Consulting Specifying Engineer September October 2025

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NEWS &BUSINESS

5 | An up-close look at 2025 MEP Giants hiring trends

What is causing a decrease in the number of engineers in this year’s MEP Giants list?

BUILDING SOLUTIONS

7 | MEP design revenue eked up for this year’s 2025 MEP Giants

While financial MEP revenue went up slightly, the number of engineers employed dropped dramatically.

9 | Deals by MEP Giants neared record high last year

The 2025 MEP Giants continued their robust pace of acquisitions in pursuit of strategic expansion.

12 | Ways to leverage and enhance building control system data

Owners and operators can leverage data within their building control systems to optimize systems, identify problems and monitor building performance.

20 | The secret to successful controls integration

ON THE COVER:

Read about the 2025 Consulting-Specifying Engineer MEP Giants on page 7 and download full details at www.csemag.com/giants. Courtesy: Teeraphon, Stock.Adobe.com

How early stage instrumentation and controls (I&C) design decisions can directly influence system integration outcomes.

28 | Heat pumps versus boilers: Decisions on the way to decarbonization

Heat pump systems and boiler-based systems can be configured to meet a wide variety of needs.

34 | What do engineers need to consider for EV charging stations?

Engineers must understand how to design electric vehicle charging stations and the impact they have on overall design.

ENGINEERING INSIGHTS

42 | What trends do you need to know when designing university buildings?

Three engineers discuss the current state of the design industry related to college and university buildings.

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AMARA ROZGUS, Editor-in-Chief ARozgus@WTWHMedia.com

ANNA STEINGRUBER, Associate Editor ASteingruber@WTWHMedia.com

AMANDA PELLICCIONE, Marketing Research Manager APelliccione@WTWHMedia.com

MICHAEL SMITH, Art Director MSmith@WTWHMedia.com

EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD

DARREN BRUCE, PE, LEED AP BD+C, Director of Strategic Planning, Mid-Atlantic Region, NV5, Arlington, Va.

MICHAEL CHOW, PE, CEM, CXA, LEED AP BD+C, Principal, Metro CD Engineering LLC, Columbus, Ohio

CINDY COGIL, PE, FASHRAE, Vice President, SmithGroup, Chicago

TOM DIVINE, PE, Senior Electrical Engineer, Johnston, LLC, Houston

CORY DUGGIN, PE, LEED AP BD+C, BEMP, Energy Modeling Wizard, TLC Engineering Solutions, Brentwood, Tenn.

PAUL ERICKSON, LEED AP BD+C Principal, Affiliated Engineers Inc., Madison, Wis.

ROBERT J. GARRA JR., PE, CDT, Vice President, Electrical Engineer, CannonDesign, Grand Island, N.Y.

JASON GERKE, PE, LEED AP BD+C, CXA, Senior Design Phase Manager, JP Cullen, Milwaukee

JOSHUA D. GREENE, PE, Associate Principal, Simpson Gumpertz & Heger, Waltham, Mass.

RAYMOND GRILL, PE, FSFPE, LEED AP, Principal, Ray Grill Consulting, PLLC, Clifton, Va.

DANNA JENSEN, PE, LEED AP BD+C, Principal, Certus, Carrollton, Texas

WILLIAM KOFFEL, PE, FSFPE, President, Koffel Associates Inc., Columbia, Md.

WILLIAM KOSIK, PE, CEM, LEGACY LEED AP BD+C, Associate Principal, Sector Leader, HED, Chicago

KENNETH KUTSMEDA, PE, LEED AP, Engineering Manager, Jacobs, Philadelphia

DAVID LOWREY, Chief Fire Marshal, Boulder (Colo.) Fire Rescue

JASON MAJERUS, PE, CEM, LEED AP, Principal, DLR Group, Cleveland

JUSTIN MILNE, PE, PMP, Senior Engineer, Southcentral Region, Jensen Hughes, Allen, Texas

CRAIG ROBERTS, CEM, Account Executive, National Technical Services, McKinstry, Powell, Tenn.

SUNONDO ROY, PE, LEED AP, Director, Design Group, Romeoville, Ill.

JONATHAN SAJDAK, PE, Senior Associate/Fire Protection Engineer, Page, Houston

RANDY SCHRECENGOST, PE, CEM, Austin Operations Group Manager/Senior Mechanical Engineer, Stanley Consultants, Austin, Texas

MATT SHORT, PE, Project Manager/Mechanical Engineer, Smith Seckman Reid, Houston

MARIO VECCHIARELLO, PE, CEM, GBE, Senior Vice President, CDM Smith Inc., Boston

RICHARD VEDVIK, PE, Senior Electrical Engineer and Acoustics Engineer, IMEG Corp., Rock Island, Ill.

TOBY WHITE, PE, LEED AP, Associate, Boston Fire & Life Safety Leader, Arup, Boston

APRIL WOODS, PE, LEED AP BD+C, Vice President, WSP USA, Orlando, Fla.

JOHN YOON, PE, LEED AP ID+C, Lead Electrical Engineer, McGuire Engineers Inc., Chicago

An up-close look at 2025 MEP Giants hiring trends

What is causing a decrease in the number of engineers in this year’s MEP Giants list?

For the 2025 MEP Giants, one number stood out to me: Firms employed 25% fewer engineers than they did last year. While a dozen companies are new to the list this year, causing shifts in numbers, the percentage drop is huge. It’s not a margin of error anomaly, a statistical blip or anything else. It’s a definite shift.

So, what’s causing this huge drop?

One of the first things to check is mergers and acquisitions. This year, one-fifth reported acquiring another company. That’s a slight dip from last year, though the size of the company may have made a difference. If a merger caused significant overlap in a geographic market or engineering specialty, then staff may have been eliminated.

process, but the topic has come up in several other studies as a concern for engineers.

Private equity has been purchasing several firms and quietly readjusting the number of employees. This cost control can be found in every sector, not just engineering. The long-term cost of reducing the number of expert engineers might not be felt for a few years.

Amara Rozgus, Editor-in-Chief

Elevated financial rates keep debt costs high, delaying private building projects and reducing the need for engineers to work on new construction projects. Tighter lending, municipal bond shifts and other financial factors all play into this.

Shifts in the job market have also occurred in various industries. This is due, in part, to baby boomers reaching retirement age and leaving the workforce, without an equal number of entry-level engineers replacing them.

Commercial building design activity has weakened in many sectors, including office buildings, which is frequently the No. 1 building type where MEP Giants earn design or retrofit fees. Overall construction starts trailed year-ago levels on a year-to-date basis, trimming nearterm backlog conversion.

Artificial intelligence was not part of this MEP Giants data collection

It’s also possible that misrepresented numbers may impact results, though each firm has the opportunity to check its numbers before final submission. Plus, if a significant change occurs anywhere, we flag it and ask questions.

Nothing in the above list is mutually exclusive. It might be a combination of factors. While we cannot determine the exact formula each engineering company uses in its hiring practices, we can watch overall employment numbers at these top companies.

Stay tuned as we ask more questions and look at this more closely in upcoming studies, including the annual Career & Salary Report. cse

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MEP design revenue eked up for this year’s 2025 MEP Giants

While financial MEP revenue went up slightly, the number of engineers employed dropped dramatically.

The 2025 MEP Giants generated $15.02 billion in mechanical, electrical, plumbing (MEP) and fire protection engineering design revenue, a slight increase (2.6%) over last year’s MEP Giants’ revenue of $14.64 billion. This year, the 2025 MEP Giants earned approximately $73.79 billion in gross annual revenue during the previous fiscal year, a 2.26% drop from $75.5 billion.

Once again absent from the top 10 was AECOM, which has been on this list previously. There were also some newcomers to the total of 100 companies. A dozen companies either joined the list for the first time or returned after time

away from reporting data (in alphabetical order): Bala Consulting Engineers; Bard, Rao + Athanas Consulting Engineers; Cleary Zimmermann Engineers; EMA Engineering & Consulting; Finnegan Erickson Associates dba FEA Consulting Engineers; Kohler Ronan; Michael Baker International; PAE Consulting Engineers; Rist-Frost-Shumway Engineering; WD Partners; Wendel; and Wiley|Wilson.

The list this year comprises 59% private companies (flat in comparison to 2024), 28% employee-owned companies, 8% limited-liability companies and 5% public companies. The 2025 MEP Giants are made up of consulting engineering

Top 10 firms by MEP design revenue

firms (63%, up from 60% last year) and architectural engineering firms (30%, down slightly from 31% last year).

Several mergers and acquisitions occurred in the past year; 21% of the firms reporting acquired another company, a slight dip from last year’s 25% acquisition rate (see the article “Deals by MEP Giants neared record high last year”).

Table 1 shows the top firms based on MEP design revenue, which is how the MEP Giants are ranked. cse

Amara

Rozgus, Editor-in-Chief, and Amanda Pelliccione, Marketing Research Manager, Consulting-Specifying Engineer

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Deals by MEP Giants neared record high last year

The 2025 MEP Giants continued their robust pace of acquisitions in pursuit of strategic expansion.

Rather than tapping the brakes in the face of global geopolitical turmoil and economic uncertainty, Consulting-Specifying Engineer’s 2025 MEP Giants hit the gas last year and accelerated their already vigorous pace of deal-making. As a group, the largest mechanical, electrical, plumbing (MEP) and fire protection engineering firms completed 69 acquisitions in 2024 — a 28% jump from the previous year and just one deal short of the 2021 all-time high.

While the percentage of MEP Giants making at least one acquisition fell from 25% in 2023 to 21% in 2024, more of the industry’s biggest players made multiple deals. Twelve MEP Giants finalized more

than one acquisition in 2024, compared to nine the year before, propelling total deal volume to a near-record level.

MEP firms of all types are prime targets in the merger and acquisition (M&A) market. According to Morrissey Goodale’s propriety database of architecture, engineering (AE) and environmental industry deals, MEP firms are commanding median valuations around seven times annual EBITDA (earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation and amortization) compared to median valuations in the range of six times annual EBITDA for engineering firms overall. With MEP firms in high demand over the past year, it’s no surprise that the MEP Giants aggressively pursued acquisitions to add specialties to their service lines

while sellers looked to capitalize on favorable valuations.

M&A spike among MEP Giants reflects industry trend

The deal-making surge among the MEP Giants mirrors the broader M&A boom among AE and environmental firms that’s been driven on the supply side by a wave of baby boomers and Gen-X sellers seeking capital to support growth and facilitate ownership transitions and on the demand side by strategic buyers and investors hungry for growth, talent and superior returns on investment.

Morrissey Goodale tracked 755 global industry deals in 2024 — a new record that eclipsed the previous high of 724 world-

FIGURE 1: The number of deals made by the 2025 MEP Giants firms in 2024 nearly matched the record high from 2021. Courtesy: Morrissey Goodale

FIGURE 2: In 2024, 21% of the MEP Giants reported a transaction, the lowest percentage since 2020. Courtesy: Morrissey Goodale

wide acquisitions in 2022 and represented a 15% spike over the prior year. In the U.S., 476 transactions were concluded in 2024, just shy of the all-time domestic peak of 484 deals in 2022.

As with the wider AE and environmental industry, Sun Belt firms continue to be the most attractive M&A targets. With eight and seven deals, respectively, California and Texas were the top states where MEP Giants completed acquisitions in 2024. That was followed by New York with five transactions and Colorado, Florida and Washington with four each. MEP Giants also concluded six international deals, with the purchases of two firms in Canada and one each in Finland, Spain, the United Kingdom and the United Arab Emirates.

