k a m think events s l natura stating? deva k ou thin y o d y 2. Wh still has so e Florida ists despit r tour many dous weathe hazar vents? e © Accelerate Learning Inc. – All Rights Reserved

Natural Disasters | 51

STEMscopedia Hurricanes are just one type of natural disaster that affects human life in Florida. They are considered the most dangerous because of the large area that they impact. The high winds cause major damage to buildings, and the rising water levels cause storm surges. These walls of water that come ashore cause beach erosion and destroy coastal homes and businesses. Tornadoes, heavy rains, and À RRGLQJ are all associated with hurricanes.

e t is th t a h W c 3. d-effe en n a e caus ip betwe sh es, relation es, tornado an hurric ş RRGLQJ" DQG

There are, however, many ways that Floridians can protect themselves and their businesses from KXUULFDQHV (QVXULQJ WKDW EXLOGLQJV KDYH VROLG DQG VWXUG\ ZDOOV LV WKH ¿ UVW VWHS :KHQ D VWRUP LV approaching, citizens must monitor the weather and prepare their houses and businesses by securing windows and doors, moving loose items indoors, and having emergency supplies on hand.

52 | Natural Disasters

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STEMscopedia Floridians also know that thunderstorms are a common part of the state’s weather. These VWURQJ VWRUPV FDQ DIIHFW KXPDQ OLIH LQ )ORULGD E\ EULQJLQJ WRUQDGRHV OLJKWQLQJ KDLO DQG À RRGLQJ 7KXQGHUVWRUPV FDQ FDXVH ZLOG¿ UHV ZKHQ OLJKWQLQJ VWULNHV GXULQJ WLPHV RI GURXJKW 7KH LQWHQVH KHDW of Florida’s summer climate can create areas of very dry vegetation. A single spark can lead to widespread devastation.

Even though they are not as dangerous as hurricanes, thunderstorms can also bring long-term effects. $IWHU IUHTXHQW WKXQGHUVWRUPV WUHHV DUH RIWHQ XSURRWHG GXH WR VRJJ\ VRLO DURXQG WKHLU URRWV DQG KHDY\ winds pushing them in multiple directions. This can cause falling power lines, large-scale erosion, and irreparable damage to vehicles and buildings.

are 4. How ms and rstor o thunde es similar t an hurric h other? eac

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Natural Disasters | 53

STEMscopedia Although it does not fall into the typical category of a natural disaster, another thing that Floridians QHHG WR SURWHFW WKHPVHOYHV IURP LV H[SRVXUH WR VXQOLJKW 1DWXUDO VXQOLJKW DQG WKH 6XQ¶V UD\V FRXOG EH disastrous for our skin! According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, skin damage can occur in as little as 15 minutes of unprotected Sun exposure 2YHUH[SRVXUH WR XOWUDYLROHW 89 UD\V FDQ KDSSHQ DW DQ\ WLPH RI \HDU HYHQ RQ GD\V WKDW DUH FRRO DQG FORXG\ 7KH 89 UD\V DUH VWURQJHVW EHWZHHQ WKH KRXUV RI D P DQG S P 8VH VXQVFUHHQ DQG ZHDU VXQJODVVHV LI \RX ZLOO EH RXWVLGH GXULQJ WKRVH WLPHV +RZHYHU LW LV D JRRG LGHD WR DOZD\V DSSO\ VXQVFUHHQ DQG ZHDU 89 SURWHFWLRQ DSSDUHO ZKHQ you plan to be outside at any time of day.

:KLOH OLJKW FRORUHG FORWKLQJ PD\ NHHS \RX FRROHU GDUNHU FRORUHG FORWKLQJ ZLOO UHGXFH \RXU ULVN RI RYHUH[SRVXUH WR 89 UD\V 'DUN FRORUV DEVRUE WKH UD\V NHHSLQJ WKHP RII \RXU VNLQ )DEULFV ZLWK D WLJKW ZHDYH DOVR EORFN PRUH RI WKH GDPDJLQJ 89 UD\V

effect t a h 5. W exposure ver does o ht have on lig to sun bodies? our

54 | Natural Disasters

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STEMscopedia Dr. Scott Braun, PhD NASA

6FRWW %UDXQ LV D UHVHDUFK PHWHRURORJLVW DQG D SDUW RI 1$6$¶V +XUULFDQH 5HVHDUFK 7HDP +H LV DQ H[SHUW in studying hurricanes on the inside and out by using computer models to look at details like wind, rainfall, and temperature. His work is a fundamental part of creating hurricane forecasts, so Braun is DQ LQWHJUDO PHPEHU RI WKH UHVHDUFK WHDP :LWKRXW KLV ZRUN PHWHRURORJLVWV ZRXOGQ¶W EH DEOH WR KHOS Floridians prepare for hurricanes as early as they do!

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Natural Disasters | 55

STEMscopedia Beyond the immediate threat to property and human safety from water and wind, natural disasters bring \HDUV RI HIIHFWV RQ HFRQRPLHV E\ DIIHFWLQJ WRXULVP DQG DJULFXOWXUH :KHQ EXVLQHVVHV À RRG RU KDYH ZLQG damage to their buildings, the repairs often take months or years to complete. In this time, employees PXVW ¿ QG QHZ VRXUFHV RI LQFRPH WKHLU FXVWRPHU EDVHV PD\ GZLQGOH DQG WKH ODFN RI WUDI¿ F FDQ DIIHFW nearby businesses. Tourist attractions, such as theme parks and cruise terminals, can be damaged and closed for periods of time, causing the people who work there to lose income. Farmers can lose their crops, leading to a range of effects on Florida’s citrus fruit industry. It’s like a domino effect of negative impacts from the original event of the natural disaster!

Connect It ,I VRPHRQH ZHUH SODQQLQJ WR PRYH WR )ORULGD ZKDW ZRXOG \RX WHOO WKHP DERXW WKH SRWHQWLDO impacts of hazardous weather?

In Florida, there are many thunderstorms, including those that come with hurricanes, potentially causing long-term devastation. 6WRUP VXUJH À RRGLQJ DQG WRUQDGRHV FDQ DOO EH SDUW RI WKHVH KXJH VWRUPV :LOG¿ UHV FDQ DOVR KDSSHQ HVSHFLDOO\ ZKHQ WKH ZHDWKHU LV YHU\ KRW DQG YHJHWDWLRQ LV GU\

56 | Natural Disasters

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STEMscopedia Weather Formation +XUULFDQHV WRUQDGRHV WKXQGHUVWRUPV DQG À RRGV DUH DOO ZHDWKHU UHODWHG QDWXUDO GLVDVWHUV WKDW LPSDFW )ORULGD 7KHVH W\SHV RI VHYHUH ZHDWKHU DUH LQÀ XHQFHG E\ FKDQJHV LQ WKH DWPRVSKHUH VXFK DV LQ temperature, wind, moisture, and air pressure.

7KXQGHUVWRUPV IRUP ZKHQ PRLVWXUH IRUPV FORXGV DQG UDLQ DQG XQVWDEOH ZDUP DLU ULVHV UDSLGO\ :KHQ D KRWWHU OHVV GHQVH PDVV PRYHV QH[W WR D FRROHU GHQVHU PDVV WKH ZDUPHU PDVV FDQQRW PRYH WKH FRRO one out of the way. The warmer mass has molecules that are farther apart from each other. The cooler mass’s molecules are closer together because less heat energy has reached them. This difference in density causes thunderstorms to form as the masses try to move around and past each other.

7RUQDGRHV RFFXU ULJKW EHIRUH WKXQGHUVWRUP GHYHORSPHQW :LQGV FKDQJH GLUHFWLRQ DQG LQFUHDVH LQ VSHHG with altitude, which creates a horizontal spinning effect in the lower atmosphere, which then shifts to a vertical spin.

Hurricanes form over warm, moist water. This warm, moist air begins to rise and is then replaced with cooler air, forming a low-pressure area underneath. This causes more air to rush in, forming clouds and thunderstorms. These continue to grow and begin to rotate due to the rotation of Earth, and this is called the Coriolis effect. Once wind speeds reach 74 mph, the storm is considered a hurricane.

Floods can accompany thunderstorms, tornadoes, and hurricanes. Because Florida is at sea level and surrounded by warm ocean water, any prolonged rain from thunderstorms or hurricanes can create GDPDJLQJ À RRGV

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Natural Disasters | 57

STEMscopedia Summarize It 1

:KLFK RI WKH IROORZLQJ HYHQWV ZRXOG FDXVH 6XQ H[SRVXUH" A Getting caught in a thunderstorm B Being outside between the hours of 10:00 a.m. and 3:00 p.m.

C ([SHULHQFLQJ D ZLOG¿ UH D Taking a walk at night

2

One main difference between thunderstorms and hurricanes is that– A thunderstorms happen only in winter.

B KXUULFDQHV DOZD\V LQYROYH À RRGLQJ DQG WKXQGHUVWRUPV GR QRW C hail happens only during a hurricane.

D hurricanes have much higher wind speeds.

3

:KLFK RI WKH IROORZLQJ FKRLFHV FRXOG EH D FRUUHFW WLPH OLQH LQ VWRUP GHYHORSPHQW" A Thunderstorm ń hurricane ń À RRGLQJ B Flooding ń hurricane ń thunderstorm C Flooding ń thunderstorm ń hurricane D Hurricane ń À RRGLQJ ń thunderstorm

4

:KLFK W\SH RI QDWXUDO GLVDVWHU LV FRPPRQ WR )ORULGD" A (DUWKTXDNH B Hurricane C Tsunami D Landslide

5

:KLFK RI WKH IROORZLQJ ZRXOG 127 EH D JRRG LGHD ZKHQ EXLOGLQJ D KRPH LQ )ORULGD" A Building a home farther inland and away from the shoreline B 8VLQJ SLOODUV WR UDLVH WKH KRXVH DERYH VHD OHYHO C Building on the ground level by the coast D 8VLQJ VWXUG\ EXLOGLQJ PDWHULDOV

6

Fill in the table below to describe each hazardous weather event.

(YHQW

Description

Flood

Hurricane

6XQ H[SRVXUH

Thunderstorm

Tornado

58 | Natural Disasters

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Thermal Energy

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59

STEMscopedia Our bodies have several ways to help monitor and maintain our temperature. The hypothalamus responds to signals throughout the body by regulating processes like sweat production to help us maintain a consistent body temperature when the weather is colder or warmer outside. Blood also plays a role in helping our bodies warm up or conserve heat.

If you play in the snow on a winter day and then drink a hot beverage, how does the heat warm you?

heat s e o d 1. How one area om get fr rson’s body e of a p nother? to a

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Thermal Energy | 61

STEMscopedia Whether heat is moving throughout our bodies, through the layers of Earth, from a stove to food, or across the country as an air mass, the basic principles are the same.

Small, invisible particles called molecules make up all matter and are always in motion. This is called thermal energy. Thermal energy is the total kinetic or motion energy of these particles. The faster the molecules move, the warmer the matter becomes. Thermal energy can transfer from molecule to molecule throughout a system such as the human body or the atmosphere. A system is a group of interacting, interrelated, or interdependent elements that form a complex whole. Energy can transfer within a system or from one system to another, such as from your body to the atmosphere. Energy transfer is the movement of energy from one system to another.

6FLHQWL¿ FDOO\ WKHUH LV QR VXFK WKLQJ DV FROG 5DWKHU LW LV WKH DEVHQFH RI KHDW ,Q D UHIULJHUDWRU IRU instance, the appliance is taking heat away from the food inside, and the absence of heat is known as cold. We can measure the temperature of the air inside the refrigerator; temperature is a measure of the motion of the particles that make up matter. Temperature measures thermal energy. The particles in all matter vibrate faster when they have more heat and slower when heat is absent. Even molecules in frozen matter are in motion.

62 | Thermal Energy

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STEMscopedia The temperature of matter changes when thermal energy is transferred from molecule to molecule within the matter. As the kinetic energy of the molecules increases, it can cause changes in matter’s state, such as melting or evaporation. As it decreases, it can cause matter to condense or freeze. The temperature will change as well.

some e r a at 2. Wh urable or meas nges a h c n able observ place whe is ake that t al energy therm rred within e transf ystem? a s

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Thermal Energy | 63

STEMscopedia There are three main ways that energy transfers through matter. Let’s look at the two that require PDWWHU ¿ UVW Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy that occurs in solids, liquids, and gases when two substances of different temperatures are in direct contact. This happens when two substances touch, and matter must be present for the heat transfer to take place. Heat transfers from particle to particle GXULQJ FRQGXFWLRQ VR WKH EHWWHU WKH FRQGXFWRU LV WKH PRUH TXLFNO\ DQG HI¿ FLHQWO\ WKH WKHUPDO HQHUJ\ is transferred.

Let’s examine how this occurs on the molecular level.

Metal rod

Thermal energy flow

Thermal energy is applied to the molecules in the metal rod from the candle on the left. The candle is a V\VWHP EHFDXVH LW KDV VHYHUDO LQWHUGHSHQGHQW SDUWV WKH À DPH ZLFN DQG ZD[ ,W LV DSSO\LQJ WKHUPDO energy to the system of molecules in the metal rod. So, this is an example of an energy transfer between two separate systems.

As the molecules on the left side of the metal rod are heated, they begin to move faster. As they do, some of their thermal energy is transferred down the rod and to other molecules that are farther away from the heat source. This causes the temperature in those molecules to increase. Eventually, the entire metal rod would become hot to the touch if thermal energy continues to transfer.

Another example of conduction is within Earth. Heat is generated in the core and transferred through conduction from the outer core to the mantle.

64 | Thermal Energy

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STEMscopedia is a similar process, but it occurs mostly in liquids and gases. It is caused by the rising of KRWWHU OHVV GHQVH À XLGV DQG WKH IDOOLQJ RI FRROHU GHQVHU À XLGV 0DWWHU LV UHTXLUHG IRU WKLV NLQG RI WKHUPDO energy transfer. However, the matter could be in the form of a gas, such as air in the atmosphere.

Look at the diagram of a lava lamp.

Cool

Fluids cool, contract, and sink.

Fluids warm, expand, and rise.

Warm ,ĞaƟnŐ ĞlĞmĞnt transĨĞrs tŚĞrmal ĞnĞrŐLJ to Ňuids.

A lava lamp is a closed system that uses heat that is generated from a bulb or heating element at the ERWWRP RI WKH ODPS WR KHDW WKH À XLGV LQVLGH 'LIIHUHQFHV LQ WKHUPDO HQHUJ\ LQVLGH WKH ODPS FDXVH WKH blobs of wax to expand, condense, and move.

Convection is the process that allows your furnace or heater to heat the air or allows your air conditioner WR FRRO LW 7KH SDUWLFOHV LQ OLTXLGV DQG JDVHV DUH IUHH WR PRYH DQG À RZ ZKLFK DOORZV WKHP WR ULVH DV WKH\ EHFRPH OHVV GHQVH DQG IDOO DV WKH\ FRRO DQG EHFRPH PRUH GHQVH 5HFDOO WKDW (DUWK¶V PDQWOH LV KHDWHG E\ conduction from the outer core. As the material in the mantle heats up, it rises and moves horizontally.

Once it begins to cool, it sinks back down. This is conduction occurring within the layers of Earth.

Weather changes come from convection in the atmosphere as heat is transferred between air masses and from the ocean to the air. The reason why thunderstorms most often form on summer afternoons involves thermal energy transfer. The Sun heats the ground and the atmosphere throughout the day, and when this thermal energy is transferred through the air, it causes molecules of water vapor to rise. They cool as they reach higher altitudes, causing the molecules to move back toward the ground.

Eventually, this circular movement contributes to cloud formation and growth and causes wind. This is an example of thermal energy transfer via convection within a system. © Accelerate Learning Inc. – All Rights Reserved

Thermal Energy | 65

STEMscopedia

Billowing storm clouds like these are formed from strong convection currents in the atmosphere, which are caused by thermal energy transfer from the ground through the water vapor in the atmosphere.

Other places where we see convection are in the movement of water inside a pot, in food heating in ovens, in the formation of thermal air currents in the atmosphere, and ocean currents.

7KHUPDO LQVXODWRUV GR QRW DOORZ WKHUPDO HQHUJ\ WR WUDQVIHU DV HDVLO\ DQG HI¿ FLHQWO\ 7KLV LV WKH FDVH LQ IRDP RU ¿ EHUJODVV LQVXODWLRQ LQ KRPHV²WKH PDWHULDO EORFNV WKHUPDO HQHUJ\ IURP RQH DUHD IURP transferring to another area. This keeps homes warmer in winter and keeps heat out in summer. In this way, insulation in walls and attics prevents thermal energy transfer via convection inside the home.

