
https://hdl.handle.net/10986/42534.




)https://www.oecd.org/migration/mig/oecdmigrationdatabases.htm(
(https://www.ilo.org/publications/ilo-global-estimates-international-migrant-
)workers-results-and-methodology )/https://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic-social/sconcerns/migration(
https://unstats.un.org/unsd/
















100,000–249,000
250,000–499,000
500,000–1,000,000 1,000,000–1,400,000




















0 100,000 200,000 300,000
(un.org/development/desa/pd/content/international-migrant-stock
Black, J., and Z. Sigman. 2022. “50,000 Lives Lost during Migration: Analysis of Missing Migrants Project Data 2014–2022.” Global Migration Data Analysis Centre, International Organization for Migration, Geneva.
Busetta, A., D. Mendola, B. Wilson, and V. Cetorelli. 2021. “Measuring Vulnerability of Asylum Seekers and Refugees in Italy.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 47 (3): 596–615.
Crush, J., V. Williams, A. Dakhal, and S. Ramachandran. 2022. Labour Migration in the Southern African Region: A Stocktaking. Southern African Migration Management Project. Pretoria, South Africa: International Labour Organization, Pretoria.
De Haas, H. 2006. “Trans-Saharan Migration to North Africa and the EU: Historical Roots and Current Trends.” Migration Policy Institute, Washington, DC. https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article /trans-saharan-migration-north-africa-and-eu-historical-roots-and-current-trends
Di Maio, M., F. Marzo, and L. Sciabolazza. 2024. “Migration to and through North Africa: An Overview.” Background paper prepared for this report. World Bank, Washington, DC.
ETF (European Training Foundation). 2021a. “Skills and Migration Country Fiche Morocco.” ETF, Torino, Italy. https://www.etf.europa.eu/sites/default/files/2022-05/ETF%20Skills%20and%20Migration%20 Country%20Fiche%20MOROCCO_2021_EN%20Final.pdf
ETF (European Training Foundation). 2021b. “Skills and Migration Country Fiche Tunisia.” ETF, Torino, Italy. https://www.etf.europa.eu/sites/default/files/2021-11/etf_fiche_pays_competences_et _migration_tunisie_2021_fr.pdf
ICMPD (International Centre for Migration Policy Development). 2022. “Migration Outlook 2022: West Africa.” ICMPD, Vienna. https://www.icmpd.org/file/download/57218/file/ICMPD_Migration Outlook_WestAfrica_2022.pdf.
IDMC (Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre). 2023. “2023 Global Report on Internal Displacement (GRID).” IDMC, Geneva. https://www.internal-displacement.org/publications/2023-global -report-on-internal-displacement-grid/
IDMC (Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre). 2024. “2024 Global Report on Internal Displacement (GRID).” IDMC, Geneva. https://www.internal-displacement.org/global-report/grid2024/ IOM (International Organization for Migration). 2020. “Calculating ‘Death Rates’ in the Context of Migration Journeys: Focus on the Central Mediterranean.” GMDAC Briefing Series: Towards Safer Migration in Africa: Migration and Data in Northern and Western Africa. IOM, Geneva.
IOM (International Organization for Migration). 2022a. “IOM Decries 50,000 Documented Deaths during Migration Worldwide.” IOM, Geneva. https://www.iom.int/news/iom-decries-50000 -documented-deaths-during-migration-worldwide
IOM (International Organization for Migration). 2022b. “Triangulation of Migrants Stock in Egypt.” IOM, Geneva. https://egypt.iom.int/sites/g/files/tmzbdl1021/files/documents/Migration%20Stock%20in%20 Egypt%20July%202022%20EN_Salma%20HASSAN.pdf.
IOM (International Organization for Migration). 2023. “Djibouti, Country Overview.” IOM, Geneva.
IOM (International Organization for Migration). 2024. “Cabo Verde, Country Overview.” IOM, Geneva. Sarzin, Z., and O. Nsababera. 2024. “Forced Displacement: A Stocktaking of Evidence.” Background paper prepared for this report. World Bank, Washington, DC.
UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees). 2020. “On This Journey, No One Cares If You Live or Die: Abuse, Protection, and Justice along Routes between East and West Africa and Africa’s Mediterranean.” UNHCR, Geneva. https://mixedmigration.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/127 UNHCR_MMC_report-on-this-journey-no-one-cares-if-you-live-or-die.pdf.
UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees). 2024. “Cartographie des services de protection: l’approche basée sur les routes pour les services de protection le long des routes de mouvements mixtes.” UNHCR, Geneva.
World Bank. 2018. “Asylum Seekers in the European Union: Building Evidence to Inform Policy Making.” World Bank, Washington, DC.
World Bank. 2021. “Eastern Africa Regional Statistics Program-for-Results.” Report P176371, World Bank, Washington, DC.
World Bank. 2023a. “Harmonizing and Improving Statistics in West and Central Africa.” Project Appraisal Document PAD5154, World Bank, Washington, DC.
World Bank. 2023b. “SADC Regional Statistics.” Project Appraisal Document PAD5178, World Bank, Washington, DC.
World Bank. 2023c. World Development Report 2023: Migrants, Refugees, and Societies. Washington, DC: World Bank.

(worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators


Abdel Jelil, M., P. A. Corral Rodas, A. Dahmani Scuitti, M. E. Davalos, G. Demarchi, N. N. Demirel, Q.-T. Do, R. N. Hanna, D. J. M. Houeix, S. Lenehan, and H. K. Mugera. 2018. “Asylum Seekers in the European Union: Building Evidence to Inform Policy Making.” Working Paper 127818, World Bank, Washington, DC. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/832501530296269142/Asylum -seekers-in-the-European-Union-building-evidence-to-inform-policy-making.
Akanbi, O. A., N. Gueorguiev, M. J. Honda, P. Mehta, M. K. Moriyama, K. Primus, and M. Sy. 2021. “Avoid a Fall or Fly Again: Turning Points of State Fragility.” Working Paper No. 2021/133, International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC.
Beegle, K., and L. Christiaensen. 2019. Accelerating Poverty Reduction in Africa. Washington, DC: World Bank. http://hdl.handle.net/10986/32354
Blackmore, R., J. A. Boyle, M. Fazel, S. Ranasinha, K. M. Gray, G. Fitzgerald, M. Misso, and M. GibsonHelm. 2020. “The Prevalence of Mental Illness in Refugees and Asylum Seekers: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” PLOS Medicine 17 (9): e1003337. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003337.
Bogic, M., A. Njoku, and S. Priebe. 2015. “Long-Term Mental Health of War-Refugees: A Systematic Literature Review.” BMC International Health and Human Rights 15 (1): 29. https://doi.org/10.1186 /s12914-015-0064-9
Canning, D. J., S. R. Jobanputra, and A. S. Yazbeck, eds. 2015. Africa’s Demographic Transition: Dividend or Disaster? Africa Development Forum. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Castells-Quintana, D., and H. Wenban-Smith. 2020. “Population Dynamics, Urbanisation without Growth, and the Rise of Megacities.” Journal of Development Studies 56 (9): 1663–82.
Cattaneo, C., and G. Peri. 2016. “The Migration Response to Increasing Temperatures.” Journal of Development Economics 122: 127–46.
Cincotta, R. P., and E. Leahy. 2006. “Population Age Structure and Its Relation to Civil Conflict: A Graphic Metric.” Environmental Change and Security Program Report 12: 55.
Cissé, G., H. Adams, P. Aldunce, K. Bowen, K. Campbell-Lendrum, S. Clayton, K. L. Ebi, and J. Hess. 2023. “Health, Wellbeing and the Changing Structure of Communities.” Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009325844.
Clement, V., and K. K. Rigaud. 2024. “Climate Change and Mobility.” Background paper prepared for this report. World Bank, Washington, DC.
Clement, V., K. K. Rigaud, A. de Sherbinin, B. Jones, S. Adamo, J. Schewe, N. Sadiq, and E. Shabahat. 2021. Groundswell Part 2: Acting on Internal Climate Migration. Washington, DC: World Bank. http://hdl .handle.net/10986/36248
Collier, P. 2021. “Transition Programs: A Theory of the Scaffolding Needed to Build out of Fragility.” In Macroeconomic Policy in Fragile States, edited by R. Chami, R. Espinoza, and P. J. Montiel, 58–81. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198853091.003.0003
Council on Foreign Relations. 2019. “Global Conflict Tracker.” Council on Foreign Relations, New York. https://www.cfr.org/interactive/global-conflict-tracker/conflict/civil-war-libya.
Cummings, C., J. Pacitto, D. Lauro, and M. Foresti. 2015. “Why People Move: Understanding the Drivers and Trends of Migration to Europe.” Working Paper 430, Overseas Development Institute, London.
Di Maio, M., V. L. Sciabolazza, and V. Molini. 2023. “Migration in Libya: A Spatial Network Analysis.” World Development 163: 106139.
Doan, M. K., R. Hill, S. Hallegatte, P. Corral, B. Brunckhorst, M. Nguyen, S. Freije-Rodriguez, and E. Naikal. 2023. “Counting People Exposed to, Vulnerable to, or at High Risk from Climate Shocks: A Methodology.” Policy Research Working Paper 10619, World Bank, Washington, DC.
Elgazzar, H., A. R. Lahga, M. B. N. Quota, F. U. Rother, and L. Hargreaves. 2015. Labor Market Dynamics in Libya: Reintegration for Recovery. Washington, DC: World Bank. http://documents.worldbank.org /curated/en/967931468189558835/Labor-market-dynamics-in-Libya-reintegration-for-recovery.
EU Commission (European Union Commission). 2017. “Migration on the Central Mediterranean: Managing Flows, Saving Lives.” Joint Communication to the European Parliament. The European Council, January 25. EU Commission, Brussels, Belgium.
Fay, M., and C. Opal. 2000. “Urbanization without Growth: A Not-So-Uncommon Phenomenon.” Policy Research Working Paper 2412, World Bank, Washington, DC.
Fazel, M., J. Wheeler, and J. Danesh. 2005. “Prevalence of Serious Mental Disorder in 7000 Refugees Resettled in Western Countries: A Systematic Review.” The Lancet 365 (9467): 1309–14. https://doi.org /10.1016/S0140-6736(05)61027-6
Fields, G. S., T. H. Gindling, K. Sen, M. Danquah, and S. Schotte. 2023. The Job Ladder: Transforming Informal Work and Livelihoods in Developing Countries. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Filmer, D., H. Rogers, N. Angrist, and S. Sabarwal. 2020. “Learning-Adjusted Years of Schooling (LAYS): Defining a New Macro Measure of Education.” Economics of Education Review 77: 101971.
