Surjyatapa Ray Choudhury

Advanced Design Studies

PUCCA 5.0

Tokyo Department of Architecture

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A framework for development of a digital system to aid informal self-construction

The University of Tokyo

2020 Advanced Design Studies Master’s Thesis

Surjyatapa Ray Choudhury

PUCCA 5.0

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Master's Thesis

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Surjyatapa Ray Choudhury

PUCCA 5.0 A framework for development of a digital system to aid informal self-construction

Supervising Professor: Prof. Yusuke Obuchi Sub Supervisors: ADS

Prof. Tomoyuki Gondo

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Prof. Akiko Okabe

Additional Course Support: Yusuke Komata Shuta Takagi

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2020 Advanced Design Studies Master's Thesis

PUCCA 5.0: A framework for development of a digital system to aid informal self-construction

Editors: Surjyatapa Ray Choudhury Book Design: Surjyatapa Ray Choudhury Book Edition Design: Jan Vranovsky Printed in Tokyo, Japan Advanced Design Studies Typeface: Roboto by Christian Robertson (Google) © 2020 Obuchi Lab, T ADS Department of Architecture Graduate School of Engineering The University of Tokyo Eng. Bldg. 1, Room 415 7

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Bunkyō

1 Hongō ku

Tokyo 〒 113

8656

Japan

www.t-ads.org

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Abstract

In the current context of affordable housing, mass housing thrives mainly in its ability to achieve economies of scale but fails to meet specific socio-economic demands of the dweller. Self-construction addresses this variable demand through autonomy in the process but lacks structural and spatial considerations. While practices of self-construction have been prevalent since the beginning of civilization, with the advent of concepts of division of labour, a knowledge gap has emerged between the formal construction processes led by technical specialists and informal processes led by labourers and owner-builders. In order to bridge this

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in the last 60 years, wherein some aim to formalize the informal construction

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gap, programs providing technical assistance in self-construction has proliferated process, while others facilitate the supply of resources, but fails to address the knowledge gap in construction. Moreover, all such programs are facilitated by external institutions that might limit its accessibility. Technology holds the potential to bridge this issue of accessibility while providing aid ubiquitously.

This objective of this thesis is to formulate a framework for development of a digital aid system that communicates directly with the labourers and guides them to arrive at a process that supports user-autonomy, while delivering a structurally safe, spatially optimised housing. A system-based approach is adopted to generate the system architecture, reinforced with the STPA (Systems-Theoretic Process Analysis) method to factor in technological and user-autonomy constraints.

User-autonomy constraints are generated by mapping the informal construction system using qualitative survey to highlight where it deviates from the formal methods, and the effect of autonomous activity on the process. The technological constraints are derived from an analysis of accessible and appropriate hardware and cognitive capacities of the labourers.

The framework is then theoretically applied against construction scenarios from existing cases in the settlement of Savda Ghevra in Delhi, India, to measure the efficiency of the constraints built into the system architecture. While not a prototypical study in itself, the development of this framework paves the way for understanding the application of technical assistance in informal self-construction using accessible technology that is highly autonomous but bridges the knowledge gap that currently exists.

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Acknowledgment

Firstly, I would like to thank Prof. Yusuke Obuchi for providing us the opportunity to explore digital fabrication in an entirely novel way. I would also like to thank Shuta Takagi for his tireless contribution to our projects in the past two years.

I take this opportunity to thank Jasso and Nihon Chozai. Their financial support has provided me with the opprotunity to focus solely on my work.

This thesis would not have been possible without the support and guidance of a

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pushing my efforts in new directions, Prof. Akiko Okabe whose words “Cellphone

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few people. Firstly, Nikhil Bugalia for his patience and support in guiding me and is their only tool” formed the foundation of this thesis, and Namrataa, Ishan and Prera for their significant contributions to the work done here.

I would also like to thank my friends and family who have been a constant source of support for me in these past few months.

Last but not the least, the biggest critic of my work and strongest supporter, Virat, my sister who silently motivates me to achieve all that I want, and my mother, without whose support none of this would have been possible.

Thank you.

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Contents 1. Introduction

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1.1. Motivation

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1.2. Objective and Methodology 20 1.3. Thesis Structure

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2. Self-Construction

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2.1. Overview

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2.1.1. Definition

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2.1.2. History of Self-Construction

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2.1.3. Autonomy in Self-Construction

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2.2. Aid in Self-construction 27 2.2.2. Aid in Formal Construction

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2.2.3. State-sponsored Aid

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2.2.1. Types

2.2.4. Private-sponsored Aid 42 2.2.5. Unaided self-construction 52 2.2.6. Limitations of current practices

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2.3. Site study: Savda Ghevra

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2.3.1. Overview

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2.3.2. Incremental development

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2.3.3. Self-construction

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2.3.4. Issues

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3. Mapping Informal Construction

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3.1. Informal Construction

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3.2. Role of the Key Contractor

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3.3. Process mapping

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4. Digital Aid System: Logic and Constraints

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4.1. Constraints

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5. Application of Systems Theory 105 5.1. Systems Theory: Overview

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5.1.1. Complex system and Emergent Properties

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5.2. The General Systems Theory 107 9

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5.3. Communication and Control

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5.3.1. Information

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5.3.2. Feedback

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5.3.3. Control Feedback Loop

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5.4. Proposed System 111 5.5. System theoretic Process Analysis 114 5.5.1. Purpose of the Analysis

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5.5.2. Modeling the Control Structure 121 6. Developing the System Architecture

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6.1. Control Structure: Subsystems

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6.1.1. Overview

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6.2. Sub-system 01: Optimization

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6.2.1. Single vs Multi-Objective programs

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6.2.2. Proposed System Optimization

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6.2.3. Control Structure: Sub-system 01

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6.3. Sub-system 02: Smartphone Integration

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6.3.1. Checklist of Considerations

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6.3.2. Potential methods to procure environmental data

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6.3.3. Method selection based on constraints

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6.3.4. Control Structure: Sub-system 02

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6.4. Sub-system 03: Worker Communication

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6.4.1. Control Structure: Sub-system 03

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6.4.2. Unsafe Control Actions

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7. Conclusion

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7.1. Conclusion

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7.2. Future work

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7.2.1. Open Source Database

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7.2.2. Predictive guidance

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7.3. Application in allied fields

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List of Figures Fig. 2.2.1. Case examples to illustrate types of aid in self-construction Fig. 2.2.2. Location of Self-Help Homes Project in Payson, Utah, USA Fig. 2.2.3. A design prototype offered by Self-Help Homes Fig. 2.2.4. A home built based on prototype shown in Fig. 2.2.3 Fig. 2.2.5. Location of World Bank funded site-and-services project under the ALIS program Fig. 2.2.6. Layout plan for LISP program in Arioli, Mumbai illustrating a mix of site-and-services and public housing project used for cross-subsidization Fig. 2.2.7. Plot, Core and Shelter options under the LISP program Fig. 2.2.8. Core provided under the LISP Program Fig. 2.2.9. Comparative scale of the Charkop and Gorai project in Mumbai and site-and-services project in Chennai Fig. 2.2.10. Layout plan for Charkop project

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Fig. 2.2.12. (Clockwise from top) Section, Elevation and Layout Plan of Typical Cluster in Charkop

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Fig. 2.2.11. Layout plan for Charkop project Fig. 2.2.13. View through cluster Fig. 2.2.14. Neighbourhood planning of Core Houses Fig. 2.2.15. Incrementally built housing after 30 years of inception Fig. 2.2.16. Achieved density of site-and-services project in Charkop Fig. 2.2.17. Achieved density of adjacent private housing project Fig. 2.2.18. Location plan for Aranya Low-Cost Housing Project Fig. 2.2.19. View of original demonstration houses of site-and-services project Fig. 2.2.20. Initial site layout, awaiting installation of services Fig. 2.2.21. Core provided for Site-and-services scheme Fig. 2.2.22. Kit of parts provided for self-construction of EWS housing: Layout and form variations Fig. 2.2.23. Kit of parts provided for self-construction of EWS housing: Staircase options Fig. 2.2.24. Kit of parts provided for self-construction of EWS housing: Fenestration and facade decoration options Fig. 2.2.25. Orthographic view illustrating incremental development of a core house Fig. 2.2.26. View of original demonstration houses Fig. 2.2.27. Iterations of original demonstration houses Fig. 2.2.28. Present day condition Fig. 2.2.29. Present day condition: Developed houses differ largely from original demonstration units Fig. 2.2.30. (Left) Interior of house developed differently from original houses Fig. 2.2.31. (Right) Houses built based on original kit of parts Fig. 2.2.32. Location of site-and-services project in Villa El Salvador Fig. 2.2.33. View of project site in initial days of settlement

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Fig. 2.2.34. Villa El Salvador, 2006 Fig. 2.2.35. Present day condition Fig. 2.2.36. View of project site highlighting grid layout Fig. 2.2.37. Aerial View of current settlement Fig. 2.2.38. (Left) Semi-permanent self-constructed house Fig. 2.2.39. (Right) Temporary dwelling constructed by residents Fig. 2.2.40. (Left) Temporary dwellings constructed out of bamboo and fabric Fig. 2.2.41. (Right) Aerial View of current settlement Fig. 2.2.42. Present day view of developed settlement Fig. 2.2.43. (Left) Urban modules, residential group Fig. 2.2.44. (Right) Residents organizing to meet basic needs Fig. 2.2.45. Incremental Self-construction of houses in Villa El Salvador Fig. 2.3.1. Site Location: Savda Ghevra Fig. 2.3.2. Site Location: Savda Ghevra Fig. 2.3.3. Service outlet demarcated in provided plots Fig. 2.3.4. Residents construct temporary shelter out of fabric and tensile structure during early days of resettlement Fig. 2.3.5. (Left) Residents build temporary houses out of bamboo and cane Fig. 2.3.6. (Right) Residents are forced to used recycled material from demolition for construction Fig. 2.3.7. Rate of incremental growth over a period of two years Fig. 2.3.8. Range of housing visible across a stretch of street Fig. 2.3.9. Range of self-constructed housing available Fig. 2.3.10. (Clockwise from top left) 1. Elevation 2. Layout plan 3. Section AA’ Fig. 2.3.11. (Clockwise from top left) 1. Elevation 2. Layout plan 3. Section AA’ Fig. 2.3.12. (Clockwise from top left) 1. Elevation 2. Ground floor plan 3. First Floor plan 4. Section AA’ Fig. 2.3.13. (Clockwise from top left) 1. Elevation 2. Section AA’ 3. Ground Floor Plan 3. First Floor Plan 4.

Second Floor plan Fig. 2.3.14. Common issues arising from self-construction, as seen in Savda Ghevra Fig. 3.1. Role of Key Contractor in informal self-construction Fig. 5.1. Shannon-Weaver’s model of communication Fig. 5.2. Simple Feedback Scheme Fig. 5.3. Control Feedback loop Fig. 5.4. Proposed Control Feedback Loop: Interation I Fig. 5.5. Proposed Control Feedback Loop: Interation II Fig. 5.6. Inductive and deductive analysis relationship Fig. 5.7. Overview of defining the analysis purpose 12

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Fig. 5.8. Generic hierarchical control structure Fig. 6.1. Proposed Control Structure with sub-systems Fig. 6.2. Controller and Controlled process of Sub-system 01 Fig. 6.3. Schematic diagram showing multi-objective optimization proces Fig. 6.4. Schematic diagram showing proposed multi-objective optimization process Fig. 6.5. Anchoring functions to municipal utilities, and grouping according to wet and dry activities Fig. 6.6. Anchoring functions to personally/ communally provided utilities such as sewage pit and bore well, and grouping according to wet and dry activities Fig. 6.7. Arrangement of staircase to raise economic prospects [Pucca 1.5] Fig. 6.8. Arrangement of staircase to accommodate functional demands of family [Pucca 2.5] Fig. 6.9. [L to R] 1. Section 2. Plan, Source of light and ventilation [Pucca 2.5] Fig. 6.10. Refined Control Structure: Sub-system 01  ADS

Fig. 6.12. Conceptual work-flow of system parts for brick laying

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Fig. 6.11. Controller and Controlled process of Sub-system 02 Fig. 6.13. Control structure for Sub-system 02 Fig. 6.14. Controller and Controlled process of Sub-system 03 Fig. 6.15. Control structure for Sub-system 03 Fig. 6.16. Control structure for Proposed System Fig. 6.17. Simulated Workflow: Process- Digging Foundation

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List of Tables Table 2.2.1. Analysis of Aid in Formal Construction against measurement index stated in methodology Table 2.2.2. Analysis of State Sponsored Aid in Informal Construction against measurement index stated in methodology Table 2.2.3. Analysis of Private Sponsored Aid in Informal Construction against measurement index stated in methodology Table 2.2.4. Analysis of Unaided Self-Construction against measurement index stated in methodology Table 3.2.1. Mapping: Plot demarcation Table 3.2.2. Mapping: Marking Reference Levels Table 3.2.3. Mapping: Digging Foundation Table 3.2.4. Mapping: Building Foundation Table 3.2.5. Mapping: Plinth Beam Table 3.2.6. Mapping: Column

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Table 3.2.8. Mapping: Fenestrations

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Table 3.2.7. Mapping: Masonry walls Table 3.2.9. Mapping: Lintel Beam Table 3.2.10. Mapping: Staircase Table 3.2.11. Mapping: Roof Slab I Table 3.2.12. Mapping: Roof Slab II Table 5.2.1. Types of System Loss Table 5.2.2. Types of System-level Hazards Table 5.2.3. Types of System-level Constraints Table 6.1. Deriving Ideal Process for Optimization [Digging Foundation] Table 6.2. Structural Optimization factors in the construction process Table 6.3. Responsibilities for Controller in Sub-sytem 01 Table 6.4. Deriving feedback for Sub-sytem 01 Table 6.5. Comparative Analysis of position tracking system available using smartphones Table 6.6. Information type for each step of the construction process Table 6.7. Responsibilities for Controller in Sub-system 02 Table 6.8. Responsibilities for Controller in Sub-system 03 Table 6.9. Unsafe Control Actions in Sub-sytem 01 Table 6.10. Controller Constraints for Sub-sytem 01

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1. Introduction

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1.1. Motivation

Pucca 5.0 Pucca 5.0 is a projection of a self-construction system that outputs housing of superior structural and spatial quality, with a high degree of autonomy for the user in the construction process. While this research addresses housing in the context of informal settlements, the core principles of the proposed system are applicable to all forms of construction where decision-making related to any aspect of the housing process lies in the hands of the dweller.

Self-construction deals with the practice of active participation of the dweller in the housing process. This participation can be in various capacities ranging from construction activity, spatial planning to supplying and managing resources.

The factor differentiating self-construction from other construction practices is the degree of autonomy that resides with the dweller in the overall process (Turner, 1977). While in other practices, the decision making is done by technical experts or central authorities who control resource allocation in the project, in self-construction practices, the core deciding factors that influence the overall outcome resides with the dweller.

Owing to this factor, self-construction is one of the most prevalent forms of affordable housing. With a rise in the rate of urbanization, there is a subsequent surge in the number of people living in slums or informal settlements. United Nations (2019) estimates this figure to be approximately 1 billion. This leads to a growing demand in affordable housing. The issue of affordable housing crisis is primarily catered in two ways: subsidized housing provided by centralized institutions, produced by private sectors, and housing produced by the informal settlement dwellers themselves. The later predominates the former process of centrally provided housing owing to its capacity to address the varied necessities of the dweller in terms of socio-economic demands and affordability. UN Habitat (2005) estimates that self-help housing contributes to nearly 70% of the total housing stock in developing countries.

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However, housing produced through this process often leads to substandard living conditions. To address this issue, the concept of technical and financial assistance to aid incremental self-construction is predominant in developing countries (Bredenoord, et al. 2014).

While technical assistance addresses the issue of quality in self-constructed housing, the current practices, it is limited in its capacity to achieve economies of scale and a faster rate of production (Burgess, 1985). Moreover, practices

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process and reducing user-autonomy in order to reduce complexity, that leads

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of technical assistance can sometimes lead to formalising the construction to unaffordable and unsustainable housing.

While the necessity of technical assistance is absolute, there is a need to rethink a system that provides aid without compromising the autonomy of the dweller, and in a faster and more ubiquitous manner. Digital technology has the capacity to achieve this. Digital technology can ensure affordability along with variability in the construction process through economies of production (Carpo, 2017). Since it replicates the process and not the product itself, creating more copies of the process has no effect on the overall cost of the system.

Moreover, advances in the field of human computer interaction has pushed the boundaries of human capacity and efficiency. With the use of such technology, aid for self-construction can be provided in an active, ubiquitous and continuous manner instead of in deterministic, disruptive methods.

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1.2. Objective and Methodology

The objective of this research is to develop a system of technical assistance using concepts of human computer interaction. The system aims to capture the essence of informal construction, while retaining the provision of superior structural and spatial quality in the final output. The scope of this thesis is limited to self-construction practices in informal settlements.

In order to develop the framework for the proposed digital system, the research aims to first understand the nature of informal construction. The quality of any building system can be judged by two parameters: •

Structural Integrity

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Spatial Quality

However, in the case of informal settlements, a third factor which is often overlooked is autonomy/ dweller control. An implicit decision-making factor that has a high degree of variability depending on the user is crucial in the analysis of informal construction.

For the purpose of this thesis, the analysis of current practices of technical aid in self-construction as well as the development of a digital system, will aim to achieve the goal of satisfying the following three criteria: 1. Structural Integrity: The ability of the structure to bear load; its ability to sustain an incremental construction. [cite] 2. Spatial quality: The quality of spaces that have been designed (by user or by a specialist in case of ASH), analysed after occupancy as well as in the case of incremental development.

3. Autonomy: The ability of the users/ workers to retain their autonomy in the design of spaces in case of incremental development.

In order to capture the nature of informal construction, secondary data collection from existing literature, pilot studies held by experts and expert interviews has been adopted. The nature of the data collected is as follows: •

[Explicit] Construction technologies used in informal settlements.

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[Implicit] Decision-making that affect the construction process.

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A proper understanding of what comprises of “informal” will be used to formulate the functions and constraints for the proposed system. An analysis of the technological capacity and demand of informal construction workers will also be addressed as a system constraint.

The proposed system works in a series of control feedback loops, the architecture of which is developed using the following steps: 1. Identify system components and sub-systems

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goal and identified constraints

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2. Iterate the decision-making criteria for each sub-system, based on system 3. Understand the communication between system components in terms of control actions and feedback, based on the decision-making criteria and function of each component.

The system architecture is developed and analysed using the System Theoretic Process Analysis (STPA) developed by Nancy Leveson at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) to investigate hazards that leads to accidents in complex systems. The investigation is applied to ensure that interaction between system components are made robust and safe against potential identified failures.

The final system architecture generated out of this iterative process will be tested againts cases of self-construction in existing conditions, to determine its validity.