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66 | Thermal Energy

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STEMscopedia The third kind of thermal energy transfer does not require matter. This is radiation. Radiation is the transfer of energy by the movement of electromagnetic waves or subatomic particles. Although matter is not required for radiation to take place, radiation can work through matter.

6KLQ\ VXUIDFHV WHQG WR UHÀ HFW UDGLDWLRQ 'DUN VXUIDFHV WHQG WR DEVRUE PRUH UDGLDWLRQ WKDQ OLJKWHU ones do. These are important factors to consider when determining how radiation can enter or leave a system.

Examples of radiation include the Sun’s heat, which must travel through space. When thermal energy is released from an incandescent light bulb or from a room’s space heater, these are both examples of thermal energy transfer through radiation. When the Sun’s energy traverses space to reach Earth, radiation is the method of thermal energy transfer at work. Thermal energy leaves Earth’s system through radiation as well, through heat being radiated back out into space. Ultraviolet radiation from the Sun is dangerous to humans. Too much sunlight can cause a sunburn. It is important for humans to remember to cover up and use sunscreen to protect themselves from too much Sun exposure.

How powerful is radiation? According to the University of Oregon, Earth receives an average of 164 watts per square meter over a 24-hour period. This means that the planet as a whole receives 84 terawatts of power from the Sun’s radiation alone. Worldwide power consumption is only about 12 terawatts per day. Therefore, Earth receives a tremendous amount of thermal energy transfer WKURXJK UDGLDWLRQ²DERXW VHYHQ WLPHV WKH DPRXQW RI HQHUJ\ WKH ZRUOG FRQVXPHV HYHU\ GD\

adiation r is 4. How ent from differ ion and t conduc tion? convec

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Thermal Energy | 67

STEMscopedia You may have noticed a pattern in the examples of conduction, convection, and radiation. Thermal energy always transfers from an area that is warmer to one that is cooler. This thermal energy transfer continues between two objects until both reach equilibrium. Equilibrium is a condition in which all FRPSHWLQJ LQÀ XHQFHV DUH EDODQFHG ,Q WKLV FDVH WKHUPDO HQHUJ\ QR ORQJHU WUDQVIHUV EHWZHHQ REMHFWV when both reach the same temperature.

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Final situation 68 | Thermal Energy

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STEMscopedia Dr. Won Jun Choi, PhD Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST) Won Jun Choi is a researcher at the Korea Institute of Science and Technology, where he leads a research team that is investigating technology for sensing thermal energy using a smartphone. The thermal energy sensor that they are developing allows a smartphone user to check temperature in real WLPH 7KLV WHFKQRORJ\ ¿ QGV DQG FRQYHUWV LQIUDUHG OLJKW IURP KHDW LQWR HOHFWULFLW\ ZKLFK ZRXOG DOORZ LW WR work at cooler temperatures and use less electricity. +LV WHDP LV DOVR LQYHVWLJDWLQJ ZDWHU EDUULHUV DQG DQWL UHÀ HFWLYH FRDWLQJV IRU À H[LEOH SKRWRYROWDLF GHYLFHV also known as solar cells.

$ UHVHDUFK WHDP OHG E\ 'U :RQ -XQ &KRL LV GHYHORSLQJ WHFKQRORJ\ WKDW ZRXOG DOORZ D SHUVRQ WR measure temperature in real time using a smartphone.

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Thermal Energy | 69

STEMscopedia Thermal energy is transferred between and within systems in three ways: conduction, convection, and radiation. Thermal energy is the total kinetic or motion energy of molecules within matter, which is required for energy transfers that involve conduction and convection. Conduction is a method of heat transfer that involves two objects or surfaces that are in contact with one another. As molecules vibrate in place, thermal energy is transferred from the warmer object to the cooler one. In convection, a similar SURFHVV KDSSHQV ZKHQ ZDUPHU PROHFXOHV LQ D À XLG À RZ SDVW FRROHU PROHFXOHV DQG WUDQVIHU WKH HQHUJ\ WR WKH FRROHU RQHV ,Q UDGLDWLRQ KHDW LV WUDQVIHUUHG WKURXJK DQ DUHD E\ ZDYHV 0DWWHU LV QRW UHTXLUHG for radiation.

Connect It How does thermal energy transfer within and out of the body?

Thermal energy is generated by the body through normal metabolic processes and then is transferred in several ways. One method is through the blood. Because blood is a liquid, convection is the process by which this occurs inside our blood vessels. If your warm body is in contact with a cooler surface, such as a chair, conduction carries thermal energy out of your body to the other surface until both reach equilibrium. Our bodies also radiate thermal energy through our skin, and as moving air around us passes over our skin, convection transfers body heat out to the air surrounding us.

This is an image of a human as seen with thermal energy. The red area may show thermal energy À RZLQJ WKURXJK EORRG LQ WKH FDURWLG DUWHU\ LQ WKH QHFN 1RWLFH KRZ WKH VNLQ LV FRROHU VR LW VKRZV DV D blue color on the image as it releases heat from the body.

70 | Thermal Energy

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STEMscopedia We have learned the three ways that heat is transferred: conduction, convection, and radiation. Along with this heat transfer, changes in temperature occur. A change in temperature can cause a change in WKH VWDWH RI PDWWHU :KHQ WKH WHPSHUDWXUH GHFUHDVHV D VXEVWDQFH VROLGL¿ HV :KHQ WKH WHPSHUDWXUH increases, a substance melts, resulting in a liquid. As the temperature continues to increase, a liquid changes into a gas. This is because the kinetic energy of the atoms decreases and increases as temperature decreases and increases. Less thermal energy results in less kinetic energy. As thermal energy increases, kinetic energy also increases.

State Changes of Water

Evaporation

Melting Solid

Gas

0°C–100°C

Liquid

0°C–100°C

Freezing

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Condensation

Thermal Energy | 71

STEMscopedia Summarize It 1

How does the motion of molecules in solids relate to thermal energy transfer in conduction?

A As molecules gain thermal energy, they begin to move around and transfer thermal energy to the molecules that they pass by.

B 0ROHFXOHV À RZ DURXQG RQH DQRWKHU DQG WKRVH ZLWK PRUH WKHUPDO HQHUJ\ DEVRUE LW IURP neighboring molecules at a cooler temperature.

C 0ROHFXOHV ZLWK OHVV WKHUPDO HQHUJ\ ZLOO WUDQVIHU WKHUPDO HQHUJ\ WR WKRVH ZLWK PRUH WKHUPDO energy.

D 0ROHFXOHV WKDW DUH LQYROYHG LQ FRQGXFWLRQ YLEUDWH LQ SODFH GXH WR KLJK DPRXQWV RI WKHUPDO HQHUJ\ transferring it to less-active molecules nearby.

2

A student conducts an investigation in which they heat water on a hot plate. Which of the following answers explains the results that they may get from this investigation?

A Thermal energy transfers from warmer molecules to cooler ones in the water via convection.

B Thermal energy travels through the cooler molecules in the water to warmer ones after contacting the hot plate.

C The water will heat up faster if the Sun is shining because radiation conducts thermal energy.

D Conduction allows the cooler molecules to transfer heat energy to warmer molecules.

3

A microwave heating leftovers is an example of thermal energy transfer by– A radiation.

B induction.

C convection.

D conduction.

4

Fill in the blanks in the table with the correct method of thermal energy transfer: conduction, convection, or radiation.

Method of Thermal Energy Transfer

Example Thermal energy transfers from a warmer surface to a cooler one when the surfaces are in direct contact.

Thermal energy is transferred through space to a habitable planet.

A hurricane forms when the Sun heats the surface of the ocean.

Warmer air rises, and cooler air falls.

5

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72 | Thermal Energy

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Distance-Time Graphs

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73

STEMscopedia Motocross is a sport involving motorcycles that race over high hills and steep valleys. Competitors in PRWRFURVV UDFHV FDQ ¿ QG WKHPVHOYHV RQ WZLVWHG RXWGRRU FRXUVHV RU DUHQD EDVHG FRXUVHV LQGRRUV 7KHLU VSHHGV RIWHQ FKDQJH WKURXJKRXW WKH UDFH

could 1. How e ph th e a r g we and tim e c n s dista otocros t m a of oug hou r h t r race race? the

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Distance-Time Graphs | 75

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76 | Distance-Time Graphs

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STEMscopedia Motion LV WKH FKDQJH LQ DQ REMHFW¶V SRVLWLRQ ZLWK UHVSHFW WR WLPH DQG LQ FRPSDULVRQ ZLWK WKH SRVLWLRQ RI RWKHU REMHFWV WKDW FDQ EH XVHG DV UHIHUHQFH SRLQWV

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at 2. Wh is ation inform d on e graph is of -ax the x e-time nc a dista What ? graph tion is a inform on the ed graph xis? y-a

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Distance-Time Graphs | 77

STEMscopedia $ GLVWDQFH WLPH JUDSK GHSLFWV KRZ DQ REMHFW PRYHV XVLQJ GLVWDQFH SORWWHG DJDLQVW WLPH 8VLQJ WKH SDWWHUQV FUHDWHG RQ D GLVWDQFH WLPH JUDSK ZH FDQ WHOO LI DQ REMHFW LV DW UHVW PRYLQJ TXLFNO\ RU VORZO\ RU LI LWV VSHHG LV VWD\LQJ WKH VDPH DV WLPH SDVVHV ,I DQ REMHFW LV QRW LQ PRWLRQ ZH VD\ LW LV at rest. On a GLVWDQFH WLPH JUDSK REMHFWV DW UHVW ZLOO QRW FKDQJH WKH GLVWDQFH IURP D UHIHUHQFH SRLQW DV WLPH SDVVHV

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78 | Distance-Time Graphs

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STEMscopedia PLQXWHV 1RZ OHW¶V GHWHUPLQH ZKDW WKH FKDQJHV LQ WKH ERDW¶V VSHHG ZRXOG ORRN OLNH LI DOO WKUHH UDFH VHJPHQWV ZHUH SORWWHG RQ WKH VDPH JUDSK ,Q 6HJPHQW % RI WKH UDFH WKH ERDW GRHV QRW FRYHU DQ\ GLVWDQFH EHFDXVH LW LV GLVDEOHG LQ WKH ZDWHU IRU PLQXWHV :H VHH WKLV SDUW RI WKH UDFH DV D À DW OLQH VLQFH WLPH LV SDVVLQJ EXW WKH GLVWDQFH IURP WKH VWDUWLQJ OLQH LV QRW FKDQJLQJ 7KHQ RQFH D UHSDLU LV FRPSOHWH WKH ERDW LV DEOH WR FRYHU PRUH GLVWDQFH LQ OHVV WLPH 6HJPHQW & ,W WUDYHOV DQ DGGLWLRQDO PLOHV LQ RQO\ PLQXWHV WR FRQWLQXH WKH UDFH )LQDOO\ WKH ERDW WUDYHOV DQ DGGLWLRQDO PLOHV LQ PLQXWHV WR WKH ¿ QLVK OLQH +HUH LV WKH JUDSK RI WKH ERDW¶V PRWLRQ LQ WKH UDFH DV D ZKROH 35

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Distance-Time Graphs | 79

STEMscopedia 35

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en 3. Wh g the retin interp f an object e o motion distance-tim a you using , how can e graph differenc e t tell th en constan betwe and variable t? speed f an objec o speed

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STEMscopedia Earl Lucas Ford Motor Company (DUO /XFDV LV WKH FKLHI H[HFXWLYH GHVLJQHU IRU /LQFROQ D VXEJURXS RI )RUG 0RWRU &RPSDQ\ +H VFXOSWV DQG VKDSHV WKH YDULRXV OLQHV WKDW JR LQWR WKH GHVLJQ RI OX[XU\ FDUV +LV FDUHHU FRYHUV PRUH WKDQ WZR GHFDGHV LQ WKH DXWRPRELOH LQGXVWU\ ZKHUH KH KDV UHJLVWHUHG PRUH WKDQ SDWHQWV +LV GHVLJQ IRU WKH /LQFROQ 1DYLJDWRU ZRQ WKH 1RUWK $PHULFDQ ,QWHUQDWLRQDO $XWR 6KRZ 7UXFN RI WKH <HDU DZDUG +H GHFLGHG WR EH DQ DXWRPRELOH GHVLJQHU EHFDXVH RI KLV SDVVLRQ IRU FUHDWLQJ VKDSHV DQG GUDZLQJ ZKLFK EHJDQ LQ FKLOGKRRG 1RZ KLV GHVLJQV KDYH UHVXOWHG LQ FRPIRUWDEOH FDUV DV ZHOO DV WZR SULYDWH MHWV WKDW FDQ DFKLHYH IDVW À LJKW VSHHGV ZKLOH WKHLU SDVVHQJHUV HQMR\ WKH FRPIRUW RI D ZHOO GHVLJQHG LQWHULRU

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Distance-Time Graphs | 81

STEMscopedia 7R JUDSK PRWLRQ RQ D GLVWDQFH WLPH JUDSK ZH QHHG WR NQRZ WZR WKLQJV WKH GLVWDQFH WKH REMHFW WUDYHOHG DQG WKH WLPH LW WRRN WR WUDYHO WKDW GLVWDQFH $ GLVWDQFH WLPH JUDSK LV D JUDSK LOOXVWUDWLQJ FKDQJHV LQ PRWLRQ WKDW VKRZV WLPH RQ WKH [ D[LV DQG GLVWDQFH RQ WKH \ D[LV :H FDQ DOVR XVH D GLVWDQFH WLPH JUDSK WR LQWHUSUHW WKH PRWLRQ RI DQ REMHFW JRLQJ DW D FRQVWDQW VSHHG &RQVWDQW VSHHG LV WKH UDWH RI ¿ [HG VSHHG SHU XQLW RI WLPH 7KH VORSH RI WKH OLQH RQ WKH JUDSK FDQ KHOS XV LGHQWLI\ IDVW RU VORZ VSHHGV DV ZHOO DV DQ REMHFW DW UHVW

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82 | Distance-Time Graphs

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STEMscopedia 1

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Distance-Time Graphs | 83

Forces on Objects

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85

STEMscopedia Think about the last time that you bounced a ball on the ground. As the ball left your hands, it fell toward the ground because of gravity. However, gravity was not the only force at work on the ball.

Several forces were acting on it. What are all of the forces that acted on the ball?

t ces ac r o f t 1. Wha asketball in on a b it bounces as motion WKH ş RRU" RQ

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Forces on Objects | 87

STEMscopedia A force is a push or pull that can change the motion of an object. Because a force involves a push or pull, it involves two objects. One object must interact with another object for a force to occur.

All objects, living and nonliving, can exert a force on other objects, and all objects can be affected by forces.

There are two kinds of forces. Contact force results when two objects are physically in contact with each RWKHU )RU H[DPSOH ZKHQ D FKLOG SXVKHV D WR\ FDU WKH\ DSSO\ D IRUFH RQ WKH FDU ZLWK WKHLU ¿ QJHU ZKHQ they touch it. This is a contact force.

The other kind of force is noncontact force, which works on objects that are not physically in contact with each other. The force of gravity is a noncontact force; it acts between two celestial bodies that are not physically in contact with one another, such as the Moon and Earth.

Types of Forces

Contact forces

Normal force

Frictional force

Noncontact forces

Applied force

Gravitational force

Magnetic force

Forces are measured in units called newtons (N). The larger the number of newtons, the stronger the force is.

88 | Forces on Objects

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STEMscopedia You are likely familiar with the force of gravity. Gravity is a noncontact force that causes objects with mass to attract one another. Newton’s law of gravity states that any particle of matter in the entire universe attracts every other particle through gravity. The strength of the gravitational force depends on the masses of the objects and their distance from one another. Objects with large masses have stronger gravity; for instance, the Sun has the largest force of gravity in the solar system because it is by far the object with the most mass.

Although the Moon and Earth are farther from the Sun than Mercury is, the Sun’s gravity still exerts a force on both. The reason why the Moon orbits Earth and not the Sun, however, is related to distance.

Earth is much closer to the Moon than the Sun is, so it exerts a stronger gravitational force on the Moon than the Sun does. However, because Earth orbits the Sun, it pulls the Moon along with it. Objects that are closer to each other have a stronger force of gravity than two objects that are farther apart.

Gravity is exerted on every object on Earth. If you throw a ball into the air, gravity will act on the ball to pull it toward the ground.

ld at wou h W .