Flückiger, M., and M. Ludwig. 2018. “Youth Bulges and Civil Conflict: Causal Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 62 (9): 1932–62.
Foster, A. D., and M. R. Rosenzweig. 2022. “Are There Too Many Farms in the World? Labor Market Transaction Costs, Machine Capacities, and Optimal Farm Size.” Journal of Political Economy 130 (3): 636–80.
Gargiulo, A., F. Tessitore, F. Le Grottaglie, and G. Margherita. 2021. “Self-Harming Behaviours of Asylum Seekers and Refugees in Europe: A Systematic Review.” International Journal of Psychology 56 (2): 189–98. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijop.12697
Gatti, R., F. Bennett, H. Assem, R. Lotfi, G. Mele, I. Suvanov, and A. M. Islam. 2024. “Conflict and Debt in the Middle East and North Africa.” Middle East and North Africa Economic Update (April). Washington, DC: World Bank. doi:10.1596/978-1-4648-2098-4.
Ginn, T., R. Resstack, H. Dempster, E. Arnold-Fernández, S. Miller, M. Guerrero Ble, and B. Kanyamanza. 2022. “2022 Global Refugee Work Rights Report.” Center for Global Development, Asylum Access, and Refugees International, Washington, DC. https://www.cgdev.org/publication/2022-global-refugee -work-rights-report.
Gollin, D., R. Jedwab, and D. Vollrath. 2016. “Urbanization with and without Industrialization.” Journal of Economic Growth 21: 35–70.
Gollin, D., and C. Udry. 2021. “Heterogeneity, Measurement Error, and Misallocation: Evidence from African Agriculture.” Journal of Political Economy 129 (1): 1–80.
Hanewald, B., M. Knipper, W. Fleck, J. Pons-Kühnemann, E. Hahn, T. M. T. Ta, B. Brosig, B. Gallhofer, C. Mulert, and M. Stingl. 2020. “Different Patterns of Mental Health Problems in Unaccompanied Refugee Minors (URM): A Sequential Mixed Method Study.” Frontiers in Psychiatry 11: 324. https://doi .org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00324
Hasan, R. A., B. P. Loevinsohn, C. Moucheraud, S. A. Ahmed, I. Osorio-Rodarte, E. Suzuki, E. Pradhan, S. Madhavan, S. Troiano, M. Sexton, F. A. Mustapha, A. O. Odutolu, and O. O. Okunola. 2019. “Nigeria’s Demographic Dividend.” Policy Note in Support of Nigeria’s Economic Recovery and Growth Plan 2017–2020. World Bank, Washington, DC.
Hasan, R. A., C. Moucheraud, H. N. Samaha, S. Troiano, S. A. Ahmed, I. Osorio-Rodarte, E. Suzuki, M. Sexton, E. Pradhan, S. Madhavan, and C. B. Habib. 2019. “Demographic Dividend in DRC: Catalyzing Economic Growth through Demographic Opportunities.” Working Paper, World Bank, Washington, DC.
Henderson, J. V., B. Y. Jang, A. Storeygard, and D. N. Weil. 2024. “Climate Change, Population Growth, and Population Pressure.” Working Paper 32145, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA.
Henderson, J. V., A. Storeygard, and U. Deichmann. 2017. “Has Climate Change Driven Urbanization in Africa?” Journal of Development Economics 124: 60–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2016.09.001
IDMC (Internal Displacement Monitoring Center). 2024. “IDMC Data Portal.” IDMC, Geneva. https://www.internal-displacement.org/database/displacement-data/.
ILO (International Labour Organization). 2019. Working on a Warmer Planet: The Impact of Heat Stress on Labour Productivity and Decent Work. Geneva: ILO.
ILO (International Labour Organization). 2024. “ILO Modelled Estimates and Projections Database (ILOEST).” ILOSTAT, ILO, Geneva (accessed February 6, 2024), https://ilostat.ilo.org/data/
IOM (International Organization for Migration). 2017. Irregular Migration from West Africa to the Maghreb and the European Union: An Overview of Recent Trends. Migration Research Series No. 32. Geneva: IOM. IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 1991. Climate Change: The IPCC Scientific Assessment. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Jayne, T. S., M. Muyanga, A. Wineman, H. Ghebru, C. Stevens, M. Stickler, A. Chapoto, W. Anseeuw, D. van der Westhuizen, and D. Nyange. 2019. “Are Medium-Scale Farms Driving Agricultural Transformation in Sub-Saharan Africa?” Agricultural Economics 50 (S1): 75–95.
Jayne, T. S., A. Wineman, J. Chamberlin, M. Muyanga, and F. K. Yeboah. 2022. “Changing Farm Size Distributions and Agricultural Transformation in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Annual Review of Resource Economics 14: 109–30.
Kremer, M., J. Willis, and Y. You. 2022. “Converging to Convergence.” NBER Macroeconomics Annual 36 (1): 337–412.