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1.3. Thesis Structure

The thesis is divided into seven chapters, the first of which deals with the motivation, objective and methodology as described.

Chapter [2] addresses the concept of self-construction and technical assistance practices. The current practices of technical assistance are analysed using 3 case examples depending on the following criteria: 1. State provided technical assistance for formal construction processes 2. State provided technical assistance for informal construction processes 3. Privately sponsored technical assistance for informal construction processes A fourth case study analyses unaided self-construction in informal sector.

The studies are measure against the desired system goals of structural integrity, spatial quality and autonomy, to derive the limitations of current practice and considerations for proposed system.

Based on the inferences from the previous chapter, Chapter [3] highlights the necessity of mapping the informal construction process, where it deviates from the formal processes and the role of implicit decision making from the user end on the overall process. This analysis forms the basis of the proposed system.

Chapter [4] maps out the constraints of the proposed system, based on the analysis done in chapter [2] and [3], in addition to constraints posed by digital technologies.

Chapter [5] enlists aspects of Systems Theory that are used in this research to develop the proposed system. It delves into theories of Control Feedback Loops and application of STPA in designing a robust Control Structure. The system boundary, system goals and components are identified here, and STPA is used to define the potential losses and hazards that the proposed system might encounter.

Chapter [6] details out the architecture of the proposed system. It derives the decision-making criteria for each sub-system identified in Chapter [5], and details out the control actions and feedback to derive the final system architecture.

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Chapter [7] concludes the thesis.

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2. Self-Construction

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2.1. Overview 2.1.1. Definition

“Self-help building is distinguished from other systems of construction in that the family who live in the house participate in the construction process by making different contributions (finance, labour-power, administration etc.) be this in an autonomous form or in a form organized by an institution.”

(Valenzuela & Kiedrowski, 1970, p. 10) Self-construction is defined as a construction activity undertaken by the owner of the dwelling or where the owner is closely involved in the entire process of development. In the book Housing by People, Turner (Turner, 1977) uses the term ‘Dweller-Control’ to define the core aspect of Self-Construction, which emphasizes on the capacity of the dweller to control the housing process, as opposed to control resting in the hands of centralized and/or private institutions, as can be seen in the cases of Mass Housing.

Burgess argues that every construction project, be it designed, formal or informal, has a certain degree of self-construction aspect in it (Burgess, 1985). Every homeowner involves in maintenance related work, or other allied activities that could count as self-construction. Similarly, in informal self-construction, there are cases where skilled workers are involved in certain aspects of the project and in certain decision-making situations. This draws the idea of measuring self-construction in degrees rather than in a dichotomy. The degree of participation of the dweller can be measured across a spectrum. Burgess goes on to explore how the capitalist mode of production has framed the context of self-help1 (Burgess, 1985). The construction ecosystem in a capitalist setting relies heavily on division of labour and mass production of commodities. These two cases are in direct contrast with what self-construction aims: lesser division of labour and more dweller-control in decision-making process as well as construction, and a product that is suited to the demands of each individual dweller.

Drawing from these concepts stated by Turner and Burgess, the process of Self-construction can be defined as a process of housing where the dweller has higher degree of autonomy over usability of the resources provided by centralised institutions; the outcome of such a process reflects the autonomy in the process, 24

in its variability to suit the demands of the individual user.

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The terms Self-help and Self-Construction have been used interchangeably in this report

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2.1.2. History of Self-Construction

The practice of self-construction, i.e. the practice of building one’s own home, dates back to the beginning of civilisation, before society invented the concepts of division of labour. To this day, self-construction stands as the answer to housing demands arising from large scale urbanization in addition to being the prevalent method of housing construction in rural areas.

With the advent of division of labour, the ability to offer housing became predominantly the role of construction industries, engineers, and architects. A shifting focus on specialisation eventually led to the concept of technical aid/

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homes but lacked the expertise to do so. The functions of technical aid ranged

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assistance in self-construction provided to users who wanted to self-build their from providing training for construction, helping in the design and planning of the house, to matters of finances and loans, etc.

In the present-day context, self-construction is available in the following two forms: 1. Unaided self-construction: The prevalent method of construction in most rural areas as well as informal settlements 2. Aided self-construction: Self-construction that is aided with technical expertise, available via state sponsored programs in both formal and informal settings.

In most cases of technical assistance, the primary actors involved are the participants/ users, funding agencies (Central Institutions/ Private Sponsors), and independent specialists directly working the users in providing assistance.

(Turner, 1977) Harris (1995) traces the routes of aided self-construction back to 1904, when Sweden provided ‘Own Homes’ Loan in rural areas. The demand for self-construction grew due to surge in housing crisis after World War I in 1918. From 1918 to 1930s, European governments adopted the self-construction program widely, providing financial assistance. A similar surge was seen after World War II. However, post that the concept of aided self-construction took several turns, with programs ranging from USDA sponsored Rural Health Programs, to self-managed programs in slums in Peru (Turner, 1988). The most prominent phase of self-construction was in the 1960s. The World Bank adopted Turner’s principles to aid self-construction in developing countries, where aid was primarily financial, with specific attention

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2.1.3. Autonomy in Self-Construction

The different types of technical assistance in self-construction raises a query on the concept of Autonomy, and its relevance in self-construction practices.

Autonomy in self-construction deals with the dwellers capacity and liberty to take decisions related to the housing process, and act upon that decision.

Autonomy is central to the concept of self-construction; in most cases, autonomy is the reason behind dwellers opting to self-construct. It enables people to design the conditions behind their housing, ranging from arrangements of spaces, construction type, usage of material and time to construct. It also applies in other aspects of management of resources and personnel, to maintenance post construction.

Autonomy and Affordability: The concept of autonomy and the prospect of taking one’s own decision based on their situation and needs, has strong implication on affordability as well. In most cases of centrally provided affordable housing, affordability is viewed in dichotomy, with a set standard of poverty line defining the rate of subsidization and people who are eligible for it. This creates scenarios where housing provided does not match the affordable limits of the dwellers.

In cases of self-construction, most dwellers construct their houses as per the amount of resources available (Turner, 1977). This forms the basis of incremental development, which is a cornerstone for self-construction in informal settlements.

Autonomy and Shifting Priorities: Autonomy also deals with shifting priorities in self-construction. A wide range of conditions, from socio-economic factors, availability of resources to extent of luxury required, is catered to in the prospect of self-construction. In the context of shifting priorities, the dweller might decide to invest in finishing decoration of a completed room instead of adding additional rooms, with the same amount of financial resources available (mHS Citylab, 2011).

Any form of aid in self-construction should assign priority to a high degree of autonomy that caters to these changing conditions, to arrive at a sustainable 26

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2.2. Aid in Self-construction 2.2.1. Types

Aid in self-construction is available in multiple formats depending upon the provider or sponsor of the aid. The nature of the aid provided depends not just on the context of application, but largely on the provider type.

In terms of context, aid can found applicable in two area: formal and informal.

The nature of the aid changes considerably based on this. The most prominent change depending upon the context is the degree of autonomy provided through the aid. In case of formal construction contexts, priority is given to quality of structure and spaces. As such, user demand of autonomy over the process may T 

be varied or even negligent to a certain extent. The measurement of success

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in such context changes accordingly. In informal settings, these does not hold true. While quality is given preference here, the measurement of success for aid in this case relies heavily on the degree of autonomy it imparts to the dweller or construction worker in the process.

The degree of autonomy and quality of housing provided also depends on the service provider. Aid can be provided by Central Authorities or Private Sponsors.

In both cases, the intent of provision affects the output of the process.

This section comprehensively illustrates the current practices of aid provided through four case examples, and measure the outcome against stated system goals of structural integrity, spatial quality and degree of autonomy.

AIDED State Sponsored

Formal

Informal

UNAIDED Private Sponsored/ NGOs

Self-Help Homes, USDA- Rural Homes

Bombay Urban Development Project, World Bank

Aranya Low Cost Housing, Vastu Shilpa Associates

Villa El Salvador, Lima

Fig. 2.2.1. Case examples to illustrate types of aid in self-construction Source: Author 27

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2.2.2. Aid in Formal Construction Self-Help Homes, USDA- Rural Homes

Providor type: Non-profits/ State Housing Authority Program sponsor: United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)/

Rural Housing Services (RHS)

Construction type: Formal/ Non-incremental Active Years: 1998~ Location: Utah, United States United States adopted the mutual self-help program in the 1960s across urban and rural platforms to ensure decent housing for all. The programs were to focus on collective or community based mutual self-help rather than individual self-help housing (Robinson, 1976). It was deemed advantageous to promote the social values of cooperative construction among families. This also justified the low-cost approach of the program, by reducing the amount of external skilled labour needed to construct a house. The clauses generated by the Inter-American Development Bank, that formed the basis of the self-help program aimed to lower the total cost of construction, reduce the initial cash downpayment, increase sweat equity, and facilitate the acquisition of new skills which could be further applied across other industries (Robinson, 1976).

The current practices of mutual self-help housing is operated by Non-Profits, with sponsorship from the USDA and RHS. There are presently around 100 such providers across United States (Housing Assistance Council, 2014). The program is structured into the following elements: •

Participating families

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Administrative grants for sponsors

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Service providers that administer technical assistance and monitor the process

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Financing and monitoring by USDA and RHS

Self-help homes is a non-profit that was initially created under the banner of the Housing Authority for Utah County (HAUC) to address the affordable housing issues in the area. It established itself as a Non-Profit Community Housing Development Organization (CHDO) in 1998. The program currently functions across UTAH county 28

and Washington County.

PUCCA 5.0

The Self-help homes program follows a similar outline as all other mutual self-help programs, under the regulations created by USDA and RHS. It follows a formal method of construction, such that participants select the pre-design home, and are guided through various steps ranging from securing a plot, securing finances and home loans to final construction of the homes.

The salient features of the program for the perspective of self-construction are as follows: Technical assistance is provided to batches of 6-12 families/ individuals and

ADS

aims to create a platform for informal partnership and collaboration for the

T

•

construction of homes.

•

The process follows a strict schedule, that determines the working hours of the participants, with a minimum requirement of hours of labour per participant.

•

The design of the homes is pre-determined; a set number of options are given to the participants to chose from. The designs are developed as per USDA-Rural Development regulations and approval, and there is no scope for making any changes to it.

•

A contract between the participants ensures that all participants are contributing to the construction of the homes. Individual work is strictly prohibited, and this is ensured by the fact that families can move into the homes only after all the units in a batch are completed.

Technical assistance is provided: 1. In locating suitable building sites 2. In co-ordinating between the participants, and ensuring that labour is shared 3. In matters of taxes and insurance, application of loans etc.

4. In selecting a house plan 5. In developing cost estimates for construction 6. In supervising and training construction activities

29

PUCCA 5.0

2017 Rural Housing Development Corporation Measurements are approximate and may be subject to change.

The Denali

Fig. 2.2.2. Location of Self-Help Homes Project in Payson, Utah, USA Source: (OpenStreetMap contributors, 2015)

W.I.C. KITCHEN

MASTER BEDROOM

DINING

12' 1" X 14' 4"

10' 9" X 14' 8"

Main Level: 1388 SF Basement Level: 1585 SF

BATH

Upper Level: N/A Total: 2973 SF

BEDROOM 9' 7" X 9' 7"

GREAT ROOM

(VAULTED CEILING) 14' 1" X 20' 10"

BEDROOM W.I.C.

Fig. 2.2.3. A design prototype offered by Self-Help Homes Source: (2 and 3 bedroom Home Designs | low interest mortgage with low monthly payments | SelfHelpHomes. org, n.d.)

Width: 38' 9"

11' 0" X 10' 6"

LAUNDRY

Depth: 56' 8"

COVERED PORCH

2 CAR GARAGE 19' 5" X 21' 3"

1 Z1.1

Bedrooms: 3 Baths: 2

Main Floor Plan Scale: NTS

www.SelfHelpHomes.org

Fig. 2.2.4. A home built based on prototype shown in Fig. 2.2.3 Source: (2 and 3 bedroom Home Designs | low interest mortgage with low monthly payments | SelfHelpHomes. org, n.d.)

The final houses match their design impeccably, since the regulations of the 30

program allow little deviation during construction.

PUCCA 5.0

Inferences

The program follows a deterministic approach in construction to ensure quality of the final product in alignment with building codes and regulations. The participants are not given leeway to make any changes to the design during construction, which ensures a quality output but compromises on the autonomy of the user. It is, however, imperative to note that the target user for this program come from formal settlements, and as such there is not a severe misalignment of needs with the program services.

T 

The constructed houses are deemed structurally

 ADS

safe following multiple inspections from USDA

Structural Integrity

and RHS and additional authority. Participants are trained in up-to-date building technology and techniques for construction . Advanced framing techniques are used in the construction.

Spatial quality is given high importance by using advanced techniques such as mechanical ventilation

Spatial Quality

for indoor air quality, attic and wall insulation, passive solar design and passive radon reduction system, waterproof laminate flooring and energy efficient lighting and appliances. All houses are Energy Star Certified

The degree of autonomy is low in this project. Higher preference is given to quality of the final product, and as such the contract between the participants

Degree of Autonomy

and USDA, RHS and service providers is adhered strictly. Participants are monitored at every step of the process, the amount of construction hours they put in are calculated in order to ensure the mutual building scheme. All resources are centrally administered and controlled

31

Table 2.2.1. Analysis of Aid in Formal Construction against measurement index stated in methodology Source: Author

PUCCA 5.0

2.2.3. State-sponsored Aid Affordable Low Income Shelter (ALIS), World Bank

Providor type: State Housing Authority/ Local Government Program sponsor: World Bank Construction type: Informal/ Incremental Active Years: 1983/84-198/90 Location: Mumbai, India

The Affordable Low Income Shelter (ALIS) program initiated by the Government of Maharashtra was incorporated into World Bank’s Bombay Urban Development Project (BUDP) under the Slum Upgradation Program scheme in 1970s. The urban development project was one of the World Bank’s three development projects in India. BUDP aimed to address the neglect of the metropolitan region in three primary resources: land, infrastructure and shelter development, and strived to increase the supply of these three resources, particularly for low-income families.

The primary goal of the development project was to increase the financial and administrative capacity of centralised institutions and authority to deliver and maintain these resources and to plan and execute urban projects.

BUDP was rooted in the belief that by proper allocation of resources, it is possible to significantly lower cost of affordable housing investments through “efficient and equitable land use planning and pricing policies, appropriate performanceoriented design standards and development control and building regulations” (World Bank, 1997). It also targeted for private sponsorship and investments in affordable housing and infrastructure projects.

BUDP was comprised of four major components1: 1. Land Infrastructure Servicing Program (LISP) 2. Slum Upgrading Program (SUP) 3. Local Government Finance Administration and Services (LOGFAS) 4. Technical Assistance, Training and Equipment (TATE) The LISP program worked on the Site-and-Services approach, where defined plots 32

with basic services were provided to low-income families.

1 For the purpose of this thesis, focus is given on component 1,2, and 3. Financial studies are not within the scope of study for this thesis.

PUCCA 5.0

Gorai Road – I to III Charkop – I to IV

Majiwada, Thane Akurli, Kandivali (E)

Malvani, Malad

S. No. 157, Kandivali (W)

Panchpakhadi, Thane

Mulund (E) T ADS

Varsova, Andheri

Fig. 2.2.5. Location of World Bank funded site-and-services project under the ALIS program Source: (OpenStreetMap contributors, 2015)

During 1985-1990, the LISP program was applied in the location shown in Fig. 2.2.5 (Vishwakarma, 2015). The areas were serviced with infrastructure such as roads, water supply, sewerage etc. in the duration. The LISP program measured considerable success: affordable serviced plots were sold to nearly ninety thousand low-income households.

33

PUCCA 5.0

Affordable Low Income Shelter (ALIS), World Bank

The objective of the ALIS program was “to reduce the absolute number of households living in slums by increasing the supply of affordable shelter particularly to the poor” (World Bank, 1997).

The ALIS program: World Bank aimed to invest in the urban development of Mumbai in 1977, and initiated its involvement on the city housing policy with a special emphasis on “affordability”, “cost recovery’, expressions of low-income housing in ‘site-andservices’ projects, and arresting the increase in squatter settlements. (Pugh 1989).

The Affordable Low Income Shelter (ALIS) program was launched in 1980 and was sponsored by the World Bank till 1985 (World Bank, 1997). The primary objective of the ALIS program was to “reduce the absolute number of households living in slums by increasing the supply of affordable shelter particularly to the poor” (World Bank, 1997).

Additional objectives of the ALIS program included transference of public investment from subsidized mass housing programs to individual proliferated construction of residential, commercial and small scale industries by providing lower unit costs, reducing slum growth through assigning the number of households in a slum, and exploring ways to transfer private capital into the production of legal affordable shelter under site-and-services schemes and low-cost dwellings.

Fig. 2.2.6. Layout plan for LISP

34

program in Arioli, Mumbai illustrating a mix of site-and-services and public housing project used for cross-subsidization Source: (World Bank, 1985)

PUCCA 5.0 T   ADS

Fig. 2.2.7. Plot, Core and Shelter options under the LISP program Source: (World Bank, 1985)

Fig. 2.2.8. Core provided under the LISP Program Source: (World Bank, 1985)

Fig. 2.2.7 and 2.2.8 illustrate the service core options provided under the LISP program, which adopted a site-and-services approach. The quota for such plots were met over an extended project schedule. However, the development of the cores into full-fledged housing overshoot over 30 years.

35

PUCCA 5.0

Assistance from the Bank for slum dwellers: 1. Improvement in infrastructure 2. Financial assistance for home improvement 3. Leasehold tenure Assistance from the Bank for Housing authority and Central Institutions in charge of delivering services: 1. Using computer-based models to formulate and evaluate land development projects for low-income beneficiaries 2. Use computerized lottery system for the selection of beneficiaries, commercial accounting and monitoring 3. Use network-based, computerized Project Management System to build accountability in the system in terms of procurement, expenditure and credit utilization 4. Use of GIS for planning purposes It did not factor the incentive of local government to work for such projects.

In-situ improvements were also disliked by their staff because they did not lead to public works contracts for them to administer. Finally, granting legal tenure to slum dwellers was also disliked by some local politicians as it diminished their influence because slum dwellers relied on these politicians to protect them from eviction.

36

Fig. 2.2.9. Comparative scale of the Charkop and Gorai project in Mumbai and site-and-services project in Chennai Source: (Owens et al., 2018)

PUCCA 5.0 T ADS

Fig. 2.2.10. Layout plan for Charkop project Source: (OpenStreetMap contributors, 2015)

The Charkop project The Charkop project was designed to a mixed-income, cross-subsidized development, wherein the finances generated by selling the middle to higher income plots were used for to provide basic infrastructure to the lower-income households. The masterplan incorporated 5-6 storeyed middle income apartment blocks, 60 and 100 sqm bungalow plots, and 25-40sqm site-and-services plots for the lower income groups.