2 e two be th tics of teris charac t that would jec he any ob to exert t al it n cause st gravitatio e strong possible on force r object? anothe

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Forces on Objects | 89

STEMscopedia An example of a contact force is friction, which is created by two surfaces in contact. Friction is a force WKDW RSSRVHV PRWLRQ ,I \RX VOLGH DFURVV D VPRRWK À RRU LQ \RXU VRFNV \RX FDQ GR VR EHFDXVH WKH IRUFH of friction is minimal. The rubber soles on shoes are there to increase the force of friction and allow you WR VWHS DFURVV WKH VDPH VPRRWK À RRU ZLWKRXW VOLSSLQJ :KHQ WKH IRUFH RI IULFWLRQ LV VWURQJ OHVV PRWLRQ happens than when friction is weaker.

Friction depends on the surfaces that are in contact. For example, an ice skater on ice is able to skate because the ice does exert friction, but it is not strong enough to completely oppose their forward motion. Because the skater’s applied force is greater than the force of friction, they will continue to move forward around the rink. Friction will eventually cause them to slow down.

Forward motion of the skater

Friction opposing the skater’s forward motion

Friction is a force that opposes motion. In this case, the friction that is created by an ice skater’s skate on ice opposes their forward motion, causing them to slow down as they skate.

You have experienced friction in your life. For example, when you squeeze the brakes on a bicycle or apply pressure to the pedals, the brake pads on the bike apply a force that creates friction on the wheel of your bicycle. This frictional force opposes the motion of your bike tires and causes you to slow down or stop. If you have ever walked against the wind, you have felt the force of friction opposing your motion.

ribe a c s e D 3. where . n io t a k situ at wor is n frictio explain o t e r Be su o surfaces the tw in contact re that a ach other with e effect of e and th on motion in friction situation. your

90 | Forces on Objects

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STEMscopedia Another familiar force is magnetism. Magnetism is a noncontact force between atoms that have opposite charges. Have you ever heard the phrase “opposites attract”? This refers to the charges between oppositely charged particles—in other words, magnetism.

The force of magnetism is seen in many places in everyday life, such as electromagnets, computers, car motors, and refrigerator magnets. The strength of a magnetic force depends somewhat on distance; objects that are farther away from each other will have a weaker attractive force than those that are close together. You feel this if you take two magnets and hold the oppositely charged poles a short distance apart. The closer you move them together, the more strongly attracted they are.

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Forces on Objects | 91

STEMscopedia +DYH \RX HYHU VFRRWHG \RXU VWRFNLQJHG IHHW DFURVV WKH À RRU SDUWLFXODUO\ RQ D FRRO RU GU\ GD\ DQG WKHQ WRXFKHG DQ REMHFW DQG IHOW D ]DS RQ \RXU ¿ QJHU" <RX PD\ KDYH UHDFKHG IRU D PHWDO REMHFW DQG IHOW D VKRFN RQ \RXU ¿ QJHU DQG PD\ HYHQ KDYH VHHQ D VSDUN 6RPHWLPHV ZKHQ ODXQGU\ FRPHV RXW RI D GU\HU the clothing sticks together. When you pull the clothes apart, you may hear a crackling sound. These events occur because of electrical force.

Electrical force is an example of noncontact force. Rubbing materials together, like your socks on the À RRU RU ODXQGU\ LQ D GU\HU FDQ UHVXOW LQ VRPHWKLQJ FDOOHG D FKDUJH EHLQJ PRYHG IURP RQH VXUIDFH WR another. Similar to magnetism, like charges repel each other and unlike charges attract each other.

Building up one type of charge on an object can cause it to “jump” to another object, creating the zap on \RXU ¿ QJHU RU FDXVLQJ \RXU FORWKHV WR VWLFN WRJHWKHU

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STEMscopedia An applied force is a force that is applied to an object by another object. Any object, regardless of whether it is living or nonliving, can exert an applied force on another object. For example, the wind can push a kite along in the sky on a windy day. A screwdriver or a pair of pliers applies force to a screw or to another object to make it move. Almost any time two objects are in contact with one another, a force is being applied.

Tools like these apply a force to objects like nails, screws, nuts, and bolts to make them move.

ibe an r c s e 4. D of an le p m exa rce at o f d e y appli Identif is l. o o h c s t ct tha ce je b o r the the fo g n in ly app object e h t d an force e h t s a that h g on it. actin

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Forces on Objects | 93

STEMscopedia Normal Force Have you ever wondered why gravity does not just pull an object straight down to the center of Earth?

It is because of the normal force. The normal force is the force that is generated by a surface in opposition to an object that is pressed upon it. Just like frictional forces oppose motion, normal forces oppose the force of an object pressing down toward the center of Earth. *HQHUDOO\ WKH QRUPDO IRUFH EDODQFHV WKH IRUFH RI JUDYLW\ VR DQ REMHFW RQ D VXUIDFH OLNH D À RRU VKHOI RU table, remains at rest on that surface instead of falling to the center of Earth. It is a contact force, so it only affects objects that are in contact with other objects.

F gravity

F normal The normal force works in opposition to gravity and helps keep objects at rest and not falling toward the center of Earth.

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STEMscopedia Forces do not work in isolation. Forces are always paired. An applied force is usually opposed by some kind of friction. Gravity is always opposed by the normal force. Because forces work in pairs, they can be unbalanced or balanced, and this determines whether the object will move, continue moving, change speed or direction, or stop.

We can use force diagrams to show how forces interact with one another and work on objects. For most objects, there are at least two forces at work, but more commonly, there are four. Let’s examine this force diagram to describe how the forces are at work.

The image shows four forces at work on a lawn mower. Gravity attracts the lawn mower toward the center of Earth and is opposed by the normal force, which prevents the mower from sinking through the grass. The person is applying a force in a forward direction as they push the lawn mower. The force of friction acts on the mower’s wheels to oppose their forward motion.

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Forces on Objects | 95

STEMscopedia Richard T. James, Inventor of the Slinky United States Navy 6RPHWLPHV VFLHQWL¿ F DFKLHYHPHQWV DUH DFFLGHQWDO VXFK DV WKH LQYHQWLRQ RI WKH 6OLQN\ FKLOGUHQ¶V WR\ Richard T. James was a mechanical engineer in the United States Navy and accidentally invented the SRSXODU 6OLQN\ WR\ +H ZDV ZRUNLQJ WR ¿ QG D ZD\ WR VWDELOL]H QDYDO LQVWUXPHQWV DW VHD E\ ZRUNLQJ ZLWK springs. As he dropped one and noticed the way it moved, he wondered if the forces at work in the spring could be used in a children’s toy for entertainment.

After producing and demonstrating the toys in stores in December 1945, James’s Slinky became extremely popular and remains so today. A special marker in Clifton Heights, Pennsylvania, where James developed his invention, notes the achievement.

According to the Smithsonian Institution, James described the Slinky in its patent as “a helical spring toy which will walk on an amusement platform such as an inclined plane or set of steps from a starting point to successive lower landing points without application of external force beyond the starting force and the action of gravity.”

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STEMscopedia Forces act on all objects and usually are exerted in pairs. Gravity pulls an object toward the center of Earth, and the normal force opposes that motion and prevents the object from falling toward Earth.

Applied forces come in many forms but are usually pushes or pulls exerted on an object. When two surfaces are in contact and motion is opposed, friction is at work. Magnetism is a force that is generated by oppositely charged atoms and works to attract or repel objects depending on their charges.

Connect It What forces are at work on a toy truck as a child plays?

As a child plays with a toy truck, a force is applied when the child pushes or pulls. Gravity is always exerted on the truck, pulling it toward the center of Earth. Normal forces counteract the force of gravity and prevent the truck from falling to the center of Earth. Friction is at work any time the truck is in contact with another surface, and this force will oppose its motion.

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Forces on Objects | 97

STEMscopedia Summarize It 1

,URQ ¿ OLQJV DUH DWWUDFWHG WR DQ LURQ EDU :KLFK RI WKH IROORZLQJ VWDWHPHQWV LV WUXH DERXW WKH IRUFHV that are acting in this situation?

A )ULFWLRQ LV WKH PDLQ IRUFH DW ZRUN DQG LW LV D FRQWDFW IRUFH EHWZHHQ WKH ¿ OLQJV DQG WKH EDU B The force at work is magnetism, which is a noncontact force.

C Gravity and the normal force are the only two forces at work in this situation.

D 7KH PDJQHWLVP RI WKH LURQ ¿ OLQJV LV FDXVLQJ WKH QRUPDO IRUFH WR EH DW ZRUN

2

Which of the following is NOT an example of an applied force?

A A dog pulls on its leash during a neighborhood walk.

B A billiard ball hits another billiard ball during a game.

C <RX À LS D OLJKW VZLWFK LQ \RXU EHGURRP WR WKH RQ SRVLWLRQ D Jupiter exerts a force on the asteroids in the asteroid belt.

3

Students climb ropes in PE class. Afterward, they discuss the forces that are acting on them.

• Jay says, “Gravity was at work on both me and the rope, attracting us to Earth.”

• Armani says, “Friction was acting on my hands as I climbed the rope.”

• -RQ VD\V ³0DJQHWLVP DWWUDFWHG PH WR WKH À RRU ´ • Stephanie says, “I applied a force to the wall when I put my feet on it to balance myself.”

Which student(s) gave a correct statement about the forces that are at work in this scenario?

A Jay, Armani, and Stephanie B All four students C Armani, Jon, and Stephanie D Jon only

4

As a young plant germinates and grows in soil, which of the following describes the forces that are exerted?

A Earth’s magnetism opposes gravity and helps the young plant grow upward.

B The roots pull down on the stem of the plant because of the normal force.

C The plant applies a force to the soil as it germinates and grows, and the soil applies slight friction to the plant.

D The plant grows toward the Sun because of the Sun’s gravity.

5

$ URDG VLJQ WKDW LV PRXQWHG RQ D SROH LV KLW ZLWK À \LQJ GHEULV GXULQJ D KXUULFDQH 'HVFULEH WZR RI WKH different forces that are being exerted in this situation.

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Net Force

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99

STEMscopedia You probably played with toy cars when you were younger. Maybe you made up situations in your head as you pushed or pulled the car along imaginary streets.

As you grew, your interests may have changed to remote control vehicles or perhaps a bicycle of your own. In just a few years, you will be licensed to drive a car, truck, or motorcycle. How do forces make these vehicles go, stop, or change direction? Are the forces at work on each of these vehicles similar?

How can these forces be measured or calculated?

forces o d w k 1. Ho y truc e o t a make or chang o, stop, g ection? dir

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Net Force | 101

STEMscopedia A force is a push or pull that can change the motion of an object. Forces can only occur as the result of an interaction between two objects, such as a push or pull.

There are two main categories of forces: those that result from objects in contact, and forces resulting from objects that are not in contact with each other.

Types of Forces

Contact forces

Normal force

Frictional force

Noncontact forces

Applied force

Gravitational force

Magnetic force

Forces work in pairs as they are exerted on an object. For example, gravity might pull an object on a table downward, but normal forces push up. This is why the object doesn’t sink or fall toward the center of Earth. A book on a table may not move, but it is acted upon by two opposing forces—gravity pulling down and normal force pushing up.

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STEMscopedia

The books at rest on this table have two opposing forces acting on them, even though they are not moving. Gravity pulls the books toward the center of Earth while the normal force holds them up.

We show forces and the directions in which they act on objects by using arrows on diagrams. The strength of a force, also called its magnitude, is measured in newtons (N). The larger the number, the stronger the force.

2. Wh arrows at do the on a n force e diagram t tell us ?

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Net Force | 103

STEMscopedia When a force pair is balanced, the object acted upon by the forces will not move. Balanced forces are forces on an object that do not cause a change in motion. Here is an example of how this could be shown using a diagram.

The blue arrow shows the force of 70 newtons to the left. There is an equal force of 70 newtons to the right. We see this with the red arrow. Since the forces in both directions are equal, they balance each other out.

When two forces on an object are balanced, there is no change in movement. So, either the object stays at rest, if it is at rest, or it keeps moving at the same speed and in the same direction without changing.

A direction is a straight path along which an object can move.

350 N

350 N

Two dogs are pulling on a bone, each with a force of 350 N. Although the bone has forces acting on it in both directions, it will not move because both forces have the same strength and are equal.

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STEMscopedia two pairs of opposing forces acting on the objects. Accurate diagrams show both pairs of forces because they are at work simultaneously.

14 N 10 N

10 N

14 N

j ct is obje n a 3. If d the t n a g movin cting on i a at forces lanced, wh a e are b pen to th p ? will ha movement ’s object change or Will it he same? stay t

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Net Force | 105

STEMscopedia Much of the time, however, the forces acting on an object are not balanced. This means that when opposite forces are acting on an object, they are not completely canceling each other out. There will be a difference between the two forces. If there is a remaining force when comparing opposite forces, we say there is a net force.

Unbalanced forces happen when one of the forces in the pair is stronger than the other. They can cause a change in an object’s motion. This means the object could start moving, stop, or change direction. The object will move in the direction of the greatest force.

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STEMscopedia To calculate net force, we compare the amounts of each force acting on the object. We use subtraction to compare two opposing forces when determining whether an object has a net force. A net force is the sum of all the forces acting on an object. %HORZ DUH WKUHH VLPSOH H[DPSOHV ,Q WKH ¿ UVW RQH \RX FDQ FRPSDUH WKH IRUFHV E\ VXEWUDFWLQJ 1 ± 1 The difference is zero, meaning that there is no net force.

In the second example, the force applied from the left has a magnitude, or strength, of 13 N. We will compare it to the force applied from the right of 3 N. There is a difference of 10 N, so there is a net force of 10 N. The object will move in the direction of the net force—in this case, to the right. ,Q WKH WKLUG H[DPSOH \RX PXVW ¿ UVW DGG WKH IRUFHV WKDW DUH EHLQJ DSSOLHG LQ WKH VDPH GLUHFWLRQ 6LQFH 8 N + 8 N is 16 N, that is the force being applied from the left. Since the opposing force from the right is 1 WKHUH LV DQ RYHUDOO QHW IRUFH RI 1 7KH REMHFW ZLOO PRYH WR WKH OHIW ZLWK D IRUFH RI 1

29 N

29 N

13 N 8N

8N

3N 20 N

These forces are equal and opposite. There is a net force of zero.

These forces are unequal and opposite.

There will be a net force.

These forces are unequal and opposite.

There will be a net force.

Horizontal and vertical forces are often at work at the same time. Horizontal forces are those that act on an object from left to right. Vertical forces act on objects from up and down, or above and below.

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Net Force | 107

STEMscopedia horizontal one?

60 N

202 N

150 N

60 N /HW¶V ORRN DW WKH YHUWLFDO IRUFHV ¿ UVW 7KH\ DUH WKH VDPH ERWK 1 6LQFH 1 ± 1 LV WKHUH LV QR vertical net force. +RUL]RQWDOO\ WKHUH LV D IRUFH IURP WKH ULJKW RI 1 1RWH WKDW WKH DUURZ LV SRLQWLQJ WR WKH OHIW VR WKLV LV actually a force being applied from the right. Since it is greater than its opposing force, the net force will be in this direction, and the object will move to the left. ,I ZH VXEWUDFW 1 ± 1 ZH JHW D QHW IRUFH RI 1 7KH REMHFW ZLOO PRYH WR WKH OHIW ZLWK D IRUFH RI 1

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STEMscopedia 4. Calculate the vertical net force and the horizontal net force for this g m and tell diagra j which wayy the object will move due to the net force.

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Net Force | 109

STEMscopedia Friction is a force that opposes a push or pull coming from the opposite direction. If the friction is a weak force, it will not cancel out the motion, and the object will move forward despite it. Think about a soccer ball. If it is kicked with a force of 50 N from the left, and friction only exerts a force of 3 N from the right, the ball will move forward. However, if another player kicks the ball back in the same direction with the same amount of force, the forces are balanced, resulting in no net force, and the ball will not move.

3N (frictional force)

50 N

50 N

50 N

In the left image, one player kicks the ball with a force of 50 N. The friction created by the ball and the grass counteracts the 50 N force with an opposing force of 3 N. There is a net IRUFH RI 1 DQG WKH VRFFHU EDOO PRYHV WR WKH ULJKW ,Q WKH VHFRQG LPDJH WKH IRUFHV DUH balanced, so the ball will not move. Two players both apply an equal and opposite force to the ball with a force of 50 N. Since these forces are the same, when we subtract them, there is no net force.