Lall, S. V., J. V. Henderson, and A. J. Venables. 2017. Africa’s Cities: Opening Doors to the World. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Lindert, J., O. S. von Ehrenstein, S. Priebe, A. Mielck, and E. Brähler. 2009. “Depression and Anxiety in Labor Migrants and Refugees—A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” Social Science & Medicine 69 (2): 246–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.04.032
Marchiori, L., J. F. Maystadt, and I. Schumacher. 2012. “The Impact of Weather Anomalies on Migration in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 63 (3): 355–74.
Masters, W. A., A. A. Djurfeldt, C. De Haan, P. Hazell, T. Jayne, M. Jirström, and T. Reardon. 2013. “Urbanization and Farm Size in Asia and Africa: Implications for Food Security and Agricultural Research.” Global Food Security 2 (3): 156–65.
Maystadt, J.-F., and P. Verwimp. 2014. “Winners and Losers among a Refugee-Hosting Population.” Economic Development and Cultural Change 62 (4): 769–809. https://doi.org/10.1086/676458
Migration Policy Centre. 2013. “MPC Migration Profile: Libya.” Migration Policy Centre, Washington, DC. https://migrationpolicycentre.eu.docs/migration_profiles/Libya.pdf
Mukim, M., and M. Roberts, eds. 2023. Thriving: Making Cities Green, Resilient, and Inclusive in a Changing Climate. Washington, DC: World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/entities /publication/7d290fa9-da18-53b6-a1a4-be6f7421d937.
Muyanga, M., and T. S. Jayne. 2019. “Revisiting the Farm Size‐Productivity Relationship Based on a Relatively Wide Range of Farm Sizes: Evidence from Kenya.” American Journal of Agricultural Economics 101 (4): 1140–63.
Pape, U. J., B. Petrini, and S. A. Iqbal. 2018. “Informing Durable Solutions by Micro-Data: A Skills Survey for Refugees in Ethiopia.” Working Paper 128185, World Bank, Washington, DC. https://documents .worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/996221531249711200/Informing -durable-solutions-by-micro-data-a-skills-survey-for-refugees-in-Ethiopia.
Peconga, E. K., and M. H. Thøgersen. 2020. “Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, Depression, and Anxiety in Adult Syrian Refugees: What Do We Know?” Scandinavian Journal of Public Health 48 (7): 677–87. https://doi.org/10.1177/1403494819882137.
Porter, M., and N. Haslam. 2005. “Predisplacement and Postdisplacement Factors Associated with Mental Health of Refugees and Internally Displaced Persons: A Meta-Analysis.” JAMA 294 (5): 602–12. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.294.5.602
Rahman, A., and M. Di Maio. 2020. The Private Sector amid Conflict: The Case of Libya. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Ravenstein, E. G. 1885. “The Laws of Migration.” Journal of the Statistical Society of London 48: 167–227. https://doi.org/10.2307/2979181.
Roberts, B. H., and G. O. Anyumba, eds. 2022. The Dynamics of Systems of Secondary Cities in Africa: Urbanisation, Migration and Development. Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire: Cities Alliance, African Development Bank.
Ruiz, I., and C. Vargas-Silva. 2015. “The Labor Market Impacts of Forced Migration.” American Economic Review 105 (5): 581–86. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.p20151110
Ruiz, I., and C. Vargas-Silva. 2016. “The Labour Market Consequences of Hosting Refugees.” Journal of Economic Geography 16 (3): 667–94. https://doi.org/10.1093/jeg/lbv019.
Sarzin, Z., and O. Nsababera. 2024. “Forced Displacement: A Stocktaking of Evidence.” Background paper prepared for this report. World Bank, Washington, DC.
Steel, Z., T. Chey, D. Silove, C. Marnane, R. A. Bryant, and M. van Ommeren. 2009. “Association of Torture and Other Potentially Traumatic Events with Mental Health Outcomes among Populations Exposed to Mass Conflict and Displacement: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” JAMA 302 (5): 537–49. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2009.1132
Stewart, J. Q. 1947. “Empirical Mathematical Rules Concerning the Distribution and Equilibrium of Population.” Geographical Review 37 (3): 461–85. https://doi.org/10.2307/211132.
Trisos, C. H., I. O. Adelekan, E. Totin, A. Ayanlade, J. Efitre, A. Gemeda, K. Kalaba, C. Lennard, C. Masao, Y. Mgaya, G. Ngaruiya, D. Olago, N. P. Simpson, and S. Zakieldeen. 2022. “Africa.” In Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, edited by H.-O. Pörtner, D. C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E. S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, and B. Rama, 1285–1455. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781009325844.011.
UN DESA (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs). 2018. “International Migrants Stock Database.” UN DESA, New York.
United Nations. 2022. World Population Prospects 2022. New York: Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations.
Urdal, H. 2006. “A Clash of Generations? Youth Bulges and Political Violence.” International Studies Quarterly 50 (3): 607–29.
WMO (World Meteorological Organization). 2023. State of the Climate in Africa 2022. Geneva: WMO.
World Bank. 2015a. Global Monitoring Report 2015/2016: Development Goals in an Era of Demographic Change. Washington, DC: World Bank.
World Bank. 2015b. South Africa Economic Update: Jobs and South Africa’s Changing Demographics. Issue No. 7. Washington, DC: World Bank.