Clauses of the program: 1. The site-and-services plots were provided with a plinth and a wet point (connection to water supply and sewerage). The occupants were expected to construct their dwellings on the given area, with means procured on their own.

2. The plots were given with a 30 year lease, meaning they had to construct a permanent structure on the plinth in the said duration.

3. Original hutments cannot be rebuilt as reguar apartments or RCC structures, they can only be reconstructed/ upgraded using a defined set of material: plaster and brick instead of tin, mat and plastic sheeting. [Note] 4. The SUP program ‘permitted’ the use of better quality materials, but instead on the impermanency of construction (to ensure user occupancy) 37

5. The permissible height of roofs were raised to allow extension of habitable area

PUCCA 5.0 Fig. 2.2.11. Layout plan for Charkop project Source: (Alain Bertaud, 1985)

38

Fig. 2.2.12. (Clockwise from top) Section, Elevation and Layout Plan of Typical Cluster in Charkop Source: (Vishwakarma, 2015)

PUCCA 5.0

Fig. 2.2.13. View through cluster Source: (Vishwakarma, 2015)

The clustered nature of the layouts leaves only one narrow openning on one side of the plot and the rest three sides i.e. top, bottom and left have other households T

in mirror image layouts leading to poor ventilation. But this is a necessary step

ADS

in order to achieve the highest density possible. With the addition of the top floor the original area available in the plot doubles (22sqm to 44sqm) and becomes a 500sq ft approx home. These households because of the nature of the layouts of their settlement have become strong co¬operative communities of 33 families in each co-operative.

Results: Underutilised. Only 200 housing sociities came forward instead of the estimated 1000 [Times of India (Bombay) report, 19 May, 1996] Only 22% of the SAR target for SUP was achieved.

Fig. 2.2.14. Neighbourhood planning of Core Houses Source: (Vishwakarma, 2015)

39

Fig. 2.2.15. Incrementally built housing after 30 years of inception Source: (Owens et al., 2018)

PUCCA 5.0 Fig. 2.2.16. Achieved density of site-and-services project in Charkop Source: (Owens et al., 2018)

Site and Services, Charpok

Fig. 2.2.17. Achieved density of adjacent private housing project Source: (Owens et al., 2018)

Adjacent Private Development

40

PUCCA 5.0

Inferences

The technical assistance provided aimed at increasing the accountability of the system, and providing systematised resources. However, it did not cater to the demands of the end-user. The clauses put forward for the construction of dwellings were ambiguous, and technical aid for improving construction activity was lacking.

The program follows a autonomous approach of construction which allowed the dwellers to come up with their own unique spaces and houses which suited one’s need and in an organic pattern . It aslo enabled formation of strong co-operatives and becoming self sufficient instead on relying on some agencies to guide them.

T ADS

Structural integrity of the project is highly compromised as no technical assistance was

Structural Integrity

provided by the investors. Only plot, services and guidelines regarding the use of material were given to the dwellers and the freedom to design without proper technical knowhow in a limited space led to compromisation of the structural integrity.

The extend of spatial quality is highly compromised

Spatial Quality

in the project. Due to no clause binding the dwellers to certain design layouts and the lack of technical guidance, the community grew in an organic manner. With limited space and opening at only one face of the dwelling unit, circulation and spatial quality got lost in the process. Also the footprint of the buildings is significantly less than a normal unit and hence the spatial compromise.

Degree of Autonomy

There was a high degree of autonomy to the project. even though the lack of assistance of technical know how led to compromisation of both structural and spatial integrity, but it gave the dwellers the freedom to design their units according to their family’s requirements and usage.

Table 2.2.2. Analysis of State Sponsored Aid in Informal Construction against measurement index stated in methodology Source: Author 41

PUCCA 5.0

2.2.4. Private-sponsored Aid Aranya Low Cost Housing, India

Providor type: Private Architectural Firm Program sponsor: Indore Development Authority Construction type: Informal/ Incremental Active Years: 1989~ Location: Indore, India The Aranya housing scheme was initiated by Indore Development Authority in India. Architect B.V. Doshi designed the masterplan and scheme for the project.

It was considered a novel scheme for low-cost housing, considering its approach to use a site-and-services model and a cross-subsidization scheme wherein the finances generated from middle to high income dwellings would be utilized to fund the EWS houses.

Extensive research was done by the architect in charge, Ar. B.V. Doshi on the urban context and morphology of slums in Indore (Davidson & Serageldin, 1995). The concept of aided construction applied in this project was devised as a counter to the mass housing schemes which were the primary adopted approach to the affordable housing demand at the period. The research highlighted how the slum dwellers built their houses in the face of severe scarcity of resources, and the demands of a mixed-use model to develop home-based economies. The morphological studies highlighted clustered layout, distribution of small-scale industries and shops and the economic, social, and cultural implication of the street in these settlements. What was deemed missing by the architect was a proper distribution of utility services and infrastructure. The proposed design aimed to address this gap, while retain the core characteristics of how the slum dwellers build and live.

Aranya Nagar was a planned project spanning over 85 square kilometres, with serviced plots catering to a demand of 6500 dwellings. The township is situated in the Delhi-Bombay national highway. At the time of development, the land use of the area was largely residential in nature, with some industries interspersed along the way. The selection of site kept in consideration the need of employment 42

PUCCA 5.0 T   ADS

Fig. 2.2.18. Location plan for Aranya Low-Cost Housing Project Source: (OpenStreetMap contributors, 2015)

opportunities within easy commuting distance of the dwellers and was thus situated within 6km of the city centre and 2km of large industrial areas.

Fig. 2.2.19. View of original demonstration houses of site-and-services project Source: (Vastu Shilpa Foundation, 1995) 43

PUCCA 5.0 Fig. 2.2.20. Initial site layout, awaiting installation of services Source: (Vastu Shilpa Foundation, 1995)

Fig. 2.2.21. Core provided for Site-and-services scheme Source: (Vastu Shilpa Foundation, 1995)

44

PUCCA 5.0

The objectives of the Aranya project are as follows: 1. To plan a good living environment that fosters a sense of continuity of ‘fundamental values of security’ 2. To achieve a settlement character by creating harmony between the built environment and the dwellers 3. To create a community that is balanced between various socio-economic groups, and generate self-help through a physical planning process 4. To develop a framework for incremental development of the built environment T

within the legal, economic, and organizational framework

ADS

Fig. 2.2.22. Kit of parts provided for self-construction of EWS housing: Layout and form variations Source: (Vastu Shilpa Foundation, 1995)

Self-construction: The masterplan works at different levels of township, sector, community, and dwelling. For the scope of this thesis, only self-construction at the dwelling level is analysed.

All dwelling units were equipped with a service core. For construction above the core, a set of options were provided in the form of kit of elements, that highlighted design variation in built form, staircase form and decorative elements. Provision of such options were aimed at providing flexibility to the dweller to determine 45

the environment that suited best to his lifestyle and economic conditions. The

PUCCA 5.0

design options considered an incremental development of the housing unit over years, and options for commercializing parts of the dwelling, in addition to use of appropriate technology, techniques and materials for construction. In that sense, the design aimed at providing cosmetic customization to users, in terms of providing a standard set of elements that can be arranged in a variety of ways to produce a customized set of options for the dweller (Gilmore James & Pine Joseph, 1997).

Fig. 2.2.23. Kit of parts provided for self-construction of EWS housing: Staircase options Source: (Vastu Shilpa Foundation, 1995)

Fig. 2.2.24. Kit of parts provided for self-construction of EWS housing: Fenestration and facade decoration options Source: (Vastu Shilpa Foundation, 1995) 46

PUCCA 5.0 T   ADS

Fig. 2.2.25. Orthographic view illustrating incremental development of a core house Source: (Vastu Shilpa Foundation, 1995)

The core options for the lower income groups included (Davidson & Serageldin, 1995): 1. Site, plinth and service core (WC and water tap) 2. Site, plinth and service core (WC and bath) 3. Site, plinth and service core (WC and bath) and 1 kitchen

47

PUCCA 5.0 Fig. 2.2.26. View of original demonstration houses Source: (Vastu Shilpa Foundation, 1995)

Fig. 2.2.27. Iterations of original demonstration houses Source: (Vastu Shilpa Foundation, 1995) 48

PUCCA 5.0

Materials: The design scheme aimed for conventional and locally available materials and construction techniques to foster self-construction. The structure used load bearing brick walls, with floors of cement concrete and a CRC roof. The CRC roof was considered a high investment item and was in most cases constructed at a later stage.

Pile foundation was adopted for the construction, to sustain building on the black cotton soil available on site. All the structures were provided with two-storey T 

foundation, prior to handing over to dwellers. Fenestration and other decorative

 ADS

elements were meant to be constructed in situ by the dwellers from the kit of elements provided.

Demonstration houses: The project was considered unique in its approach of providing a guide for construction through the development of 80 low-income demonstration houses that highlighted construction of the structure, spatial distribution while retaining the composition of the masterplan. The demonstration houses showcased alternative layouts to familiarise the dwellers with the construction system. The models included one and two-storey structures to highlight the concept of incremental development.

Fig. 2.2.28. Present day condition Source: (Rakshit, 2018) 49

PUCCA 5.0 Fig. 2.2.29. Present day condition: Developed houses differ largely from original demonstration units Source: (Rakshit, 2018)

Fig. 2.2.30. (Left) Interior of house developed differently from original houses Source: (Mehta, 2007)

50

Fig. 2.2.31. (Right) Houses built based on original kit of parts Source: (Mehta, 2007)

PUCCA 5.0

Inferences

While the stated intentions behind the scheme were meant to be derived from Turner’s theories of dweller-control and “freedom to build”, it deviated from the intentions in terms of the degree of dweller control provided.

Eighty demonstration houses were constructed to showcase the different designs and construction types provided. A kit of elements was provided to highlight the idea of flexibility in outcome.

T

The dwelling units did have structural integrity

ADS

as technical assistance in form of both design

Structural Integrity

and training were provided to the dwellers. Even though flexibility was provided in terms of non-load bearing elements, the basic structure for all the units remained constant.

Spatial quality is given high importance in the

Spatial Quality

project. A standard core from 3 options was placed at the centre and unit designed around it. the pre -determined design layout allowed the spatial quality to be mained in the project.

The degree of autonomy took quite a turn in this project. Intially when layouts were strictly followed, it restricted the dwellers from being flexible in terms

Degree of Autonomy

of spatial usage and binded them to a certain fixed expenditure to be spend on the unit irrespective of their earnings. But later on, as the dwellers gradually took charge of the township, certain parameters of the design were modified by individuals to suit their need and affordability, thus creating a degree

51

of autonomy.

Table 2.2.3. Analysis of Private Sponsored Aid in Informal Construction against measurement index stated in methodology Source: Author

PUCCA 5.0

2.2.5. Unaided self-construction Villa El Salvador, Peru

Providor type: CUAVES (Self-management group) Program sponsor: Unaided Construction type: Informal/ Incremental Active Years: 1971~ Location: Villa El Salvador, Peru

Fig. 2.2.32. Location of site-and-services project in Villa El Salvador Source: (OpenStreetMap contributors, 2015)

Villa El Salvador, Peru’s largest squatter settlement, is considered one of the most successful models in the creation of a self-help community. The land where the present day settlement is, used to be a state-owned desert. Between April 29 and May 01, 1971, climate refugees invaded a state-owned open land with unserviced plots aimed to provide for low-level government employees, and started the act of squatting, leading to a growth of 9000 families in a matter of 5 days (Gyger, 2019). The squatters were eventually relocated to the current day location of Villa El Salvador, a plot previously recognized by planning officials as a suitable zone for urban expansion. Today, it is a self-governing community of 400,000 lowincome people. Within a span of 15 years from the initial days of relocation, the community has self-constructed 15,827 permanent brick and concrete houses and approximately 18,000 homes had access to basic services like water and sewerage connection (Turner, 1988). Over the years, the settlement gained access to electricity, water and sewerage, and paved roads, all through establishing self52

management networks within the community.

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Like most Peruvian squatter settlements, Villa El Salvador was constructed from ground up by the dwellers, working in strong succession to provide for new migrants through loaned or rented rooms.

Clockwise from Top Left

T   ADS

Fig. 2.2.33. View of project site in initial days of settlement Source: (Institute for Housing and Urban Development Studies, 1975) Fig. 2.2.34. Villa El Salvador, 2006 Source: (Mariana Bazo, 2013) Fig. 2.2.35. Present day condition Source: (duetup-alumni, 2016) Fig. 2.2.36. View of project site highlighting grid layout Source: (Gyger, 2019)

53

Fig. 2.2.37. Aerial View of current settlement Source: (Almeida, 2007)

PUCCA 5.0 Fig. 2.2.38. (Left) Semi-permanent self-constructed house Source: (Gyger, 2019) Fig. 2.2.39. (Right) Temporary dwelling constructed by residents Source: (Gyger, 2019)

Fig. 2.2.40. (Left) Temporary dwellings constructed out of bamboo and fabric Source: (Girรณn, 2017) Fig. 2.2.41. (Right) Aerial View of current settlement Source: Sustainable Sanitation Alliance, 2009)

54

Fig. 2.2.42. Present day view of developed settlement Source: ((Koc, 2014)

PUCCA 5.0

Self-management: The growth of the settlement was based on a pattern of progressive aggregation of social units. The “grupo residencial” (residential group) formed the basic urban module of the settlement masterplan; it was easily incorporated in the grid network, facilitating a fast and efficient site layout. A barrio comprised of three and a half grupo residencial module, with 7500 housing units and the remaining half module dedicated to public facilities. A sector comprised of twelve to twenty grupo residenciales, with approximately thirty to forty-six housing units (Gyger, 2019).

T

The self-management of the settlement was overseen by CUAVES (Communidad

ADS

Urbana Autogestionaria/ the Self-managed Urban Community of Villa El Salvador).

The organization was formed by people of the community, and was responsible for block and neighbourhood development of the settlement (Turner, 1988).

Fig. 2.2.43. (Left) Urban modules, residential group Source: (SINAMOS, 1974) Fig. 2.2.44. (Right) Residents organizing to meet basic needs Source: (Turner, 1988)

Self-construction: The dwellers opted for self-industrialization instead of self-construction of housing.

They initially focussed on creating small industries for themselves within the settlement and diverted the funds towards them instead of housing. As a result, the early houses were constructed using temporary and easily degradable low cost materials. The realisation of the requirement of a permanent dwelling unit instead of a temporary one (which was again time consuming as it needed constant repairs) came two three decades later. Finally, they self taught themselves construction techniques using bricks and mortar and the result is the entire settlement becoming a structurally and spatially well equipped entity.

55

PUCCA 5.0 Fig. 2.2.45. Incremental Self-construction of houses in Villa El Salvador Source: (Gyger, 2019)

56

PUCCA 5.0

Inferences

This program is one of the best examples of self organisation and management.

A state owned desert grew into a sprawling squatter settlement with the help of management of housing programs by the low income dwellers themselves. Self taught construction techniques and self financing with the settlement created more opportunities than had any state funded low - budget program operated. This project is also a major example in proving how self reliance and independence can do wonders even for low-income group settlements rather than waiting for the government to provide facilities.

T   ADS

During the initial years, when they opted to transfer funds for self- industrialisation instead of self

Structural Integrity

construction, structural integrity was low and houses were more temporary in nature in regards to the building materials. It took them a few decades to come around to using bricks and mortar but the result of that was their structural integrity and stability reached satisfactory level.

Spatial quality is given high importance in the

Spatial Quality

project. With people self empowering themselves with construction techniques and having vast stretch of desert available to them for construction, the spatial quality was of satisfactory level

The degree of autonomy was very much achieved

Degree of Autonomy

right from the start. From financing to construction techniques was managed within the settlement and hence they had the autonomy to build their dwelling units according to their needs and affordability

Table 2.2.4. Analysis of Unaided Self-Construction against measurement index stated in methodology Source: Author 57

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2.2.6. Limitations of current practices

The inferences drawn from the four case examples highlight the limitations in approach of current practices of technical assistance in self-construction.

Most state sponsored self-construction project tend to limit the autonomy of the user, as illustrated in the case examples. However, the opposite case of providing too much freedom also occurs. As illustrated in the case of the Bombay Urban Development Project in Charkop, the lack of structure in providing assistance to the dwellers in construction led to a prolonged duration in realising the project goals. The project proved feasible in the end due to the lease period of plots being 30 years. In cases of state sponsored site-and-services projects, the lease to selfconstruct a house ranges from 5-15 years on an average. Given that duration, it is necessary to provide some structure and assistance to encourage self-construction.

The other prominent limitation is the tendency to formalise construction, as seen in cases of Aranya low cost housing project. While the project is deemed successful in its effort to enable dwellers to self-construct their houses, the houses as seen in the current context are drastically different from the original demonstration houses.

Given the fact that structural stability and spatial quality of the final output rested on following the original intended design and the cosmetic variations it provided, certain cases of straying from the original intent has resulted in structurally unsafe or spatially compromised dwellings.

The duration of providing aid is also a limiting factor. In most cases, the aid provided is a one-time disruptive occurrence. While it can teach lifelong skills, most incremental house develop across generations where there might be a loss of transfer of knowledge. In such cases, as well as for cases for operation and maintenance of houses post construction, technical assistance that is provided needs to sustain over time.

These limitations of self-construction need to be addressed by the proposed digital system. However, the most important consideration that is highlighted by the case examples is the need to understand informal construction practices in 58

order to understand where aid is required.

PUCCA 5.0 T

ADS

2.3. Site study: Savda Ghevra

59

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2.3. Savda Ghevra Resettlement Project 2.3.1. Overview

Project type: Site-and-services resettlement housing Construction type: Informal Self-construction Active Years: 2006~ Location: Savda Ghevra, New Delhi, India Area: 250 acres Size: 11 blocks, 8000 plots While the scope and outcome of this research can be applied to any context, the case of Savda Ghevra has been selected to demonstrate one possible scenario to apply this research. The study works in two parts: to understand the current context of self-construction and technical assistance practices in India, and to analyse if the proposed system of technical assistance can be theoretically applied to the conditions emerging in this case.

Savda Ghevra is a resettlement colony in New Delhi, located 30km from the centre of the city. The site was chosen to resettle families evicted from several sites across Delhi as part of the ‘city beautification project’ for Commonwealth Games (Housing and Land Rights Network, 2014). Post complete resettlement, the site was projected to house 20,000 families.

The Resettlement Scheme: The project is a site-and-services undertaken by the Delhi Urban Shelter Improvement Board (DUSIB). The evicted families were provided plots in the proposed location based on the date of ration cards the families owned1, as per the following criteria: •

18.5 sqm for families with cards issued before January, 1990

•

12.5 sqm for families with cards issued from 1990 to December, 1998

Tenure rights were given to the residents on a five to seven year lease. The residents were expected to self-construct a Pucca (permanent) dwelling within the stipulated tenure period, failing which they would lose ownership rights to the land.