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STEMscopedia Roger E. Broggie The Walt Disney Company 5RJHU ( %URJJLH ZDV WKH ¿ UVW ,PDJLQHHU WR ZRUN IRU 7KH :DOW 'LVQH\ &RPSDQ\ ,Q KH EHJDQ KLV career as a machinist. In later years, he used his knowledge of forces to supervise the installation of D VFDOH ORFRPRWLYH LQ :DOW 'LVQH\¶V EDFN\DUG +H EHFDPH WKH WUDQVSRUWDWLRQ VSHFLDOLVW IRU :DOW 'LVQH\ 6WXGLRV ZRUNLQJ RQ PRYLH VSHFLDO HIIHFWV DQG ULGHV DW WKH QHZ 'LVQH\ODQG ZKLFK RSHQHG LQ 3DUW RI KLV UHVSRQVLELOLWLHV LQFOXGHG DFTXLULQJ WKH ORFRPRWLYHV IRU WKH :DOW 'LVQH\ 5DLOURDG He helped create many models, including a nine-inch-tall animatronic man who could dance and sing.

7KLV LGHD H[SDQGHG WR D OLIH VL]HG PRGHO SHUVRQ LQ WKH PLG V +H WKHQ VSHQW VHYHUDO \HDUV ZRUNLQJ RQ WKH (SFRW &HQWHU SURMHFW LQ )ORULGD EHIRUH KH UHWLUHG LQ

5RJHU ( %URJJLH VSHQW PXFK RI KLV FDUHHU ZRUNLQJ RQ SURMHFWV IRU 7KH :DOW 'LVQH\ &RPSDQ\ LQFOXGLQJ PRYLH VSHFLDO HIIHFWV DQG ORFRPRWLYH V\VWHPV DW WKH 'LVQH\ODQG WKHPH SDUN WKDW RSHQHG LQ

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Net Force | 111

STEMscopedia Forces act on all objects. They can be either unbalanced or balanced. Unbalanced forces are those which cause a change in motion, such as making a truck stop, move, or change direction. Balanced forces do not cause a change in motion. To calculate the net force acting on an object, simply subtract the magnitudes of the two opposing forces. The difference is the net force. If it is zero and the object is in motion, then the object will continue its current motion. If the object is at rest, then it will stay at rest.

Connect It Are all forces on all objects similar?

Yes and no. All forces are either pushes or pulls. They act in pairs, so all forces are similar in that way.

Some forces are stronger in magnitude than others. For example, a hard push is much stronger in magnitude than a soft tap. All unbalanced force pairs are the same because they cause a change in motion. All balanced forces will cancel each other out, causing no change in movement.

The red ball on the left will apply a force to the other suspended balls. This will create unbalanced forces, which will cause the ball on the other side to move.

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STEMscopedia 1

What is the difference between unbalanced forces and net force?

A Unbalanced forces do not cause an object to change its motion, but net force does.

B Nothing; unbalanced and net forces are the same.

C Net forces result in unbalanced forces that make an object change its motion.

D Unbalanced forces result in a net force that will make an object have a change in motion.

2

:KLFK VWDWHPHQW UHÀ HFWV WKH EHVW ZD\ WR FDOFXODWH QHW IRUFH" A Subtract all four net forces; the difference is the net force acting on the object.

B Subtract the two greatest forces from the two smallest forces; the difference is the net force.

C Subtract the magnitudes of the opposite forces; the difference is the net force.

D Add the magnitudes of the opposing forces; the sum is the net force.

3

&DOFXODWH WKH QHW IRUFHV DFWLQJ RQ WKHVH REMHFWV

20 N

7N 80 N

150 N

220 N

750 N

310 N

366 N

700 N

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Net Force | 113

STEMscopedia 4

Which of the following situations would not result in a change of motion?

A Unbalanced forces in more than one direction B Unbalanced forces horizontally but not vertically C Balanced forces horizontally but not vertically D Balanced forces in both directions, horizontally and vertically

5

&UHDWH D GUDZLQJ RI DQ REMHFW ZLWK D QHW IRUFH LQ D KRUL]RQWDO GLUHFWLRQ RQO\ ,QFOXGH WZR DUURZV showing horizontal forces and two arrows showing vertical forces. The vertical forces should be balanced. Show an equation to calculate the net forces in both horizontal and vertical directions acting on your object.

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Kinetic and Potential Energies

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115

STEMscopedia Have you ever played with a Newton’s cradle? A Newton’s cradle consists of a series of pendulums— spheres hanging from strings or wire. When one pendulum is pulled back and released, it hits the pendulum next to it, sending a force through the stationary pendulums that pushes the last pendulum forward. How does the energy of one pendulum affect the remaining pendulums?

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Kinetic and Potential Energies | 117

STEMscopedia Everything in our world has energy. A car driving down the street, a basketball bouncing on a court, DQG D GRJ SOD\LQJ LQ WKH \DUG DOO KDYH HQHUJ\ /LNHZLVH D FXS VLWWLQJ RQ D WDEOH D UXJ O\LQJ RQ WKH À RRU and a bicycle that is locked to a bike rack all have energy. How can this be? Whether an object is moving or sitting still, it has some form of energy.

Energy can take many forms. What do these forms have in common? They all have the ability to cause changes to a system, or a set of connected things that work together. As the spheres hang from strings in a Newton’s cradle, the spheres and strings together form a system.

ples m a x e e two 1. Nam ystems that of s parts f o e d a are m together. g workin

Two Types of Energy There are two main forms of energy in a system: potential and kinetic. Potential energy (PE) is stored energy. Kinetic energy (KE) is energy in the form of motion. The total amount of potential energy and kinetic energy in a system is known as mechanical energy.

Think about a pendulum. When the pendulum swings all the way backward, it pauses for a moment.

At this moment, the pendulum has only potential energy. The pendulum then falls forward, gradually gaining speed. As it falls, its potential energy changes to kinetic energy. At its lowest point, the pendulum has only kinetic energy. As the pendulum continues forward, it gradually slows down. Its kinetic energy changes back to potential energy until it reaches the farthest point in its arc. Here, the pendulum pauses again for a moment. At this moment, the pendulum has only potential energy. It then falls backward through its arc. Its potential energy changes to kinetic energy, and the cycle is repeated.

118 | Kinetic and Potential Energies

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STEMscopedia

e one 2. Nam of an le examp hat has t object ergy and en kinnetic xample of one e that has ct an obje ial energy. potent

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Kinetic and Potential Energies | 119

STEMscopedia Kinetic energy is the energy that an object has because of its motion. The kinetic energy of an object depends on the mass of the object and/or its speed. Objects with more mass have more kinetic energy than objects with less mass. Likewise, objects that travel with greater speed have more kinetic energy than objects that travel with less speed.

For example, each person in a family of four will have differing amounts of kinetic energy when sledding down a snowy hill. The inner tube that is carrying a single adult will have less mass than the inner tube that is carrying an adult and a child; therefore, the inner tube that is carrying one adult will have less kinetic energy. However, the inner tube that is carrying a single adult will have more mass than the inner tube that is carrying one child; therefore, the inner tube that is carrying the single adult will have more kinetic energy than the inner tube that is carrying the single child.

Speed also affects the kinetic energy of the sledders. Imagine that the single adult’s sled hits an icy patch of snow. Suddenly, their speed increases and becomes greater than the speeds of the other sledders. In that case, their kinetic energy becomes greater than the kinetic energy of the others.

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STEMscopedia Potential energy depends on gravity. The higher an object is, the more potential energy the object has. The force of gravity is stronger on an apple that is high in a tree than on an apple that is low in a tree. So, the higher apple will have greater potential energy than the lower apple. This is known as gravitational potential energy.

Mass also affects gravitational potential energy. Two objects of different masses that are sitting at the same height above the ground will have different amounts of gravitational potential energy. The object with the greater mass will have more potential energy than the object with less mass will have.

e an 3. Giv of two le examp hat have j cts t mounts of obje nt a otential e r e f if d p tional xplain a it v a r e g y and ounts g r e n e he am why t ifferent. are d

Imagine two birds of the same size sitting beside each other on a tree branch. Their gravitational potential energy would be the same. Their mass is the same, and they are each the same distance from the ground.

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Kinetic and Potential Energies | 121

STEMscopedia than the other, the bird at the greater height would have greater gravitational potential energy.

Finally, imagine seeing various species of birds sitting on an electric wire, all the same distance from the ground. The birds with greater masses would have greater gravitational potential energy than their smaller feathered friends.

122 | Kinetic and Potential Energies

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STEMscopedia +DYH \RX HYHU ZRQGHUHG KRZ JDVROLQH PDNHV \RXU FDU UXQ" :KDW PDNHV EDWWHULHV LQ D À DVKOLJKW WXUQ on a light bulb? How do you get energy from the foods that you eat? Gasoline, batteries, and food all contain chemical potential energy.

Chemical potential energy is energy that is stored in some substances because of their chemical bonds. It is energy that is stored in chemicals.

The strength of a chemical’s potential energy has to do with the strength of its bonds. Interestingly, stronger bonds have less chemical potential energy, and weaker bonds have more chemical potential energy.

The chemicals in gasoline contain large amounts of chemical potential energy. That energy is released as the gasoline is burned in a car’s engine. The release of the chemical energy transforms it into mechanical energy, making the car move.

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Kinetic and Potential Energies | 123

STEMscopedia If you have ever held a rubber band, you have probably held it in the way that is pictured below, between two hands with one hand pulling one end of the band backward. Some objects have a type of energy called elastic potential energy as a result of their compressing or stretching. Rubber bands, springs, and trampolines all have elastic potential energy.

The amount of elastic potential energy that an object has depends on the material that it is made of and the amount of pressure or strain that is applied to the object. The more an elastic band stretches, the more elastic potential energy it has. A spring that is made of a stronger metal may have more elastic potential energy than a spring that is made of a weaker metal. Likewise, a spring that is compressed more would have greater elastic potential energy than a spring that is compressed less. In all of these examples, energy is released when the elastic material returns to its original position.

emical h c e r a 4. How tial energy poten ic potential last and e gy alike? ener

124 | Kinetic and Potential Energies

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STEMscopedia Everything in our world has energy. Kinetic energy (KE) and potential energy (PE) may be present separately or together depending on the position and motion of a system. When a system has more kinetic energy, it has less potential energy. When a system has less kinetic energy, it has more potential energy.

Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be converted from one form to another. The total energy of a system remains the same. This is the law of conservation of energy. So, within a system, as the kinetic energy increases, the potential energy decreases. When the kinetic energy decreases, the potential energy increases.

While riding your bike up a hill, you and the bike have KE. As you reach the top of the hill, your KE decreases and your PE increases. At the top of the hill, your PE is at its greatest point. As you ride back down the hill, your PE decreases and your KE increases. Your KE is greatest at the bottom of the hill.

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Kinetic and Potential Energies | 125

STEMscopedia Melony Mahaarachchi Engineer at SpaceX Melony Mahaarachchi is a mechanical, robotics, and rocket engineer. She came to the United States with her husband and two young children from Sri Lanka. A graduate of UCLA with a degree in aerospace engineering, she has worked at SpaceX, Boeing, and NASA in the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), including working on the Mars Rover 2020 mission. At SpaceX, Melony worked closely with Elon Musk and the Merlin engine design team on the Falcon 9 rocket. With a passion for empowering young women in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM), Melony founded iSTEM Without Borders to support women in pursuing STEM careers.

126 | Kinetic and Potential Energies

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STEMscopedia All matter has energy. Matter can have kinetic energy, which is the energy that an object has when it is moving, and it can have potential energy, which is the energy that an object has because of its position or condition. Kinetic energy depends on the mass and speed of an object. An object with greater mass has more kinetic energy than an object with less mass. Also, an object that is moving at a greater speed has more kinetic energy than an object that is moving at a slower speed. Potential energy comes in three forms: gravitational, chemical, and elastic. Gravitational potential energy has to do with an object’s distance from the ground. The higher off the ground that an object is, the more gravitational potential energy the object has. Also, an object with greater mass has more gravitational potential energy than an object with less mass. Chemical potential energy is stored energy in things like gasoline, food, and batteries. The energy is stored until it is used. Elastic potential energy is the energy of elastic materials, like springs and rubber bands. Compressing or stretching objects with elastic potential energy increases their potential energy. An object’s kinetic or potential energy can transfer, one to the other, so an object can lose kinetic energy and gain potential energy and vice versa.

Connect It Where do we experience kinetic energy and potential energy?

Kinetic and potential energy are evident everywhere. From a swing set on a playground to a rollerFRDVWHU ULGH WR WXUQLQJ RQ D À DVKOLJKW HQHUJ\ WUDQVIRUPV IURP NLQHWLF WR SRWHQWLDO DQG EDFN DJDLQ $Q object’s total energy is never lost and is evident in models like a Newton’s cradle, where the potential energy of a pendulum that is about to be released transfers to kinetic energy to move the pendulum at the other end.

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Kinetic and Potential Energies | 127

STEMscopedia Summarize It 1

Which of the following represents only kinetic energy?

A A roller-coaster car at the top of a hill B A skateboarder at the bottom of a hill C A bicycle moving halfway down a hill D A ball sitting on a playground

2

Which of the following represents potential energy?

A Air leaking from a balloon B A cat jumping onto a table C A bird perched on a tree branch D :DWHU À RZLQJ IURP D IDXFHW

3

As a snowball rolls down a hill, how do its potential energy and kinetic energy change?

A Potential energy decreases, and kinetic energy increases.

B Potential and kinetic energy both increase.

C Potential energy increases, and kinetic energy decreases.

D Potential and kinetic energy remain the same.

4

Describe the conversion from potential to kinetic energy or from kinetic to potential energy as a toy car rolls down a ramp.

5

Give two examples of kinetic energy and two examples of potential energy. Explain your answers.

128 | Kinetic and Potential Energies

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Cell Theory

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129

STEMscopedia Every child has bumps, bruises, and scrapes from daily activities. Sometimes kids break bones in accidents. Have you ever thought about what happens deep inside a cast or under a bandage following an injury? We know that our bones and skin heal, but how does this happen?

ur y of o te, n a o a 1. D gener o e r s organ so, how d and if do it? they

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Cell Theory | 131

STEMscopedia 5REHUW +RRNH ZDV RQH RI WKH ¿ UVW VFLHQWLVWV WR REVHUYH FHOOV +H SXEOLVKHG D ERRN FDOOHG Micrographia, ZKLFK ZDV WKH ¿ UVW LPSRUWDQW ERRN SXEOLVKHG RQ PLFURVFRSLF REMHFWV 7KH ERRN LQFOXGHG YHU\ GHWDLOHG drawings and illustrations. Hooke coined the word celll as he discussed a cork cell’s appearance under a microscope. He noted that a cell reminded him of the rooms, which were called cells, that monks lived in at monasteries.

An engraving in Robert Hooke’s book Micrographia, published in 1665, shows his microscope.

A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living organisms. Hooke’s book ignited interest in microscopes and attracted the attention of another scientist named Antonie van Leeuwenhoek. Van Leeuwenhoek made his own single-lens microscopes, reportedly using the techniques Hooke had GHVFULEHG LQ KLV ERRN 7KHVH VFLHQWL¿ F WRROV FRXOG PDJQLI\ REMHFWV ± WLPHV +RRNH¶V ERRN LQFOXGHG DPD]LQJO\ GHWDLOHG GUDZLQJV RI OLYLQJ WKLQJV VXFK DV À HDV PRVVHV DQG PRUH DQG YDQ /HHXZHQKRHN was able to verify Hooke’s ideas because his microscopes were able to see these organisms in more GHWDLO WKDQ +RRNH¶V +H ZDV DOVR DEOH WR REVHUYH EDFWHULD IRU WKH ¿ UVW WLPH Van Leeuwenhoek’s research was very advanced for its time. After he made several observations of EDFWHULDO FHOOV DQG RWKHU PLFURRUJDQLVPV KLV UHVHDUFK VWRRG DORQH IRU \HDUV ,W WRRN WKDW ORQJ IRU scientists to observe those microorganisms again.

132 | Cell Theory

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STEMscopedia 2. De scr scient ibe Rober ist t H contrib ooke’s to cell ution theory .

0DWWKLDV 6FKOHLGHQ DQG 7KHRGRU 6FKZDQQ DUH FUHGLWHG ZLWK GHYHORSLQJ cell theory. Cell theory has three main ideas:

• All life is made up of cells.

• Cells are the fundamental units of life.

• All cells come from preexisting cells.

6FKOHLGHQ DQG 6FKZDQQ PHW ZKLOH ZRUNLQJ LQ WKH VDPH ODERUDWRU\ LQ WKH HDUO\ V $V D ERWDQLVW 6FKOHLGHQ VWXGLHG SODQW FHOOV ZKLOH 6FKZDQQ D ]RRORJLVW VWXGLHG DQLPDO FHOOV 7KH\ ZRUNHG WRJHWKHU WR ¿ QG D XQLW RI organisms, or self-contained living things, that were shared between both the plant and animal kingdoms. After a collaboration, Schleiden published an article where he discussed how he thought cells were involved in plant growth and development.