Private equity deals up, but for how long?

The MEP Giants differ from the broader AE and environmental industry in the mix of buyer types pursuing acquisitions. While employee-owned buyers closed half

(50%) of U.S. domestic AE and environmental industry transactions in 2024, they represented 42% of deals completed by the MEP Giants last year. The reverse was true for publicly traded buyers, which accounted for just 9% of overall industry deals but 29% of transactions made by the MEP Giants in 2024.

Private equity-backed buyers also accounted for 29% of deals consummated by the MEP Giants in 2024. That was up from 20% in 2023 but well below the 41% of acquisitions attributed to them across the entire industry last year.

The outlook for private equity involvement the AE and environmental industry bears watching. In 2024, the two most acquisitive MEP Giants were an employee-owned firm and a publicly traded company. However, broader industry trends suggest that private equity-backed buyers are here to stay, as they continue to represent a growing share of transactions each year. It will be worth watching whether private equity firms continue to establish new

Reported annual global AE M&A activity

MEP platforms and pursue add-on acquisitions at a pace that brings their deal activity in line with the rest of the industry.

M&A activity in the AE and environmental industry showed no signs of slowing down in the first half of 2025, and Morrissey Goodale expects this momentum to carry through the rest of the year. Buyers remain focused on securing expertise in public infrastructure and mission critical markets, while sellers are motivated by attractive valuations and opportunities to join larger platforms with deeper and better corporate resources. cse

Nick Belitz, CVA, is a Principal with Morrissey Goodale LLC, a specialized management consulting and research firm exclusively serving the architecture, engineering and environmental consulting industries.

Insights

csemag.com

Merger and acquisition (M&A) insights uWhile the number of 2025 MEP Giants making deals dipped last year, big buyers ramped up activity and drove total acquisitions to a nearrecord level.

uSun Belt firms continue to be the most attractive M&A targets for MEP Giants.

Courtesy: Morrissey Goodale

FIGURE 3: Global merger and acquisition activity in the architecture, engineering (AE) and environmental consulting industry surged to a record high in 2024.

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BUILDING SOLUTIONS

Doug Showers, PE, Affiliated Engineers Inc., Madison, Wisconsin

Ways to leverage and enhance building control system data

Owners and operators can leverage data within their building control systems to optimize systems, identify problems and monitor building performance.

In a data-driven world, harnessing information is essential for enhancing a building’s efficiency and performance. Fortunately, most modern control systems integrate with various building systems and equipment to collect data about status and performance. What happens with the data and how it is used is less clear.

Owners and operators spend most of their time on maintenance activities that keep the building running smoothly, leaving them with little time to analyze the data within their building control system, let alone devise new ways to use the information. However, leveraging this data can provide valuable insight into potential problems and performance issues, leading to improved decision-making, optimized systems and cost savings.

Gathering info for the building control system

Objectives

Understand how building control system data is obtained and trended.

Consider what types of data are used and how each is selected.

Review examples of how data can be leveraged for maintaining, troubleshooting and optimizing systems.

Before understanding how building system data can be used, engineers need to know how data is gathered from the equipment integrated with the system. Buildings consist of many different systems and pieces of equipment, which are often hardwired directly to instrumentation or configured through a communication data link to pull data directly from the equipment or packaged systems (see Figure 1).

Equipment integration typically is defined during the design phase. Engineers will investigate available communication protocols or output sig-

nals and specify how the control system will read the data. Common protocols for building automation systems (BAS) include BACnet and Modbus, with BACnet being the most widely used.

Once the communication protocol is defined, the list of points to be mapped into the control system needs to be identified. This involves reviewing BACnet object or Modbus register lists and selecting the desired points. The points mapped will vary depending on the type of equipment and the intended use of the data. BAS software will commonly auto-discover all available BACnet objects. However, it is recommended that only desired points are mapped.

To illustrate, when gathering data to monitor and track building energy efficiency, points are often mapped from electric meters and hydronic system flow computers, also known as Btu meters. Points such as power (kilowatts), energy used (kilowatt-hour), power factor, voltage, current and peak demand, if available, are typically mapped from electric meters. Similar energy consumption data, such as energy rate and energy total, can be pulled from Btu meters rather than calculating these values with the BAS.

Equipment integrations are often used for operations and maintenance purposes. Large equipment, such as chillers and boilers, is often equipped with communication cards to facilitate integration with a BAS. Points may be selected to gain insight into how the machine is operating in real-time, as well as pull data for trending and archiving.

Specifically, internal chiller points can be mapped to the BAS and added to a graphic to duplicate the local equipment human-machine interface. This allows operations personnel to view more than just the water temperature entering and leaving the machine, gaining insight into how it is truly performing.

Setting up trends for data collection, analysis

After a communication link is established, desired points are identified and the control system software is configured, trends need to be set up to save the data. Trends can be configured as interval trends or change of value (COV) trends. Interval trends are typically used for analog points that are continually changing, such as flow rate, temperature or energy rate, with data points collected at established sample intervals.

For example, a trend with a sample interval of 10 minutes would save a data point every 10 minutes. Determining the sample interval is a balance between gathering as many data points as possible to obtain an accurate representation of the system’s operating performance without missing data, versus collecting excessive data that could degrade performance of master-slave/token passing-based networks or duplicate points due to unchanged values. The impact of trend data collection on network performance is less of a concern with internet protocol (IP)-based control systems, which are common in modern control systems.

Change of value trends save a data point based on deviation from a set threshold for analog points and change of state for discrete points. COV trends can be used for analog points that operate at steady state or change very slowly. For example, a COV trend that sets a threshold of 1°F would only save a data point when the temperature changes by more than 1°F from the last sample.

This can be useful when trying to minimize the amount of trend data. However, cycling or instability can be missed if the thresholds are too large. This is not the case for discrete points that only have two states (e.g., on and off). A COV trend on a discrete point will save a data point any time there’s a change. Because there are only two states, there is no risk of missing data.

That said, trend files in modern BASs are very small compared to other applications and files. Therefore, the need to minimize the amount of collected data for data storage availability and affordability should be weighed against the value of gathering data at consistent sample intervals. Ensuring that trend reports are set to the same data recording intervals allows for a more accurate analysis of system performance.

As the system collects a large amount of trend data, it must be stored somewhere. Control sys-

FIGURE 1: Systems are either directly hardwired to instrumentation or configured via a communication data link to retrieve data from the equipment or packaged systems. Courtesy: Affiliated Engineers Inc.

tems typically handle this by saving the most recent data locally in the supervisory controller that directly connects to or communicates with the end device. After a predetermined amount of time or number of samples, the data is then sent to a server for long-term storage. This server can run on the same software platform as the control system or be a third-party data historian. A separate data historian is a good choice when trend data from multiple systems need to be stored and viewed in the same location.

Continuous improvement with building control systems

Building control systems data is essential for maintaining the highest level of efficiency and meeting regulatory standards in complex built environments. Collecting and analyzing data from various building systems enables owners and operators to monitor usage, understand maintenance

‘Equipment integrations are often used for operations and maintenance purposes. ’

BUILDING SOLUTIONS

needs and identify system anomalies, helping them to make informed decisions that streamline operations and lead to continuous improvement.

Maintaining heating and cooling systems

A BAS can track the performance of boilers, chillers and other heating and cooling equipment, providing historical and real-time data that can be used for ongoing monitoring and proactive maintenance. Using this data, malfunctions or inefficiencies can be detected early, allowing for adjustments and optimization that improve reliability, efficiency and longevity and prevent serious breakdowns that can incur expensive repairs.

One practical application of this data is in detecting issues within heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, which can significantly improve efficiency and building comfort. In one case, the building engineer of a biotech research and development lab used data from the building control system to troubleshoot problems with a six-pipe heat recovery chiller, which was not staging the modules and compressors as expected. They used the data mapped from a BACnet inte-

CASE STUDY: Using BAS data to detect variations in energy consumption

A BIOTECHNOLOGY COMPANY in Wisconsin used its building control system to collect and analyze electric and water meter data, enabling it to detect metering errors, establish reliable energy baselines and identify opportunities for improved efficiency and utility cost savings.

Tracking energy usage is crucial for gaining valuable insights into consumption patterns. Building automation systems (BAS) can significantly contribute to this process by automating data collection, enabling facility managers to identify inefficiencies, troubleshoot issues and ultimately optimize their energy use.

A biotechnology company in southern Wisconsin used the data collected from the BAS in its new research facility to track energy use trends over an extended period. The building’s electrical system categorizes loads into four main groups, as required by International Energy Conservation Code and ASHRAE Standard 90.1: Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings: mechanical loads, plug loads, UPS loads and lighting.

The building's power consumption is metered by the local utility, which can typically provide data at 15-minute intervals. Therefore, submeters were installed to measure and obtain detailed

trends for each of the load categories, enabling facility engineers to take a deeper dive into the data.

The BAS is integrated with the building’s electric meters and communicates via BACnet/internet protocol to a gateway that communicates with the individual meters in the electrical gear. The BACnet object list for each type of meter was reviewed and the required points were selected and mapped to the BAS. Energy consumption (kilowatt-hours) points were totalized monthly by the BAS and trends were configured to save two years of monthly data.

It is important to note that trend samples must be saved before monthly totalization points are reset for the next month. When totalization points aren’t trended correctly or don’t roll over correctly, the monthly data can be lost or incorrect due to simple calculation errors. This happened several times at this facility but was able to be corrected because it was noticed quickly.

Power monitoring summary graphics were created on the BAS, one displaying real-time energy usage and the other displaying monthly energy consumption. The energy usage for each load type for the current and previous months is displayed on the graphic for quick comparison.

FIGURE 2: Tracking the performance of heating and cooling equipment using both historical and real-time data can help identify malfunctions or inefficiencies early on. Courtesy: Edward Caruso Photography

gration to pull real-time operating data and create a graphical display for each chiller module, including module status (heating or cooling), inlet and outlet temperatures, compressor status, module runtime and internal valve positions.

The display (see Figure 2) allowed the team to easily assess system performance and pinpoint that the individual chiller modules were not operating at full capacity. The heat recovery chiller was adding heat to the chilled water system. This led to a field visit from the chiller service technician, who confirmed that the three-way control valves within the chiller were allowing warm water to flow through, thereby degrading the cooling performance.

In the context of high-tech environments, data can play a vital role in assessing cooling efficiency and optimizing temperatures, which is crucial for protecting high-performance computing equipment. Specifically, one large data center used energy data gathered from the BAS by way of the electrical power monitoring system to determine cooling load and as a type of feed-forward to the chilled water system (staging for chillers).

The colocation space energy usage data in kilowatts is pulled from various devices, such as electrical switchgear, meters, uninterruptible power supplies and mechanical equipment control panels via Modbus or BACnet datalinks. The information technology kilowatt data is then converted to an equivalent tonnage (cooling load), which was compared to the design capacity for operating chillers. Based on this comparison, the quantity of chillers operating is then staged up or down. This allows the system to maintain a more stable chilled water system temperature by starting or stopping equipment before the system temperature deviates from the setpoint (see Figure 3).

Optimizing energy consumption and improving building performance

Owners and managers can use data to pinpoint specific areas or systems that exhibit unusually high energy usage and identify recurring anomalies, patterns and events that impact energy consumption. This can aid in implementing corrective actions to control settings and ensure timely equipment main-

After several years of collecting and storing information in the BAS, the data, which has proven to be consistent and reliable, is now being used to investigate large changes in energy usage from one month to the next.