60

1 Ration card is a government issued document to households that are eligible to purchase subsidized food under the Public Distribution System

PUCCA 5.0  ADS

Location for Mass Public Housing

T 

Remaining area divided into clusters for site-andservices development

Fig. 2.3.1. Site Location: Savda Ghevra Source: (OpenStreetMap contributors, 2015)

Fig. 2.3.2. Site Location: Savda Ghevra Source: (Roselli, 2015)

Fig. 2.3.3. Service outlet demarcated in provided plots Source: ((CURE) et al., 2017)

Centrally provided resources: The proposed at the inception of the project was a barren plot land devoid of even basic infrastructure: roads, water, electricity and sanitation. Under the site-andservices scheme, some of the demarcated plots were provided service points such as water and sewage outlets, but the services in themselves were not provided until much later. Fig2.3.2 showcases the condition of the plot during the preliminary days of the settlement. Houses built by families can be seen constructed in the horizon, while most of the area to be developed remains barren. The inhabitants had to level the fields and develop the plots for house construction, in addition to building temporary roads and additional required infrastructure.

61

PUCCA 5.0

2.3.2. Incremental development

The resettlement project has been criticised widely owing to its ignorance of the socio-economic necessities of the residents. Families from over 20 localities over the city of Delhi were evicted and resettled here. The site being on the outskirts of the city, 30 km from the city centre, had very limited economic opportunities for the residents. Moreover, during resettlement, proper attention was not given to retain community connection and ensure families from a certain slum are placed together (Housing and Land Rights Network, 2014).

In addition to the socio-economic damage, the families were not provided basic resources to aid the construction process. The clause of 10 year lease to hasten the process of construction, and ensure that the residents do not shift back to slums inside the city, hindered the progress further.

Fig. 2.3.4. Residents construct temporary shelter out of fabric and tensile structure during early days of resettlement Source: (Housing and Land Rights Network, 2014)

Fig. 2.3.5. (Left) Residents build temporary houses out of bamboo and cane Source: (Asha India, n.d.)

62

Fig. 2.3.6. (Right) Residents are forced to used recycled material from demolition for construction Source: (Roselli, 2015)

PUCCA 5.0 T   ADS

Fig. 2.3.7. Rate of incremental growth over a period of two years Source: (King, 2013)

Without access to formal credit to invest in construction, and diminished economic growth, the residents opted for incremental development to construct their homes.

Fig 2.3.7 highlights the rate of incremental development in the settlement. In a span of two years, some houses developed from a single storey impermanent structure (Kutcha housing) to a multi-storeyed permanent structure (Pucca housing).

However, this development is not uniform across the settlement. As a result of the varied economic, financial and social conditions, the settlement showcases a wide range of housing: from Kutcha house with severe impermanent materials, to permanent Pucca house with spatial options for micro, home-based economies.

63

Fig. 2.3.8. Range of housing visible across a stretch of street Source: (King, 2011)

PUCCA 5.0

2.3.3. Self-construction

Fig. 2.3.9. Range of self-constructed housing available Source: Adapted by Author (King, 2013)

Kutcha 1.0

Kutcha 2.0

Semi-Pucca 1.0

Pucca 1.0

The shelter is made

The

is

The structure is built

The structure is

up of impermanent

constructed with

up bricks and has a

composed out

materials such as

a basic dry brick

plastered finish. The

of load bearing

fabric and tarpaulin

structure and a CGI

roof is built with

brick. The main

sheets propped up

roof

CGI ,

considered

transition point

an impermanent

is the permanent

material

roof that is load

on bamboo supports

house

bearing at this stage 64

PUCCA 5.0 T   ADS

Pucca 1.5

Pucca 2.0

Pucca 2.5

The structure is a

The house has a toilet

This

proper load bearing

added on the first

reached the premium

brick construction.

floor and a cesspit

allowable height of

Incremental additions

underneath the ground

2.5 storeys, providing

have been made on

floor. The first floor is

sufficient space for all

the first floor. However,

used for living, cooking,

living and commercial

the house does not

washing and sleeping

activities in addition to

yet have a toilet. The

house

has

services and utilities

ground floor area is 65

used as a shop

PUCCA 5.0

Kutcha 1.0

The Kutcha 1.0 is a temporary structure built only as a measure to retain ownership of the plot. Since no member of the family residing in this dwelling has full-time employment, it is deemed beyond their capacity to upgrade their home.

The structural frame is made out of bamboo dug directly into the ground, with little ability to sustain external force. The walls are constructed out of cane, with fabric used in places as additional covering. The roof is composed of a tarpaulin sheet held down with bricks.

The living quarters are divided into two area, one for storage of water and other ancillaries, and the other for sleeping. There is no provision of toilet or other wet functions within the house.

0m 1m

3m

66

Fig. 2.3.10. (Clockwise from top left) 1. Elevation 2. Layout plan 3. Section AA’ Source: Adapted by Author (King, 2011)

PUCCA 5.0

Semi-Pucca 1.0

The semi-pucca house has been upgraded from an initial kutcha structure.

The structure is composed of load bearing brick walls, with a structural fill for a foundation. The house is classified as semi-pucca owing to the impermanency of the roof which is composed of a CGI sheet incapable of bearing load.

The spatial segregation is similar to the Kutcha layout, however they have provision for wet functions such as a kitchen that has outlets connecting to an open drain outside. A plinth has been constructed in front to serve as an area for washing.

T

The living quarters are at the back in one room.

ADS

0m 1m

3m

67

Fig. 2.3.11. (Clockwise from top left) 1. Elevation 2. Layout plan 3. Section AA’ Source: Adapted by Author (King, 2011)

PUCCA 5.0

Pucca 1.5

The structure is built of load bearing brick masonry with a structural fill foundation.

Half a storey has been added incrementally, to accommodate a toilet on the upper floor. The sewage discharges into a cesspit below the ground floor.

The living quarters are on the ground floor. The front section has a kitchen. The staircases have been planned to have an external entry to accommodate growth in the future and the option to have rentable space.

0m 1m

3m

68

Fig. 2.3.12. (Clockwise from top left) 1. Elevation 2. Ground floor plan 3. First Floor plan 4.

Section AA’ Source: Adapted by Author (King, 2011)

PUCCA 5.0

Pucca 2.5

The 2.5 storey structure has been planned efficiently according to the growing demands. The staircase has been placed externally to one end to enable further growth. The wet functions have been grouped together vertically.

T ADS

0m 1m

3m

69

Fig. 2.3.13. (Clockwise from top left) 1. Elevation 2. Section AA’ 3.

Ground Floor Plan 3. First Floor Plan 4. Second Floor plan Source: Adapted by Author (King, 2011)

PUCCA 5.0

2.3.4. Issues

As illustrated through the examples prior, the nature of incremental development can have serious implication on the spatial layout and structure of the place.

However, owing to circumstances of resources availability and affordability, it is impractical to have a deterministic method of construction.

But a primary issue with the constructed structure is the lack of adequate construction knowledge and foresight. Even with a highly invested Pucca 2.5 structure, inefficiencies can be seen in the staircase construction and the foundation.

In addition to that some of the commonly observed issues are enlisted below: 1. Lack of proper ventilation: In the range of housing from Kutcha 1.0 to Pucca 2.5 , there is insufficient amount of lighting and ventilation provided. In most cases only a small opening near the ceiling is provided to serve the stated purpose.

2. Lack of proper structural reinforcement: In most cases of self-construction, there is inadequate knowledge of the amount of reinforcement required for any structural member. Even when provided, there can be inconsistencies in the amount of steel provided.

3. Lack of knowledge about connection between structural components: Inadequate construction knowledge can lead to haphazard and unsafe practices where the structural elements are not compounded and joined properly. Dry masonry is used as filler walls in places where it is dangerous.

4. Lack of resources and adequate technology: While resource deficiency is an issue that cannot be countered easily, the application of certain low-tech tools are limited in these constructions, such as using a water level to transverse level across the construction site, or a plumb bob to determine alignment. It is not uncommon to see these practices properly, however in a considerable number of cases, such tools are used inefficiently or not used at all.

5. Lack of knowledge about structural requirements: The contractor or ownerbuilder is not expected to have structural knowledge and works based on experience. In cases where standard techniques do not apply, this can lead to serious hazard from unsafe construction.

70

PUCCA 5.0

Insufficient reinforcement leads to sagging beams

Brick infill has been used to construct a wall haphazardly

Bricks are used instead of steel reinforcement for staircase construction. Rebars are used sparsely and haphazardly, and are left open post construction

Vertical development is carried out with no reinforcement, with dangerous edge conditions

 ADS

The door is the only sources of light and ventilation for the room

T 

Small window is the only sources of light and ventilation for the room

71

Fig. 2.3.14. Common issues arising from self-construction, as seen in Savda Ghevra Source: Adapted by Author (mHS Citylab, 2011)

PUCCA 5.0

72

PUCCA 5.0 T

ADS

3. Mapping Informal Construction

73

PUCCA 5.0

3.1. Informal Construction Need for mapping

The previous chapter illustrates the limitations of current practices of technical assistance in various context. The case of Savda Ghevra further highlights the information mismatch that exists between the formal and informal construction industry.

A notable consideration seen from the case of Savda Ghevra is the impact that socio-economic conditions have on spatial planning. Housing in this context is viewed not just as shelter, but as a resource to generate economy. As seen from the case of Pucca 1.5 (Fig 2.3.9), the family prioritised construction of commercial space over building basic utilities like a toilet or a kitchen. This is also primarily because income generated from the allied economic activities can be invested in further development of the house. This factor plays a major role in the spatial planning process. More such cases of implicit decisions have a considerable effect on the overall construction process.

This illustrates the need to understand informal construction, in order to provide effective aid to such practices. This section deals with mapping the informal construction process. In order to achieve this, steps from the formal construction practices are first determined, albeit from a low-tech application perspective. Then the points where informal practices deviate from the formal process are mapped, and corresponding implicit decision or external factor affecting that step is noted.

While this process is not comprehensive, it provides a method to analyse and understand the informal construction process, and can be further extended to procure more accurate results.

[Assumptions] While the scope of this research and analysis is applicable in a more general context of informal settlements, the analysis done here primarily captures the Indian construction ecosystem.

In applying this analysis to construction across the Global South, it would be necessary to identify the proper low-tech tools and techniques that is used in each context.

74

PUCCA 5.0

3.2. Role of the Key Contractor

In order to fully capture the breadth of implicit decisions that affect the informal construction process, it is necessary to identify the participants of the process.

While self-construction could imply owner-building in certain context, the most widespread application of the concept comprises of a local construction worker or mason from the informal settlement the dweller resides in, to be in charge of construction activity.

Turner (1977) states how network organizations in informal settlements achieve T 

self-governance by engaging locally available contractors to work at the behest

 ADS

of local investors, in this case the dwellers. This form of self-organization cannot be superseded by technical assistance alone. mHS Citylab (2011), illustrates via their pilot project in Mangolpuri, where one of the core learnings of the project was the necessity to incorporate the local masons in the program, as they have a high degree of autonomy in the overall construction process.

The key contractor in informal settlement, one holding a position of highest authority among local construction workers, plays multifarious roles in the self-constructed housing process. Therefore, a mapping of informal construction and implicit decisions in the process need to factor in the role of the construction worker in addition to the role of client. In fact, since the proposed system communicates directly with the worker to provide guidance, the following section maps construction activity keeping the construction worker in a central position.

ARCHITECT

MATERIAL SUPPLIER

KEY CONTRACTOR

Fig. 3.2. Role of Key Contractor in informal self-construction Source: Author

75

BUILDER

ENGINEER

Sequence

Formal

Plot outline is marked with chalk

Length and breadth of the plot is marked on ground and posts built to demarcate plot corners Front of plot is demarcated by calculating offset from RC

MEASUREMENTS MATCH DRAWING

Grouping activity

STEPS IN FORMAL PROCESS

Activity that can be digitised using coordinate information

CORRESPONDING IMPLICIT DECISION AFFECTING DEVIATION

How to read this table: Across spread

STEPS THAT DEVIATE FROM FORMAL PROCESS

PUCCA 5.0

3.3. Process mapping

Measure diagonals with thread to ensure angle precision

Info

4

Inconstent u method: diagonals m not be meas

3

2

Road Centreline (RC) is demarcated with the help of data provided by Municipal office

1

Table 3.2.5. Mapping: Plot demarcation Source: Author

01. Plot demarcation

A Water Level is used to transverse the PRL onto different parts of the site

A Water Level is used to mark the road level (Primary Reference Level) on brick profile A brick profile is built at one corner of the site

76

Table 3.2.6. Mapping: Marking Reference Levels Source: Author

Formal

Info

3

2

1

02. Marking Site and Reference Levels

PUCCA 5.0

mal

gonals o ensure on

Informal

4

Inconstent use of method: diagonals might not be measured

3

Plot measurements are carried out before construction. This data is then used to produce the design

T 

Resettlement projects based on Site and Services: Plot demarcation is done by authorities prior to handing over land

 ADS

2

Self-construction in slums: Arbitrary demarcation of plots based on local knowledge and availability

1

Deviations

mal

Method to measure plot dimensions depend on the mason. In some cases accuracy of angles are not considered

Implicit Decisions

Informal

Non-availability of technology can lead to cases of arbitrary level demarcation 3

2

Inconsistency in use of method. In some cases, road level is marked arbitrarily or eliminated all together

The method to mark and transverse level depends on the mason, and is sometimes done based on observations rather than accurate data

1

Implicit Decisions

77

nce Levels

Deviations

PUCCA 5.0

Formal

Desired level of excavation measured with the help of a water level

Excavate marked areas to required depth

8

7

Mark walls on the ground with chalk accoring to their width: 9” for load bearing, 4.5” for partition

6

Tie thread accross the perimeter, and check right angles measuring diagonal with thread

5

4’ stakes stuck on the ground

4

Check level of digging on site using water level

Calculate depth level of foundation from PRL

Mark the different building areas on ground (kitchen, bedroom, toilet etc.)

Table 3.2.7. Mapping: Digging Foundation Source: Author

03. Digging Foundation

3

Centre-to-centre distance of areas is marked on site using a network of threads

2

1

no excavation for column

Mark column centre using thread mesh layout (centre distance) at grade and a plumb bob

9

EXCAVATION

Mark column footing profile using starter (predetermined standard size)

Info

Inconstent u method: diagonals m not be meas

78

PUCCA 5.0

mal

Informal

f asured fa

6

Excavation is done for brick stepped footing. Columns are built at grade.

Knwledge gap: most masons are not aware of the techniques to construct a framed structure, and rely on existing practices.

 ADS

7

no excavation for column

8

T 

re eas is using hreads

9

Inconstent use of method: diagonals might not be measured

5

4

3

Inconsistency in use of method. In some cases, road level is marked arbitrarily or eliminated all together

The method to mark and transverse level depends on the mason, and is sometimes done based on observations rather than accurate data

Areas are not pre-determined, and built as required.

The location of wet area (kitchen, bathroom etc.,) are not pre-conceived

Since the construction is done incrementally, different functions are added when there is availability of resources. This limits planning of wet-areas prior to construction

2

1

Deviations

Implicit Decisions

79

PUCCA 5.0

Info

Formal

Check horizontal displacement of courses by tying a thread for each course

4

COLUMN FOOTING BASE

Pour aggregate and jam

Dig bars on the ground to be covered in PCC, and mark 4” level with paint Table 3.2.8. Mapping: Building Foundation Source: Author

Inconstent u method: horizontal th for alignmen used

5

Bend reinforcement bar/ add concrete blocks to create gap between aggregate and mat

Lay out steel reinforcement mat

6

04. Building Foundation

3

4” paint mark to be used as reference level 2

1

COLUMN BUILT AT GRADE

Start spread foundation for bricks by laying out the bottom-most row starting at 27” wide

SPREAD FOOTING

Decrease width in subsequent levels with courses of following width: 22”, 18” 13” 9”

Check vertical alignment with a plumb bob

80

PUCCA 5.0

Informal

mal plumb

6

a ourse

Inconstent use of method: horizontal thread for alignment not used

5

ADS

2

Structural fill used in areas outside spread footing coverage

There are two reasons for elimination of these steps: 1. Lack of knowledge: prevalent techniques are continued to be used 2. Lack of resources: Decision could be taken to skip these steps due to lack of material, financial resources or time

T

3

be used l

COLUMN BUILT AT GRADE

4

Since the construction is done incrementally, different functions are added when there is availability of resources. This limits planning of wet-areas prior to construction

1

Deviations

Implicit Decisions

81

PUCCA 5.0

Info

Formal

Jute bags are applied on surface to retain moisture, and curing process is carried out

9

Formwork is removed after 24 hours

Concrete is poured and set using vibrator

DPC is added to the concrete mixture for waterprooďŹ ng

7

Corners are additionally reinforced to prevent failure during concreting Vertical alignment checked with plumb bob Shuttering frame is installed

After completion, the framework is lowered to its required position

Steel framework for the beam is constructed at a raised height for the ease of contruction Cement mix is applied on the marked areas

Area for plinth beam is marked on ground and soil is jammed

Table 3.2.9. Mapping: Plinth Beam Source: Author

06. Plinth Beam

8

6

5

4

3

2

1

WaterprooďŹ mostly neve in informal construction

82

o the re for

Curing duration varies, and the use of jute bags for uniform moisture distribution is limited

9

8

7

Waterproofing is mostly never done in informal construction

The use of vibrator to set the concrete is limited due to availability

Insufficient knowledge among labourers can lead to practices that are counterproductive, such as reducing curing duration. Overreliance on existing knowledge also factors in here.

Additionally, lack in financial resources and time can lead to such events.

Lack of resources and knowledge about techniques limit the scope of efficient construction T ADS

ent lumb bob

PUCCA 5.0

Informal

mal

6

Additional reinforcement is usually overlooked. Patchwork methods are used to address failure during concreting

Lack of knowledge leads to unsafe practices of construction such as less reinforcement in structure

5

4

3

Varying amounts of steel are used in the framework

2

Inconsistency in proportions of cement mix is a common occurence

Lack of management and knowledge can sometimes lead to inconsistency in creating concrete mixes.