Both Schleiden and Schwann used microscopes to study cells in plants and animals. Schleiden suggested that the cell was the basic expression of a plant, and therefore needed to be studied as the foundation for plants.

Schleiden thought cells were involved in plant growth and development, and this idea was part of the developing cell theory.

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Cell Theory | 133

STEMscopedia structure of something is the arrangement of parts that form a living thing. Schleiden shared with Schwann his idea that all plant cells share a common structure and that new cells form from the nuclei RI ROG FHOOV 6FKZDQQ WKRXJKW WKLV PLJKW DOVR EH WUXH IRU DQLPDO FHOOV 7KLV ZDV D UDGLFDO LGHD VLQFH PRVW scientists at the time believed that cells could form on their own.

Schwann published a book in which he proposed that all living things are made of cells and that animal WLVVXHV DUH IRUPHG IURP D EDVLF VWUXFWXUH MXVW DV SODQWV DUH 7KLV ZDV WKH ¿ UVW WLPH WKH ZRUOG KDG KHDUG of cell theory.

2WKHU VFLHQWLVWV TXLFNO\ LQYHVWLJDWHG WKHVH LGHDV ,Q WKH V SK\VLFLDQ 5REHUW 5HPDN DJUHHG WKDW WKH cell theory made sense but refuted some of Schleiden and Schwann’s claims about how cells form. He ZURWH LQ DQ HVVD\ LQ WKDW KH EHOLHYHG WKDW HYHU\ QHZ FHOO FRPHV IURP DQRWKHU FHOO

leiden h c S did and 3. How wann exp s a ch and S e basic ide on th developed?

Hooke

Because of these scientists’ and others’ contributions, we know today that all organisms are made of one or more cells. Some are made of a single cell, such as protozoa and protists. Larger and more complex RUJDQLVPV DUH PDGH RI PDQ\ FHOOV 7KH DYHUDJH DGXOW KXPDQ LV PDGH XS RI DERXW WULOOLRQ FHOOV 7KH VHFRQG SDUW RI FHOO WKHRU\ LV WKDW FHOOV DUH WKH EDVLF XQLWV RI VWUXFWXUH DQG IXQFWLRQ IRU OLIH &HOOV DUH necessary for life because they carry out vital processes such as respiration and getting rid of waste.

Cells perform many functions for organisms. A function is what something does.

7KH WKLUG SDUW RI PRGHUQ FHOO WKHRU\ LV WKDW FHOOV FRPH IURP SUHH[LVWLQJ FHOOV 7KH\ GR QRW VSRQWDQHRXVO\ generate, as many early scientists thought. New cells can only come from old cells.

134 | Cell Theory

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STEMscopedia

a process accomplished by cell division.

4. Wh a three t are the ma that m in ideas ak cell th e up eory?

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Cell Theory | 135

STEMscopedia As the years have gone by, scientists and others have improved microscope design and cell observation WHFKQLTXHV 7KLV KDV DOORZHG XV WR ¿ QG RXW PRUH DERXW FHOOV DQG PDNH PXFK PRUH GHWDLOHG REVHUYDWLRQV Cell theory has continued to develop over the last several decades, and three additions have led to the development of modern cell theory.

7KH ¿ UVW LGHD LV WKDW KHUHGLWDU\ LQIRUPDWLRQ HQFRGHG LQ '1$ LV SDVVHG IURP SDUHQW FHOO WR RIIVSULQJ FHOO 7KLV KDSSHQV GXULQJ FHOO GLYLVLRQ 7KH VHFRQG LGHD LV WKDW DOO FHOOV DUH VLPLODU 7KRXJK WKH VWUXFWXUH RI FHOOV FDQ ORRN GLIIHUHQW GHSHQGLQJ RQ the organism, the chemical composition is similar in all organisms. All cells are made of water, organic PROHFXOHV DQG LQRUJDQLF LRQV 7KHVH VLPLODULWLHV FDQ EH VHHQ ZKHQ VWXG\LQJ FHOOV 7KLUGO\ HQHUJ\ LV FRQWLQXDOO\ WUDQVIRUPHG IURP RQH W\SH WR DQRWKHU LQ FHOOV 6XEVWDQFHV OLNH JOXFRVH and water are transformed into other things as the cell performs processes like cellular respiration and photosynthesis.

Processes that are important for life, such as photosynthesis and cellular respiration, take place inside the cells of a plant.

5. How chang have es techn in LQş XHQ ology F develop HG WKH me cell th nt of eory?

136 | Cell Theory

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STEMscopedia Even though the history of cell theory goes back hundreds of years, the ideas are very relevant today.

Cell theory is a basic principle in the study of biology, helping us understand what living things are and how they conduct processes important to life. Cell theory helps us understand life, growth, and even GHDWK ,I WRR PDQ\ FHOOV LQ DQ RUJDQLVP GLH LW ZLOO FDXVH WKH RUJDQLVP LWVHOI WR GLH DV ZHOO We can understand how diseases affect organisms by studying how the cells change as they are affected E\ WKH GLVHDVH 7KLV KHOSV VFLHQWLVWV IRUP WUHDWPHQWV WKDW ZRUN DW WKH FHOOXODU OHYHO WR PDNH FHOOV healthy again. Finally, it helps scientists manage diseases because they can study various treatments and their effectiveness.

Concepts of cell theory can help scientists study and manage diseases like sickle cell anemia, which causes deformation of blood cells as shown here.

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Cell Theory | 137

STEMscopedia Feng Zhang Massachusetts Institute of Technology Feng Zhang is a molecular biologist working on technology for studying the brain at the cellular level. He created genome editing tools for eukaryotic cells—including human cells—from natural systems. Zhang studies the genes that are involved in human diseases, especially disorders involving the brain. He and his team have also created special tools for scientists to use as they study immune disorders and cancer.

Eventually, his goal is to develop new treatments for diseases that occur in cells.

A scientist performs research on cancer cells.

138 | Cell Theory

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STEMscopedia Cell theory has three main ideas: all life is made up of cells, cells are the fundamental units of life, and DOO FHOOV FRPH IURP SUHH[LVWLQJ FHOOV 5REHUW +RRNH ZDV WKH ¿ UVW VFLHQWLVW WR GLVFXVV REVHUYDWLRQ RI FHOOV DQG FRLQHG WKH WHUP LQ 2WKHU VFLHQWLVWV LQFOXGLQJ 0DWWKLDV 6FKOHLGHQ DQG 7KHRGRU 6FKZDQQ UH¿ QHG WKH LGHDV &HOO WKHRU\ DOORZV PRGHUQ GD\ VFLHQWLVWV WR XQGHUVWDQG WKH SURFHVVHV RI JURZWK disease, and death.

Connect It Do human organs regenerate, and if so, how?

Believe it or not, one human organ can actually regenerate. Regeneration is regrowing or replacing a GDPDJHG RU GLVHDVHG ERG\ SDUW 2XU OLYHU LV WKH ODUJHVW RUJDQ LQ RXU ERG\ ,W UHJHQHUDWHV RU UHSDLUV LWVHOI by cell division. By studying how cells generate from other cells, we understand how they divide and IRUP QHZ OLYHU FHOOV IURP RQHV WKDW DOUHDG\ H[LVW 7KLV LV WKH VDPH SURFHVV EHKLQG JURZWK RI RUJDQLVPV which results in a young organism changing into an adult. Broken bones and skin abrasions also heal from cell division, as new cells are formed from older cells.

7KH KXPDQ OLYHU UHJHQHUDWHV E\ FHOO GLYLVLRQ

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Cell Theory | 139

STEMscopedia (XNDU\RWLF FHOOV JURZ DQG GLYLGH WKURXJK D VHULHV RI HYHQWV FDOOHG WKH FHOO F\FOH 7KH FHOO F\FOH LV GLYLGHG into several periods. Cell division takes place during mitosis, and the rest of the cycle is called interphase.

'XULQJ WKH FHOO F\FOH D FHOO JURZV SUHSDUHV WR GLYLGH DQG WKHQ GLYLGHV LQWR WZR GDXJKWHU FHOOV $ FHOO VSHQGV RI LWV OLIH LQ LQWHUSKDVH ZKLFK LQFOXGHV * 6 '1$ V\QWKHVLV DQG * 7KHVH DUH JURZWK and development stages.

• * 7KLV SKDVH LV FKDUDFWHUL]HG E\ FHOO JURZWK ,Q WKLV SKDVH ZKHUH * VWDQGV IRU ³JDS RQH ´ WKH cell grows larger, makes new proteins, and develops organelles.

• 6\QWKHVLV )URP * FHOOV PRYH LQWR WKH 6 SKDVH RU V\QWKHVLV 7KLV SKDVH LV FKDUDFWHUL]HG E\ WKH UHSOLFDWLRQ RI WKH JHQHWLF PDWHULDO WKDW LV KHOG ZLWKLQ D FHOO²GHR[\ULERQXFOHLF DFLG '1$

• '1$ UHSOLFDWLRQ PDNHV DQ H[DFW FRS\ RI WKH JHQHWLF PDWHULDO ZKLFK ZLOO EH SDVVHG RQ WR HDFK

• •

GDXJKWHU FHOO GXULQJ PLWRVLV '1$ UHSOLFDWLRQ EHJLQV ZKHQ HQ]\PHV XQ]LS WKH '1$ PROHFXOH IRUPLQJ WZR VWUDQGV 7KHQ QXFOHRWLGHV DUH DGGHG WR HDFK RI WKH VWUDQGV IROORZLQJ WKH UXOHV RI base pairing. * 7KLV LV WKH ODVW SKDVH EHIRUH WKH FHOO HQWHUV PLWRVLV 'XULQJ * WKH FHOO JURZV PRUH DQG prepares for mitosis by producing the structures that are needed for the upcoming division.

Mitosis: Although it is the shortest phase of the cell cycle, mitosis is a time of great activity.

0LWRVLV GLYLGHV WKH QXFOHXV GLVWULEXWLQJ '1$ WR HDFK GDXJKWHU FHOO ,W LV FRPSOHWHG E\ F\WRNLQHVLV ZKLFK GLYLGHV WKH F\WRSODVP DQG VHSDUDWHV WKH FHOO LQWR WZR LQGLYLGXDO FHOOV 7KH SKDVHV RI PLWRVLV can be seen below.

140 | Cell Theory

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STEMscopedia 7KH GLDJUDP EHORZ LOOXVWUDWHV WKH HQWLUH FHOO F\FOH :K\ LV LW LPSRUWDQW WR PDLQWDLQ FKURPRVRPH numbers during asexual reproduction? Only eukaryotic cells perform the stages of the cell cycle, including mitosis. Mitosis is important in creating exact copies so that offspring in asexual reproduction are genetically identical.

3URNDU\RWLF FHOOV XQGHUJR D VLPSOHU IRUP RI FHOO GLYLVLRQ FDOOHG ELQDU\ ¿ VVLRQ ,W LV DQRWKHU IRUP RI DVH[XDO UHSURGXFWLRQ UHVXOWLQJ LQ WZR LGHQWLFDO FHOOV %LQDU\ ¿ VVLRQ EHJLQV ZKHQ D SURNDU\RWH UHSOLFDWHV LWV '1$ DQG DWWDFKHV WKH FRS\ WR RQH SDUW RI WKH FHOO PHPEUDQH DQG DWWDFKHV WKH RULJLQDO '1$ WR DQRWKHU SDUW 7KH FHOO SXOOV DSDUW VHSDUDWLQJ WKH FRS\ RI '1$ IURP WKH RULJLQDO JHQHWLF PDWHULDO DQG forming two identical cells. Mitosis is important in creating exact copies so that offspring in asexual reproduction are genetically identical.

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Cell Theory | 141

STEMscopedia Summarize It 1

How can an understanding of modern cell theory help scientists?

A ,W FDQ KHOS VFLHQWLVWV XQGHUVWDQG KRZ WR EHVW PDQDJH GLVHDVHV B ,W FDQ KHOS VFLHQWLVWV PDQXIDFWXUH FHOOV WKDW FDQ UHSODFH GDPDJHG RQHV C ,W FDQ KHOS VFLHQWLVWV DFFHOHUDWH FHOO JURZWK ZKLFK ZLOO VSHHG RUJDQLVP JURZWK D ,W FDQ KHOS VFLHQWLVWV LQYHQW PRUH SRZHUIXO PLFURVFRSHV

2

Which of the following statements correctly describes cells?

A 7KH\ VSRQWDQHRXVO\ JHQHUDWH LQ VXEVWDQFHV WKDW DUH KHDWHG B 7KH\ DUH WKH EDVLF XQLWV RI DOO WKLQJV OLYLQJ DQG QRQOLYLQJ C 7KH\ FDQ EH XVHG WR UHJHQHUDWH DQ\ RUJDQ D 7KH\ DUH WKH EDVLF VWUXFWXUDO DQG IXQFWLRQDO XQLWV RI OLIH DQG DUH PDGH IURP RWKHU preexisting cells.

3

Why is the cell called a cell?

A Cellular phones and other forms of technology consist of cells.

B 7KH ZRUG cell means to contain, and all cells contain nuclei.

C Scientist Robert Hooke thought they looked like cells that monks inhabited.

D Scientist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek thought they looked like jail cells.

4

Cell theory consists of three parts. Which of the following would correctly complete the table?

Cell Theory 3DUW ,

Organisms are made of one or more cells.

3DUW ,, 3DUW ,,, A B C D 5

Cells come from preexisting cells.

Cells are so small that they can only be seen under a microscope.

Cells are the basic units of structure and function of life.

Cells can be described by whether they have nuclei.

Both plants and animals are living things with cells.

'HVFULEH KRZ FHOO WKHRU\ KDV FKDQJHG DV VFLHQWLVWV KDYH LQYHVWLJDWHG LWV LGHDV VLQFH WKH PLG V

142 | Cell Theory

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Cellular Processes

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143

STEMscopedia Cells are so small that we need a microscope to see them. An average human body contains approximately 100 trillion cells!

lls he ce an t o D 1. p ake u any m t a h t e m hav ation, is n a g or organiz cell f o d kinn each n s e o d or its ow d o d “ ly simp hout regar wit thinng” her cells? to ot

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Cellular Processes | 145

STEMscopedia All the parts of an organism’s body, at every level, must be in a balanced, healthy state to survive and function properly. This balanced state is known as homeostasis. Organisms have levels of biological organization. At the simplest level is the cell. While cells are by no means “simple,” they are the most basic building blocks of an organism. Cells of the same type join together to create tissues. Tissues form organs. Organs make up organ systems. Organ systems work together to help an organism function.

Without homeostasis, a cell is not able to do its job properly. If cells are unhealthy, organ systems cannot function, and the organism eventually dies. In other words, cells that are not in homeostasis lead to tissues that are not in homeostasis, and so on.

Although plant and animal cells have some structural differences, to maintain homeostasis, they undergo the same processes of getting energy from food, getting rid of waste, and reproducing.

Both plants and animals stay alive because of the ability of their cells to create stable internal environments. In fact, even single-celled organisms need homeostasis to survive.

s the e o d w 2. Ho tion of an za organiz relate to m organis asis? (Hint: t homeos bout a car.) a Think

Cell Processes and Homeostasis So, how does the “work” of homeostasis get done in cells? Cells have structures that function to maintain homeostasis. We’ll discuss some of those processes and structures in the following paragraphs.

All cells need certain substances to function and maintain homeostasis. Food, water, and nutrients must be able to go into the cells, and waste must be able to leave. The key structure for this is the cell membrane. All cells have a cell membrane, which serves the same purpose as the door of a house. The cell membrane acts as the cell’s gatekeeper. Unlike a front door, however, the cell membrane surrounds the entire cell, allowing only water and certain molecules to diffuse in and out as needed. The process of diffusion moves molecules from an area where there are many of them to an area where there are very IHZ ,Q RUJDQLVPV RVPRVLV LV GLIIXVLRQ WKDW LV VSHFL¿ FDOO\ IRU WKH PRYHPHQW RI ZDWHU &HOOV XVH GLIIXVLRQ and osmosis to move needed substances inside and to remove unwanted substances (waste). The goal is to balance molecules and water on either side of the cell membrane. The processes of diffusion and osmosis are key to maintaining homeostasis.

146 | Cellular Processes

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STEMscopedia move, grow, and reproduce. Glucose is the most important energy source for all organisms. This means that glucose is the molecule that cells use the most to get energy. During photosynthesis in plants (and a few other organisms), glucose is made from carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight. Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts of plant cells. Humans and animals don’t have chloroplasts, so they don’t perform photosynthesis. But their cells do perform an equally important process called cellular respiration.