World Bank. 2022. “The State of Global Learning Poverty: 2022 Update.” World Bank, Washington, DC. https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/34035a49acb5700ce8b118aeda81a5cb-0510022023/original /TheStateOfLearningPoverty-Feb2023Update-03-08-23.pdf
World Bank. 2023a. “Debt Sustainability Analysis (DSA) 2023.” World Bank, Washington, DC. https://www.worldbank.org/en/programs/debt-toolkit/dsa
World Bank. 2023b. “Delivering Growth to People through Better Jobs.” Africa’s Pulse 28 (October). World Bank, Washington, DC. doi:10.1596/978-1-4648-2043-4.
World Bank. 2024. The Great Reversal: Prospects, Risks, and Policies in International Development Association (IDA) Countries. Washington, DC: World Bank.
World Bank. Forthcoming a. Africa Poverty and Inequality Report. Washington, DC: World Bank.
World Bank. Forthcoming b. “Kenya Longitudinal Survey of Refugees and Host Communities: Building the Evidence Base on Self-Reliance in Kenya.” World Bank, Washington, DC.
Yonzan, N., D. M. Mahler, and C. Lakner. 2023. “Projecting Global Extreme Poverty: Updated Using PIP.” World Bank, Washington, DC.
Zaveri, E., J. Russ, A. Khan, R. Damania, E. Borgomeo, and A. Jägerskog. 2021. Ebb and Flow, Volume 1: Water, Migration, and Development. Washington, DC: World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1 -4648-1745-8
https://apps.who.int/nhwaportal, https://www.who.int/activities/(
.)improving-health-workforce-data-and-evidence
(https://kippra.or.ke/measures-to-ensure-the-safety-of-kenyan-domestic-
workers-in-the-middle-east/#:~:text=The%20Ministry%20of%20Foreign%20and,not%20
https://www.onetonline.org/link/summary/31-1122.00
(https://data.uis.unesco.org/index.aspx?queryid=3810
https://wbl.worldbank.org/en/data/exploretopics/wbl_gp
https://www.iom.int/news/
iom-deeply-saddened-deaths-27-migrants-including-children-chadian-desert.
Abarcar, P., and C. Theoharides. 2024. “Medical Worker Migration and Origin-Country Human Capital: Evidence from U.S. Visa Policy.” Review of Economics and Statistics 106 (1): 20–35. https://doi.org/10 .1162/rest_a_01131.
Acemoglu, D. 2024. “The Simple Macroeconomics of AI.” Working Paper No. 32487, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA.
Acemoglu, D., and P. Restrepo. 2022. “Demographics and Automation.” Review of Economic Studies 89 (1): 1–44. https://doi.org/10.1093/restud/rdab031
Adhikari, S., N. Cha’ngom, H. Kaila, and M. Shrestha. 2024. “Do Bilateral Labor Agreements Increase Migration? Global Evidence from 1960 to 2020.” Background paper prepared for this report. Policy Research Working Paper 11000, World Bank, Washington, DC.
Alix-Garcia, J., S. Walker, A. Bartlett, H. Onder, and A. Sanghi. 2018. “Do Refugee Camps Help or Hurt Hosts? The Case of Kakuma, Kenya.” Journal of Development Economics 130: 66–83.
Almutairi, A. 2018. “Labour Dispute Resolution Process and Its Impact on the Rights of Low-Skilled Temporary Foreign Workers in the Absence of a Labour Court in Saudi Legal System: A Critique.” International Law Research 7 (1): 199–212.
Atong, K., E. Mayah, and A. Odigie. 2018. “Africa Labour Migration to the GCC States: The Case of Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria and Uganda.” African Regional Organisation of the International Trade Union Confederation, Lomé, Togo. https://www.ituc-africa.org/IMG/pdf/ituc-africa_study-africa_labour migration_to_the_gcc_states.pdf.
Batalova, J., M. Fix, and S. Pierce. 2020. “Brain Waste among US Immigrants with Health Degrees: A Multi-State Profile.” Fact Sheet. Migration Policy Institute, Washington, DC.
Batista, C., A. Lacuesta, and P. C. Vicente. 2012. “Testing the ‘Brain Gain’ Hypothesis: Micro Evidence from Cape Verde.” Journal of Development Economics 97 (1): 32–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco .2011.01.005
Bhargava, A., and F. Docquier. 2008. “HIV Pandemic, Medical Brain Drain, and Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa.” World Bank Economic Review 22 (2): 345–66. https://doi.org/10.1093/wber/lhn005.
Bisong, A. 2021. “Regional Solutions: Regulating Recruitment and Protection of African Migrant Workers in the Gulf and the Middle East.” Discussion Paper 8, European Centre for Development Policy Management, Maastricht, Netherlands. https://ecdpm.org/application/files/2916/5546/8585/Regional -Solutions-Regulating-Recruitment-Protection-African-Migrant-Workers-Gulf-Middle-East-ECDPM -Discussion-Paper-292-2020.pdf
Blaydes, L. 2023. “Assessing the Labor Conditions of Migrant Domestic Workers in the Arab Gulf States.” Industrial and Labor Relations Review 76 (4): 724–47.
Bocquier, P., N. Cha’ngom, F. Docquier, and J. Machado. 2023. “The Within-Country Distribution of Brain Drain and Brain Gain Effects: A Case Study on Senegal.” Journal of Demographic Economics. doi:10.1017/dem.2023.27.