1

Deviations

Implicit Decisions

83

PUCCA 5.0

Info

Formal Jute bags are applied on surface to retain moisture, and curing process is carried out

10

Formwork removed after 24 hours

9

Concrete mix is poured and compacted and repeated till required level

8

Inside of the formwork is made wet by puring water

7

Formwork is fixed using supports on four sides Vertical alignment checked with plumb bob Column formwork is built

Shuttering is removed after 24 hours

Shutter of the shoe fixed and concreted

Small shoe constructed for proper arrangement of column formwork

Reinforcement mesh is constructed and placed above footing

Table 3.2.10. Mapping: Column Source: Author

07. Column

6

5

4

3

2

1

Inconstency check due to to technolog

84

Curing duration varies, and the use of jute bags for uniform moisture distribution is limited

10

9

Inconsistency in concrete mixture and compaction techniques

8

7

Step is eliminated in most cases

Insufficient knowledge on relevance of a certain technique, and overreliance on existing practices leads to haphazard construction processes

Sufficient support is not provided

Lack of techniques and technology to check amount of support required leads to insufficient provisions

Inconstency in check due to lack to technology

ADS

6

Insufficient knowledge among labourers can lead to practices that are counterproductive, such as reducing curing duration. Overreliance on existing knowledge also factors in here.

Additionally, lack in financial resources and time can lead to such events.

T

ent lumb bob

PUCCA 5.0

Informal

mal

5

4

3

2

1

Inconsistency in method, at times the formwork for the column is constructed without shoe construction

Varying amount of steel in reinforcement mesh

Deviations

Implicit Decisions

85

PUCCA 5.0

Info

Formal Check vertical alignment with a plumb bob Lay subsequent layers of bricks (depending on type of masonry)

Lay first row of brick and apply mortar

Check horizontal displacement of courses by tying a thread for each course

Inconstency check due to to technolog 3

2

Attach thread horizontally across the wall span to mark wall alignment

Inconstency of technique lack of know

1

Table 3.2.11. Mapping: Masonry walls Source: Author

Info

Formal Water level used to check horizontal levelling

Mortar used to achieve required level

Attach frames and connect to masonry wall

5

Location marked using traingulation from reference points

Mark location of window from plan

Mark lintel level from PRL

Horizontal le is not meas

4

3

Water level used to transverse required levels from PRL

2

Mark sill level from PRL 1

86

Table 3.2.12. Mapping: Fenestrations Source: Author

09. Fenestration

ARBITRARY POSITIONING

08. Masonry Wall

Incons use of check techni due to techno

PUCCA 5.0

Informal

mal

Inconstency in check due to lack to technology

plumb

3

a ourse 2

1

Lack of financial resources sometimes lead to dwellers undertaking construction activities on their own.

An additional lack of understanding about the relevance of said technique can lead to practices where this step is eliminated T ADS

Implicit Decisions

Informal

ed to al

Horizontal levelling is not measured 5

In an unplanned construction, the window is placed arbitrarli anywhere in the wall

4

3

2

ARBITRARY POSITIONING

ed to uired L

Construction is carried out without checking alignment, or arbitrary methods such as visual cues are relied on to check alignment

Deviations

mal

ed tion points

Inconstency in use of technique do to lack of knowledge

Inconsistent use of checking technique due to lack of technology

In an unplanned construction, the window is placed arbitrarly anywhere in the wall

Standard measurements of sill and lintel levels are usually not adhered to.

The level is decided arbitrarily, with most common position being near the ceiling level

Lack of technique and insufficient knowledge on transversing levels and amount of fenestration opening required leads to haphazard construction. Most of the details are added during the process of conbstruction, and adheres to the limited knowledge and resources of the labourers of the owner-builder

1

Implicit Decisions

87

Deviations

PUCCA 5.0

Info

Formal

Masonry work is continued till bottom of slab level

9

Formwork removed after 24 hours

Date of pouring is written onto wet concrete to calculate curing duration

Concrete is levelled using floats and trowels

Concrete is poured and set using vibrator

Formwork is sprayed with water on the day of concreting

Additional reinforcement in column for lintel beam is chiselled out and connected to lintel steel Steel mesh is prepared separately and place on formwork

Formwork is prepared at lintel level

Table 3.2.13. Mapping: Lintel Beam Source: Author

10. Lintel Beam

8

Water level used to check horizontal levelling

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

Inconstency check due to to technolog

88

9

8

7

 ADS

Inconstency in check due to lack to technology

Curing duration and technique depends on knowledge of labourer, and time and resource constraints

T 

ed to tal

PUCCA 5.0

Informal

mal

6

5

4

Inconsistency in concrete mixture and compaction techniques

Step is eliminated in most cases

3

Connection of steel mesh with column rebar is mostly not conceived prior, and can be haphazard

2

Varying amounts and grades of steel are used in mesh

Refer Column Process Diagram

1

Deviations

Implicit Decisions

89

Shuttering removed after 21 days

9

Jute bags are applied on surface to retain moisture, and curing process is carried out Date of pouring is written onto wet concrete to calculate curing duration

Concrete is levelled using floats and trowels

Concrete is poured and set using vibrator

Formwork is sprayed with water on the day of concreting

Steel reinforcement rings are prepared and laid on the formwork above base cover Shuttering is constructed and fixed

Staircase mapped on floor from plan using thread measure Table 3.2.14. Mapping: Staircase Source: Author

11. Staircase

8

Water level used to check horizontal levelling

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

CURING

PUCCA 5.0

Info

Formal

Inconste check du lack to technolo

90

8

7

CURING

9

Curing duration and technique depends on knowledge of labourer, and time and resource constraints

Inconstency in check due to lack to technology

T   ADS

sed to ntal

PUCCA 5.0

Informal

mal

6

5

Inconsistency in concrete mixture and compaction techniques

Step is eliminated in most cases

Refer Column Process Diagram

4

3

Sufficient and uniform reinforcement is not used

2

1

Staircases are not pre-planned. Different riser heights to match the floor levels is a common occurence

Deviations

Implicit Decisions

91

PUCCA 5.0

Info

Formal

Concrete is prepared and transfered to the roof in batches

9

Formwork is sprayed with water on the day of concreting

8

Electrical wiring pipes are laid

7

Mesh members are tied using binding wires and concrete blocks are inserted as spacers

6

Steel mesh is laid over the shuttering plates for roof slab

5

Steelwork is prepared at a height for convenience and then lowered to beam level The joints are sealed using strong adhesive tape to prevent leakage during concreting

Shuttering plates are fixed

Scaffolding built to support formwork and shuttering

Table 3.2.15. Mapping: Roof Slab I Source: Author

12-A. Roof Slab

4

Vertical alignment checked using plumb bob

3

2

1

Inconstency check due to to technolog

92

9

Step is eliminated in most cases

8

Services are usually not considered during construction, added later

7

T ADS

ment g plumb

PUCCA 5.0

Informal

mal

Use of spacers are either non-existent or arbitrary

6

5

Varying amounts and grades of steel are used in framework

4

3

Inconstency in check due to lack to technology

Joints are sealed using makeshift, arbitrary methods that have a high chance of collapse

Lack of technology and insufficient knowledge leads to unsafe construction practices. This leads to sagging of beam and other structural hazards

2

1

Deviations

Implicit Decisions

93

PUCCA 5.0

Info

Formal Formwork removed after 21 days

Water is filled at regular intervals for curing purpose

6

For proper curing, lean concrete bunds are constructed

5

Surface is allowed to harden

Excess concrete is removed using a straight edge

Concrete is leveled using wooden posts

Concrete is prepared and transfered to the roof in batches

Table 3.2.16. Mapping: Roof Slab II Source: Author

12-B. Roof Slab

CURING

7

4

Wooden blocks of height the same as slab depth is placed as levelling reference

3

2

1

Inconsisten process can to different depths

94

6

CURING

7

Formwork is removed before stipulated duration

Time constraints and lack of sufficient knowledge can lead to events such as this.

Bunds are mostly not built, curing is done by pouring water over slab, sometimes haphazardly

Insufficient knowledge and lack of material resources can lead to elimination of such steps in the process

5

T

4

3

ADS

ks of me as placed ference

PUCCA 5.0

Informal

mal

Inconsistency in process can lead to different slab depths

2

1

Inconsistency in mix and grade of concrete used

Deviations

Implicit Decisions

95

PUCCA 5.0

96

PUCCA 5.0 T

ADS

4. Digital Aid System: Logic and Constraints

97

PUCCA 5.0

4.1. Constraints

As illustrated in the previous chapter, the primary concern for any medium of technical assistance for self-construction should be to capture the essence of informality in the process, while ensuring safe construction. A tendency to formalise the process and reduce the degree of autonomy that is required in such practices can only lead to unsustainable outcomes.

This chapter aims at developing the logic behind the digital aid system, by understanding the constraints that such a system would encounter. Constraints comprise of all the acceptable ways in which a system can achieve its goals. It highlights the restrictions in the system environment, and all factors that limit the functions of the system. Iteratively mapping the constraints of the system can help us develop a robust knowledge of the capacities of the system, its elements and the interactions it generates.

The constraints for the proposed system are discussed as follows: 1. Constraint on Autonomy 2. Constraint on Quality 3. Constraint on Affordability 4. Constraint of Cost: Providers perspective 5. Technological Constraints 6. Constraint on Interface

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1. Constraint on Autonomy: Autonomy is a primary consideration for self-construction in the context of affordable housing. Since most cases of housing in this scenario aims to not just provide shelter and basic necessities but also socio-economic growth, autonomy and control of the dweller over the design and construction process is has a high desirability. Autonomy also controls the affordable index of the dweller, and is one of the core reasons behind incremental development. The availability of control

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needs and demands.

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and autonomy enable the dweller to match the housing process to his immediate With this consideration, any system that aids self-construction should prioritise autonomy. Moreover, in this user-autonomy (autonomy of the dweller) should be given a higher priority than the autonomy of the aid system.

In case of a digital system, user-autonomy should precede machine-autonomy.

Even though the prerequisite to designing a digital system is to systematize the process and interactions of the components, the essence of autonomy and the nature of its function should be captured by the digital system. While relaying user-autonomy is decided by the machine in this case, the conditions under which it is to be prioritised over the decisions made by the machines need to factored into the system architecture.

2. Constraint on Quality: Quality of the housing structure and spaces is a primary concern of aid in self-construction. In current practices of unaided self-construction in informal settlements, lack of knowledge and resources drives the output to have reduced structural and spatial quality. While the arrangement of spaces and the construction process suits the affordable and socio-economic demands of the user, the output is limited due to the circumstances of the dweller.

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Most cases of technical aid aim to bridge this gap of knowledge and resources. The central aim of these programs are to provide structurally safe and well-designed houses. But aiming for this criteria in isolation do not respect the demands and necessities of informal dwellers. Such practices are thus rendered unsustainable and unaffordable at the end.

Acknowledging the construction process to be a complex system, current practices of technical aid tend to limit the complexity of the process by adopting deterministic solutions. They reflect the nature and functions of the formal construction process in order to achieve this. This impinges upon the autonomy of the dweller and their socio-economic demands.

Another important factor is the scope of incremental development. While formalising the construction process ensures a product that avails high structural and spatial quality, the knowledge that is imparted should have continuance in order to maintain the nature of the process. In most such cases, designing is done with a technical expert in a deterministic approach. The assistance provided is a one-time occurrence. As such lack of expertise in further cases of incremental development can be a major setback in the overall process.

A central goal of the digital system should be to provide assured structural and spatial quality without compromising the autonomy of the dweller, and the scope of incremental development. The ubiquity of digital technology and its ability to be proliferated across large geographical areas acts as an advantage in maintaining the nature of construction knowledge being imparted. This would ensure incremental development of equal quality even without the consultation of technical experts.

3. Constraint on Affordability: The issue of affordability in informal self-construction takes a central place in the process of affordable housing. Affordability, aided by autonomy, is a primary 100

determinant in the quality of the final product. Availability of resources, both material

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and financial, determine the spatial arrangement and the choice of construction type adopted. It also determines the level of investment in the overall process.

In most of centrally provided affordable housing, affordability is defined in set standards: primarily through poverty indices. However, in its natural state, affordability occurs across a spectrum. Since it is hard to capture this value and provide standardised housing that suits this high variability, most such provisions of affordable housing end up being not affordable in the overall process. Self-

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of tool, technology and other resources to suit the affordability range of the dweller.

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construction tackles this concern by adapting the construction process, and usage

A digital system should capture this variable definition of affordability, and provide a construction system that ensures quality in the output while matching the financial constraints of the dweller. Incremental development also has a direct correlation with affordability: construction process is paused and resumed according to the availability of resources. This consideration should be at the core of the logic for the digital system.

4. Constraint of Cost: Cost constraints are a predominant concern for the providers of technical assistance in self-construction. In order to ensure efficient and continued dispersal of services, all systems should adopt low-cost techniques.

Standardised housing as a solution to demands of affordable housing is the result of this low-cost necessity. This standardisation, however, compromises with the socio-economic and affordable demands of the user. Self-construction, on the other hand, adopts low-cost techniques and methods to avail housing that suits the user’s demands.

Technical assistance that tends to formalise the self-construction process end up 101

with a sharp rise in the overall cost of the project. While supported with housing

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loans and other financial provisions, these systems prove unsustainable for the users in the end.

While standardised construction is rendered cost-effective owing to its ability to achieve economies of scale, digital technology can avail cost-effectiveness through achieving economies of production. Since digital technology replicates the process and not the product, creating more copies of the process has no effect on the overall cost of the system.

In addition to this, while respecting the financial demands of the user and the necessity of quality construction, the digital system should adopt tools and techniques that ensures propagation of low-cost construction. For the provision of the service itself, cost constraints need to be factored in the choice of hardware and software required for the digital system.

5. Constraint on Technology: Technological constraints for the proposed digital system are two-pronged: technology used in the construction process and that used for the digital system.

The practice of self-construction in informal settlements mostly rely on low-tech tools, owing to its cost-effectiveness and the knowledge constraints of the worker.

While the application of such tools are sustainable for a cost perspective, there is a wide array of tools used in formal construction in developing countries that can ensure quality construction without adding a burden to the overall cost. Most such tools are not applied in this context due to a lack of knowledge.

The digital system should channelise the usage of such tools in the updated construction process, to ensure quality and cost-effectiveness simutaneously.

The knowledge to use such tools should not deviate excessively from the existing base of the construction workers as well, so as to reduce the cognitive load on 102

the worker.

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The second consideration for the digital system is the medium of propagating guidance to the construction worker. For this condition, cellphone is considered to be the only tool that can satisfy the requirements of the digital system and the cost and cognitive constraints of the construction workers.

The usage of cellphones in informal settlements have risen sharply in recent years.

Tapping the potential of this technology should be a central goal of the digital system. The digital system should consider the usage techniques of informal

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technology. It should also take considerations to not increase the cognitive load

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dwellers and ensure a method that aligns with their comfort level in using this of the workers. In order to do this, the cellphone should be used in an efficient but non-intrusive manner.

5. Constraint on Interface: The cellphone acts as the primary interface between the construction worker and the digital system. In order to ensure smooth communication between the two components, the interface of interaction should align with the demands and cognitive capacity of the user.

In addition to this, the interface should provide options for the construction worker to input conditions of implicit decisions that has a direct effect on the construction process. The interface should act as aid to prioritise user-autonomy.

Since the cellphone is also the primary method of gathering feedback data of the construction environment, the method of collecting data that involves the worker interacting with the cellphone should adhere to the cognitive capacities of the worker.

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5. Application of Systems Theory

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5.1. Systems Theory: Overview 5.1.1. Complex system and Emergent Properties

“A system is a set of elements or parts that is coherently organized and interconnected in a pattern or structure that produces a characteristic set of behaviours, often classified as its function or purpose” -

Donella Meadows, 2008, p.188

The coherency and interconnectedness of elements imply a core principle of complex systems: the whole is bigger than the sum of the parts. The implication of this statement is that, the behaviour projected by the interaction between the elements of the system cannot be understood by looking at the function of each element in isolation. This forms the basic premise of complex systems. Complex systems exhibit behaviour that is adaptive, dynamic, goal-seeking, self-preserving and at times, evolutionary in nature (Meadows, 2008).

Emergent behaviour: Emergent behaviour arises out of the interaction between elements of a complex systems. Emergence is said to occur when a system is observed to exhibit properties that do not belong to any specific element in the system. As such, it proves difficult to estimate emergent behaviour by analysis the functioning of individual elements in an isolated environment. The phenomenon of emergence compels us to look at systems as a whole, and view the interactions and information exchange between elements comprehensively. These interactions might also not be limited between two elements; the behaviour arising out of a particular set of interactions could be influenced by a simultaneous information exchange occurring elsewhere within the system.

Systems primarily comprise of three aspects: elements, interconnectedness and function or purpose. In summation, the principles of a system are enumerated below: •

A system is more than the sum of its parts

•

Interconnection between elements of a system operate via flow of information

•

The function or purpose of the system, which underlines what the system is trying to achieve or what its goal is, is the most crucial determinant of the system’s behaviour

•

System behaviour is generated from the system structure, and is exhibited

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as a series of events over time.

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5.2. The General Systems Theory

The General Systems Theory was postulated by Ludwig von Bertalanffy in 1968.

Bertalanffy’s theory challenged the notions of reductionism (the process of describing a complex phenomenon in terms of its fundamental constituents) and linear causalities (cause and effect relationship deduced from two interacting elements). He rejected the concept of closed systems (systems where individual elements interact in a cosed environment and has no exchange with the external environment), to state that most system in the world function as open system, where the elements interact among themselves and also with its external environment.

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emergence, resulting in continual evolution.

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This multi-layered interaction fosters new properties in the system through

“An open system is defined as a system in exchange of matter with its environment, presenting import and export, building-up and breaking-down of its material components.”

-Ludwig

von Bertalanffy, 1968, p.141

The critical conditions defining the functioning of an open system are: 1. Equifinality: ability of the system to arrive at a functioning state from various initial starting conditions 2. Feedback: for any system in constant transformation, the system poses a mechanism by which information is reinvested into the system to provide a constant rebalancing and recalibration of its functioning state.

Both these conditions rely upon the determination of the system to achieve a steady state. This system state is the result of the system function or purpose; system states can be varied in number, and are in constant fluctuation depending on the input, output, and feedback information feeding into the system.

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5.3. Communication and Control 5.3.1. Information Bertalanffy envisaged the applications of systems theory in the modern theory of communication. Modern communication theory was based on Claude Shannon’s information theory, developed in 1948, which was a mathematical theorem highlighting electronic signal transmission and quantitative measurement of information flows. The theory was adapted into a theoretical model of human communication by Warren Weaver, a media specialist.

The communication model based on this theory is essentially a linear or one-way loop comprising of a sender, an encoder, a decoder, a receiver and noise.

Noise

Fig. 5.3. Shannon-Weaver’s model of communication Source: Adapted by Author (communicationtheory.org,n.d)

Information Source

Transmitter

SENDER

Encoder

Medium

Reception

Destination

Decoder

RECEIVER

FEEDBACK

The first core concept in this theory of communication and control is information.