In one case, by comparing the BAS data to the information on utility bills, the facility engineer determined that a faulty electric meter was responsible for the monthly energy consumption being significantly lower than the amount indicated on the utility bills. This issue was promptly corrected.

The consistent, month-to-month electric meter data has given the facility engineer confidence to use it as a baseline to look for additional ways to save energy. Particularly, if equipment schedules are adjusted to turn equipment off for longer durations, the energy usage data will indicate whether this change has a lasting impact over time. It can also indicate a problem if energy usage increases without changes being made.

Furthermore, the effective use of BAS electric meter data for monitoring energy consumption has prompted the facility engineer to employ similar data analysis techniques to evaluate the building’s water meter readings against its utility bills. After investigating why the water utility bills were higher than the meter

Building control insights

u Building control systems are essential for collecting, storing and analyzing data from various building equipment, enabling operators to optimize performance, detect inefficiencies and make informed decisions that improve overall facility operations.

u By integrating systems during design and leveraging trend data for continuous monitoring, building controls play a crucial role in ensuring energyefficiency,regulatory compliance and long-term operational success.

readings, it was discovered that the utility meter data had been interpreted incorrectly in the BAS, resulting in a water consumption reading that was off by a factor of 10.

By using BAS data to assess the accuracy of its meter readings, the company has established a baseline method for monitoring utility usage in its research facility, enabling continuous improvement and increased efficiency.

FIGURE 5: Building automation system graphic displaying current electrical demand compared to previous month.

BUILDING SOLUTIONS

tenance, thereby preventing further energy waste and minimizing potential damage.

For example, after comparing energy use data from the BAS with its utility bills, a research facility identified a discrepancy that led to the discovery of a faulty electric meter and the issue was promptly corrected.

Energy usage data is also helpful for improving building performance. Data can be compared against established standards, best practices or similar structures to better understand a building’s current energy usage and forecast future energy consumption. It enables the identification of areas where performance lags established benchmarks, thereby highlighting opportunities to improve operational efficiency and reliability and reduce environmental impact. For example, actual airflow or chilled water system energy rate data can be compared to the building energy model to determine whether the building is operating as expected and modeled.

In another instance, a facility focused on reducing air pollution uses data from the BAS to proactively identify HVAC system inefficiencies. The BAS feeds data into the building’s fault detection and diagnostics (FDD) software, which continuously monitors its network of mechanical, electrical

and plumbing systems. The software then analyzes operational data streams and compares them to predetermined baseline/normal conditions to identify anomalies that could negatively impact building performance.

Instead of waiting for equipment failures or occupant complaints, the system flags deviations from optimal or normal conditions. This early detection notifies the facility operations team to address issues promptly, ensuring the building consistently operates at its peak efficiency and avoids forcing the facility team to operate in a reactive mode.

An important step in this process is establishing the baseline or normal, conditions against which the software will compare real-time data. This can be accomplished in a few ways. FDD software packages include pre-defined faults that can be selected and used. Faults can also be configured in the BAS using the faults defined in ASHRAE Guideline 36: High Performance Sequences of Operation for HVAC Systems. It’s worth noting that implementing fault detection and diagnostics is required as of International Energy Conservation Code 2021.

The data generated post-construction has proven invaluable for the facility engineering team, closing the loop between design and actual building performance. Real-world operational data is used to verify the building's performance against the initial design specifications. This data-driven approach enables a precise assessment of whether the energy models and sustainability strategies implemented during the design phase translate into tangible results. By analyzing energy consumption trends at an individual system level, along with renewable energy generation and system efficiencies, facility engineers can identify areas where performance aligns with expectations and pinpoint any discrepancies that require fine-tuning or optimization.

Ensuring regulatory compliance and showcasing success

Regulatory standards play a crucial role in ensuring that buildings and their equipment meet specified performance levels. Governments and industry organizations establish these standards to foster safety, comfort, sustainability, energy efficiency and overall quality in buildings. Building and process control systems are crucial for compil-

FIGURE 3: Data plays a vital role in assessing cooling efficiency and optimizing temperatures in data centers and protecting high-performance computing equipment. Courtesy: Affiliated Engineers Inc.

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BUILDING SOLUTIONS

4: Interactive dashboards can highlight key performance indicators to promote transparency, educate the public and cultivate a sense of pride. Courtesy: Affiliated Engineers Inc.

ing and tracking performance data to ensure compliance with standards such as FDA CFR 21 Part 11 and facilitate regular audits.

To comply with regulations, a health care diagnostics company uses temperature and humidity sensors as well as wireless data loggers to share environmental data — such as freezer temperatures — with a server-based data historian. All temperature readings are recorded in the data historian, along with temperature and humidity readings for the locations where the samples are stored (e.g., warehouses, refrigerators and freezers). The data loggers send data to the historian server via wireless long-range wide-area network (LoRaWAN) communication to a gateway device, which is connected to the data historian network via Ethernet/IP.

Each field device is configured with an input type, communication settings and sampling rates to get the temperature sensor data to the gateway, which is configured for both sides of the communication. One side is for LoRaWAN (data loggers) and one side is for Ethernet/IP (historian). Once the data has been passed through the gateway and to the historian layer, the data is displayed on graphics and stored in a historian for CFR 21 compliance.

Tracking chain of custody

Building control systems can play a significant role in tracking the location of an item within a building. This can be crucial in ensuring the integrity and efficiency of testing within a lab or manufacturing facility.

For instance, a facility that tests vehicle emissions relies on up to five of the building’s various control and data acquisition systems to accurately track a vehicle and its data throughout the facility. As a vehicle is moved through the building for testing, the vehicle location is scanned and data is collected (e.g., tire pressure, mileage, fuel levels) in each space (e.g., soak space, fueling room, test cell). This data is further communicated to the lab management system (LMS).

The integrity of the data ultimately depends on the building’s control systems and the communication between them. If the chain of custody is broken or communication between these systems is lost for even a moment, the LMS will deem the test failed. This could result in the loss of weeks of test data.

Better managed buildings rely on accurate building control data

Control system data can be leveraged in numerous ways to help facility operations teams manage their buildings better. One final consideration is the importance of having reliable data. Whether it is used for equipment staging to ensure the system operates efficiently, displaying data on a public kiosk or dashboard or for validation purposes, these applications will not be successful if data is inaccurate or not processed and saved correctly.

Doug Showers, PE, is a Senior Project Engineer at Affiliated Engineers Inc. with more than 20 years of experience in the controls engineering and construction industries. BUILDING

Additionally, building systems’ data is useful for self-reporting within companies and for sharing successes with the public. To showcase the building’s net-zero energy performance, the previously mentioned air pollution reduction facility displays real-time key performance indicators on a public kiosk, providing a living dashboard for the public to enjoy. The kiosk displays data on solar energy generation, low energy usage or carbon emissions compared to similar buildings. These metrics foster transparency, educate stakeholders and cultivate a sense of pride and collective responsibility in achieving sustainability goals (see Figure 4).

Obtaining reliable data requires identifying which systems will be integrated into the BAS and which points will be monitored during the design phase. Carefully considering how to properly configure trends and where to save data is also key. If the information is thoughtfully laid out in BAS graphics and can be easily manipulated for analysis, it can provide valuable insights into how building systems are operating and pay dividends throughout the building's life. cse

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Grayson Greinke, EIT, Page, Austin, Texas

The secret to successful controls integration

How early stage instrumentation and controls (I&C) design decisions can directly influence system

integration outcomes.

In instr umentation and controls (I&C), integration refers to the process of bringing together various control system components to function as a unified system. Components such as sensors, actuators, control panels and programmable logic controllers (PLC) all have a vital role to play in a control system and need successful integration to tie them all together.

Learningu

Objectives

Understand the role of controls and integration in engineering projects: Learn the fundamentals of control system design and how integration ensures that all components, instrumentation and networks work together seamlessly.

Implement efficient design strategies to improve workflow and integration: Know some practical techniques for streamlining the control system design process, such as standardized templates, automation tools and wellstructured documentation.

Recognize how design decisions impact system integration and performance, such as instrument selection, wiring methods, network architecture and panel layouts.

For successful integration to occur, data needs to flow reliably between instrumentation and controllers so that the end user has full visibility and control over the entire system. Integration also comes with its challenges, which have a variety of root causes, including design. It can be easy to think of integration as something that occurs post-design during the construction phase of a project and is handled by contractors and system integrators. But over time, many of the issues that show up during integration, including conflicting signals, missing points and incompatible networks, can be attributed to gaps during the design phase of a project.

In this context, design refers to the engineering phase where the I&C team is developing control diagrams, panel layouts, schedules and drawings. These issues often stem from breakdowns in communications across engineering disciplines, vague control intent or even technical assumptions that aren’t verified until it’s too late. The early design phase plays a foundational role for how smoothly control systems can be integrated, but when these gaps are overlooked, integration problems become apparent.

I&C design touches almost every part of a building or process system, especially in complex projects like semiconductor fabs or clean manu-

facturing facilities. Designs interact with mechanical, electrical and process disciplines, which means coordination is critical. If all teams aren’t consistently aligned on the control intent of the system throughout the project, issues tend to arise affecting project completion.

No two projects are the same in the I&C industry. However, one common thread across every successful job is that integration isn’t something you just turn on at the end of a project: it’s the cumulative result of consistent planning, coordination and documentation from Day One.

Best practices for controls integration

There are several steps or things to accomplish when creating a strategy. Use these six tips throughout the process.

1. Start with a clear control philosophy

Every project needs a control philosophy document, often called sequences of operation (SOO). This should be kept as a living document throughout the entirety of the project. This guiding compass outlines what each system is supposed to do, what the inputs and outputs are and how different systems talk to each other.

On a chilled water plant, for example, the SOO should clearly define how chillers, pumps, valves and sensors interact. The SOO should also state and identify which system owns which control logic. For example, a building automation system (BAS) typically handles heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) equipment related controls, while a facility monitoring and controls system (FMCS) handles a more plant-wide process equipment related control scheme.

Handoffs and overlaps between controls systems should be clearly laid out in the SOO to avoid confusion. Too often, integration issues arise because this philosophy was assumed rather than docu-

mented. Without early alignment and coordination between mechanical, process and I&C teams during design to nail down the overall controls philosophy, the door opens for issues later.

2. Document control sequences and logic clearly

Control intent should be crystal clear, whether handing off a direct digital control (DDC)based SOO or a PLC logic diagram. For example, sequences that read, pump runs when pressure is low, can be made more specific to include actual datapoints such as temperature or pressure.

Specify logic conditions, startup/shutdown conditions, failover responses and alarm states. Using function block diagrams or flowcharts to illustrate more complex sequences is good practice and can clearly convey the high-level controls intent to all parties. This doesn’t just help the integrator — it’s useful for commissioning agents, operations teams and maintenance teams long after project completion.

3. Coordinate actively across disciplines

I&C doesn’t exist in a vacuum. I&C engineers rely on mechanical engineers for equipment schedules and cut sheets, electrical engineers for power and panel coordination and process engineers for understanding operational needs. While the other disciplines provide critical input, it is important that the I&C team leads the development of control narratives, SOO’s and capturing the control philosophy on process and instrumentation diagrams (P&ID).

The best practice is to hold recurring cross-discipline design reviews specifically focused on controls throughout the design phase. Use these reviews to verify signal lists, instrumentation types, communication protocols and how different systems are being divided between packages and contractors so that all disciplines are aligned.