Carnegie Endowment. 2023. “What Are the Top Global Destinations for Higher Education for African Students?” Carnegie Endowment, Washington, DC. https://carnegieendowment.org/posts/2023/07 /what-are-the-top-global-destinations-for-higher-education-for-african-students?lang=en
Center for Global Development. 2021. “Global Skills Partnership Nursing in the Philippines.” Center for Global Development, Washington, DC.
Cha’ngom, N. 2024. “Effectiveness of Mass Regularization Policies in South Africa: The Case of Dispensation of Zimbabwean Project (DZP).” Background paper prepared for this report. World Bank, Washington, DC.
Chikezie, N. C., D. O. Shomuyiwa, E. A. Okoli, I. M. Onah, O. O. Adekoya, G. A. Owhor, and A. A. Abdulwahab. 2023. “Addressing the Issue of a Depleting Health Workforce in Sub-Saharan Africa.” The Lancet 401 (10389): 1649–50.
Chilton, A., and B. Woda. 2022. “The Expanding Universe of Bilateral Labor Agreements.” Theoretical Inquiries in Law 23 (2): 1–64.
Clemens, M. A. 2015. “Global Skill Partnerships: A Proposal for Technical Training in a Mobile World.” IZA Journal of Labor Policy 4 (1): 1–18.
Clemens, M. A. 2019. “Measuring the Spatial Misallocation of Labor: The Returns to India-Gulf Guest Work in a Natural Experiment.” SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3390083.
Clemens, M. A., C. E. Montenegro, and L. Pritchett. 2019. “The Place Premium: Bounding the Price Equivalent of Migration Barriers.” Review of Economics and Statistics 101 (2): 201–13. https://doi.org /10.1162/rest_a_00776
Clemens, M. A., and G. Pettersson. 2008. “New Data on African Health Professionals Abroad.” Human Resources for Health 6 (1): 1. https://doi.org/10.1186/1478-4491-6-1.
Clemens, M. A., and E. R. Tiongson. 2017. “Split Decisions: Household Finance When a Policy Discontinuity Allocates Overseas Work.” Review of Economics and Statistics 99 (3): 531–43. https://doi .org/10.1162/REST_a_00657
Coulibaly, M., J. Hoogeveen, and A. Savadogo. Forthcoming. “Fiscal Cost of Refugee Inclusion in Chad.” World Bank, Washington, DC.
Crush, J. 2022. “Xenophobia Denialism and the Global Compact for Migration in South Africa.” In Governing Migration for Development from the Global Souths, edited by D. E. Degila and V. M. Valle, 133–58. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill.
Crush, J., and B. Dodson. 2017. Harnessing Migration for Inclusive Growth and Development in Southern Africa. Ontario, Canada: Southern African Migration Programme.
d’Errico, M., D. M. Rama, R. Pietrelli, and F. C. Rosati. 2022. “Refugee-Host Proximity and Market Creation in Uganda.” Journal of Development Studies 58 (2): 213–33. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2021.1961749
Dempster, H., and L. Crawfurd. 2024. “UK Recruitment of Nigerian Nurses Can Be Win-Win.” Center for Global Development, Washington, DC. https://www.cgdev.org/blog/uk-recruitment-nigerian-nurses -can-be-win-win
Dia, I. A. 2022. “African Health Practitioner Migration and Mobility Study.” International Labour Organization, Geneva.
Dinkelman, T., G. Kumchulesi, and M. Mariotti. 2024. “Labor Migration, Capital Accumulation, and the Structure of Rural Labor Markets.” Review of Economics and Statistics (February): 1–46. https://doi.org /10.1162/rest_a_01419
Dinkelman, T., and M. Mariotti. 2016. “The Long-Run Effects of Labor Migration on Human Capital Formation in Communities of Origin.” American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 8 (4): 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.20150405
Do, Q. T., A. A. Levchenko, S. Sotelo, and R. D. Zarate. 2024. “Population Aging and International Migration.” Background paper prepared for this report. World Bank, Washington, DC.
Dupas, P., C. Falezan, M. C. Mabeu, and P. Rossi. 2023. “Long-Run Impacts of Forced Labor Migration on Fertility Behaviors: Evidence from Colonial West Africa.” Working Paper 31993, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA.
Eastwood, J. B., R. E. Conroy, S. Naicker, P. A. West, R. C. Tutt, and J. Plange-Rhule. 2005. “Loss of Health Professionals from Sub-Saharan Africa: The Pivotal Role of the UK.” The Lancet 365 (9474): 1893–1900. EPRS (European Parliamentary Research Service). 2021. “Legal Migration Policy and Law: Annex I to the European Value Added Assessment.” EPRS, Brussels, Belgium. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData /etudes/STUD/2021/694211/EPRS_STU(2021)694211(ANN1)_EN.pdf.
Fernando, N., and N. Singh. Forthcoming. “Regulation by Reputation? Intermediaries, Labor Abuses, and International Migration.” Review of Economics and Statistics.
Filmer, D., H. Rogers, N. Angrist, and S. Sabarwal. 2020. “Learning-Adjusted Years of Schooling (LAYS): Defining a New Macro Measure of Education.” Economics of Education Review 77: 101971.