The emergent behaviour of systems is the result of communication between system elements. This communication occurs in the manner of information exchange between the elements. It forms the central notion in communication theory. Bertalanffy draws a parallel for information being the currency in the field of communication, just as energy is considered the currency in physics. In encoding and decoding information in systems, Bertalanffy ideates reading information as decisions, the alternatives for which can be represented mathematically using binary units (B, 1968). Information can be conveyed as decisions between a number of alternatives, where the number of alternatives are represented as bits.

Information conceived in this manner can be considered a measure of order in a complex system with multiple layers of communication.

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5.3.2. Feedback The second core concept in the theory of communication and control is feedback.

Feedback is information that is reinvested back into the system to influence its future behaviour. It keeps the system in constant transformation, feeding information that aims to bring the system to a steady state or ‘homeostasis’.

Bertalanffy designed a system feedback loop based on Shannon-Weaver’s model of Communication. The scheme comprises of a receptor that receives information as stimulus, and transmits that message to an effector. The information is transmitted via a control apparatus that encodes incoming information and relays a decoded T

message as output to the effector. The effector responds to the transmitted

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message, and this response as well as the functioning of the effector is sent back to the receptor as feedback information. The feedback received by the receptor enables the system to take actions to self-stabilise and self-regulate.

Stimulus

Message

Message

Control Apparatus

RECEPTOR

Response

EFFECTOR

FEEDBACK

Fig. 5.4. Simple Feedback Scheme Source: Adapted by Author (Bertalanffy, 1968)

Feedback loops are causal connections that run through a set of decisions or rules.

These rules, or the control structure determine the nature of the feedback loop: balancing or reinforcing. Balancing feedback loops tend to achieve equilibrium and are simultaneously sources of stability and sources of resistance to change.

Reinforcing loops are self-enhancing, and tend to lead to exponential growth in the system of runaway collapses.

Central to the nature of the feedback is thus the control structure determining the nature of the feedback loop. The rules of the control structure can determine the self-stabilising or self-enhancing nature of the system.

In designing a system, it thus becomes crucial in iteratively developing the control structure to check if the actions lead to stabilisation.

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5.3.3. Control Feedback Loop The control apparatus in a feedback loop aim to control the emergent properties that stem out of the interactions between system elements. This is achieved by controlling the interactions between each element. A system is thus formed out multiple control structures controlling the behaviour of individual components and interactions between parts of the system.

The function of the control apparatus is to provide control actions on the system, and receive feedback to determine the impact of those actions.

Control Apparatus Controls emergent properties

- Individual component behaviour

- Component interactions

CONTROL ACTIONS

Fig. 5.5. Control Feedback loop Source: Adapted by Author (Leveson, 2018)

FEEDBACK

Indirect and Direct interactions among system components

Control has a broad interpretation in systems theory. Control in the system can be achieved at various levels. Apart from controlling individual components and their interactions, procedural control such as development process, manufacturing process etc., and social control such as regulations, law, incentives can also be 110

used to achieve a stated system goal.

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5.4. Proposed System

In a construction system, feedback loops function to enable safe and desirable outputs. In the context of formal construction, the control structure determining the nature of feedback is deterministic and rigid. It focuses on a designed output, and the feedback mechanism helps in achieving the determined goal.

In the context of informal construction, however, the existing feedback mechanism fail to provide sufficient information to enable safe and reliable outcome. Implicit factors such as insufficient knowledge of construction among labourers, unexpected change in financial and material resources, changes in lifestyle affect the decision T

making capacity of the worker in construction.

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System Boundary: In order to develop a digital aid system, it is necessary to outline the boundary of the system. For the scope of this research, the system deals with explicit construction activities and implicit decisions that directly influence the said construction activities.

System Goal: The proposed digital system aims to achieve a self-stabilising construction process.

The goals of the system are: 1. To achieve structural integrity in the final product 2. To achieve good spatial quality in the final product 3. To retain a high degree of user-autonomy in the process System Components: The components of the proposed digital system is derived on the basis of the constraints listed in chapter [4]. A comprehensive understanding of accessible technology, requisite information to map the worker’s environment, in addition to their cognitive capacities helps us enlist the system components.

•

Optimization program: The function of this component is to optimize the worker’s activity and provide guidance to ensure achievement of system goals

•

Cellphone: The cellphone acts as the medium for communication between the worker and the optimization program 111

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•

Construction Worker: The worker is the primary effector in the system, partaking directly in construction activity with the help of the guidance provided via the smartphone in addition to his own knowledge

•

Construction output: The worker communicates directly with the output to derive additional knowledge using his own physical senses (visual, tactile etc.) and enacts upon them to influence the overall construction activity

OPTIMISATION Controls construction process

- Workers construction activity

- Interaction between the worker and the optimisation platform

SENSORY GUIDANCE

SENSORY FEEDBACK

CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITY

Fig. 5.6. Proposed Control Feedback Loop: Interation I Source: Author

The primary control apparatus for the proposed system is an optimisation program, that aims to provide construction guidance to the worker in order to achieve the stated system goals. The guidance provided is the control action, while sensory information from the construction worker and his environment is received as feedback. Feedback received is run through the optimisation program to generate updated guidance for the construction worker, with the aim to self-stabilise and achieve system goals. This forms the basic outline of the digital aid system.

The control structure for the system needs to be reiterated through the constraints identified in Chapter [4].

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The first iteration shown in fig 5.4 only caters to the broader outline of the interaction between system elements. In order to comprehensively capture all interactions, it is necessary to enlist the system components.

OPTIMISATION

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Controls construction process

- Workers construction activity

- Interaction between the worker and the optimisation platform

FEEDBACK ON CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITY

SUB-SYSTEM 01

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GUIDANCE ON CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITY

SENSORY GUIDANCE

SENSORY FEEDBACK

SUB-SYSTEM 02

SMARTPHONE

CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITY

PHYSICAL SENSORY FEEDBACK

Fig. 5.7. Proposed Control Feedback Loop: Interation II Source: Author

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CONSTRUCTION OUTPUT

SUB-SYSTEM 03

WORKER

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5.5. System theoretic Process Analysis

In order to understand the capacity of the proposed system to realise its goals, it is required to iteratively analyse the interactions between the system components.

By analysing these interactions, the unsafe interactions can be highlighted, and reinforced to arrive at a robust system architecture. This process is undertaken by using the system analysis tool STPA. System Theoretic Process Analysis (STPA) is a system analysis method used to identify hazards caused by unsafe interactions in the control structure. It is developed under the framework of the STAMP (System-Theoretic Accident Model and Processes) developed by Dr. Nancy Leveson. STAMP is accident causality model: it establishes that accidents are caused by inadequacies in the control mechanism of a system, instead of failure of individual parts. The STAMP model can be used to iteratively analyse the different levels of interactions between system elements, and identify the causes behind undesired events generating from those interactions. In this sense, the model uses a top-down (deductive) approach to analyse causal factors.

Top-down vs Bottom-up analysis: There are two approaches to analyse the safety of the interaction between system components, and identifying the causes behind undesired events: bottom-up or inductive approach and top-down or deductive approach.

An inductive approach can be characterised as a ‘what-if’ approach. It deals with the question: What if this part fails, what would be the consequences? A deductive approach, on the other hand, asks a ‘how-can’ question: How can this specific event occur, what has caused it? (Ericson, 2005).

UNDESIRED EVENT Deductive Logic

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Fig. 5.8. Inductive and deductive analysis relationship Source: Adapted by Author (Ericson, 2005)

EFFECT

Inductive Logic

CAUSE

CAUSE

CAUSE

CAUSE

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The STPA method analyses the potential cause of undesired events during the development process, such that all actions leading up those events can be eliminated or controlled (Leveson & Thomas, 2018).

Method overview: The steps of conducting an STPA analysis are elaborated below: 1. Define Purpose of the Analysis: The first step of the analysis aims to define the purpose of the analysis by enumerating the losses that are to be prevented.

•

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goals. The purpose of the analysis is captures in four parts, as described:

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This step is initiated post establishing the boundary of the system and its Identify losses: Losses are conditions resulting from the system

behaviour that are unacceptable to the stakeholders of the system.

•

Identify system-level hazards: Hazards are system states, that coupled

with worst-case environmental conditions1, will lead to a loss •

Identify system-level constraints: System constraints are conditions

that need to be satisfied to prevent stated Hazards •

Redefine hazards: This is an optional step to redefine the list of hazards

after reviewing the same and establishing constraints.

2. Developing the Control Structure: The second step entails detailing out the control structure for the system. The control structure, as illustrated in section 5.5, captures the functional relationship and interactions between system components in the form of control feedback loops. The control structure is developed iteratively throughout the STPA process.

3. Identifying Unsafe Control Actions (UCA): The third step is to analyse the control structure defined in step 2, and identify the control actions that can lead to system level losses identified in step 1.

4. Identifying the reasons why UCAs might occur: This step aims to determine the conditions under which control actions could become unsafe, such as incorrect feedback, inadequate requirements, design errors, component failures etc. It also considers scenarios under which control actions might be provided but not followed or executed properly, leading to system-losses.

Each step has been discussed in detail with respect to the proposed system in

1

Environment denotes system environment, which is defined as conditions that exist out of the defined system boundary, but affects system behaviour

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the forthcoming section.

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5.5.1. Purpose of the Analysis

The boundary and goals for the proposed system have been established in section 5.4. This section elaborates the losses, hazards and constraints of the system, as described further.

PURPOSE OF THE ANALYSIS System-Level Hazards SYSTEM BOUNDARY

Identify Losses

Identify SystemLevel Hazards

Fig. 5.9. Overview of defining the analysis purpose Source: Adapted by Author (Leveson & Thomas, 2018)

Identify SystemLevel Constraints

Redefine Hazards

System-Level Constraints

Sub-hazards, constraints

Identifying Losses: Losses are specific conditions that would arise out of interactions of system components among themselves and with their environment. These particular conditions are unnacceptable to the stakeholders of the system.

The proposed system aims to aid the process of self-construction; the primary stakeholders in this system are the construction workers and the clients (in certain conditions the clients would act as the workers themselves). While in the larger ecosystem, centralised institutions, private developers, technical specialists and other resource providers would also be considered as stakeholders, for the scope of this thesis and developing the framework of this system, only the actors directly participating in construction activity are considered.

Clients/Dwellers: The primary incentive for the dwellers is to avail a housing that suits their socio-economic demands, provides scope for economic growth and matches their level of affordability.

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Construction Worker: In most cases of self-construction, local labourers from the informal settlement where the client is residing is hired to do the construction activity. As established in section 3.2, The role of the key contractor (mason) is such activities is central in all aspect: designing, construction, procuring material etc. As such there is a high level of autonomy that resides with them. The system aims to analyse the role of the construction worker to retain knowledge that is crucial to successful construction, but reduce the knowledge gap that leads to unsafe practices.

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Considering the goals of the system and the interests of the stakeholders, the losses for the proposed system are enumerated below:

Index Type of Loss L-1

Loss of structural integrity in the final output

L-2

Loss of desirable spatial quality in the final output

L-3

Loss of affordability in the construction and maintenance process

L-4

Loss of user-autonomy in the construction process

L-5

Loss of scope of incremental development in the construction process

Table 5.2.17. Types of System Loss Source: Author

Identifying System-Level Hazards: Hazards are system states or conditions that are limited to interactions between system components, and functions within the system boundary. Hazards are identified as system states that lead up to the identifies losses. A primary consideration in listing the hazards is that they lead to loss in worst-case scenarios.

Under normal circumstances, the event could be non-hazardous as well.

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The sytem-level hazards identified for the proposed system is derived from informal construction mapping undertaken in Chapter [3]. The identifies system-level hazards and the corresponding losses they contribute to are enumerated below:

Index Type of Hazard

H-1

H-2

H-3

H-4

H-5

system is not read and relayed precisely Structural requirements are not relayed with precision at the appropriate time Tools and technology required for a construction sequence is unavailable Construction guidance provided by system prohibits incremental development Guidance type imparts information in a medium that leads to misinterpretation in construction activity

L-1, L-2, L-3

L-1, L-2, L-4

L-1, L-3

L-3, L-4, L-5

L-1, L-2

H-6

Material resources are misused in various stages of construction L-1, L-3

H-7

Capacity of resources changes during construction

H-8

H-9

Table 5.2.18. Types of Systemlevel Hazards Source: Author

Co-ordinate information exchange between real word and digital

Corresponding Loss

H-10

Proper segregation of wet and dry functions is not planned during construction Temporal delay is caused in receiving and relaying feedback to construction worker Construction worker over-relies on his expertise and ignores guidance provided

L-1, L-2, L-3, L-4

L-1, L-2, L-5

L-1, L-3, L-4

L-1, L-2, L-3, L-4

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Identifying System-Level Constraints: System-level constraints specify the conditions that need to be satisfied in order to prevent established hazards. To derive the constraints, the condition under which the hazard occurs needs to be inverted. The constraints for the proposed system are enumerated below:

SC-2

SC-3

SC-4

SC-5

SC-6

SC-7

SC-8

SC-9

Precise method to read and relay co-ordinate information must be established Temporal precision in relaying structural requirements must be ensured Appropriate and accessible tools and technology for construction sequences needs to be provided Construction guidance should prioritize scope of incremental development Method of guidance delivery should minimise scope of misinformation In case guidance is misread, contingency to counter action should be provided

Guidance should ensure proper use of material resources

Change in resources should be catered in the optimization program to maintain affordability and scope of incremental development Proper segregation of wet and dry should be considered at all steps of construction

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SC-1

Corresponding Hazard

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Index Type of Hazard

H-1

H-2

H-3

H-4

H-5

H-5

H-6

H-6, H-7

H-8

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Index Type of Hazard

SC-10

SC-11

Table 5.2.19. Types of Systemlevel Constraints Source: Author

SC-12

Temporal delay should be minimised or eliminated in all guidance provided In case of temporal delay in providing guidance, contingency should be in place for the next step External monitoring should be incorporated in case ignorance of guidance leads to structural failure

Corresponding Hazard H-9

H-9

H-10

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5.5.2. Modeling the Control Structure

This section deals with modelling a hierarchical control structure. The Control Structure maps all the functional interactions in the system. A generic version of the control feedback structure have been illustrated in Fig 5.5. The proposed control structure is developed iteratively to factor in the established system-level constraints.

Hierarchy in the control structure: The degree of authority and control over the process in the system are defined T 

in a hierarchical manner in the control structure.

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CONTROL, AUTHORIT Y

High Authority

Low Authority

CONTROLLER A

CONTROLLER B

CONTROLLED PROCESS

Fig. 5.10. Generic hierarchical control structure Source: Adapted by Author (Leveson & Thomas, 2018)

In Fig 5.8, the vertical axis indicates control and authority within the system. The number of controllers can vary in relation to the number of components of the system. Each component has control over the components immediately below it, to which it delegates control actions and receives feedback. In turn, it is subject to control and authority from the component above it.

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A hierarchical control structure comprises of the following five elements: •

Controllers

•

Control Actions

•

Feedback

•

Input and Outputs from components that are neither control actions nor feedback

•

Controlled processes

The Controller provides Control Actions which determines the system component interactions, and enforces constraints on those interactions as well. The Controller comprises of the Control Algorithm and the Process Model. The control algorithm is the decision-making component, that provides control actions for the component beneath it in the overall structure. The process model holds the internal beliefs of the system, based on which decisions are made. These beliefs could be about the process being controlled or other aspects of the system and its environment that has correlation with the process in question. The control algorithm and the process model in conjugation receives feedback and relays control action based on the internal beliefs and decision-making structure it upholds.

The Control Structure for the proposed system comprises of multiple systems, as illustrated in Fig 5.5. For each part of the structure, an analysis is done to derive the Control Algorithm and Process Model, and subsequently derive the Control Actions and Feedback data generated from the interaction.

The next section dives into detail of generating the Control Structure based on these parameters.

Subsequently, the STPA process is carried out to generate Unsafe Control Actions in each control model, and analyse it to derive additional reinforcement for system stability.

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6. Developing the System Architecture

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6.1. Control Structure: Subsystems 6.1.1. Overview

The control structure for the proposed system comprises of multiple sub-systems, as illustrated in Fig 6.1. Each of these sub-systems have their own established method of communication. The hierarchy of degree of authority is established along the vertical axis, with the optimization program having the highest control1 and the worker having the lowest.

For each sub-system, the controller has its specific control algorithm and process model that provides control actions to generate a controlled process. Each subsystem is explored in detail to derive the control algorithm and subsequent

SMARTPHONE INTEGRATION Medium to relay information to and from the construction worker

EXTERNAL FACTORS Fig. 6.1. Proposed Control Structure with sub-systems Source: Author

Inputs from components that are outside the purview of component interaction but has an effect

WORKER COMMUNICATION Primary actor for construction activity, communicating with the system and external environment

SUB-SYSTEM 02

Primary decision-making process to provide construction guidance

SUB-SYSTEM 03

OPTIMIZATION PROGRAM

SUB-SYSTEM 01

control actions.

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1 Control in this case is not the same as user-autonomy. Control in this case consists of control over system components in delivering guidance (control actions). The control-algorithm in each controller should be designed to enhance user-autonomy

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6.2. Sub-system 01: Optimization

The sub-system with the highest authority has the Optimization program controlling construction activity as the controller, relaying control actions to a smartphone.

The control structure for the same is illustrated below.

OPTIMIZATION PROGRAM

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CONTROLLED PROCESS

Information relayed to and from smartphone

Fig. 6.2. Controller and Controlled process of Subsystem 01 Source: Author

The optimization program lies at the heart of the proposed digital system. It is responsible for analysing a construction activity, and provide optimized guidance that aims to realize the stated system goals.

Control Algorithm: The control algorithm for the optimization program is designed as an algorithm that reads the construction activity being done by a work, as well as his environment, analyses it against defined objectives and sends back guidance as per measured deviation. The rules of measuring deviation are set post analysing the requirements of an informal self-construction system.

The process of developing the framework and structure for the optimization program entails a two step process of developing the logic behind the control algorithm, and the control actions provided by it.

The following section deals with formulating the framework of the control algorithm, the decision-making core of the control structure.

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Optimization 6.2.1. Single vs Multi-Objective programs

Optimization refers to the process of finding and comparing feasible solutions to the point of achieving the best possible outcome in a given context. The feasibility of the solution is defined by the objective against which the optimization process is carried out.

Optimization problems can be categorised depending on the cardinality of objectives in the system. In case the system involves only one objective function, the process of finding optimal solutions is termed as single-objective optimization.

When the system addresses involves multiple objectives, the optimal solution finding process is termed as multi-objective optimization.

Multi-objective optimization programs epitomize real world complex systems more effectively, in comparison to single-objective programs. Most real-world optimization problems have multiple objectives, and equal weightage is given to all of them. As such, the extremist principle of prioritizing one objective applied in single-optimization problems cannot be applied in these instances.