4. Standardize signal naming and documentation

Integration headaches can be avoided with consistent signal naming. Although most clients have a specification indicating the site standards, which include a naming convention for signals and instruments, if the project doesn’t have one, it is important to keep standardization in mind. Use the naming convention laid out in International Society of Automation (ISA) 5.1 whenever possible (unless

FIGURE 1: Instrumentation connections installed on a chemical storage tank illustrate the importance of mechanical and process coordination and material compatibility in process control environments. Ensuring proper sensor placement and chemical resistance is critical for effective system integration and long-term reliability. Courtesy: Page

using the client’s standards) and apply it across P&IDs, control narratives, input/output (I/O) lists and wiring diagrams.

When the same temperature sensor is called TS-001 in one drawing, Temp Sensor 1 in another and something else entirely in the PLC program, integration suffers. Integrators who can cross-reference everything without guessing means a job well done. It also helps reduce requests for information.

5. Use I/O summaries as living documents

An I/O summary table or list is more than just a checklist of field devices; it’s also a roadmap for integration. It should include tag names, signal type (analog/digital), source/destination, wire numbers and protocol type. Keep this document live and updated throughout design and share it with the integration contractor early. When using PLCs or DDC, map I/O in advance to speed up factory acceptance testing and troubleshooting.

BUILDING SOLUTIONS

6. Plan networks with IT, cybersecurity in mind

Networking is no longer an afterthought. With the rise of smart instruments and remote access requirements, planning a control network is as critical as a power single-line. Early involvement of information technology (IT), especially for projects requiring secure remote access or integration into a facility’s enterprise network, is a must. Follow cybersecurity frameworks like ISA/IEC 62443 and assign virtual LANs, internet protocol addresses and access levels early. A good I&C design also separates critical control traffic from monitoring-only devices to maintain reliability and security.

Steps to a successful controls integration project

Getting from design to a fully integrated system takes more than just a good specification. To maximize the chance of success, consider these approaches.

Define roles and responsibilities early: One of the most common issues is confusion over who is responsible for what, especially when multiple con-

Table 1: RACI matrix example

tractors or vendors are involved. Is the mechanical contractor providing the sensors? Is the integrator responsible for programming the variable frequency drives or is that by the vendor? Defining a matrix to identify the party responsible, accountable, consulted and informed (RACI) for controls integration can save everyone time and money.

Pre-integration review meetings: Once control drawings are 75% to 90% complete, schedule a pre-integration review that includes the I&C designer, all the engineering discipline leads, the integrator, commissioning agent and ideally the end user. Walk through P&IDs, control panels, I/O lists, network architecture and SOO. This is your last line of defense before things go into fabrication or get ordered. These meetings are often where mismatches in signal types, communication protocols or power requirements are caught.

Integrated commissioning planning: By the time construction wraps up, the I&C designer typically spends less time on site as construction observation and punch walks come to an end. That’s why it’s vital to have well-documented commissioning checklists typically developed by the commission-

LEGEND: R - Responsible, A - Accountable, C - Consulted, I - Informed

TABLE 1: A responsible, accountable, consulted and informed (RACI) matrix showing task ownership across engineering, integration and commissioning phases of a controls project. Clearly defined roles support smoother communication, reduce scope gaps and help ensure successful integration. Courtesy: Page

ing party, system owner or third-party commissioning agent and a plan for how the integrator, commissioning agent and facility operator will verify control functionality. Ideally, control sequences are tested as a system, not just per device. This includes testing abnormal conditions to verify redundancy and fail-safes, like sensor failures and faults or power loss scenarios.

Train the end users: Controls may be integrated and functioning, but if the operators don’t know how to interact with the system, long-term success is compromised. Make sure part of the integration scope includes clear operator training, user manuals and standard operating procedures for basic troubleshooting. This step often gets overlooked.

Perform a post-occupancy review: Once the system has been running for a few months, it’s worth scheduling a post-occupancy review with the owner and operations team. Integration can look good on paper, but field use can uncover pain points or edge cases that could be improved with small programming or configuration tweaks. Insights gained during post-occupancy reviews can also inform design standards and streamline integration on future projects, leading to more effective and resilient systems. These reviews build trust with clients and can lead to better project outcomes.

The best integrations aren’t just about great technology, they have robust communication, planning and discipline-wide coordination. Controls integration is where the design becomes reality and if something goes wrong, it can often point back to something missed earlier in the design process. I&C engineers should anticipate those points of failure and design with the whole system in mind. The more integration can be embedded into the design, the smoother projects will run.

Codes, standards and regulations

An I&C engineer has a vital responsibility while designing systems to verify compliance with applicable codes, standards and regulations. These regulations not only ensure that a system is safe and reliable, but also that it can be integrated effectively. Ignoring or misapplying a standard poses compliance risks and can lead to rework, failed inspections and operational issues during integration and commissioning.

With that in mind, the following sections outline commonly referenced codes and standards that can have an impact and influence on the I&C design. While exact compliance requirements depend on the project type and local jurisdiction, understanding how these frameworks apply helps to ensure the delivery of a compliant system in preparation for integration.

National Electrical Code

In the United States, NFPA 70: National Electrical Code (NEC) is an essential set of codes for I&C design. While the NEC primarily governs the electrical discipline, it directly impacts how to route, protect and classify control cabling since it is common to see I&C specifications and standards derived from electrical ones.

For example, locations classified as hazardous, particularly in process or industrial environments, are covered through Articles 500 to 516 of the NEC. These articles determine what kind of rating enclosures or intrinsically safe barriers a sensor may need in various areas. This affects safety and integration. Control panel locations may need to be relocated outside of classified zones, which leads to changes in cable lengths and conduit routing. Field instruments must be selected early to ensure they meet hazardous location certifications (e.g., UL, ATEX, IECEx), as their availability and lead times may affect project timelines.

Coordination with electrical and mechanical teams becomes more complex and important, especially when devices penetrate classified boundaries or connect to systems in safe zones. Late-stage changes to any of these elements can cause cascading delays or even require redesigns. Integration planning must begin during the design phase with a clear understanding of hazardous area requirements to ensure that all systems are fully compatible and compliant.

ISA standards

ISA publishes many of the standards that govern the design and specification of control systems. One of the most referenced standards in the field is ISA 5.1, which defines symbols and identification methods used in P&IDs. This standard ensures consistent and recognizable labeling of instruments across disciplines. When P&IDs follow consistent

FIGURE 2: Flowchart outlining key steps to a successful controls integration project from early design coordination to final commissioning. This visual emphasizes how proactive planning, clear documentation and cross-discipline collaboration contribute to smoother project delivery. Courtesy: Page

BUILDING SOLUTIONS

ISA-based conventions, it reduces ambiguity and misinterpretation during integration, especially during handoffs between the design, construction and commissioning teams.

ISA standards also guide functional aspects of control systems. ISA 88 and ISA 95 are used for batch control and enterprise integration, respectively. While not every I&C designer works directly with these standards, they form the backbone of many PLC and distributed control system architectures.

CASE STUDY:

How

On the integration side, these standards help define how plant-floor systems communicate with supervisory or enterprise systems. Failing to consider these frameworks during design may require integrators to rewrite control logic later to enable system communication.

Building codes and energy standards

Controls for HVAC systems must also comply with building energy codes, like the International

to avoid gaps in controls integration: use a hybrid approach

TO ENSURE INTEGRATION and avoid missed coordination, proactive communication was required on an instrumentation and controls project for a semiconductor fab.

In many cases, integration issues on a project can be traced back to gaps or oversights during the design phase. One notable example involved a semiconductor fabrication plant with multiple support buildings. The instrumentation and controls (I&C) designer on the project had joined the team just six months out of school, stepping in as the project entered construction. Although initially focused on responding to submittals and requests for information, it quickly became clear that the project faced more significant design-related challenges.

‘While standard for most projects, the BAS design didn’t meet the client’s redundancy requirements. ’

A critical part of successful I&C design involves close coordination with mechanical and process-chemical teams, especially when developing mechanical and instrumentation diagrams and process and instrumentation diagrams (P&ID). On this project, however, there had been little to no coordination between the I&C and mechanical teams. This disconnect led to conflicting design assumptions.

The client had clearly requested that all heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) equipment and field instruments be hardwired to the facility monitoring and control system (FMCS), with each signal routed individually to a control panel and then connected to the supervisory network. This method of individual hardwired signals allows for redundancy so that if a

cable is damaged, the FMCS can still monitor the other signals coming from the equipment.

On the other hand, if a singular network cable is used and goes down, then the entire connection to the piece of equipment is lost. The I&C team designed accordingly, delivering a comprehensive FMCS layout. Meanwhile, the mechanical team independently developed a building automation system (BAS) network based on the more common approach of using a single network cable from each piece of equipment to a central panel. While standard for most projects, the BAS design didn’t meet the client’s redundancy requirements and omitted critical hardwired monitoring points.

This misalignment went unnoticed during design reviews. As construction began, the general contractor followed the mechanical drawings, implementing the BAS setup. As a result, several control points critical to the I&C system were never installed.

To resolve the issue, the team proposed a hybrid BAS-FMCS approach, which the client approved. While the fix wasn’t overly complex, it led to delays, change orders and extensive rework, including revised wiring, control logic updates and added coordination between trades.

This experience highlighted how essential early and consistent cross-disciplinary coordination is to achieve successful integration. Even small disconnects can escalate into costly problems. The project reinforced the value of proactive communication, asking clarifying questions and ensuring all designs align, not only within a specific scope but across the entire project team.

Ultimately, good integration is a direct outcome of good design and making sure all components work together from the start is what leads to efficient execution and client satisfaction.

Energy Conservation Code and ASHRAE Standard 90.1: Energy Standard for Buildings Except LowRise Residential Buildings. These mandate certain sequences of operation such as demand-controlled ventilation, occupancy-based setbacks and economizer cycles.

Any I&C design teams working on commercial and institutional buildings, specifically U.S. Green Building Council LEED or net-zero energy projects, need to be aware of these requirements and have them be reflected in their designs. Not only do these requirements affect design development, but they also tie directly into commissioning checklists and post-occupancy verification.

Standards like ASHRAE Guideline 36: High Performance Sequences of Operation for HVAC Systems provide SOO and points lists for high-performance HVAC systems, which can help to align design intent with commissioning requirements.

Capturing these codes and standards is ultimately the responsibility of the design team, as contractors and integrators will implement what is shown in the contract documents, not verify what’s missing. If the requirements aren’t accurately captured, it can delay occupancy, incur additional costs or even force redesigns during integration and commissioning.

UL listings and product compliance

Another important consideration is UL product listings. Control panels, relays and instrumentation specified on projects may require a UL 508A certification. During design, it is important to select components that have a UL listing and design control panels to conform to these standards and specifications.

UL listed components are tested for safety, reliability and performance under certain conditions. Common examples of components include terminal blocks, fuses and enclosure types. It is common practice to use UL-listed parts for risk management.

Non-UL parts may cost less than their UL-listed counterparts, but risk not complying with the client’s or the authority having jurisdiction’s (AHJ) specifications and standards, which means there is a likelihood of the selected components getting rejected and causing delays. Panel fabrication or field work can be delayed if the design is not compliant.

FIGURE 3: A well-organized control panel with power distribution, input/output terminals, UL-listed components and intrinsic safety barriers demonstrates best practices in panel layout and labeling —foundational to successful controls integration. Courtesy: Page

Coordination across codes

One of the most important aspects of I&C design is navigating the overlaps between standards and codes. For example, you might have a sensor monitoring a point required for compliance with ASHRAE Standard 62.1: Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality, but if it’s located in a classified area, then it must also meet NEC hazardous location requirements.

Similarly, a gas detection system could be designed to meet ASHRAE Standard 55: Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy for compressed gases, but might also need to comply with ISA 60079 standards for electrical equipment in explosive environments depending on gas type and location.