Gaikwad, N., K. Hanson, and A. Tóth. 2022. “How Overseas Opportunities Shape Political Preferences: A Field Experiment on International Migration.” Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3816464 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3816464.
Ginn, T., R. Resstack, H. Dempster, E. Arnold-Fernández, S. Miller, M. Guerrero Ble, and B. Kanyamanza. 2022. “2022 Global Refugee Work Rights Report.” Center for Global Development, Asylum Access, and Refugees International, Washington, DC. https://www.cgdev.org/publication/2022-global-refugee-work -rights-report
Hongoro, C., and B. McPake. 2004. “How to Bridge the Gap in Human Resources for Health.” The Lancet 364 (9443): 1451–56.
Ibáñez, A. M., A. Moya, M. A. Ortega, S. V. Rozo, and M. J. Urbina. 2024. “Life out of the Shadows: The Impacts of Regularization Programs on the Lives of Forced Migrants.” Journal of the European Economic Association. https://doi.org/10.1093/jeea/jvae044.
ILO (International Labour Organization). 2021. Making Decent Work a Reality for Domestic Workers: Progress and Prospects Ten Years after the Adoption of the Domestic Workers Convention, 2011 (No. 189). Geneva: ILO. https://www.ilo.org/media/384766/download
IOM (International Organization for Migration). 2019. “Ghanaian Domestic Workers in the Middle East— Summary Report.” IOM, Geneva. https://www.iom.int/sites/g/files/tmzbdl486/files/country/docs/ghana /iom_ghana_domestic_workers_report_summary-finr.pdf
IOM (International Organization for Migration). 2023. Region on the Move: Regional Mobility Report for the Middle East and North Africa 2021–2022. Cairo: IOM. https://publications.iom.int/books/region -move-regional-mobility-report-middle-east-and-north-africa-2021-2022.
IOM (International Organization for Migration). 2024. Africa Migration Report. 2nd ed. Geneva: IOM. https://publications.iom.int/books/africa-migration-report-second-edition.
Ivins, C. P., A. Liang, N. D. Serfontein, P. H. Schneider, and T. C. Matsebula. 2022. “The Future of Medical Work in Southern Africa.” Health, Nutrition, and Population Discussion Paper, World Bank, Washington, DC.
Ivlevs, A., M. Nikolova, and C. Graham. 2019. “Emigration, Remittances, and the Subjective Well-Being of Those Staying Behind.” Journal of Population Economics 32: 113–51.
Khanna, G., and N. Morales. 2021. “The IT Boom and Other Unintended Consequences of Chasing the American Dream.” Working Paper, Center for Global Development, Washington, DC. http://www -personal.umich.edu/~moralesn/Khanna%20Morales.pdf.
Khanna, G., E. Murathanoglu, C. B. Theoharides, and D. Yang. 2022. “Abundance from Abroad: Migrant Income and Long-Run Economic Development.” Working Paper 29862, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA. http://www.nber.org/papers/w29862
KNOMAD (Global Knowledge Partnership on Migration and Development). 2022. “Migration and the Law Project: From Immigration to Integration.” World Bank, Washington, DC.
McKenzie, D., S. Stillman, and J. Gibson. 2010. “How Important Is Selection? Experimental vs. Non-Experimental Measures of the Income Gains from Migration.” Journal of the European Economic Association 8 (4): 913–45. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1542-4774.2010 .tb00544.x.
Mobarak, A. M., I. Sharif, and M. Shrestha. 2023. “Returns to International Migration: Evidence from a Bangladesh-Malaysia Visa Lottery.” American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 15 (4): 353–88. https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/app.20220258
Naidu, S., Y. Nyarko, and S.-Y. Wang. 2016. “Monopsony Power in Migrant Labor Markets: Evidence from the United Arab Emirates.” Journal of Political Economy 124 (6): 1735–92. https://doi.org/10.1086 /688877.
OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). 2018. “How Immigrants Contribute to South Africa’s Economy.” OECD, Paris. https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/9789264085398-en .pdf?expires=1714346104&id=id&accname=ocid195787&checksum=8BD1180F8AA3418758A845D09 8C496F4
OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). 2022. International Migration Outlook. 46th ed. Paris: OECD. https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/30fe16d2-en.pdf?expires =1718824593&id=id&accname=ocid195787&checksum=E43062F81A69E543CC306E9265A601B
OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). 2023. “Health at a Glance 2023: OECD Indicators.” OECD, Paris. https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/content/publication/7a7afb35-en.
Ratha, D., V. Chandra, E. J. Kim, S. Plaza, and A. Mahmood. 2024. “Remittances Slowed in 2023, Expected to Grow Faster in 2024.” KNOMAD-World Bank, Washington, DC. https://knomad.org/sites/default /files/publication-doc/migration-and-development-brief-40_2.pdf
Salem, A., and A. A. Seck. 2022. “En Route: The French Colonial Army, Emigration, and Development in Morocco.” Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
Sanghi, A., H. Onder, and V. Vemuru. 2016. “Yes in My Backyard: The Economics of Refugees and Their Social Dynamics in Kakuma, Kenya.” World Bank, Washington, DC.
Sarzin, Z., and O. Nsababera. 2024. “Forced Displacement: A Stocktaking of Evidence.” Background paper for World Development Report 2023: Migrants, Refugees, and Societies. World Bank, Washington, DC.