Multi-objective optimization has to deal with constraints. Since most real-world scenarios deal with constraints, multi-objective optimization is most relevant when it captures those constraints in the program. In that sense, multi-objective optimization is not a simple scaled up version of single-optimization programs.

Trade-offs: In the presence of multiple objectives in a system, the solutions may conflict with each other. In generic cases, this leads to the concept of tradeoffs (Deb, 2010). Trade-offs stem from situations where each objective leads to a different optimal solution. The resultant optimal solution does not satisfy any objective successfully. Since equal weightage is given to all objectives, the optimization program can generate multiple optimal solutions. Without any additional information to assign priority to the objectives, all solutions are equally feasible, with none having a higher preference than the rest.

However, since most optimization programs ar run with the aim of acquiring one optimal solution, it is important to understand how a single solution can be derived from a multi-objective model, without comprising the requirements of any objective.

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Multi-objective Optimization Problem

IDEAL Multi-objective optimizer

T

STEP 01

• Solution 01 • Solution 02 ....

• Solution ‘n’ Subject to constraints

ADS

Multiple Trade-off Solutions found

Choose One Solution

Higher Level Information

STEP 02

Fig. 6.3. Schematic diagram showing multi-objective optimization proces Source: Adapted by Author (Deb, 2010)

In order to obtain one optimal solution, higher level information needs to be fed into the optimization process (Deb, 2010), as illustrated in the figure above. This higher level information, in most cases is non-technical, qualitative and experience driven. The process of multi-objective optimization thus entails setting a set of objectives to generate multiple optimal (trade-off) solutions. These solutions are then evaluated against higher-level qualitative consideration to arrive at one optimal solution.

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6.2.2. Proposed System Optimization Objectives

In order to realise the system goals of structural integrity, spatial quality and userautonomy, it is feasible to adopt a multi-objective optimization process.

The optimization program works at the topmost level in the control structure hierarchy, and is responsible for generating the guidance for the construction based on pre-designed objectives and feedback data acquired at every step of the construction process. In order to develop the objectives for the optimization program, the process of mapping informal construction in Chapter [3] and structural and spatial consideration derived from case examples, is taken as a reference.

Analysis of the informal construction process highlights the aspects that need to be taken into consideration for the optimization program.

The program analyses the construction activity and the worker’s environment. The data received from this is run through three simultaneous optimization objectives: Structural, Spatial and Procedural, as illustrated in Fig 6.4.

1. Procedural: This set of objectives account for the idea process of informal construction. It aims to generate a flexible process that acounts for the formal methods under most conditions, but factors in aspects of informal construction when the formal steps threaten the user-autonomy and scope of incremental development.

2. Structural: This set of objectives aim at analysing the integrity of the structure being constructed 3. Spatial: This set of objective aims to deliver a high quality of the spaces, in terms of liveability, socio-economic demands and environmental quality.

The considerations of each objective is elaborated in the next section.

Multiple optimal (trade-off) solutions would be availed from running this first level of optimization. These solutions are then deliberated against the scope of incremental development, of which user-autonomy and change in user’s circumstances form a core part. This final step is aimed to generate one optimal solution, which is encoded and delivered to the construction worker as a form of guidance to aid the subsequent step in construction.

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OPTIMISATION

STRUCTURAL

SPATIAL PROCEDURAL T

Spatial quality determinants

Alignment

Spatial configuration

Structural composition

Functional Layout

Material composition

Environmental Quality

ADS

Point cloud structural analysis

Interfacing elements

MULTIPLE OPTIMAL SOLUTIONS

HIGHER LEVEL INFORMATION Retain scope of incremental development

ONE OPTIMAL SOLUTION

Fig. 6.4. Schematic diagram showing proposed multiobjective optimization process Source: Author

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Objective 01: Ideal Procedure

The foremost objective is to derive an ideal procedure for all construction activity.

This is based on the informal construction mapping presented in Chapter [3]. While steps from formal construction process help achieve a structurally and spatially optimized output, it does not align with the interests and demands of informal systems, as established in Chapter [2]. Its deterministic nature does not align with the incremental development model pursued in informal construction. With an aim to realize outputs that are structurally safe with appropriate spatial quality, but does not compromise on the incremental nature of construction, the steps of the formal process have been reconceived to factor in methods that facilitate incremental development.

Case 01: Taking the example of the construction module ‘Digging Foundation’, the process has been reviewed to analyse the steps which contradict incremental growth.

As illustrated in Table 6.1, the first step for digging the foundation in a formal construction process is to mark the different functional areas on the ground. This proves beneficial both structurally and spatially since it ensures proper segregation of wet and dry functions1. Functions with specific utility based demands can be grouped together, such as bathrooms, toilets, kitchen etc. It is one of the primary consideration in creating a functional layout for any building design.

However, in an incremental construction set-up, this method proves unsuccessful as rooms and services are added according to availability of resources. Therefore, for an ideal incremental process, this step needs to be altered to suit the user demands.

In order to accommodate that into the construction process, it is essential to have comprehensive information about the infrastructure and services available, or those that can be provided in future. Matching the requirements of the dweller againts all such provisions provides a better chance at creating a layout that aids incremental development without compromising on structural and spatial quality.

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1

Wet functions are those which require access to services such as water and sewage supply, drainage etc.

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Formal Incremental

Excavate marked areas to required depth

7

Mark walls on the ground with chalk accoring to their width: 9” for load bearing, 4.5” for partition

Eliminate steps in case of resource deficiency

EXCAVATION

8

ADS

Mark column footing profile using starter (predetermined standard size) Mark column centre using thread mesh layout (centre distance) at grade and a plumb bob

Sensory Information

9

Marker Based Scanning Mark locations of column at grade CMarker Based Scanning

Marker Based Scanning

6

5

Marker Based Scanning + Sensory Information

4’ stakes stuck on the ground

4

Marker Based Scanning + Sensory Information

Check level of digging on site using water level

3

Tie thread accross the perimeter, and check right angles measuring diagonal with thread

Calculate depth level of foundation from PRL Mark the different functional areas on ground (kitchen, bedroom, toilet)

T

Desired level of excavation measured with the help of a water level

Marker Based Scanning

Centre-to-centre distance of areas is marked on site using a network of threads

Marker Based Scanning

2

1

Guidance to map functions (grouped as per utility)based on user requirements

Marker Based Scanning

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Table 6.1. Deriving Ideal Process for Optimization [Digging Foundation] Source: Author

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An ideal procedure that accounts for this clause could be derived as follows:

Gathering user input of functions required

•

Extract site information: plot layout, plot orientation, availability and location of basic infrastructure

•

Group required functions as per utility: 1. Functions that require access to sewerage and water supply 2. Functions that require access to high voltage power source etc.

3. Other utilities

•

Identify anchor points on site: water supply network, sewerage network, sewerage pit, water bore well, etc.

•

Connect grouped functions to respective anchors to ensure availability of services

•

Ensure grouped services have the opportunity of future development, without losing access to service infrastructure, or structural integrity

Send guidance for construction to construction worker

The anchored functional layout should be superimposed on the demarcated plot in step 01 of the construction process. The functional layout overlaid with the site constraints are an additional layer of optimization that combines procedural and spatial optimization objectives.

In addition to recalibration the layout and positioning of various functions on the ground to aid incremental development, the procedural objectives need to accommodate resource deficiency into the process. As illustrated in Fig. 6.5, in case of resource crunch and subsequent inability to invest in a column foundation, the process needs to recalibrate and provide options to secure safe structure with available resources.

To enable this, several alternate strategies need to be fed into the optimization process, a situation that is enabled by pulling in domain expertise from several sources and feeding into the digital system.

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Sewage pit

Bore Well/ Tube Well

VERTICAL CIRCULATION SLEEPING

SLEEPING

STORAGE

WASHING

WASHING

COOKING TOILET

TOILET LIVING AREA

T

COOKING

ADS

VERTICAL

MICRO ECONOMY

Sewage pit

Municipal services

CIRCULATION Fig. 6.5. Anchoring functions to municipal utilities, and grouping according to wet and dry activities Source: Author

MICRO ECONOMY

Bore Well/ Tube Well

SLEEPING

STORAGE

WASHING COOKING TOILET

LIVING AREA

Municipal services

VERTICAL CIRCULATION

MICRO ECONOMY

Fig. 6.6. Anchoring functions to personally/ communally provided utilities such as sewage pit and bore well, and grouping according to wet and dry activities Source: Author 133

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Objective 02: Structural Optimization

The aim for the structual optimization objective is to analyse the structural integrity of each construction element. It analyses the element being constructed against the following criteria: 1. Alignment: The most basic analysis is done against the horizontal and vertical alignment of construction elements. This is a preliminary requisite for all construction process. Ranging from formwork alignment, to laying masonry, fenestration details and finishes, this step captures deviation or missteps in alignment of construction elements and aims to reinstate the stability of the system by introducing corrective measures to either realign, or change the alignment of subsequent steps to counter structural imbalance.

2. Structural composition: This objective takes into consideration the structural requirements of every construction module. The amount of steel required for reinforcement, the composition of load bearing and partition masonry walls, column sizes and footing details, etc., are considered in this objective.

This objective would also consider the arrangement and design of structural meshes and reinforcement framework.

3. Material composition: This objective deals with composition, grade and mix of materials used in various construction modules such as mortar mix, concrete mix for column, slab, beam, in addition to the quality of individual materials. This objective would also need to address unavailability of quality material and resource scarcity, and provide alternative forms of structural reinforcement to account for the deficiency or degraded quality.

4. Interfacing structural elements: This objectives is concerned with the joinery between construction elements such as interfacing column and brick infill, masonry wall and fenestration components, joining the plinth beam to the column etc. In formal construction, the interfacing can be pre-determined.

However, in the case of incremental development, the interfaces need to adapt along with the development process. This objective determines the 134

best possible manner to foresee an interface to aid incremental development.

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Incremental

Formal

9

Concrete mix is poured and compacted and repeated till required level

MATERIAL COMPOSITION

Formwork removed after 24 hours

8

Inside of the formwork is made wet by pouring water

Column formwork is built

Vertical alignment checked with plumb bob

6

Ensure alignment check using plumb bob to maintain vertical alignment

5

Shuttering is removed after 24 hours

4

Shutter of the shoe fixed and concreted

3

Small shoe constructed for proper arrangement of column formwork

2

STRUCTURAL COMPOSITION

Reinforcement mesh is constructed and placed above footing

Check material composition and concrete grade before mizing

7

ALIGNMENT

Formwork is fixed using supports on four sides

 ADS

10

Propose suitable mix based on material grade available Propose additional reinforcement to compensate material quality (potential trade-off)

T 

Jute bags are applied on surface to retain moisture, and curing process is carried out

1

Recalibrate and present alternative in case of lack of material resources Check amount of steel and grade of steel in reinforcement mat

135

Table 6.2. Structural Optimization factors in the construction process Source: Author

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Objective 03: Spatial Optimization

While there are numerous methods to determine the quality of a space, ranging from concepts of territory and privacy, environmental quality of the space in terms of lighting, ventilation, flow of functional arrangements etc., the application of these concepts can be categorised based on the nature of the space: enclosed, open, public or private.

This research and the objective of optimizing spatial quality deals with enclosed residential space. The determinants to analyse the spatial quality in this context has been derived from existing literature studying the analysis of spaces in a formal setting (Acre & Wyckmans, 2015), overlaid with the constraints and considerations of the informal context derived from case examples.

The spatial quality determinants chosen for the optimization structure are described further: 1. Spatial Configuration: This objective deals with the arrangement of elements in space. The objective can be subdivided into further considerations, as enumerated below: •

Placement of structural elements such as columns, walls: An analysis of the placement of stated elements are done to determine the nature of space defined by their arrangement. Layout of such elements should not be an obstruction to the functional requirements of the space.

•

Arrangement of circulation elements: While most houses in informal settlements have an open layout for circulation and functions and fewer subdivision of rooms and spaces, the vertical circulation is a core determinant of incremental development. Its placement thus plays a crucial role in the overall planning process. Providing external access to the staircase can be a desired step to aid incremental growth.

•

Ceiling heights: The third factor in spatial configuration is the uniformity of ceiling height. An unplanned construction process can at times generate different ceiling heights within the same room, or fail to achieve the minimum clearance of 2.4m required for circulation. This objective aims to analyse and achieve uniformity in ceiling heights while achieveing minimum clearance throughout.

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Pucca 1.5 The layout of the house for this case prioritises incremental growth.

However, due to scarcity of resources to continue construction, the family T   ADS

chose to put at external staircase and use the area on the ground floor as a shop. The external staircase raises the prospect of rearranging and providing rentable space on upper floors without compromising the privacy of the family.

Fig. 6.7. Arrangement of staircase to raise economic prospects [Pucca 1.5] Source: Author

Pucca 2.5 The layout of the house accommodates incremental growth. However, the difference in family circumstances and availability of resources is clear compared to the case of Pucca 1.5.

In this case, vertical circulation starts from the centre of the room and leads to utility areas such as kitchen and toilet planned on the upper floors

Fig. 6.8. Arrangement of staircase to accommodate functional demands of family [Pucca 2.5] Source: Author 137

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2. Functional Layout: The objective to optimise functional layout is guided towards segregation and arrangement of function so as to aid incremental development without compromising the structural and spatial quality subsequently. As illustrated in Fig. 6.5 and 6.6, grouping function in terms of utility and segregating wet and dry functions, in addition to anchoring them to external service points, form one of the core objectives of optimizing the functional layout. In addition to a planar configuration, the functional layout criteria would also aim to configure and group acivities vertically to enable proper growth without compromise.

3. Environmental Quality: This objective deals with the lighting and ventilation of the designed space. In most cases of informal self-construction, lighting and ventilation is severely compromised, even in construction with high investment such as Pucca 2.5. Windows are generally not proportionate to the size of the room, its position is not optimized to avail maximum daylight. In the low investment housing such as Kutcha 1.0 to Pucca 1.0, the windows are merely small gaps near the ceiling of the room.

This objective tends to calculate the required lux level of a room, in addition to ventilation requirements and propose the placement of fenestrations accordingly.

3m

6m

Only source of light and ventilation

138

Fig. 6.9. [L to R] 1. Section 2. Plan, Source of light and ventilation [Pucca 2.5] Source: Author

Source of light and ventilation

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Higher Level Information

As illustrated in Fig. 6.4, the multiple optimal solutions obtained from running an analysis against the three primary optimization objectives, needs to be pipelined through additional information to obtain one optimal solution.

The higher level information in this case in the autonomy of the user, and the scope of incremental growth in the output. This factor ensures the retention of autonomy in the proposed system, without compromising the structural integrity and spatial quality of the final output.

T   ADS

Case illustration: In order to determine the location of staircases in Pucca 1.5 and Puca 2.5, as illustrated in Fig. 6.7 and 6.8 respectively, both dwellers exercise a high degree of autonomy to derive what is best suited for them. However, in the case of Pucca 1.5, the decision comes at the compromise of a suitable location for building a toilet in the future. The optimization program aims to counter this situation by determining a suitable location for the staircase as well as a toilet while catering to constraints set by the spatial and procedural objectives of the optimization program, and subsequently the demand and preferences of the user. The optimization program would generate a layout plan that accommodates the construction of a toilet in future, that is grouped together with other wet functions and anchored to utility points on site, alongwith a suitable location for the staircase such that vertical segregation is ensured in future.

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6.2.3. Control Structure: Sub-system 01

Based on the Control Algorithm and requirements of the sub-system, this section deal with deriving the control actions to be provided after running optimization and subsequent feedback that is received.

In order to comprehensively capture all control actions to be provided, it is necessary to enlist the responsibilities of the controller in alignment with the system-level constraints established in chapter [5].

Responsibities of Optimization Program:

Index Responsibility

R-1

R-2

R-3

R-4

R-5

R-6

Table 6.3. Responsibilities for Controller in Sub-sytem 01 Source: Author

R-7

Provide information for structural requirement with precision during specific construction activity Restructure guidance to prioritize scope of incremental development according to external input received Provide precise guidance related to requested construction activity in multiple formats In case of guidance misinterpretation, sensory signal should be sent to construction worker

Provide guidance to group wet and dry functions

Account for temporal delay in receiving feedback and providing guidance Provide command for external monitoring in case ignorance of guidance leads to structural failure

Corresponding Constraint SC-2

SC-4, SC-6, SC-7

SC-5, SC-6

SC-5

SC-8

SC-9

SC-10

The responsibilities stated above form the basis of the control actions to be provided. The refined control structure is illustrated in Fig 6.10.

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Deriving Feedback Feedback for the control structure is derived based on the control actions provided and the information required by the Process Model to run a successful evaluation.

Control Action

Process Model

Feedback Sensory information related to worker’s position

Send Guidance based on optimal solution

Coordinate and sensory information of construction activity informaton is required

Provide multiple guidance format

Guidance need to be provided in both active and passive fornat

Request for guidance in multiple format

Prompt for structural requirement

Initiating point for relaying structural requirement information

Construction sequence initiated

Prompt for guidance not followed

Check if guidance provided is followed at every step

Guidance is not followed in one step

Signal for temporal delay in providing guidance

Maintain temporal rhythm in receiving feedback and delivering guidance

Sensory feedback for multiple steps received before guidance is relayed

Command for external monitoring in case guidance is ignored

Feedback data shows that ignorance of guidance leads to system loss

Concurrent failure in following guidance

T

Coordinate information scanned by worker

ADS

Table 6.4. Deriving feedback for Sub-sytem 01 Source: Author

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OPTIMISATION • Optimizes construction process to - Provide structural integrity - Provide spatial quality - Retain user-autonomy - Retain scope of incremental development Provide guidance to realize optimized solutions

1.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Send Guidance based on optimal solution Provide multiple guidance format Prompt for structural requirement Prompt when guidance is not followed Signal for temporal delay in providing guidance Command for external monitoring in case guidance is ignored

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Fig. 6.10. Refined Control Structure: Sub-system 01 Source: Author

Sensory information related to worker’s position Coordinate information scanned by worker Request for guidance in multiple format Construction sequence initiated Guidance is not followed in one step Sensory feedback for multiple steps received before guidance is relayed Concurrent failure in following guidance

SMARTPHONE

SUB-SYSTEM 01

•

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6.3. Sub-system 02: Smartphone Integration

The second sub-system captures the interaction between smartphone and the worker. The smartphone gathers acts as an interface between the optimization program and the construction worker.

SMARTPHONE

T   ADS

CONTROLLED PROCESS

Information relayed to and from construction worker

Fig. 6.11. Controller and Controlled process of Subsystem 02 Source: Author

The optimization program reads and relays information in the form of coordinate data and boolean variables. On the other hand, the construction worker relies on his cognitive capacity and physical senses to read and respond to the environment.

The smartphone, in this case, acts as an interface that captures cognitive and sensory information of the construction worker, the coordinate information of his environment and relays that to the optimization program to run its analysis.