In facilities involving hazardous chemicals, life safety systems or pharmaceutical manufacturing, compliance with NFPA 72: National Fire Alarm and Signaling Code is often required by the AHJ, meaning the designed gas detection system may need to be integrated into the fire alarm panel to trigger

‘Capturing these codes and standards is ultimately the responsibility of the design team.’

Insights

Controls integration insights

u Controls integration is a critical process that begins in the earliest stages of instrumentation and controls (I&C) design, where coordination, documentation and clear communication determine system performance and project success.

u This article highlights how design-phase decisions — like defining control philosophy, standardizing signal names and planning for network and code compliance — play a pivotal role in minimizing integration challenges during construction and commissioning.

u Walk away with practical insights on better coordination, more efficient design workflows and how those early phase decisions are critical for integration success.

BUILDING SOLUTIONS

‘Integration should never be an afterthought; it’s a core part of delivering safe, functional and future-ready control systems. ’

an evacuation. Adding client IT policies for networking and cybersecurity regulations like ISA/IEC 62443 further increases the risk of integration issues when standards aren’t aligned during design. A clear understanding of these codes and requirements distinguishes a feasible I&C design from a truly integrated one.

Controls integration from the very start

Controls integration starts on Day One. From the earliest stages of design, every decision made in I&C has a downstream impact on how well systems integrate during construction, commissioning and final turnover. I&C integration issues are rarely random and almost always trace back to gaps in coordination, unclear responsibilities between design disciplines and contractors or misalignment between disciplines.

By understanding and applying the right codes and standards, developing detailed I/O documentation and consistently collaborating with other engineering groups, I&C engineers can help ensure that systems function as intended, efficiently and reliably. Tools like P&IDs, I/O lists and panel schedules help bridge the gap between good design and seamless integration.

Successful integration depends on how well project needs are anticipated, design intent is communicated and handoffs are managed among all involved parties. Integration should never be an afterthought; it’s a core part of delivering safe, functional and future-ready control systems. When I&C design teams embrace that mindset early in the process, the result is a project that comes together smoothly, keeps the client happy and avoids costly surprises in the field. cse

Grayson Greinke, EIT, is a Graduate Integration and Controls Engineer at Page who has experience in a wide variety of design projects in the semiconductor, manufacturing and data center industries.

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Heat pumps versus boilers: Decisions on the way to decarbonization

Heat pump systems and boiler-based systems can be configured to meet a wide variety of needs for both space conditioning and process loads. Understanding the advantages and disadvantages of each type of system helps with decision-making.

Space heating accounts for almost one-third of the total energy consumption in commercial buildings within the United States. Depending on the climate zone, space classification, ventilation rates and other operational considerations, heating loads within those buildings are commonly met using boiler-based systems and heat pump systems. These systems are used to heat nearly half of the total commercial square footage within the U.S., at 30% for boilers and 15% for heat pumps. The following two system types represent different approaches to heating buildings:

FIGURE 1: A high-efficiency natural-gas boiler installed at a laboratory in Maryland. This unit provides hot water for heating coils in air handling units and air valves. Courtesy: CDM Smith

• Boilers use fossil fuel combustion or electric resistance to heat fluid for circulation throughout a building.

• Heat pumps use a refrigeration cycle to transfer heat from an external source to the building.

By making an informed technology selection, users can implement the right system type and tailor the methodologies to meet a range of goals for end users.

Boilers

A boiler heating system typically involves a burner, a combustion chamber and a heat exchanger to transfer the produced heat to water or steam. There are multiple types of boiler heating systems, including electric boilers that use an electric heating element in lieu of a burner and combustion chamber. Selecting the best boiler system for a particular application depends on the size and complexity of the facility, as well as the desired temperature range. To determine which system type

to use, consider the operating principles of varying types of boilers, their various energy sources, advantages, disadvantages and potential codes or local regulation requirements. Types of boiler systems include:

• Hot water boilers heat water via natural gas, fuel oil, biomass fuels or electricity to generate thermal energy. Hot water boilers can be used in residential, commercial, industrial and processing applications. The two main types of hot water boiler units are direct-fired and indirect-fired. Direct-fired boilers directly heat the internal chamber, whereas indirect-fired boilers circulate a heated liquid through a coil inside the boiler before being released into the desired areas.

• Condensing boilers are considered high efficiency. They recover additional heat from the flue exhaust gases above and beyond the capabilities of a conventional boiler. The exhaust gases are cooled to the point where the water vapor condenses into liquid water. This condensation releases heat that is subsequently recovered and used to preheat the water returning to the boiler, thus increasing efficiency and reducing fuel consumption. Once generated, thermal energy is distributed to the building end users through a hot water hydronic pumping system. This type of system uses recirculation pumps to convey water through distribution piping to radiators, heating coils and unit heaters throughout the building or facility.

• Steam boilers are used in buildings for various heating applications. These boilers generate electricity by providing a primary motive force through steam turbines. A steam boiler is a closed vessel in which a fluid (typically water) is vaporized by burning fuel, such as natural gas or fuel oil. Once generated, the vaporized fluid (steam) exits the boiler and travels through distribution piping for use in various processes or heating applications at end users throughout a building or facility. Major components required in a steam boiler system include, but are not limited to, the boilers themselves, a burner, gas train or fuel oil storage tank, condensate collection system, deaerator and the piping distribution system.

Boilers are relatively easy to install in comparison to larger water source heat pump systems. Natural gas and fuel oil boilers reduce electrical demand and help minimize the size of the incoming building’s electrical service. However, because they rely on combustible fuels, boilers emit more pollutants than other forms of heating. Therefore, careful consideration is required when selecting a boiler for an application where air quality is a concern. A key consideration when selecting a high-efficiency condensing boiler is to ensure that the return water temperature is low enough to accept heat from condensing vapor in the flue. Overly warm return water temperatures reduce the amount of heat that can be recaptured from exhaust gas, which often results in an efficiency penalty when high supply water temperatures are required.

Heat pumps

A heat pump uses energy input to transfer heat between a heat source and a heat sink, moving energy from a low-temperature side to a high-temperature side against a thermal gradient. This is accomplished through a four-step vapor compression cycle:

FIGURE 2: A water-source vertical stack heat pump installation at a multifamily apartment building in Brooklyn, N.Y. that will provide heating and cooling for an apartment unit. Courtesy: CDM Smith

‘Careful consideration is required when selecting a boiler for an application where air quality is a concern.’

Objectives Learningu

Understand the basic operating principles of boilers and heat pumps. Identify codes and standards that govern the selection of boilers and heat pumps.

Learn the advantages and drawbacks of boilers and heat pumps.

BUILDING SOLUTIONS

1. Liquid refrigerant absorbs heat in an evaporator, becoming a vapor in the process.

2. This vapor is pressurized in a compressor, thereby raising the saturation temperature of the refrigerant.

3. This compressed vapor moves into a condenser and returns to a liquid state, thus rejecting the energy absorbed in the evaporation stage.

4. The liquid refrigerant passes through an expansion valve, lowering the pressure back to the initial value, allowing the cycle to begin again.

One unit of energy applied to the compressor can move multiple units of energy between the heat source and the heat sink. The ratio of energy input to energy transferred is the coefficient of performance (COP).

In all heat pump systems, the evaporator is located on the side being cooled, while the condenser is located on the side where heat is being rejected. In a reversible heat pump system, a reversing valve is used to change the direction of refrigerant flow, switching which side of the system is the condenser and which is the evaporator. This allows reversible heat pumps to provide both heating and cooling with a single piece of equipment.

Heat pumps are defined by the media used for thermal sources and sinks, and are categorized into the following three main systems:

• Air-to-air system: Both the condenser and evaporator exchange heat with airstreams (as in the case of a window air-conditioning unit).

• Water-to-water system: Both the condenser and evaporator are located in fluid streams, consisting of either water or a brine solution. The most common example of a water-to-water heat pump is a water-cooled chiller wherein heat is pulled from a chilled water loop and rejected to a condenser water loop.

• Water-to-air system: Heat pumps locate one condenser or evaporator in a fluid stream and one condenser or evaporator in an air stream. This style of heat pump is commonly seen in geothermal heat pump systems.

Several different heat pump configurations are available for building space conditioning. Packaged heat pumps contain the entire evaporator/ condenser apparatus in a single piece of equipment. Depending on the orientation of the unit, a pack-

Table 1: Equipment additions and deductions for a boiler to heat pump conversion

FIGURE 3: Generic source energy comparison of a boiler and heat pump system showing building heat extracted from 1,000 units of energy of natural gas. Courtesy: CDM Smit

aged heat pump may be a vertical stack heat pump (VSHP), which stacks the evaporator and condenser on top of one another, a horizontal stack heat pump (HSHP), which places the evaporator and condenser horizontally next to one another, or a rooftop unit, where the evaporator and condenser are packaged into a unit located on the roof of a building and conditioned air is ducted to spaces within the building. Because of their small footprint and larger height, VSHPs are commonly floor-mounted in purpose-built cabinets, while the larger footprint, shorter height HSHPs are commonly mounted in a ceiling space. Split heat pump systems make use of one evaporator or condenser head located inside the conditioned space and the other outside the space, with refrigerant lines connecting the two sides. Split units allow the compressor to be located outside of the conditioned space, resulting in quieter operation. Variable refrigerant flow systems connect many different condenser/evaporator heads, modulating refrigerant flow to each.

For large buildings, two main configurations dominate: air source heat pump systems (ASHPs) and water source heat pump systems (WSHPs). In an ASHP system, heat pumps draw energy from and reject energy to the ambient air surrounding the building. These systems are always entirely electrically powered. In a WSHP system, a loop of condenser water is routed throughout the building to a network of water-to-air heat pumps and serves as both the heat source and sink for these heat pumps. The condenser water is maintained between a high and low setpoint temperature by either a boiler, cooling tower, dry cooler or ground heat exchange system. WSHP systems can be all-electric or a hybrid combination of fuel-fired and electric. Because the condenser water of a WSHP system tends to be closer in temperature to conditioned air than ambient air is to conditioned air in an ASHP system, WSHP systems tend to exhibit higher COPs.

Water-to-water heat pumps can be used to generate hot or chilled water for building space conditioning or for domestic hot water production. Be careful when designing water-to-water heat pump retrofits for baseboard heating or radiator systems, because heat pump efficiencies are generally reduced at the high water temperatures often used in these systems.

Geothermal heat pump system used in New York apartment building

1515 SURF AVENUE IS THE TALLEST BUILDING heated and cooled by a geothermal heat pump system in the state of New York.

1515 Surf Avenue is a new construction multifamily building located in Coney Island, N.Y. The building contains 461 apartment units, a mix of low-income and market-rate, with 26- and 16-story towers. At the time of completion in 2024, it was the tallest building in New York that was heated and cooled with a geothermal heat pump system.

The initial schematic design and permitting of the building’s heating, ventilation and air conditioning system were based around a boiler/tower packaged terminal air-conditioning configuration, with water source heat pumps and a condenser water loop conditioned with an evaporative cooling tower and natural gas boiler.

At an early stage of design, a feasibility study and economic analysis drove a transition to a ground-source heat pump (GSHP) system. Drivers for this transition included the developer prioritizing decarbonization as part of their longterm goals, the availability of funding opportunities for heat pump systems, and a desire to lower operating and maintenance costs.

To compare the two options, the initial building energy model was validated to determine projected annual heating and cooling loads. By using these loads, projected electric, gas and cooling tower water usage were determined, allowing utility costs for both options to be directly compared.