Glucose is broken down during cellular respiration, and energy is generated from it. This process occurs in a cell structure called the mitochondrion (plural: mitochondria). All plant and animal cells perform cellular respiration to generate the energy that is needed to function. Cells that use a lot of energy, such as muscle cells, have more mitochondria than cells that do not use as much energy. Each cell can have hundreds of thousands of mitochondria if needed.

Healthy cells will continue to grow, but eventually, this growth makes it hard for the cell to maintain homeostasis. Larger cells have trouble moving bigger amounts of nutrients and waste through the cell membrane. When the cell can no longer keep an internal balance, it divides to create two daughter cells.

This process allows a cell to reproduce itself. Inside the cell is a structure called the nucleus, which contains genetic material. The nucleus gives a cell the ability to pass on genetic information to the next cell “generation.”

e ake th e m s t s 3. Plan hat they u t tion glucose lar respira ns a u in cell nergy. Hum e e ak to get imals don’t m orm f and an but do per . n gluucose r respiratio s cellula do human ir e Wher als get the im and an ose from? gluc

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Cellular Processes | 147

STEMscopedia Homeostasis can be disrupted at all levels of biological organization and in many different ways. Any disruption in homeostasis can lead to sickness, disease, or even death. Imbalances in homeostasis FDQ EH FDXVHG E\ GLVWXUEDQFHV LQ À XLG GLVWULEXWLRQ FKDQJHV LQ HOHFWURO\WHV VXFK DV VRGLXP 1D+) and chloride (Cl-), and lack of good nutrition. They can also be caused by disruptions in energy production and heredity (genetics). Even environmental factors, such as toxins, can disrupt the delicate balance that is required for homeostasis.

One common example of homeostatic disruption leading to disease is diabetes. People who have type 1 diabetes cannot make the amount of insulin that is needed to transport glucose into their cells, or they may even be unable to produce insulin at all. Those with type 2 diabetes can produce insulin, but the cells fail to uptake glucose. As a result of cells not taking in glucose, the concentration of glucose in the blood can increase drastically for both types of diabetes. Without glucose, cells can’t generate energy.

Without energy, cellular processes do not occur, and homeostasis is compromised. People with diabetes can regulate their insulin by consistently testing their blood to monitor their glucose levels. Insulin injections allow these patients to help their cells lower blood glucose levels and maintain homeostasis.

Sometimes, blood glucose levels can be controlled by a healthy, balanced diet.

148 | Cellular Processes

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STEMscopedia Dr. Chandrabali Bhattacharya, PhD Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of Nevada, Las Vegas

Chandrabali Bhattacharya is researching the development of glucose-responsive material for smart insulin. Smart-insulin systems would be able to quickly respond to elevated blood glucose levels and deliver the correct amount of insulin that is needed. The system would be able to stop delivery once a normal blood glucose level is established.

Currently, patients have the option of an implanted glucose monitor that alerts them when levels are off. There is also a device that delivers insulin through a port in the body, but the person must input the amount of insulin that is needed. A smart device that can do both for a patient with uncontrolled diabetes could be lifesaving.

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Cellular Processes | 149

STEMscopedia Organisms have biological levels of organization. Cells work together to make tissues. Tissues work together to make organs. Organs work together to function as organ systems, and organ systems work together to make a functioning organism. Homeostasis is the state of having internal balance. Each level of organization strives to maintain homeostasis so that the organism can be at optimum health. In other words, cells that are not in homeostasis lead to tissues that are not in homeostasis, and so on.

A cell has many structures that work to maintain homeostasis. The cell membrane allows substances into and out of the cell as needed. Chloroplasts in plants convert carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight into glucose. Glucose is used during cellular respiration to generate energy for cells to function. Cells need energy for lots of functions, which include moving large molecules through the membrane, generating energy, reproducing, and removing waste products along with many other jobs.

The process of cellular respiration to get energy occurs in cell structures called mitochondria. A cell can have just a few mitochondria or hundreds of thousands of mitochondria depending on how much energy it needs. When a cell reproduces, it uses the genetic information in the nucleus.

Optimum health can be obtained only when homeostasis is maintained. If one area is out of balance, the whole organism suffers. Diabetes is an example of disrupted homeostasis. In diabetes, the cells can’t take in glucose, and blood glucose levels become high, causing serious health problems.

Connect It We have discussed how human and animal cells are organized into levels in which homeostasis must be maintained. Recall that a group of cells works together to make tissue. A group of tissues working together makes an organ. A group of organs functioning together makes an organ system. Finally, all organ systems function together to make a whole organism that must maintain homeostasis to continue in optimum health.

Are plants organized in the same way? As funny as it may sound, plants are organized into similar levels.

Plants have cells that work together to form tissue. An example is plant vascular tissue that transports water and nutrients throughout the plant. Plant tissues work together to make organs. Plant organs are their leaves, stems, and roots. In plants, organs work together to make organ systems—the root and shoot systems. All of these levels must be kept in tip-top shape for a plant to maintain homeostasis.

150 | Cellular Processes

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STEMscopedia 1

What is the relationship between photosynthesis and cellular respiration that assists homeostasis?

A Glucose is made during cellular respiration and is used for energy during photosynthesis.

B Homeostasis is maintained mostly by photosynthesis and only slightly by cellular respiration.

C Both photosynthesis and cellular respiration make glucose.

D Glucose is made during photosynthesis and broken down for energy during cellular respiration.

2

Which cell structure plays a part in removing waste from cells?

A Chloroplasts B Cell membrane C Ribosomes D Plant roots

3

How does cellular respiration work to maintain homeostasis in organisms?

A Cells reproduce during cellular respiration, which is important in homeostasis.

B Glucose is created during cellular respiration and is used for important cell functions.

C Glucose and oxygen are converted to energy that is used for important cellular functions.

D Glucose, the important energy molecule, is made during cellular respiration.

4

The cell membrane can be thought of as the front door of a cell EXCEPT that– A it surrounds the cell.

B it lets nothing in or out.

C it surrounds only parts of a cell.

D it doesn’t have a lock.

5

How are mitochondria like batteries?

A %RWK DUH XVHG LQ À DVKOLJKWV B Both have the same shape.

C Both produce light.

D Both produce energy.

6

How can information about homeostasis be used in real life? Write a paragraph with three to ¿ YH VHQWHQFHV

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Cellular Processes | 151

Cell Organelles

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153

STEMscopedia Onion cells look quite beautiful under a microscope. These cells are three-dimensional and have a clear, circular nucleus in each one. But how are they similar to the cells in humans? Is the nucleus the only organelle that both plants and animals have?

do the n w o H 1. in onio s e ll e organ compare plants se within ho with t n cells? huma

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Cell Organelles | 155

STEMscopedia To answer this question, think about the purposes that cells serve and organelles that would be needed for those purposes. What functions would cells carry out? Are there any cell organelles that plants need but not animals or vice versa?

All living things contain basic building blocks called cells. They are generally too small to be seen with the naked eye and require a microscope. Although all plants and animals have cells, they are not identical to each other.

Plant Cell

Animal Cell

Plant cells are found in organisms that conduct photosynthesis, including carnivorous and underwater plants. Plant cells are usually rectangular and contain organelles that animal cells do not have, such as FKORURSODVWV DQG FHOO ZDOOV $V D SODQW PDWXUHV LWV FHOOV GLIIHUHQWLDWH LQWR RQH RI ¿ YH VSHFLDOL]HG W\SHV (Our focus will remain on the two basic cell types for now.)

Generally, plant cells are larger than animal cells. Animal cells are surrounded by a single plasma membrane that contains a nucleus and organelles that are themselves membrane bound. They are more round in shape than plant cells because they do not have an outer structure that limits them to a rectangular shape. Aside from the spherical shape shown in the image, animal cells can be rod shaped, FRQFDYH RU À DW

156 | Cell Organelles

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STEMscopedia

([DPLQH WKH WZR H[DPSOHV RI VSHFLDOL]HG DQLPDO FHOOV 7KH QHXURQ OHIW LV IRXQG LQ WKH EUDLQ DQG VSLQDO cord while the more rounded epithelial cells (right) line many of the organs in the human body. They can be found on the skin and in various organs.

Interestingly, the largest animal cell on Earth is the ostrich egg, measuring 12.7 cm, or about 5 in.

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Cell Organelles | 157

STEMscopedia

nelles a g r o 2. Are red living considde gs? thin

Small structures called organelles can be found inside every plant and animal cell. The word organelle literally means “little organ” and describes various structures inside plant and animal cells that perform a variety of functions. The organelles in both plants and animals are similar and perform similar functions.

They work together to form tissues, which then form organs. Let’s take a closer look at these structures.

Vacuole

Nucleus

Organelles

Cell

Tissue

Organ

System

Organism

nelles, a g r o are 3. How sues, and tis lated? e r s n orga

158 | Cell Organelles

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STEMscopedia The nucleus is similar to the brain in an animal.

It directs cellular activity and is one of the largest organelles. You may remember this organelle as the one that differentiates eukaryotic cells from prokaryotic cells. The nucleus contains and stores the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that is found in all living cells and determines the traits that are expressed by organisms. In prokaryotic cells, the '1$ LV IUHH À RDWLQJ There is only one exception to the rule that all plant and animal cells have a nucleus. Mature red blood cells in animals lack a nucleus because they eject all of their organelles, making the cells themselves concave in shape. This enables them to carry more hemoglobin and, in turn, more oxygen to the body.

The cell membrane differentiates the inside from the outside of the cell by surrounding the material inside the cell. You may have heard this referred to as a phospholipid bilayer, meaning a double layer of oil molecules. Every living cell has a cell membrane regardless of whether it is a plant cell or an animal cell. The cell membrane protects the cell and helps the cell receive outside stimuli. It also helps regulate the movement of nutrients, water, and oxygen into and out of the cell by letting in substances that the cell needs and keeping out anything else.

Inside the cell membrane, a thick solution called cytoplasm cushions the other organelles and serves as a site for chemical reactions. This watery solution holds all of the organelles inside the cell.

An artist’s rendering of cells shows the nucleus, cell membrane, and cytoplasm in animal cells.

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Cell Organelles | 159

STEMscopedia one vacuole. Plant cells usually have one large vacuole. Its main function is to help maintain the balance of water and waste in a cell. You may have seen a droopy plant on a hot summer day.

A droopy plant has lost water from its vacuoles, which are similar to empty plastic bags, and is unable to stand up straight. When you water the SODQW LW UHJDLQV LWV VWLII VWUXFWXUH DV ZDWHU ¿ OOV WKH vacuole in each cell.

Animal cells have multiple smaller vacuoles. These vacuoles store water, nutrients, and waste.

Empty

Vacuole

Full

Vacuole

is the t a h 4. W a plant’s of effect s becoming vacuole drated? dehy

160 | Cell Organelles

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STEMscopedia mitochondrion generates most of the energy that is needed for the cell and makes it available for use. It is often referred to as the powerhouse of the cell. This organelle converts glucose and oxygen to the energy that the cell uses to function. Animal liver and muscle cells contain many more mitochondria than other organ types. The word mitochondrion is irregular, and the plural form of this organelle is mitochondria.

A close-up rendering of a cell’s mitochondrion Ribosomes in plant and animal cells are spread throughout the cytoplasm. They also surround the nucleus on another organelle called the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). These spherical organelles V\QWKHVL]H SURWHLQV DQG ZRUN WR WUDQVODWH FRGHV IRU JHQHV LQWR SURWHLQV

Ribosomes

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Cell Organelles | 161

STEMscopedia Plant cells have two organelles that are not found in animal cells: a cell wall and chloroplasts.

The cell wall is made mainly of cellulose and creates a rigid outer structure. This gives the plant cell its characteristic rectangular shape, but it also limits the diversity of cell types that a plant can create. It also limits abilities like movement because it gives plant cells a stiff structure. This rigidity allows plants, even those with very thin stems, to stand up straight and support the weight of branches and leaves.

Plant cells also have chloroplasts. These organelles contain the pigment chlorophyll, which absorbs energy from sunlight. Chloroplasts are like solar panels, absorbing and storing the Sun’s energy for photosynthesis. Plants need to undergo photosynthesis to create their own food. When the chlorophyll breaks down in autumn due to reduced sunlight intensity and cooler temperatures, it reveals other leaf pigments, such as red, orange, and brown.

162 | Cell Organelles

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STEMscopedia y do 5. Wh need cells plant sts while la chlorop lls do not? ce animal

Plant Cell Cell wall

Animal Cell Cell membrane

Nucleus Ribosomes

Cytoplasm

Chloroplast

Mitochondria Vacuole

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Cell Organelles | 163

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164 | Cell Organelles

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STEMscopedia Plant and animal cells have organelles, literally “little organs,” that perform a variety of functions for the organisms. Both types of cells have some of the same organelles, including the nucleus, the cell membrane, the cytoplasm, vacuoles, ribosomes, and mitochondria. Plant cells have two additional organelles, a cell wall and chloroplasts. Organelles perform a variety of functions, including substance VWRUDJH ¿ OWUDWLRQ HQHUJ\ JHQHUDWLRQ DQG SURYLGLQJ VWUXFWXUH

Connect It How would you describe the similarities and differences between onion and human cell organelles?

Onion cells are plant cells, which have some of the same organelles as animal cells. For example, both have a nucleus, which makes them eukaryotic. The cell membrane provides a boundary between the inside and outside of both types of cells, and the cytoplasm gives structure and cushion to both types of cells. Both types of cells have ribosomes and at least one vacuole.

Like all plant cells, onion cells have a cell wall and chloroplasts. This sets them apart from animal cells.

In addition, onion cells have one large vacuole, and human cells have several smaller ones.

The data table below compares the main organelles and lists whether they are present in plant cells, animal cells, or both.

Organelle

Plant Cell

Animal Cell

Cell membrane

Yes

Yes

Cell wall

Yes

No

Nucleus

Yes

Yes

Ribosomes

Yes

Yes

Cytoplasm

Yes

Yes

Mitochondria

Yes

Yes

Chloroplasts

Yes

No

9DFXROHV

Yes

Yes

Advanced Topics Not all cells are the same. Some cells are prokaryotic while others are eukaryotic. In addition to this distinction, the structures of cells can be different. The structure of a cell organelle is related to its function. For example, a brain cell does not have the same structure or shape as a bone cell. This is because the two cells perform unique functions. However, in both cells, the cell membrane acts as a highly selective barrier. This barrier allows only certain materials into or out of the cell in processes called passive transport and active transport. © Accelerate Learning Inc. – All Rights Reserved

Cell Organelles | 165

STEMscopedia Summarize It 1

Which of the following cellular functions does NOT happen in the nucleus?

A Storage of DNA B Storage of materials that are used to make food C Control of the activities of the cell D Direction of the growth and development of the cell

2

One main difference between plant and animal cells is that– A only plant cells need to generate energy for the organism to use.

B plant cells have fewer organelles than animal cells do.

C animal cells are larger than plant cells.

D plant cells have chloroplasts and cell walls while animal cells do not.

3

7KH RUJDQHOOH WKDW HQFORVHV WKH F\WRSODVP DQG RUJDQHOOHV DQG VHUYHV DV D ¿ OWHU IRU VXEVWDQFHV LV WKH± A cell membrane.

B ribosome.

C mitochondrion.

D cell wall.

4

9DFXROHV DUH FULWLFDO WR WKH VXUYLYDO RI SODQWV EHFDXVH WKH\± A keep outside pollutants from contaminating the cell’s cytoplasm.

B KROG À XLGV DQG KHOS PDLQWDLQ VWUXFWXUH C create energy from sunlight.

D direct the growth and development of the cell.

5

How does a mitochondrion in an animal cell compare to a ribosome?

A The ribosome is the powerhouse of the cell while the mitochondrion makes proteins.

B 7KH PLWRFKRQGULRQ VWRUHV WKH À XLGV WKDW DUH QHHGHG IRU WKH FHOO WR IXQFWLRQ DQG WKH ULERVRPH makes proteins.

C The mitochondrion is like a battery generating energy while the ribosome makes proteins that are needed by the cell.

D The mitochondrion keeps the cell’s cytoplasm intact while the ribosome controls the cell’s energy and growth.