Control Algorithm: The control algorithm for this sub-system comprises of actions relayed by the smartphone to the construction worker to act on guidance provided by optimization program, and to gather feedback data from the worker.

In order to work as the interface, the sub-system needs to cater to the constraints posed by the context and the cognitive capacities of the worker. The method to collect information from the surroundings, and relay information in a language that can be understood by the worker is dependent on these constraints.

The following section deals with mapping out these constraints, and devising a 143

method of communication between the smartphone and the construction worker.

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6.3.1. Checklist of Considerations

The smartphone interfaces with the contruction worker in three ways: 1. Construction Guidance: The smartphone acts as the medium to relay construction guidance from the optimization program to the worker.

2. Construction Environment Feedback: The components of the smartphone are applied to gather feedback from the construction worker, as well as the environment.

3. Implicit decision input: The smartphone interface should also be used to input external implicit decision made by the client and the worker. These are decisions that directly influence construction activity.

Considerations for Guidance Interface: •

Guidance needs to provided in a medium that the worker understands

•

Multiple types of guidance needs to provided based on demand. These types are defined based on time-constrained requirement.

1. Active Guidance: This type of guidance interacts directly with the worker, and influences his activity during the construction process.

2. Passive Guidance: This type of guidance is provided to aid the worker in understanding a process. It does not involve interacting with the worker during the process.

Considerations for providing Feedback •

Feedback should gather information about the worker’s construction environment, the structure being constructed and worker’s position

•

Feedback should be collected in a manner that is least intrusive to construction activity

•

Information collected via Feedback mechanism should be tailored to the requirements of the optimization program. Any additional information should be filtered out during the process

Considerations for Decision Input:

144

•

Decision input options should be comprehensive but not restictive

•

Decision input should cater to both client and workers’ perspectives

•

Input data are factors that are not outside the domain of control actions

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6.3.2. Potential methods to procure environmental data

In order to effectively use the tools and components of a smartphone to procure feedback environmental and construction feedback, a comparative analysis of

Natural Features Training

Uses satellite communication to gather position data

Uses Access Point for WIFI connection to locate position, accuracy is established via signal strength

Inertial Measurement Unit uses 9-axis sensor to measure orientation, velocity and gravitational forces

Extrapolates positional data from markers placed in location to be read

Applies training of natural features to identify position of similar objects in 3d environment

Most widely used smartphone sensor

Highly accessible

Rapid processing speed

High stability

Tracks naturally

Easy to implement Low computation power required

Recognizes target rotation angle, direction, lighting changes, partial overlap

Cost Effective

Highly accessible

Not affected by environment noise

No issues of occlusion

Accuracy is upto 1m

Accuracy is upto 3m

Works only in outdoor environment

Additional infrastructure required

Required to calibrate and match reference base

Required to prepare environment before tracking

Suffers from sensor error and cumulative drifts

Suffers from occulusion

Real time performance is not guaranteed Requires more computation Required to train model in advance

TECHNOLOGY

Table 6.5. Comparative Analysis of position tracking system available using smartphones Source: Author

145

Occlusion occurs frequently

Gives additional information to coordinate data

METHOD

Fiducial Markers: Colour/ AR marker tracking

DESCRIPTION

IMU Sensors: Accelerometers and Gyroscopes

ADVANTAGES

WIFI sensors (RSSI)

 ADS

GPS sensors

VISION BASED

T 

SENSOR BASED

INDOOR POSITIONING

DISADVANTAGES

OUTDOOR POSITIONING

APPLICATION

currently available methods are done, as illustrated below.

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6.3.3. Method selection based on constriants

Based on the checklist of considerations for the smartphone interface, the mapping of available smartphone technologies can be streamlines to derive a suitable system for implementation.

The primary considerations for selecting a tool from the mapping in Table 6.7 are discussed below: 1. Control of the construction worker: The tool that is selected should not supersede the authority and control of the construction worker over his surrounding. While it is necessary to minimise the cognitive load on the worker and reduce the amount of additional information he needs to process, the application of the proposed system should not encroach on his control and authority.

2. Information load on the optimization program: The second crucial factor is the amount of information fed to the optimization program from the worker’s surroundings. In case of environmental feedback gathered using WiFi sensors or natural features model, data is constantly sent to the system which can cause an overload and subsequent collapse. For a smooth and safer process, it is ideal to only send information that the program requires to run an analysis.

For this purpose, scanning using Fiducial Markers pose an optimal solution.

3. Accuracy of the feedback information: For the system to provide accurate guidance to the worker, the accuracy of data received from the worker’s environment need to be sufficiently high. To achieve this, additional layers of information should be sent that can be superimposed with the marker generated point cloud information, to achieve higher accuracy.

4. Mapping the worker’s activity: The final consideration is the system actively reading the position of the worker in order to communicate with them to provide active guidance with high temporal precision. To achieve this, IMU sensors can be used, which also builds the additional layer of accuracy stated in the previous point.

The system would thus ideally use a combination of tool to communicate with the smartphone the the optimization program, as illustrated in Fig. 6.12.

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01

 ADS

Stationary phone to capture point coordinate data from real world

T 

Marker based tracking to scan nodes to generate point cloud in the server

Inertial sensors (Gyroscope) and motion sensors in smartphones guides the user in alignment and position

Point cloud data generated in cloud platform

Deviation measured in scanned data, in relation to structural optimisation algorithm

02

147

03

Fig. 6.12. Conceptual work-flow of system parts for brick laying Source: Author

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Formal Incre

Desired level of excavation measured with the help of a water level

Excavate marked areas to required depth

8

7

Mark walls on the ground with chalk accoring to their width: 9” for load bearing, 4.5” for partition

6

Tie thread accross the perimeter, and check right angles measuring diagonal with thread

5

4’ stakes stuck on the ground

4

Check level of digging on site using water level

3

Calculate depth level of foundation from PRL Mark the different functional areas on ground (kitchen, bedroom, toilet)

Centre-to-centre distance of areas is marked on site using a network of threads

Eliminate steps in case of resource deficiency

EXCAVATION

Mark column footing profile using starter (predetermined standard size) Mark column centre using thread mesh layout (centre distance) at grade and a plumb bob

9

M co

2

1

G fu pe us

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rmal Incremental

of measured p of a

Marker Based Scanning Mark locations of column at grade

ADS

7

Eliminate steps in case of resource deficiency

8

T

ntre areas is ite using threads

Sensory Information

9

CMarker Based Scanning

Marker Based Scanning

6

5

Marker Based Scanning + Sensory Information

4

Marker Based Scanning + Sensory Information

Marker Based Scanning 3

Marker Based Scanning

2

1

Guidance to map functions (grouped as per utility)based on user requirements

Marker Based Scanning

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Table 6.6. Information type for each step of the construction process Source: Author

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6.3.4. Control Structure: Sub-system 02

The responsibilities of the smartphone as a controller has been identified based on the system constraints identified in Chapter [5] Responsibilities of Smartphone Interface:

Index Responsibility

R-1

Relay sensory guidance to aid construction activity

SC-1

R-2

Guide construction worker to collect feedback via scanning

SC-1

R-3

R-4

R-5

Table 6.7. Responsibilities for Controller in Sub-system 02 Source: Author

Corresponding Constraint

R-6

Relay information for structural requirement with temporal precision

Provide command to pull guidance in multiple format

In case of guidance misinterpretation, sensory signal should be sent to construction worker Send prompt in case of temporal delay in receiving feedback and providing guidance

SC-2

SC-5, SC-6

SC-5

SC-9

Feedback: This sub-system communicates directly with the construction worker. The feedback for this sub-system thus entails inputs from the worker regarding implicit decision making and pulling requests such as initiating a construction sequence, or guidance format required. These external inputs from the construction worker are fed as feedback information which are sent to the optimization program as higher level information.

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SMARTPHONE

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Provide prompt to pull construction sequence Relay guidance via sensors Provide guidance for collecting feedback via 3d scanning Relay information for structural requirement Provide command to pull multiple format guidance Send sensory signal for skipped guidance Send prompt for temporal delay in relaying guidance

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Collect coordinate information via scanning Collect sensory data of worker’s position and location G at h e r i m p l i c i t d e c i s i o n information Input construction sequence information Input implicit decision making information

CONSTRUCTION WORKER

SUB-SYSTEM 02

•

ADS

•

Relay active and passive construction guidance to worker Gather construction environmental and activity feedback information Gather implicit decision data from client and worker

T

•

Fig. 6.13. Control structure for Sub-system 02 Source: Author

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6.4. Sub-system 03: Worker Communication

The final level of interaction in the proposed system occurs between the construction worker and the output he actively produces.

CONSTRUCTION WORKER

CONTROLLED PROCESS

Fig. 6.14. Controller and Controlled process of Subsystem 03 Source: Author

Construction activity

While the output does not communicate in the construction worker in its literal sense, it sends feedback to the worker using the worker’s visual and tactile senses.

This sub-system embodies the logic that while automated workflow captures information precisely and efficiently, there is a level of information that can only be captured using human sensory devices. Reading this interaction is thus crucial to the smooth functioning of the overall system.

Control Algorithm: The control algorithm for this system is the worker’s cognitive capacities and his reactions based on visual and tactile information he receives from the output. The decision making criteria thus rests with the worker himself.

However, the primary level of interaction that the worker has with the output arises out of the guidance he has received from the smartphone and the optimization program, and his own cognitive influence which allows him to work based on the guidance provided.

The process model for this sub-system is the existing knowledge base of the construction worker. It adapts and changes based on the workers interactions with the guidance system and his surroundings.

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6.4.1. Control Structure: Sub-system 03

The responsibilities of the smartphone as a controller has been identified based on the system constraints identified in Chapter [5] Responsibilities of Optimization Program: Corresponding Constraint

Index Responsibility

R-1

SC-3 T

Act on Guidance Provided

ADS

R-2

Scan the construction output and environment

SC-2

R-3

Start/ Stop activity on Prompt

SC-4, SC-5

Table 6.8. Responsibilities for Controller in Sub-system 03 Source: Author

Feedback: Feedback is received from the output in the form of visual and tactile information.

CONSTRUCTION WORKER

1.

2.

3.

Act on construction guidance Gather physical data from output

Act on guidance provided Scan output and environment Start/stop activity on prompt

1.

Gather information using physical senses (visual, tactile)

CONSTRUCTION OUTPUT

SUB-SYSTEM 03

• •

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Fig. 6.15. Control structure for Sub-system 03 Source: Author

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6.4.2. Unsafe Control Actions

The next step in the STPA process is to identify Unsafe Control Actions (UCA).

UCA is a control action that will lead to a hazard in a worst-case environment. To identify a UCA, it is therefore necessary to highlight the context in which it will be unsafe.

There are four cases under which a control action can lead to a hazard, as enumerated (Leveson & Thomas, 2018): 1. Not providing control action leads to a hazard 2. Providing control action leads to a hazard 3. Control action provided is potentially safe but applied too early, too late, or in the wrong order 4. Provided control action lasts too long or stops early (for continuous action) The UCAs for the proposed control structure are analyses below: Control Action

Not Providing Providing causes causes hazard hazard Prompt for structural requirement is provided in a different sequence (H2, H-5)

Prompt for structural requirement

Prompt when guidance is not followed

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Table 6.9. Unsafe Control Actions in Sub-sytem 01 Source: Author

Signal for temporal delay in providing guidance

Too early, too Stopped too late, out of soon, applied order too long

Program anticipates structural safety in subsequent step and cancels prompt (H-5, H-10) Worker misinterprets signal with other prompts (H5, H-9)

Signal is relayed late alongwith other guidance information (H-5)

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Control Action

Not Providing Providing causes causes hazard hazard Scanning function is started by worker for a different construction sequence (H1, H-6, H-8)

Scan output and environment

Worker continues on activity without guidance (H-10)

T   ADS

Start/ Stop activity on prompt

Too early, too Stopped too late, out of soon, applied order too long

Developing Controller Constraints for Unsafe Control Action: Unsafe Control Action

Controller Constraints

UCA-1: Prompt for structural requirement is provided in a different sequence (H-2, H-5)

C-1: Optimization program must ensure prompt for structural requirement is sent during the stated construction sequence only [UCA-1]

UCA-2: Program anticipates structural safety in subsequent step and cancels prompt (H-5, H-10)

C-2: Program must set a threshold for safety concerns that arise out of not following guidance, and act based on threshold [UCA2]

UCA-3: Worker misinterprets signal with other prompts (H-5, H-9) UCA-4: Signal is relayed late along with other guidance information (H-5)

C-3: Prompt for various signals need to be easy to differentiate, and time of delivery needs to be precise without overlap [UCA-3]

C-4: Smartphone needs to prompt user to scan with temporal precision in alignment with the construction sequence being optimized

UCA-6: Worker continues on activity without guidance (H-10)

C-5: External monitoring needs to be put in place if sensory information from worker is received after construction sequence has been stopped

Table 6.10. Controller Constraints for Sub-sytem 01 Source: Author

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UCA-5: Scanning function is started by worker for a different construction sequence (H-1, H-6, H-8)

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1.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

ADS

7.

T

Send Guidance based on optimal solution Provide multiple guidance format Prompt for structural requirement Prompt when guidance is not followed Signal for temporal delay in providing guidance Command for external monitoring in case guidance is ignored

Sensory information related to worker’s position Coordinate information scanned by worker Request for guidance in multiple format Construction sequence initiated Guidance is not followed in one step Sensory feedback for multiple steps received before guidance is relayed Concurrent failure in following guidance

SUB-SYSTEM 01

OPTIMIZATION

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Provide prompt to pull construction sequence Relay guidance via sensors Provide guidance for collecting feedback via 3d scanning Relay information for structural requirement Provide command to pull multiple format guidance Send sensory signal for skipped guidance Send prompt for temporal delay in relaying guidance

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Collect coordinate information via scanning Collect sensory data of worker’s position and location G at h e r i m p l i c i t d e c i s i o n information Input construction sequence information Input implicit decision making information

SUB-SYSTEM 02

SMARTPHONE

1.

2.

3.

Act on guidance provided Scan output and environment Start/stop activity on prompt

1.

Gather information using physical senses (visual, tactile)

Fig. 6.16. Control structure for Proposed System Source: Author

157

CONSTRUCTION OUTPUT

SUB-SYSTEM 03

CONSTRUCTION WORKER

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Pull Construction Sequence from Smartphone Interface

Smartphone prompts from required built functions input

Worker inputs information into smartphone interface

Category: Layout inform

Information t Positional dat sensory guida

Smartphone relays updated guidance for subsequent steps

Smartphones relays sensory information about worker’s position

Smartphones relays coordinate information

Optimization programs analyses input

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Smartphones relays request to Optimization Control

Optimization sends guidance for initiating activity

: mation

type: ta via ance

Program pulls in plot layout information

Smartphones relays guidance to worker

T

Worker starts activity

ADS

Resource deficiency

Worker inputs change in condition in smartphone interface

Worker completes activity

Smartphone relays scanning prompt from optimization prgram

Smartphones relays change in condition to optimization program

Worker scans environment and ouput

159

Fig. 6.17. Simulated Workflow: Process- Digging Foundation Source: Author

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ADS

7. Conclusion

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7.1. Conclusion

This thesis aims to develop the framework for a digital system of technical assistance to aid self-construction process in informal settlements. The research establishes through a series of case examples and existing literature that the core limitation of most forms of technical assistance prevalent today is the lack of an understanding of informal construction. It hypothesizes that in order to develop a comprehensive form of technical assistance, it is crucial to analyse and map the informal construction process and understand where it deviates from the formal process, in addition to the role of autonomy on the overall process.

Understanding the nature of construction as a complex system, this approach has proven how current practices of technical assistance tend to limit the complexity of the process by formalizing it.

Through adopting a systems based approach to develop the framework, the methodology highlights the extent to which system analysis tools like the System Theoretic Process Analysis can be applied to theoretically develop a system iteratively, measuring where it could fail and reinforcing it, before delving into prototypical construction. For the context of low-cost construction in informal settlements, this holds particular importance as it limits the cost of building and iterating a prototype. Additionally, the vast body of work prevalent in the field, along with inferences from pilot projects conducted by experts can be used to further develop a system before testing it on ground, as has been illustrated in this thesis.

In addition to capture the nature of informal construction by placing user-autonomy at the centre of the proposed system, the proposed system also pushes the boundary of how technology can be applied in self-construction practices in informal settlement. Advances in the field of human computer interaction and human centric digital fabrication that taps this very potential, have been imagined as concepts only to be applied in cost-intensive formal construction practices.

However, there is severe untapped potential in the use of these technology in low-cost environment. As smartphones get better and cheaper, the potential of their usage needs to be tested and applied in these contexts.

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7.2.1. Open Source Database

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7.2. Future work

This thesis builds the groundwork for tapping the potential of low-tech applications to aid self-construction. While not a prototypical work in itself, the next step for this research would be to develop a prototype and test the application to understand the physical constraints.

The use of digital technology in the proposed system can be further pushed to test out concepts of open source technical assistance. The system architecture developed in this thesis holds the potential to deliver technical assistance

 ADS

of the assistance comes from the optimization program, To further develop it

T 

ubiquitously across different places, owing to its digital base. However, the basis would require domain expertise from a wide range of fields. This could potentially develop as a database for structural and spatial optimization that can applied across a wide range contexts.

7.2.2. Predictive guidance The system developed in this thesis has a limitation in being truly adaptive, as it has to trace out the different areas of autonomy and their effects in order to apply that in the system. Predictive algorithms using machine learning have the potential to address this limitations.

However, the issue with machine learning is its requirement of training modules in order to successfully predict subsequent steps in any process. If proper training modules are not applied, the bias of the system can do more harm than it aims to solve.

While this has great potential in this context, in order to fully realise this, a careful selection of training modules need to be carried out and applied. The use of such algorithms in the optimization program would further reinforce a high degree of user-autonomy in the system.

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7.3. Application in allied fields

A digital mode of construction guidance has widespread implications in the field of construction worker training.

In India only 2% of the construction workforce is trained. By 2022, the additional requirement of skilled masons is projected at 4.2 million, according to a study undertaken in 2011 by the National Skill Development Council (NSDC). With a rapid rise in the number of unskilled labour, parallel to the a rise in demand of skilled construction workers, it is necessary to have a training method that is decentralised and can have a high output in a shorter amount of time.

The proposed system has the potential to achieve that. As the system enables human computer interaction using low-tech devices that match the cognitive capacity and knowledge base of informal construction workers, this system can be applied to actively train unskilled workers.

However, to be safely applied in this context, a prototype needs to be developed and iterated with workers to understand the limitations of the set-up.

While this study is still in the preliminary stages of understanding the full breadth of informal construction industry and applying low-tech devicees to aid such construction, the author hopes that the findings of this research can be applied proactively to further develop the concept of technical assistance and the scope and potential of using digital technologies in informal settlements.

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