Upper and lower bounds for the number of geothermal boreholes that would be required to meet system demands were established using the modeled loads. Elements unique to a boiler/tower system were removed from the initial system opinion of probable construction cost, and elements required for the installation of a geothermal water source heat pump system were added.

Initial projections showed a mechanical system capital cost increase of 35% to 40% by transitioning from the boiler/tower system to a GSHP system. The largest driver of this cost increase was the borefield, owing to the dense location of the site and the limited number of bidders available at the time. This gap was reduced through available rebates and incentives from the New York State Energy Research and Development Authority and Con Edison, as well as a Federal Investment Tax Credit, resulting in lowering the net capital cost increase to 15%. Countering this capital cost increase was a projected operating cost savings of 40%, owing to improved cooling efficiency and the elimination of boiler natural gas consumption and cooling tower water consumption. In addition to operating cost savings, the transition to a fully electric system was projected to reduce the net carbon dioxide (CO2) equivalent emissions of the building by 40%.

Networked heat pump systems are efficient because they can collaboratively transfer heat energy throughout a building or multiple buildings. When one section of a building requires heating while another requires cooling, heat rejected by a heat pump in cooling can be passed to a heat pump in heating. Water-to-air heat pumps that pro-

BUILDING SOLUTIONS

vide cooling to building spaces are able to transfer heat to water-to-water heat pumps, thus simultaneously heating domestic hot water. Networking heat pumps allows heat input or rejection from the building mechanical system to be reduced to the net of heating and cooling load.

codes and standards that specifically impact the efficiency requirements for heating systems. In addition to the International Energy Conservation Code, ASHRAE provides many resources related to the design and performance assessment of heating systems, including ASHRAE Standard 90.1: Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings. ASHRAE 90.1, among other guidance, defines the minimum efficiency and operational requirements for heating systems.

csemag.com

Decarbonization insights

u A boiler takes input energy and converts it to heat, while a heat pump takes input energy to move heat between a source and a sink.

u Important codes related to boiler and heat pump efficiency include the International Energy Conservation Code, ASHRAE 90.1 and ASHRAE 15.

Major equipment required for a heat pump system includes the heat pumps themselves (whether packaged or split) and electrical infrastructure to meet the demands of an all-electric HVAC system. In an ASHP system, the heat pumps themselves are the only thing required for conditioning. No ancillary equipment is required, other than thermal distribution equipment (such as refrigerant piping to connect evaporator and condenser or ductwork to bring conditioned air to the space). In a WSHP system, required ancillary equipment includes condenser water pumps (to circulate heat transfer fluid) and equipment to maintain condenser water temperature (a boiler, cooling tower, dry cooler or ground heat exchange system). WSHP systems can be either ducted or ductless.

Codes and standards

While there are a number of codes and standards that govern the requirements for the installation and operation of boilers, there are a few key

Minimum efficiency requirements for heat pump equipment are laid out in ASHRAE 90.1 Table 6.8. In general, efficiency requirements are higher for water-to-air than water-to-water, regardless of source fluid.

ASHRAE 90.1 mandates that gas boilers, ranging from 1 to 10 million British thermal units per hour, must be at least 90% efficient. This has made condensing boilers much more common on new construction projects requiring this boiler capacity level. For larger system sizes, or for systems requiring higher supply temperatures, additional energy recovery measures are implemented, such as air preheating, feedwater preheating, and heat recovery from flue gases.

Safety for heat pump systems is governed by ASHRAE Standard 15: Safety Standard for Refrigeration Systems. Chapter 7 of this standard governs ventilation requirements regarding the quantity of refrigerant in the heat pump system, which may be substantial where A2L refrigerants are used in high-capacity systems.

FIGURE 4: 1515 Surf Avenue is the tallest building in New York that is heated and cooled with a geothermal heat pump system. The geothermal borefield is located entirely within the building footprint. Courtesy: CDM Smith

Choosing the right system

The main difference between a boiler and a heat pump is that a boiler takes input energy and converts it to heat, while a heat pump takes input energy to move heat between a source and a sink. When selecting between a heat pump system and a boiler system a number of factors must be considered:

• Boilers provide higher temperatures than heat pumps, with the capability to produce steam. This generally allows spaces to be brought up to temperature faster, reduces coil and equipment sizes, and opens up the possibility for retrofitting systems designed around high-temperature hot water or steam.

• Recent advances in heat pump technology, including improvements in refrigerants, the inclusion of multi-stage heat pumps, and the use of supercritical fluids, are closing the temperature gap. However, increases in temperatures supplied by heat pumps often come with penalties to efficiency.

• Boilers are a more mature market than heat pumps, with a larger pool of manufacturers and service options to choose from.

• Heat pump systems can provide both heating and cooling, while boiler systems only provide heating.

• Heat pumps allow for full electrification of a building’s heating and cooling. Pursuing electrification requires careful analysis of electrical versus fuel costs. Consider both site and source energy when determining the merits of electrification.

• Boiler and ASHP systems can be sized to meet peak building heating loads, while a geothermal heat pump system must take into consideration the net annual balance between heating and cooling usage to prevent overheating or freezing the condenser water system.

• Heat pump systems can make use of a wide variety of heat sources and sinks, pulling

energy from and rejecting energy to ground heat exchangers, sewer heat recovery or surface water heat exchange. By networking systems, it is possible to connect users with high cooling requirements, such as data centers or high rises, with users with high heating requirements, such as low-rise residential buildings. cse

Joshua Garzione, PE, CDM Smith, Maitland, FL. Senior mechanical engineer with over 20 years of experience in HVAC and plumbing system design.

Samuel Gerber, PE, CDM Smith, Nashville, Tenn. Mechanical engineer experienced in HVAC system design with a specialty in geothermal systems.

FIGURE 5: An example of domestic hot water heat pumps and heat exchanger skids. Heat is transferred from a borefield system to provide domestic hot water for residents. Courtesy: CDM Smith

BUILDING SOLUTIONS

Angela Mae Peretti, PE, WELL AP, LEED AP BD+C, SmithGroup, Washington D.C.

What do engineers need to consider for EV charging stations?

Engineers must be aware of how to design electric vehicle charging stations and the impacts these stations have on overall design.

While there are several amendments, codes, ordinances, listings and standards regarding electric vehicle (EV) charging stations, electrical engineers must understand three specific articles within NFPA 70: National Electrical Code (NEC).

Article 400: Flexible Cords and Flexible Cables covers all requirements for flexible cords and cables, detailing the types of flex ible cords and cables for EV charging stations. There are six types of flexible cords and cables specifically for EV charging stations: EV, EVJ, EVE, EVJE, EVT and EVJT. Table 1 is an excerpt from Table 400.4 of the

NEC, with descriptions for each of the six types. Other types of flexible cords and cables can be utilized as EV cables, but require permission from the authority having jurisdiction.

Article 400 also has two tables – Table 400.5(A) (1) and Table 400.5(A)(2) – with ampacity requirements for flexible cords and cables based on the conductor size, type and assumption of an ambient temperature of 30 degrees Celsius (86 degrees Fahrenheit).

Article 625: Electric Vehicle Power Transfer System covers the electrical conductors and equipment connecting an EV to wiring on the premises to charge, power export or bidirectional current flow. The EV power transfer system equipment shall be listed and must be powered by one of the following voltages:

• Alternating current system voltages of 120, 120/240, 208Y/120, 240, 480Y/277, 480, 600Y/347, 600 or 1000.

• Direct current system voltages of up to 1000 V.

If the electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE) needs to be plugged into a receptacle on the premises, then the cable for the cord-connected EVSE must either be one of the six flexible cords and cables mentioned above or a hard service cord, junior hard service cord or portable power cable type. All these additional flexible cord and cable types mentioned are also in Table 400.4, Table 400.5(A)(1) and Table 400.5(A)(2) of the NEC with requirements specified.

The length of the cable between the receptacle and the EVSE varies depending on the location of the interrupting device of the personnel pro-

FIGURE 1: An excerpt of the parking garage level P2 power plan with EV installed and EV capable parking spaces for a Virginia Tech project. Courtesy: SmithGroup.

tection system. If the interrupting device is within the enclosure of the EVSE, and the EVSE is portable, then the power-supply cord cannot be more than one foot in length. If the interrupting device is within the enclosure of the EVSE, and the EVSE is fastened in place, then the power-supply cord cannot be more than six feet in length and should not be in contact with the floor when connected to the receptacle. If the interrupting device is located at the attachment plug or is within one foot of the power-supply cord, then the overall cord length cannot be more than 15 feet in length.

The output cable, which is the cable between the EVSE and the EV, must be one of the six EV cable types mentioned above or an integral part of the EVSE. Its overall length cannot exceed 25 feet in length, unless the EVSE has a cable management system.

EVSE is required to have a listed personnel protection system against electric shock. While a standard ground fault circuit interrupter device can protect cord-and-plug systems, other higher voltages need monitoring systems in the EVSE to confirm proper grounding is present and maintained during charging. A personnel protection system is not required if the EVSE supplies less than 60 volts direct current to the EV.

When designing the electrical distribution system on the premises, each EVSE greater than 16 amperes, or 120 volts, must have a dedicated branch circuit. The only exception is if the EVSE is a part of an overall energy management system on the premises or if it has adjustable settings. If either is the case, one branch circuit can feed multiple EVSEs. For overcurrent protection for feeders and branch circuits supplying EVSE and wireless power transfer equipment (WPTE), including bidirectional EVSE and WPTE, the overcurrent protection must be sized as a continuous load with a demand factor of 125%.

For EVSE and WPTE rated more than 60 amperes, or 150 volts to ground, requires a discon-

necting means (lockable open per Article 110.25). The location of the disconnecting means must be in an accessible location. It is acceptable to remotely locate the disconnecting means from the EVSE, but the EVSE must have a plaque that states where the disconnecting means is located.

‘There are three types of EV service equipment and wireless power transfer equipment when designing EV charging stations: portable, fastened-in-place and fixed-in-place.’

There are three types of EVSE and WPTE when designing electric vehicle charging stations: portable, fastened-in-place and fixed-in-place. Article 625 requires portable and fastened-in-place EVSE to be connected by a non locking, grounding-type receptacle. For fixed-in-place EVSE and WPTE, this equipment must be permanently wired and fixed in place to the supporting surface. For fastened-in-place and fixed-in-place EVSE, the coupling means of the EVSE must not be at a height less than one and a half feet above the floor level for indoor locations or two feet above the grade level for outdoor locations. There are no height requirements for portable EVSE.

EVSE or WPTE that has a power export function and is part of an interactive system is called interactive equipment. Some examples of interactive systems include: an optional standby system, an electric power production source or a bidirectional power feed. If the EVSE or WPTE is considered interactive equipment, these components can be a part of an interconnected power system operating in island mode. Island mode refers to a system that operates independently from the utility grid. If the EVSE or WPTE is considered interactive equipment, it is also

Identify the different types of EV charging stations. Learn the design coordination points and respective disciplines when designing electric vehicle charging stations. Objectives

Know the applicable codes and standards that impact the design of EV charging stations.

FIGURE 2: An excerpt of electrical power symbols for EV installed and EV capable parking spaces on the Virginia Tech campus. Courtesy: SmithGroup.

BUILDING SOLUTIONS

FIGURE 3: A distribution board

DPLVP1J panel directory. Courtesy: SmithGroup.

acceptable for energy to be backfed from the EV to the wiring system on the premises. If the EVSE or WPTE is not considered interactive equipment, there must be restrictions put in place so that when power is lost, energy cannot be backfed. If the interactive equipment is part of an optional standby system, then Article 702: Optional Standby Systems requirements apply. If the interactive equipment is part of an electric power production source, then Article 705: Interconnected Electric Power Production Sources requirements apply.