6

&RPSOHWH WKH WZR FROXPQ FKDUW E\ VXPPDUL]LQJ WKH IXQFWLRQ RI HDFK RUJDQHOOH Organelle Name

Function

Cell membrane Cell wall Nucleus Ribosomes Cytoplasm Mitochondria Chloroplasts 9DFXROH 166 | Cell Organelles

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Organism Organization

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167

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Organism Organization | 169

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170 | Organism Organization

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Organism Organization | 171

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Animal Tissue

Connective tissue Nervous tissue

Muscle tissue Epithelial tissue

172 | Organism Organization

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Plant Tissue Types Dermal tissue

Vascular tissue

Ground tissue

Dermal tissue Vascular tissue

Ground tissue

Leaf

Lower epidermis

Dermal tissue

Stem

Ground tissue Vascular tissue

Dermal tissue

Ground tissue

Root Vascular tissue

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Organism Organization | 173

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Spleen Stomach

Kidney

Mouth Esophagus Small intestine Heart

Lung

Colon

Liver

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174 | Organism Organization

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STEMscopedia Organs:

Roots, Stems, Leaves

Tissues:

Ground tissue

Vascular tissue

Cells:

Ground tissue cells

Vascular tissue cells

Dermal tissue

Dermal tissue cells

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Organism Organization | 175

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176 | Organism Organization

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Organism Organization | 177

STEMscopedia Donita Brady, PhD University of Pennsylvania 'RQLWD %UDG\ LV D FDQFHU UHVHDUFKHU DQG 3UHVLGHQWLDO 3URIHVVRU DW WKH 3HUHOPDQ 6FKRRO RI 0HGLFLQH 6KH DQG KHU WHDP RI VFLHQWLVWV UHVHDUFK KRZ FHOOV FRPPXQLFDWH DQG WKH UROH RI FRSSHU LQ FDQFHU 6SHFL¿ FDOO\ VKH GLVFRYHUHG WKDW ORZHULQJ WKH ERG\¶V VXSSO\ RI FRSSHU FDQ VWRS FHUWDLQ W\SHV RI FDQFHU FHOOV IURP JURZLQJ 6KH VD\V D FKHPLVWU\ WHDFKHU LQ KLJK VFKRRO LQVSLUHG KHU WR FKRRVH D FDUHHU LQ PHGLFLQH $OWKRXJK FRSSHU DQG LURQ DUH QHFHVVDU\ IRU RUJDQ V\VWHPV WR IXQFWLRQ SURSHUO\ WRR PXFK RI WKHVH PHWDOV FDQ DOVR HQFRXUDJH FDQFHU FHOOV WR JURZ DQG PXOWLSO\ 6KH KRSHV WKDW KHU UHVHDUFK ZLOO KHOS UHVXOW LQ WKH FUHDWLRQ RI SUHVFULSWLRQ GUXJV WKDW ZLOO KHOS ORZHU WKH DPRXQW RI FRSSHU LQ WKH ERG\ DQG VWRS FDQFHU JURZWK

Normal cells

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178 | Organism Organization

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Organism Organization | 179

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180 | Organism Organization

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Human Body Systems

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181

STEMscopedia Have you ever had a sunburn? It hurts! Sunburns happen when your skin, which is your body’s biggest organ, suffers damage from the Sun’s ultraviolet rays. After a few days, your skin heals, goes back to its normal color, and does not hurt anymore. What is involved in healing from injuries and burns in particular? How does your body know what to do, and what systems help you heal?

t body ed a h W lv 1.. e invo r a s system aling from in he burn? a sun

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Human Body Systems | 183

STEMscopedia Every organ in the human body serves a particular function. A function is what something does.

Each organ is part of at least one body system. A system is a group of interacting, interrelated, or interdependent elements that form a complex whole. A system has a given function, such as helping your body digest food, exchange gases, or resist infection.

The human organism is made of several distinct body systems. Those systems consist of organs, which consist of tissues. Tissues are made of cells. The cell is the smallest, most basic structural unit in your body.

The human body is made of several systems that work together to help you perform important life processes.

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STEMscopedia Our circulatory and respiratory systems are involved in the exchange of gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide into and out of body tissues.

The circulatory system is a group of organs that work together to circulate blood through the body, supply oxygen and nutrients, and remove waste. Its functions include blood circulation, the delivery of oxygen and nutrients to cells, the transportation of cellular waste (carbon dioxide) out of the body, and more. This system also helps with temperature regulation. The main organs of the circulatory system consist of the heart, arteries and veins, capillaries, and blood. An adult organism has between 1.2 and 1.5 gal. of blood.

The respiratory system is composed of the trachea, lungs, mouth, and nose. The trachea is also known as the windpipe. The function of the respiratory system is to exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide in the lungs.

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Human Body Systems | 185

STEMscopedia

The lungs are the main organs of the respiratory system. The heart, which is part of the circulatory system, is located in the center of the chest, under the breastbone and between the lungs.

do the w o H 3. y and r o t la u circ atory respir work s system o support er t togeth rocesses? life p

186 | Human Body Systems

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STEMscopedia The human skeletal system provides structural support to the body and protects the major internal RUJDQV ,W LV FRPSRVHG RI ORQJ ERQHV À DW ERQHV VKRUW ERQHV OLJDPHQWV DQG MRLQWV ,W IXQFWLRQV WR provide form, support, and stability as you perform life functions. The brain is protected inside the skull, and the rib cage protects the lungs, heart, liver, and stomach. Long bones create red and white blood cells and platelets, which help our blood clot when we sustain injuries. The skeletal system also stores calcium and other minerals.

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Human Body Systems | 187

STEMscopedia muscular system is a group of organs that function to provide mechanical movement and warmth for the body. It is composed of skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and tendons.

Cardiac muscle is the muscle in the heart, which beats to circulate blood around the body. Skeletal muscles are attached to bone and make the bone move as they contract or relax.

The muscular and skeletal systems work together and are often called the musculoskeletal system.

The human muscular system from different angles

s, the e im t e r 4. Som nd muscula ed al a skelet are group s system er into one togeth called the system loskeletal m u s c u Do you . system syste ms the think e grouped b should r or kept e togeth ly? Why? ate separ

188 | Human Body Systems

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STEMscopedia The human digestive system takes the foods that you eat and breaks them down, providing energy for the body. The digestive system is a group of organs that work together to break down food by physical and chemical processes into nutrients that the body can use. This system is composed of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, gallbladder, liver, pancreas, rectum, and anus. This system processes food, delivers nutrients to the bloodstream, and removes solid waste from the body.

The organs in the human digestive system

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Human Body Systems | 189

STEMscopedia

The human urinary system The urinary system LV WKH JURXS RI RUJDQV WKDW ¿ OWHUV WKH EORRG DQG UHPRYHV OLTXLG ZDVWH LQ WKH form of urine. This is sometimes called the excretory system because its main function is to remove excess waste material from the body. Kidneys, ureters, the bladder, and the urethra are the organs in this system.

190 | Human Body Systems

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STEMscopedia

The organs in human reproductive systems The reproductive system is a group of organs that function to produce offspring. It is composed of the testes, fallopian tubes, ovaries, and uterus. The function of the male reproductive system is to fertilize the egg, which is produced, fertilized, and held in the female reproductive system until birth.

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Human Body Systems | 191

STEMscopedia The integumentary system is a group of organs and tissues that protect the body from external damage, UV radiation, and water loss. It also helps regulate body temperature, aids in the excretion of waste (sweat), creates vitamin D, and receives information from the external environment. It consists of the hair, skin, and nails.

Nervous, Immune, and Endocrine Systems The nervous system communicates between different body systems and activates body responses to stimuli. It is responsible for all cognitive processing, including the development of language, thought, attention, memory, and imagination. The brain, spinal cord, and nerves make up this important system.

The organs in the nervous system 192 | Human Body Systems

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STEMscopedia immune system GHIHQGV WKH ERG\ DJDLQVW LQIHFWLRXV GLVHDVHV DQG ¿ JKWV RII YLUXVHV DQG EDFWHULD ,W consists of white blood cells, antibodies, the lymphatic system, spleen, thymus, and bone marrow.

Finally, the endocrine system regulates the body by secreting hormones into the bloodstream and controlling important body processes. It controls growth, reproduction, and metabolism. This system includes the thyroid gland, pituitary gland, and adrenal gland.

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Human Body Systems | 193

STEMscopedia Dr. Lisa Rae, MD Temple Burn Center Lisa Rae is the director of the Temple Burn Center and an associate professor of surgery at the Katz School of Medicine. She serves on the American Burn Association’s National Faculty for the Advanced Burn Life Support Committee. She specializes in burn injuries, surgical critical care, and emergency general surgery.

The Temple Burn Center treats hundreds of patients each year who have sustained major burns and need inpatient care in a hospital. It uses a burn treatment called the RECELL system, in which a small VTXDUH RI VNLQ LV UHPRYHG DQG VRDNHG LQ DQ HQ]\PH VROXWLRQ WR SURGXFH VNLQ FHOOV 7KH SURFHVV WDNHV only about 30 minutes and reduces infection because it reduces the amount of time that a patient’s burn wounds are open to the air.

Skin burns often need treatment in a hospital or clinic. Healing can be slow and involves a number of body systems.

194 | Human Body Systems

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STEMscopedia The human organism consists of several organ systems with different functions. The circulatory system routes blood throughout the body. The respiratory system exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide.

The skeletal system helps support and stabilize the body. The muscular system provides movement.

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The nervous system communicates messages between body systems. The immune system defends against infection. The endocrine system regulates body processes.

Connect It What body systems are involved in healing from a sunburn?

Skin is an organ that is part of the integumentary system. Sunburn damages the outer layer of this organ. The nervous system sends signals to the brain telling it that a part of the body has been damaged. The immune system is involved because this system helps the body defend against infection, so it is activated when the skin is burned. Extra blood with red and white cells made in the skeletal system is sent to the area to help the body heal from the damage. The blood arrives at the burned area; it is moved around the body by the circulatory system.

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Human Body Systems | 195

STEMscopedia Summarize It 1

Which body system activates body responses when it is faced with stimuli from the outside environment?

A Nervous system B Circulatory system C Endocrine system D Immune system

2

Which two body systems work together to facilitate movement?

A Reproductive and integumentary systems B Immune and digestive systems C Circulatory and muscular systems D Muscular and skeletal systems

3

Which of the following systems is NOT involved in the processing of information or substances from the outside environment?

A Nervous system B Integumentary system C Reproductive system D Respiratory system

4

Which body system creates platelets, which help the blood clot and stop bleeding after an injury?

A Integumentary system B Immune system C Skeletal system D Nervous system

5

Fill in the table by identifying the body system according to its organs and function.

Body System

Main Organs

Function

Urinary Reproductive Immune Digestive

Circulatory

6

Describe the organs and systems that are responsible for exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide.

196 | Human Body Systems

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Infectious Diseases

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197

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Infectious Diseases | 199

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200 | Infectious Diseases

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Infectious Diseases | 201

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202 | Infectious Diseases

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Infectious Diseases | 203

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STEMscopedia Dr. Marion Koopmans, DVM, PhD Erasmus Medical Center 9LURORJLVWV DUH KLJKO\ VNLOOHG PHGLFDO H[SHUWV ZKR VSHFLDOL]H LQ WKH VWXG\ RI YLUDO LQIHFWLRQV VXFK DV UXEHOOD KHSDWLWLV DQG &29,' 7KHVH VSHFLDOLVWV PDQDJH WKH GLDJQRVLV WUHDWPHQW DQG SUHYHQWLRQ RI LQIHFWLRXV GLVHDVHV WKDW DUH FDXVHG E\ YLUXVHV 0DULRQ .RRSPDQV LV D 'XWFK YLURORJLVW ZKRVH UHVHDUFK LQFOXGHV QRURYLUXVHV HPHUJLQJ LQIHFWLRXV GLVHDVHV DQG YHWHULQDU\ PHGLFLQH 5HFHQW VWXGLHV KDYH IRFXVHG RQ XQGHUVWDQGLQJ WKH WUDQVPLVVLRQ RI GLVHDVHV DPRQJ DQLPDOV DQG IURP DQLPDOV WR KXPDQV 6KH LV FXUUHQWO\ ZRUNLQJ WR XQGHUVWDQG WKH VSUHDG RI &29,' 6KH KHOSHG ODXQFK WKH 3DQGHPLF DQG 'LVDVWHU 3UHSDUHGQHVV &HQWHU 3'3& $FFRUGLQJ WR .RRSPDQV ³7KH 3'3& LV IRFXVLQJ QRW RQO\ RQ LQIHFWLRXV GLVHDVHV EXW DOVR KRZ WKHVH LQWHUVHFW ZLWK WKH FOLPDWH FKDQJH WKDW FDXVHV VHD OHYHO ULVHV H[WUHPH ZHDWKHU HYHQWV DQG FRPSOH[ HFRORJLFDO DQG VRFLHWDO HIIHFWV DOO WR SUHSDUH IRU IXWXUH GLVHDVH RXWEUHDNV DQG KHDOWK WKUHDWV ´ +HU PLVVLRQ LV WR KHOS SUHSDUH VRFLHW\ IRU WKH QH[W SDQGHPLF

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Infectious Diseases | 205

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206 | Infectious Diseases

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Infectious Diseases | 207

Taxonomy

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209

STEMscopedia 7KLQN RI DOO WKH RUJDQLVPV LQ D IUHVKZDWHU SRQG²WKH ODUJH DQG VPDOO ¿ VK WKH SODQWV DORQJ WKH VKRUHOLQH DQG LQ WKH ZDWHU WKH ELUGV DQG WKH LQVHFWV ,I \RX ZHUH WDVNHG ZLWK FDWHJRUL]LQJ WKHP KRZ ZRXOG \RX GR LW" .QRZLQJ WKDW HDUO\ VFLHQWLVWV JURXSHG RUJDQLVPV DFFRUGLQJ WR ZKHWKHU WKH\ À HZ ZDONHG RU VZDP ZRXOG WKDW EH D V\VWHP WKDW ZRXOG ZRUN" +RZ HOVH FRXOG \RX FDWHJRUL]H WKH RUJDQLVPV \RX VHH DQG WKRVH \RX GRQ¶W"

e ould w c w o 1. H e the z i n a g or s in a m s i n a org sed on nd a b d pon arities a simil their ences from differ another? one

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Taxonomy | 211

STEMscopedia :KDW LV WKH WD[RQRPLF V\VWHP XVHG WR FDWHJRUL]H RUJDQLVPV EDVHG RQ WKHLU VLPLODULWLHV DQG GLIIHUHQFHV" $ULVWRWOH ZDV WKH ¿ UVW WR DWWHPSW WR GR WKLV DQG KH FUHDWHG WZR PDLQ JURXSV SODQWV DQG DQLPDOV +H FODVVL¿ HG SODQWV E\ WKHLU VL]H VPDOO PHGLXP RU ODUJH DQG DQLPDOV E\ WKHLU ORFDWLRQ ODQG ZDWHU RU DLU +RZHYHU $ULVWRWOH DQG RWKHU VFLHQWLVWV TXLFNO\ UHDOL]HG WKDW WKHUH ZHUH À DZV LQ WKLV V\VWHP DQG WRR PDQ\ RUJDQLVPV FRXOG ¿ W LQ PXOWLSOH FDWHJRULHV 8QUHODWHG RUJDQLVPV ZHUH DOVR JURXSHG WRJHWKHU VXFK DV EDWV DQG EHHV VLQFH ERWK FRXOG À \ $OPRVW \HDUV ODWHU 6ZHGLVK ERWDQLVW ]RRORJLVW DQG GRFWRU &DUO /LQQDHXV GHVLJQHG D GLIIHUHQW V\VWHP +LV V\VWHP EHJDQ ZLWK WZR NLQJGRPV SODQWV DQG DQLPDOV :LWKLQ WKH NLQJGRPV KH IXUWKHU FODVVL¿ HG RUJDQLVPV E\ WKHLU VLPLODULWLHV 7KLV V\VWHP NQRZQ DV WKH /LQQDHDQ 6\VWHP KDV OHG WR WKH PRGHUQ WD[RQRP\ WKDW LV VWLOO XVHG WRGD\ Taxonomy LV WKH EUDQFK RI VFLHQFH WKDW IRUPDOO\ QDPHV DQG FODVVL¿ HV RUJDQLVPV E\ WKHLU VWUXFWXUH IXQFWLRQ DQG UHODWLRQVKLSV 7KLV PHDQV WKDW RUJDQLVPV ZLWK VLPLODU VWUXFWXUHV VXFK DV ZLQJV RU OHJV DUH JURXSHG WRJHWKHU DQG RUJDQLVPV WKDW JHW WKHLU IRRG LQ VLPLODU ZD\V DUH DOVR JURXSHG WRJHWKHU

212 | Taxonomy

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STEMscopedia $OO RUJDQLVPV DUH FODVVL¿ HG LQWR RQH RI WKUHH EURDG FDWHJRULHV FDOOHG GRPDLQV 2QH RI WKH PDLQ GLIIHUHQFHV EHWZHHQ WKHVH FDWHJRULHV LV WKH FHOOXODU VWUXFWXUH RI WKH RUJDQLVPV 7KHUH DUH WZR W\SHV RI FHOOV LQ RUJDQLVPV 6LPSOHU RUJDQLVPV KDYH FHOOV WKDW GR QRW KDYH D QXFOHXV RU RWKHU VPDOO SDUWV FDOOHG RUJDQHOOHV 7KHVH DUH FDOOHG prokaryotic cells 9HU\ WLQ\ RUJDQLVPV DUH SURNDU\RWLF VXFK DV DUFKDHDQV DQG EDFWHULD

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Taxonomy | 213

STEMscopedia Eukaryotic cells DUH WKRVH ZLWK D QXFOHXV DQG PHPEUDQH ERXQG RUJDQHOOHV ,I ZH ZHUH WR ORRN DW D WUHH PDS RI WKH WKUHH GRPDLQV LW PLJKW ORRN OLNH WKLV

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214 | Taxonomy

Eukarya Protista

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Taxonomy | 215

STEMscopedia DUH DEOH WR V\QWKHVL]H WKHLU RZQ IRRG LQ PRVW FDVHV IURP WKH 6XQ 7KHVH DUH autotrophs 2Q WKH RWKHU KDQG RUJDQLVPV OLNH KXPDQV WKDW FDQQRW PDNH WKHLU RZQ IRRG DQG PXVW FRQVXPH LW DUH FDOOHG heterotrophs

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216 | Taxonomy

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STEMscopedia kingdom Archaea LQFOXGHV PHWKDQRJHQV RUJDQLVPV OLYLQJ LQ OHVV H[WUHPH HQYLURQPHQWV OLNH VDOW PDUVKHV DQG WKH JXWV RI DQLPDOV $UFKDHDQV DUH PRUH FORVHO\ UHODWHG WR HXNDU\RWLF RUJDQLVPV WKDQ WR EDFWHULD 7KH\ DUH WKRXJKW WR EH WKH ROGHVW OLYLQJ WKLQJV EHFDXVH WKH\ WKULYH LQ WKHVH VWUDQJH SODFHV 6RPH VHUYH LPSRUWDQW IXQFWLRQV LQ VHZDJH WUHDWPHQW IDFLOLWLHV EHFDXVH WKH\ FDQ GHFRPSRVH RUJDQLF ZDVWH

0HPEHUV RI WKH GRPDLQ DQG NLQJGRP $UFKDHD OLYH LQ H[WUHPH HQYLURQPHQWV VXFK DV WKH 7LQWR 5LYHU LQ 6SDLQ 7KLV ULYHU KDV DQ H[WUHPHO\ DFLGLF FRPSRVLWLRQ S+ DURXQG DQG FRQWDLQV KXJH DPRXQWV RI GLVVROYHG PHWDOV VXFK DV LURQ JLYLQJ LW D UHGGLVK RUDQJH FRORU 7KH QH[W GRPDLQ DOVR FRQWDLQV RQH NLQJGRP Domain Bacteria and kingdom Bacteria LQFOXGH RUJDQLVPV WKDW DUH SURNDU\RWLF DQG VLQJOH FHOOHG 7KLV JURXS RI RUJDQLVPV LQFOXGHV SURNDU\RWLF VLQJOH FHOOHG RUJDQLVPV WKDW ODFN D PHPEUDQH HQFORVHG QXFOHXV DQG FDQ EH FODVVL¿ HG E\ VKDSH %DFWHULD OLYH LQ PRUH QRUPDO HQYLURQPHQWV ZLWK DYHUDJH WHPSHUDWXUH VDOLQLW\ DQG RWKHU FRQGLWLRQV 7KH\ KHOS SURGXFH DQWLELRWLFV YLWDPLQV DQG \RJXUW 6RPH EDFWHULD FDQ PDNH XV VLFN ZKLOH RWKHUV DLG LQ GLJHVWLRQ 2QH JURXS RI EDFWHULD FDOOHG cyanobacteria LV EHOLHYHG WR DGG R[\JHQ LQWR WKH DWPRVSKHUH EXW LW FDQ DOVR EH KDUPIXO WR KXPDQV <RX PD\ KDYH KHDUG RI E. colii or Lactobacillus acidophilus. %RWK DUH LQ GRPDLQ %DFWHULD DQG NLQJGRP %DFWHULD $OO RI WKHVH RUJDQLVPV DUH XQLFHOOXODU 7KH\ JHW WKHLU IRRG ERWK E\ PDNLQJ LW DQG FRQVXPLQJ LW

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Taxonomy | 217

STEMscopedia Domain Name

Kingdom Name

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218 | Taxonomy

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STEMscopedia LV WKH WKLUG RI WKH WKUHH WD[RQRPLF GRPDLQV RI RUJDQLVPV 0HPEHUV RI WKLV GRPDLQ KDYH FHOOV WKDW FRQWDLQ D PHPEUDQH HQFORVHG QXFOHXV VR WKH\ DUH HXNDU\RWLF 0HPEHUV RI WKLV GRPDLQ KDYH QXFOHL LQ WKHLU FHOOV DQG PRVW RUJDQLVPV LQ WKLV GRPDLQ DUH PRUH FRPSOH[ WKDQ WKRVH LQ WKH RWKHU WZR DQG WHQG WR EH ODUJHU 7KH GRPDLQ LV GLYLGHG LQWR IRXU GLVWLQFW NLQJGRPV •

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Taxonomy | 219

STEMscopedia Domain Name

Kingdom Name

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220 | Taxonomy

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STEMscopedia 0HPEHUV RI kingdom Fungi DUH \HDVWV PROGV DQG PXVKURRPV 7KH PDLQ GLIIHUHQFH EHWZHHQ NLQJGRP )XQJL DQG NLQJGRP 3ODQWDH LV WKH ZD\ WKH\ JHW IRRG )XQJL DUH KHWHURWURSKLF VR WKH\ PXVW FRQVXPH RWKHU RUJDQLVPV IRU IRRG 7KH\ UHSURGXFH WKURXJK DVH[XDO VSRUHV DQG OLNH SODQWV KDYH FHOO ZDOOV

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Taxonomy | 221

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Taxonomy | 223

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224 | Taxonomy

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Taxonomy | 225

GLOSSARY OF TERMS air mass

cell

air mass: a body of air extending over

atmospheric movement: global air

a large area (1,000 miles or more) that

circulation patterns within the atmosphere

develops and retains specific characteristics

held to Earth by gravity and warmed as

of pressure, temperature, and humidity

heat radiates from Earth; influenced by convection of warm, less dense air (rises

air pressure: the force exerted by the

and spreads out) and cold, dense air (sinks)

atmosphere on Earth’s surface by the weight of the air above the surface

autotroph: an organism that makes its own food

animal cell: eukaryotic cell surrounded by a plasma membrane that contains a nucleus

bacteria: one of the three taxonomic

and organelles that are membrane bound

domains; a highly diverse group of singlecelled, prokaryotic organisms

applied force: the push or pull that is exerted on an object by another object

balanced forces: forces on an object that do not change the motion of the object

at rest: the state of an object when it is not in motion

biosphere: the sum of all living matter on Earth

atmosphere: the layer of gas surrounding a planet that is held in place by gravity

cell: the basic structural and functional unit of living organisms

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227

GLOSSARY OF TERMS cell membrane

constant speed

cell membrane: a lipid barrier that

circulatory system: the group of organs

encloses the cytoplasm and controls what

that work together to circulate blood

enters and exits the cell

through the body, supply oxygen and nutrients, and remove waste

cell theory: a theory that states the following: all life is made up of cells, cells

climate: average weather patterns for a

are the fundamental unit of life, and all cells

particular region

come from preexisting cells coastline: the outline or shape of a coast or cell wall: a tough, protective barrier that

the boundary between land and a lake

surrounds the outer membrane of some

or ocean

types of cells cold front: the border between an chemical potential energy: the energy

advancing cold air mass and a retreating

stored in chemical bonds of a substance

warm air mass

chemical weathering: the chemical

conduction: transfer of thermal energy that

processes that break down rocks using

occurs in solids, liquids, and gases when

chemicals found in the atmosphere

two substances of different temperatures touch

chloroplast: a membrane-bound organelle in plants that is the site of photosynthesis

constant speed: the rate of fixed speed per time

228

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GLOSSARY OF TERMS convection

domain Archaea

convection: heat transfer caused by the

digestive system: the group of organs

rising of hotter, less dense fluids and the

that work together to break down food

falling of cooler, denser fluids

by physical and chemical processes into nutrients that the body can use

cryosphere: the places on Earth where the water is frozen all the time

direction: a straight path that an object can move along

cytoplasm: the jellylike material inside the outer membrane of a cell that holds the

distance: a measure of how far apart two

nucleus, organelles, and other components

objects are

of the cell distance-time graph: a graph illustrating delta: a triangular landform formed by

changes in motion that shows time on the

deposition of sediments at the mouth

x-axis and distance on the y-axis

of a river as it empties into another body of water

domain Archaea: one of the three taxonomic domains of organisms; consists

deposition: the process by which gravity,

of a specialized group of unicellular

water, wind, and ice deposit weathered and

prokaryotes that can live in extreme

relocated sediment

environments

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GLOSSARY OF TERMS domain Bacteria

function

domain Bacteria: one of the three

energy transfer: movement of energy from

taxonomic domains of organisms; includes

one system to another

prokaryotic, single-celled organisms that lack a membrane-enclosed nucleus and can equilibrium: a condition in which all be classified by shape

competing influences are balanced

domain Eukarya: one of the three

erosion: the process by which gravity,

taxonomic domains of organisms; has cells

water, wind, and ice remove and transport

that contain a membrane-enclosed nucleus

sediment from one place to another

elastic potential energy: potential energy

eukaryotic cell: a cell with a nucleus and

stored as a result of deformation of an

membrane-bound organelles

elastic object, such as the stretching of a spring

flood: a rising body of water that submerges normally dry land

endocrine system: the group of organs that regulate the body by

force: a push or pull that can change the

secreting hormones into the bloodstream;

motion of an object

also control growth, reproduction, and metabolism

friction: a force that resists the motion of two surfaces sliding across one another

energy: the ability of a system to do work; required for changes to happen within

function: what something does

a system

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GLOSSARY OF TERMS fungi

hurricane

fungi: heterotrophic eukaryotes that

heterotroph: an organism that must

reproduce through asexual spores,

consume other organisms for energy

break down dead materials, and can spread disease

high-pressure air mass: an air mass with greater atmospheric pressure

geosphere: portion of Earth that includes

than the surrounding air masses; air

Earth’s interior, rocks and minerals,

moves away from the center of the

landforms, and processes that shape

high pressure, traveling in a clockwise

Earth’s surface

direction in the northern hemisphere and a counterclockwise direction in the southern

glacier: a large, slow-moving, long-lasting

hemisphere

accumulation of snow and ice that develops on land

homeostasis: the tendency of an organism or cell to maintain a balanced state to

gravitational potential energy: the energy

maintain health and function

stored in an object due to its position horizontal: describes the direction of gravity: the force that causes objects with

motion from side to side, perpendicular to

mass to attract one another

a corresponding vertical line; from side to side; parallel to the horizon

hazardous weather: severe or dangerous weather phenomena that threaten life

hurricane: a large tropical weather system

and property

consisting of an extremely low-pressure air mass with heavy rains and wind speeds of at least 119 km/h

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GLOSSARY OF TERMS hydrosphere

landform

hydrosphere: all the water on Earth’s

kingdom Bacteria: kingdom of prokaryotic,

surface; includes all water sources above

single-celled organisms that lack a

and below the surface

membrane-enclosed nucleus and can be classified by shape

immune system: the group of organs that defend the body against infectious diseases

kingdom Fungi: kingdom of heterotrophic eukaryotes that reproduce through asexual

infectious disease: illness caused by

spores and have cell walls

bacteria, viruses, parasites, or fungi that can be passed directly or indirectly to

kingdom Plantae: kingdom of autotrophic

another person

eukaryotes that includes all plants

integumentary system: a system of organs

kingdom Protista: kingdom of single-celled

and tissues that protects the body from

and simple multiple-celled eukaryotic

external damage and water loss

organisms

kinetic energy: energy of motion

lake: a large body of water surrounded by land

kingdom Animalia: kingdom of heterotrophic eukaryotes that includes

landform: feature on the surface of

all animals

Earth, such as mountains, hills, dunes, oceans, or rivers.

kingdom Archaea: kingdom of prokaryotic, single-celled organisms that live in extreme environments 232

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GLOSSARY OF TERMS low-pressure air mass

normal force

low-pressure air mass: an air mass

multicellular: a category of organisms

with less atmospheric pressure than the

made up of more than one cell and of

surrounding air masses; air moves toward

different types of cells

the area of low pressure, traveling in a counterclockwise direction in the northern

muscular system: a group of organs

hemisphere and a clockwise direction in the

that provide mechanical movement and

southern hemisphere

generate warmth for the body

magnetism: a force that attracts or repels

natural disasters: any event or force of

objects toward or away from each other;

nature that causes great damage or loss

caused by electrons in a substance

of life, such as tornadoes, hurricanes, and floods

mitochondrion: the organelle that functions in energy production; the power

nervous system: a group of organs

factory of the cell

and tissues specialized for the rapid transmission and processing of information

motion: the change in an object’s position with respect to time and in comparison

net force: the sum of all the forces acting

with the position of other objects used as

on an object

reference points normal force: the force generated by a mountain: a large landform that is formed

surface in opposition to an object pressed

by volcanoes or the movement of the

upon it

tectonic plates

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GLOSSARY OF TERMS nucleus

ribosomes

nucleus: a membrane-bound organelle in

plant cells: cells found in plants that are

eukaryotic cells that contains the DNA; the

generally rectangular in shape and contain

control center of the cell

certain organelles that animal cells do not have, such as chloroplasts and cell walls

organelle: a structure inside a cell that performs a specialized function

potential energy: energy that is stored in a system or object

organism: a self-contained living thing prokaryotic cell: a cell lacking a nucleus or parasite: an organism that lives in or

any other membrane-enclosed organelle

on another organism (host) and derives nourishment from it, resulting in harm to

radiation: the transfer of energy by the

the host organism

movement of electromagnetic waves or subatomic particles

photosynthesis: a chemical reaction during which plants convert radiant energy

reproductive system: a group of organs

from the Sun to chemical energy; the

that function to produce offspring

reaction converts carbon dioxide and water into sugar (glucose) and oxygen

respiratory system: the group of organs that supply oxygen to the blood and get rid

physical weathering: geological process of

of carbon dioxide

rocks breaking apart without changing their chemical composition

ribosomes: small, spherical organelles that are responsible for making proteins in cells

234

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GLOSSARY OF TERMS river

tornado

river: a natural flow of water that follows a

system: a group of interacting, interrelated,

path into another body of water

or interdependent elements forming a complex whole

sand dune: hill formed by the wind blowing sand

taxonomy: the branch of science that formally names and classifies organisms by

sediment: Earth material that is broken

their structure, function, and relationships

down by processes of weathering; can be eroded and deposited by the agents of

thermal energy: the total kinetic (motion)

water, wind, ice, and gravity

energy of the tiny particles that make up matter; the faster the particles move, the

skeletal system: a group of organs that

warmer the matter becomes

function to provide structural support and protect internal organs

thunderstorm: a storm that is formed by the quick movement of warm, moist fronts

speed: the rate of change of position (or

into the cool atmosphere; also known as a

distance traveled) with respect to time

lightning storm

structure: the arrangement of parts that

tornado: a violently rotating column of

form a living thing

air extending from a thunderstorm to the ground with wind speeds between

Sun exposure: exposing the body’s skin to

40 and 318 miles per hour (mph)

the Sun

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235

GLOSSARY OF TERMS unbalanced forces unbalanced forces: forces on an object that cause change in the motion of the object unicellular: a category of organisms made up of one cell urinary system: the group of organs that filter the blood and remove waste urine vacuole: the organelle that stores water and food in both plant and animal cells vertical: describes the direction of motion up and down, perpendicular to a corresponding horizontal line; from top to

y-axis weather: the day-to-day state of the atmosphere weathering: the mechanical or chemical processes by which gravity, water, wind, and ice break rock into smaller pieces wind: a natural movement of air, sometimes with considerable force, from an area of high density and pressure to an area of low density and pressure x-axis: the horizontal line with labels on a coordinate grid; often used for representing time y-axis: the vertical line with labels on a coordinate grid; often used for representing distance

bottom; perpendicular to the horizon virus: a nonliving particle dependent on host cells for replication of genetic material warm front: the boundary between an advancing warm air mass and a receding cooler air mass

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