Article 750: Energy Management Systems is important for designing EVSE or WPTE that are a part of an energy management system (EMS). If the energy management system is being used to limit current on conductors, the maximum equipment load on a service and feeder can be the maximum load permitted by the EMS. It is also possible that the EMS is integral to the EVSE. If that is the case, the EVSE must be marked to indicate that this EMS control is being provided within. Similarly, the EVSE can have adjustable settings that impact the rating of the equipment. If that is the case, then the change to the rating must be per the manufacturer’s instructions, and the adjusted rating must appear on the rating label.

Because components of the electrical distribution system are able to be altered with an EMS in place, it is also required that the EMS cease current flow upon malfunction. This helps to protect any branch circuit, feeder or service from being overloaded. The adjustable settings also must be in a secure location or password-protected so they can only be altered by facility personnel.

In addition to Articles 400, 625 and 750 of the NEC, here are some listings and standards related to EV charging stations to be aware of:

• NECA 413: Installing and Maintaining Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment for information on the procedures for installing and maintaining AC Level 1, AC Level 2 and fast-charging DC EVSE.

• NFPA 69: Standard on Explosion Prevention Systems for combustible gas concentration restrictions for EV charging batteries.

• NFPA 505: Fire Safety Standard for Power Industrial Trucks Including Type Designations, Areas of Use, Conversions, Maintenance and Operations for information on fire protection of industrial trucks.

Table 1: Table 400.4 flexible cords and flexible cables – excerpt of electric vehicle cables

EV 1000 18-500 2 or more plus equipment grounding conductor(s), plus optional hybrid delta, signal communications, and optical fiber cables

EVJ 300 18-12

EVE 1000 18-500

EVJE 300 18-12

2 or more plus equipment grounding conductor(s), plus optional hybrid delta, signal communications, and optical fiber cables

2 or more plus equipment grounding conductor(s), plus optional hybrid delta, signal communications, and optical fiber cables

2 or more plus equipment grounding conductor(s), plus optional hybrid delta, signal communications, and optical fiber cables

with optional nylon

with optional nylon

Thermoplastic elastomer with optional nylon

Thermoplastic elastomer with optional nylon

thermoplastic elastomer

EVT 1000 18-500 2 or more plus equipment grounding conductor(s), plus optional hybrid delta, signal communications, and optical fiber cables Thermoplastic with optional nylon Oil-resistant thermoplastic

EVJT 300 18-12

2 or more plus equipment grounding conductor(s), plus optional hybrid delta, signal communications, and optical fiber cables

Thermoplastic with optional nylon

Table 2: Electric vehicle charging station levels comparison

Courtesy: SmithGroup.

• SAEJ1772: Standard for Electric Vehicle and Plug in Hybrid Electric Vehicle Conductive Charge Coupler for further requirements on the physical, electrical, functional and performance of conductive charging of electric vehicles.

• SAEJ3072: Standard for Interconnection Requirements for Onboard, Utility-Interactive Inverter Systems for further information on the grid support inverter system integral to the electric vehicle.

• UL 1741: Inverters, Converters, Controllers and Interconnection System Equipment for Use With Distributed Energy Resources for further information on supply equipment.

• UL 2202: Electric Vehicle Charging System Equipment for information on conductive electric vehicle charging equipment.

• UL 2594: Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment for information on conductive electric vehicle supply equipment.

• UL 9741: Bidirectional Electric Vehicle Charging System Equipment for vehicle interactive systems.

EV charging station levels

There are different levels to classify the supply voltage type when it comes to EV charging stations. Level 1 charging has a supply voltage of 120 V-AC, single phase, and can have an input amperage between 12 to 16 amperes. Level 1 charging is

locations: extra-hard usage

Courtesy: SmithGroup.

BUILDING SOLUTIONS

Courtesy: SmithGroup

more common in residential applications as it utilizes a grounded 120-volt receptacle and is often portable. It is typical that the Level 1 chargers are provided by the EV manufacturer with purchase.

Level 1 charging will charge a vehicle anywhere between three to five miles per hour, taking about a day to fully charge. The Level 1 EVSE usually has a charging power of 1.3 to 1.9 kilowatts.

Level 2 charging can have a supply voltage of 120/240V-AC, 208Y/120V-AC and 480Y/277VAC. It can have an input amperage between 12 to 100 amperes, with the average being 40 amperes.

Level 2 charging is more common in commercial applications (i.e., parking lots and parking garages) and is often fastened-in-place or fixed-in-place. It will charge a vehicle anywhere between 10-20 miles per hour, taking about half a day to fully charge. The Level 2 EVSE usually has a charging power of 2.5 to 19.2 kilowatts. With commercial applications, it’s not uncommon to have several EVSE installed on the premises. Therefore, in design, there is typically an electrical panelboard that is dedicated to the EVSE, and

each EVSE has a dedicated circuit with its own overcurrent protection.

Level 3 charging, which is now known more commonly as DC fast charging (DCFC), can have a supply voltage of 208V-AC or 480V-AC threephase. It can have an input amperage between 60 to 400 amperes, demanding the most electricity out of the three levels, with the higher ampere value ever-growing. DCFC stations are typically seen in public open spaces like gas stations and are fixed in place. These stations will charge an EV anywhere between 60 to 200 miles per hour, taking about 20 minutes to fully charge. As the input amperage grows in value, this 20-minute timespan will continue to reduce. The DCFC EVSE usually has a charging power of 50 to 350 kilowatts.

Table 2 summarizes the information mentioned above, as well as the average cost of each of these charging stations.

Design Coordination for EVSE

As an electrical engineer, it is important to coordinate with several other disciplines when

FIGURE 5: Electric vehicle service equipment must comply with certain codes and standards based on project location and goals. Courtesy: SmithGroup

FIGURE 4: ChargePoint products provided dualport electric vehicle service equipment for a college campus project.

CASE STUDY: Virginia Tech EV Charging Project Awarded Green Vehicles Credit

A PROJECT on the Virginia Tech campus was awarded the LEED Green Vehicles Credit based on EV charging installations.

Located in Alexandria, Virginia, the Virginia Tech Innovation Campus Academic Building 1 (VT ICAB1) is a new building comprised of 272 total parking spaces. Of the 272 total parking spaces, 122 are located underground in two parking garage levels, and the remaining 150 are on-grade across several parking lots. Out of these 272 total parking spaces, 12 of the spaces were considered “EV Installed” – eight of the spaces being in the two parking garage levels and the remaining four spaces located outdoors in one of the parking lots. Out of the 272 total parking spaces, 18 of the spaces were considered “EV capable” and located across the two parking garage levels.

The following definitions help to explain the difference in EV readiness when designing EV charging stations:

• EV capable: The parking space is identified, but there is only a raceway installed from the parking space back to a suitable power source location.

• EV ready: The parking space is identified, raceway and electrical circuiting are completely installed, but there is a termination point at the space for EVSE to be installed in the future.

• EV installed: The parking space is identified, the raceway and electrical circuiting are completely installed, and the EVSE is installed and operational.

For this project, the LEED BD+C v4 New Construction – Location and Transportation: Green Vehicles Credit was awarded through “Preferred Parking Spaces” and “Option 1. Electric Vehicle Charging.” The credit requires either at least 5% of all parking spaces to be identified as preferred parking for green vehicles or to provide a discounted parking rate of at least 20% for green vehicles. With 30 parking spaces - 12 “EV installed” and 18 “EV capable” – identified as preferred parking for green vehicles, the preferred parking as a percentage of total parking capacity came

designing EV charging stations. Other disciplines include: civil engineering, fire protection engineering, information technology, landscape architecture, mechanical engineering and structural engineering.

With a civil engineer or landscape architect responsible for parking spaces, programming and signage, it is crucial to coordinate the quantity and location of EV parking spaces. The requirements depend on where the EV design is occurring, as well as the sustainable initiatives the client is interested in pursuing. For example, in Ann Arbor, Mich., the city requires at least 10% of parking spaces in a parking lot to have EVSE installed. To receive the Green Vehicles Credit, LEED BD+C requires at least 5% of all

to 11%, exceeding the 5% requirement. For Option 1, at least 2% of the total parking capacity must have EVSE installed to meet this credit. With 12 “EV installed” parking spaces, the parking spaces with EVSE as a percentage of total parking capacity came to 4%, exceeding the 2% requirement. Additionally, with Option 1 the EVSE must:

• Provide a Level 2 charging capacity (208 to 240 volts) or greater.

• Comply with the relevant regional or local standards for electrical connectors, such as SAE Surface Vehicle Recommended Practice J1772 or SAE EV Conductive Charge Coupler.

• Be networked or internet addressable and be capable of participating in a demand-response program or time-of-use pricing to encourage off-peak charging.

For this case study, six ChargePoint CT4021 (bollard mount) and CT4023 (wall mount) products provided dual port EVSE for the 12 “EV installed” parking spaces. The standard electrical input amperage consisted of 30 A for each charging port, requiring two 40 A, two-pole breakers for each EVSE at the upstream distribution board identified as “DPLVP1J”. These ChargePoint products comply with all LEED and NEC requirements.

BUILDING SOLUTIONS

EV charging insights

u Three specific articles under the NEC govern EV charging station design – Article 400, Article 625 and Article 750.

u Electrical engineers must coordinate with many other disciplines to ensure charging stations are functional and effective.

parking spaces utilized by a project to be preferred parking for green vehicles. Additionally, with the Americans with Disabilities Act and the Architectural Barriers Act, there are requirements regarding the accessibility of EV charging stations in design and construction. If the project design incorporates on-grade parking lots, the civil engineer must know where these designated EV parking spaces are located to ensure there are no conflicts with other underground utilities.

When the EV charging stations are located within a structure like a parking garage, the fire protection engineer must be notified of the EVSE location and quantity to make sure the structure complies with NFPA 13: Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems.

It is common for Level 2 and Level 3 EVSE to utilize cellular connectivity for features such as billing, energy usage reporting and charging status. As a result, the information technology designer must be informed of the physical location of the EV charging stations to ensure that cellular connection

is possible in the proposed design location. Coinciding with the NEC Article 625.52: Ventilation, if the EVSE is not listed for charging EVs indoors, ventilation is required, and a mechanical engineer must be notified. The NEC indicates that both supply and exhaust equipment must be provided, permanently installed and located where intake and exhaust are both directly adjacent to the outdoors

Lastly, like how an electrical engineer coordinates the physical weight of electrical equipment, if the EVSE is fixed-in-place, or fastened-inplace and mounted to a wall or floor surface, the weights of the EVSE need to be coordinated with the structural engineer. cse

Angela Mae Peretti, PE, WELL AP, LEED AP BD+C, SmithGroup, Washington D.C. Angela is a Professional Electrical Engineer working for SmithGroup in their Washington D.C. office, passionate about teaching newer electrical design topics and where the design realm is heading.

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What trends do you need to know when designing university buildings?

Three engineers discuss

the current state of the design industry related to college and university

CSE: What's the biggest trend in college and university buildings?

Cindy Cogil: To support decarbonization goals, colleges and universities are shifting toward large-scale infrastructure upgrades that align with sustainability and resiliency objectives. Aging, first-generation steam systems are being replaced with

buildings.

low-temperature heating hot water networks, which integrate more easily with low-grade thermal sources—like geo-exchange, sewer thermal and waste heat— using heat pumps or heat-recovery chillers at the core of the district energy plant.

Abdullah Khaliqi: One of the biggest trends in college and university buildings is the push for net-zero energy and carbon-neutral campuses, which is transforming how mechanical, electrical and plumbing (MEP) systems are designed. Institutions are prioritizing electrification, heat recovery and renewable integration (like geothermal and solar) to meet aggressive sustainability goals. There’s also growing adoption of smart building systems, including demand-controlled ventilation, advanced metering and integrated building management system platforms for optimizing energy use and maintenance. Standards like ASHRAE Standard 90.1: Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings, ASHRAE Standard 189.1: Standard for the Design of High-Performance Green Buildings and LEED v4.1 are increasingly driving designs to reduce energy and carbon use.

CSE: What future trends should engineers expect for such projects?

Cindy Cogil: While some institutions are well underway with their district thermal energy transformation, others are still in

the planning stage, undertaking climate action plans along with more detailed infrastructure plans. One thing is for sure: engineers must fight the urge to design to what exists today and instead anticipate the systems that their buildings will be connected to in the future. This translates to reducing total heating demand and specifically reducing peak demands, selecting equipment for low-temperature hot water and incorporating metering for ongoing monitoring and grid-interactive control.

Abdullah Khaliqi: Engineers should expect rising demand for all-electric, low-carbon systems, including heat pumpbased heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) and renewable energy. There is a shift toward modular design and prefabrication to speed up construction while maintaining quality. On the plumbing side, water reuse systems and resilient stormwater strategies are gaining popularity. Expect continued emphasis on healthy buildings; ventilation, indoor air quality (IAQ) monitoring and acoustic comfort aligned with WELL and ASHRAE 62.1. Flexibility and long-term adaptability will define successful designs.

CSE: If enrollment continues to decrease, what changes do you anticipate seeing?

Cindy Cogil: The growing deferred maintenance crisis on campuses risks

Participants

Dennis Coblentz, Project Manager, RMF Engineering, Charleston, S.C. Cindy Cogil, PE, FASHRAE, Vice President, SmithGroup, Chicago

worsening if facility maintenance and capital renewal budgets are cut to offset declining tuition revenue. Postponing repairs only increases future repair costs and risks further enrollment declines. However, declining space demand presents an opportunity to align space quality and quantity with institutional needs. Strategic planning and asset analysis can guide decisions on consolidation, program realignment, community partnerships and student life enhancements that attract and retain. These insights also support targeted renovations, asset disposition, adaptive reuse and replacement. Public-private partnerships can further generate revenue and enrich the campus experience.

Abdullah Khaliqi: If enrollment continues to decline, we anticipate a shift toward renovating and repurposing existing facilities rather than building new ones. Campuses may consolidate underused buildings and invest in energy-efficient upgrades like HVAC retrofits, LED lighting and building automation to reduce operating costs. Flexible, multi-use spaces will become the norm, requiring adaptable MEP systems that can support evolving functions. Engineers may also see increased demand for decommissioning strategies, right-sizing mechanical systems, and improving building performance analytics. Budget pressures will

likely drive value engineering and prioritize long-term lifecycle cost savings over upfront capital investments.

CSE: What are the considerations for integrating fire and life safety, HVAC, electrical and other engineered systems?

Cindy Cogil: MEP system selection is primarily driven by program requirements, sustainability goals, climate, budget and utility infrastructure. Additional factors like historic preservation, acoustics, aesthetics and accessibility also influence decisions. For instance, decentralized systems suit historic buildings with limited distribution pathways. Acoustically sensitive spaces require early collaboration to isolate noisy equipment, accommodate low-velocity ductwork, incorporate sound-absorbing materials to dampen sound waves and detail penetrations to prevent sound transfer. Exposed and specialty ceilings offer a unique design aesthetic that call for HVAC coordination, often leading to exposed ductwork or alternative air distribution methods. Finally, ensuring access to overhead equipment and control devices is a must that requires coordination with architectural finishes and other systems

Abdullah Khaliqi: The integration of fire and life safety, HVAC, electrical and other systems requires close coordina-

Learningu

Abdullah Khaliqi, PE, MCPPO, CPQ, Principal, Academic, Fitzemeyer & Tocci Associates, Inc., Woburn, Mass.

Objectives

Identify major trends in the design of college and university buildings. Understand common asks that owners and administrators are looking for beyond minimum code requirements.

tion across disciplines. Key considerations include code compliance, sequence of operations and control system interoperability, especially with growing reliance on building automation systems (BAS). Engineers must ensure that systems like smoke control, emergency power and fire alarms work seamlessly together without conflicts. Space constraints, conduit routing and maintenance access also play a critical role. Clear division of scope, regular cross-discipline reviews and digital tools like building information modeling (BIM) help identify and resolve clashes early, ensuring systems perform reliably during both normal operations and emergencies.

CSE: How are engineers designing these kinds of projects to keep costs down while offering appealing features, complying with relevant codes and meeting client needs?

A CLASSROOM at American University shows radiant cieling panels.

Courtesy: SmithGroup

ENGINEERING INSIGHTS

Dennis Coblentz: We're exploring all kinds of creative solutions to meet client needs and bring architect visions to life. For example, Clemson University’s new Nieri Family Alumni and Visitors Center serves as the new front door to its campus, creating a shared destination point for prospective students, active enrollees and returning alumni alike. The building was designed to anchor the Tiger experi-

ence, so it needed to make an impression. Goodwyn Mills Cawood, in partnership with Cooper Carry, designed the Center with an exposed, cross-laminated timber core that stretches up through a double-height atrium in the main lobby to bring a sense of warmth to the arrival experience.

Incorporating the necessary MEP and fire protection systems with few pockets

available in the structure to conceal wiring, water lines and other equipment in this space was an interesting challenge. We ultimately developed some clever solutions, including adding vertical risers to the structural steel frames that flank the building on either side, with a low-voltage electrical distribution system to serve each side separately.

Cindy Cogil: For clients seeking a more rigorous approach to system selection, I use choosing by advantages (CBA), a decision-making framework championed by the Lean Construction Institute, to evaluate alternatives and make the best decision. CBA emphasizes the beneficial differences, or advantages, of each alternative. Alternatives must meet minimum design criteria and code requirements. By selecting factors that are most important to the project stakeholders and that adequately differentiate the alternatives, defensible, durable decisions can be made, allowing the team to find the alternative that provides the greatest benefit for the cost.

Abdullah Khaliqi: Engineers are leveraging early-stage modeling and life cycle cost analysis to balance budget constraints with performance and aesthetics. Strategies like right-sizing equipment, using high-efficiency systems and incorporating modular or prefabricated components

THE CLEMSON Alumni Building shows off unique lighting engineering.

Courtesy: RMF Engineering

help reduce capital and operational costs. Design teams also rely on energy modeling tools to optimize HVAC and lighting systems for ASHRAE 90.1 compliance while minimizing utility expenses. Stakeholder engagement is key, allowing engineers to work closely with facilities and campus planners to understand longterm goals and ensure flexibility and maintainability. Coordinated design reviews and BIM clash detection also help avoid costly changes during construction.

CSE: How have you incorporated artificial intelligence (AI) into design? Share an example.

Abdullah Khaliqi: Fitzemeyer & Tocci is currently experimenting with AI-enhanced workflows in a controlled, pre-production setting as part of our broader innovation efforts. These tools are being tested on select pilot projects and internal work to see how well they perform, scale and align with our design standards.

One area we're exploring is the use of Revit Dynamo paired with AI tools like ChatGPT. We’ve been integrating custom packages that allow us to run dynamic data queries, interpret design rules and get real-time design input, all within the modeling environment.

We're also building out generative design scripts that help automate MEP layouts based on engineering logic and spatial constraints. While these workflows aren’t part of our standard production process, they’re actively in beta and already proving value.

CSE: How are college and university buildings being designed to be more energy efficient?

Dennis Coblentz: Energy efficiency is being considered at all scales and in all aspects of design today -- whether it's the envelope construction, integration of smart sensors or use of better windows.

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Testing Adjusting Balancing and Vibration Measurement

CALIFORNIA CERTIFIED FIRMS

ABM Acco Engineered Systems (Pasadena & San Leandro) Air Control Balancing, Inc.

Air Management Industries, Inc. Air Test and Balance, Inc.

Alpha Air Balancing Agency, Inc. Ambient Air Control Systems

Apex Mechanical Systems Associated Air Balance & Certification

Capital Test & Balance Inc. Carter Air Balance Company

Certified Air Balance Company, Inc. CSI, Inc. Equal Air Balance Company

Gasper Air, Inc. Green Building Test and Balance Company

Independent Air Balance Inland Air Balance, Inc. MBO, Inc.

MTB Pan-Pacific Mechanincal Pragmatic Professional Engineers

Precision Air Balance Company, Inc. (Anaheim & San Diego)

Pyramid Balancing Associates SPIRA-LOC Superior Test and Balance

Systems Service Mechanical, Inc. T.A.B.C.O. - Total Air Balance Company, Inc.

Technical Safety Services, Inc. - TSS, Inc. Therma U.S. Air Balance, Inc.

Western Allied Corporation Zaretsky Engineering Solutions, Inc.

HAWAII CERTIFIED FIRMS

Hawaii Energy Service LLC Hawaii Test & Balance, Inc.

TAB Engineers, LLC Test & Balance Group

NEVADA CERTIFIED FIRMS

Precision Air Balance Company, Inc. (Las Vegas)

AIR SOURCE heat pumps on a Virginia Tech academic building under construction. Courtesy: SmithGroup

ENG. INSIGHTS

Cindy Cogil: Some clients set building performance standards beyond code minimum as part of the owner's project requirements, which requires life-cycle cost analyses to guide system selection and energy carbon reduction strategies. Those focused on reducing campus carbon emissions may also factor in the social cost of carbon via a carbon charge in anticipation of future policy shifts.

Abdullah Khaliqi: College and university buildings are being designed with a focus on high-performance envelopes, all-electric systems and integrated controls to maximize energy efficiency. HVAC strategies include heat recovery ventilation, variable refrigerant flow (VRF) and ground source heat pumps. Lighting systems use LED fixtures with occupancy and daylight sensors. Smart metering and BAS allow real-time monitoring and optimization. Many campuses aim to exceed ASHRAE

90.1 or comply with LEED, WELL or Zero Energy targets. Flexibility is also critical, so designs will adapt to future retrofits and technology upgrades without major overhauls to maintain efficiency.

CSE: What is the biggest challenge you come across when designing such projects?

Cindy Cogil: I see two common challenges to achieving greater levels of energy performance in higher education buildings. First, university budget cycles, delays and fluctuations can result in budget misalignment. In this instance, program usually trumps performance. Second, there can be a disconnect between the goals and aspirations of a state-wide university system with the capacity and capabilities of the on-the-ground facilities team, who find themselves further stretched with each new building constructed. Further-

more, smaller colleges and universities may outsource facility maintenance to a third-party contractor with limited to no experience with certain emerging and less widely used systems or technologies.

Abdullah Khaliqi: The biggest challenge is balancing performance, budget and flexibility within the constraints of aging infrastructure and diverse stakeholder needs. Many campuses have legacy systems, tight sites or historic buildings, which complicate integration of modern, efficient MEP systems. Coordinating multiple systems while maintaining code compliance and minimizing disruption to ongoing operations is always complex. Aligning the long-term goals of facilities staff with the immediate priorities of capital planning requires clear communication, early collaboration, detailed site assessments and phased implementation strategies to help overcome these hurdles. cse

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