Scheffler, R. M., and D. R. Arnold. 2019. “Projecting Shortages and Surpluses of Doctors and Nurses in the OECD: What Looms Ahead.” Health Economics, Policy and Law 14 (2): 274–90. https://doi.org/10.1017 /S174413311700055X
Shrestha, M. 2017. “The Impact of Large-Scale Migration on Poverty, Expenditures, and Labor Market Outcomes in Nepal.” Policy Research Working Paper 8232, World Bank, Washington, DC.
Shrestha, S. A. 2017. “No Man Left Behind: Effects of Emigration Prospects on Educational and Labour Outcomes of Non‐Migrants.” Economic Journal 127 (600): 495–521. https://doi.org/10.1111 /ecoj.12306.
Theoharides, C. 2020. “The Unintended Consequences of Migration Policy on Origin-Country Labor Market Decisions.” Special Issue on Papers from 10th AFD–World Bank Development Conference, Centre d’Etudes et de Recherches sur le Développement International, Clermont-Ferrand, France, June 30–July 1, 2017, 142 (January): 102271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2018.07.012
UN DESA (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division). 2020. “International Migrant Stock 2020.” UN DESA, New York. https://www.un.org/development/desa/pd /content/international-migrant-stock.
UN DESA (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division). 2022. “World Population Prospects 2022.” UN DESA, New York. https://population.un.org/wpp/.
UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees). 2023. “Funding UNHCR’s Programmes.” Global Report 2023. UNHCR, Geneva. https://reporting.unhcr.org/sites/default/files/2024-09/Global %20Report%202023%20-%20Funding%20Overview.pdf
United Nations. 2021. “Tunisia and Libya: UN Experts Condemn Collective Expulsion and Deplorable Living Conditions of Migrants.” United Nations, New York. https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases /2021/11/tunisia-and-libya-un-experts-condemn-collective-expulsion-and-deplorable.
United Nations. 2022. “South Africa ‘on the Precipice of Explosive Xenophobic Violence,’ UN Experts Warn.” United Nations, New York. https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/07/1122612
United Nations. 2023. “Libya: Urgent Action Needed to Remedy Deteriorating Human Rights Situation, UN Fact-Finding Mission Warns in Final Report.” United Nations, New York. https://www.ohchr.org/en /press-releases/2023/03/libya-urgent-action-needed-remedy-deteriorating-human-rights-situation-un
US BLS (United States Bureau of Labor Statistics). 2024. “Employment Projections 2022–32.” US BLS, Washington, DC. https://www.bls.gov/emp/tables/fastest-growing-occupations.htm.
WHO (World Health Organization). 2021. The State of the Health Workforce in the WHO African Region, 2021. Brazzaville, Republic of Congo: WHO Regional Office for Africa.
WHO (World Health Organization). 2023a. WHO Health Workforce Support and Safeguards List 2023 Geneva: WHO.
WHO (World Health Organization). 2023b. WHO Report on Global Health Worker Mobility. Geneva: WHO.
WHO (World Health Organization). 2024. “Bilateral Agreements on Health Worker Migration and Mobility: Maximizing Health System Benefits and Safeguarding Health Workforce Rights and Welfare through Fair and Ethical International Recruitment.” WHO, Geneva.
Wibulpolprasert, S., and P. Pengpaibon. 2003. “Integrated Strategies to Tackle the Inequitable Distribution of Doctors in Thailand: Four Decades of Experience.” Human Resources for Health 1: 12.
World Bank. 2019. “Informing the Refugee Policy Response in Uganda.” World Bank, Washington, DC. https://doi.org/10.1596/32511
World Bank. 2023a. “Remittance Prices Worldwide.” World Bank, Washington, DC. http://remittanceprices .worldbank.org.
World Bank. 2023b. World Development Report 2023: Migrants, Refugees, and Societies. Washington, DC: World Bank.
World Bank and UNHCR (World Bank and United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees). 2023. Labor Market Access and Outcomes for Refugees. JDC Quarterly Digest, Seventh Issue, January. https://www.jointdatacenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/JDC-Quarterly-Digest January-2023.pdf
World Bank and UNHCR (World Bank and United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees). Forthcoming. “Economic Participation and the Global Cost of International Assistance in Support of Refugee Subsistence Needs.” World Bank, Washington, DC.
Yang, D. 2008. “International Migration, Remittances and Household Investment: Evidence from Philippine Migrants’ Exchange Rate Shocks.” Economic Journal 118 (528): 591–630.
Zahra, M. 2014. “The Legal Framework of the Sponsorship Systems of Qatar, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait: A Comparative Examination.” Technical Report, GLMM, Explanatory note, Migration Policy Centre, Fiesole, Italy. https://cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/handle/1814/32250/GLMM_ExpNote_07-2014 .pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
.https://africacdc.org/ and https://au-afcfta.org/ .2 .https://www.iom.int/regional-ministerial-forum-migration-east-and-horn-africa-rmfm .3 https://www.eeas.europa.eu/delegations/botswana/southern-africa-migration-management-project- .4 samm-%E2%80%93-2021-2024_el; https://trust-fund-for-africa.europa.eu/our-programmes/ .towards-holistic-approach-labour-migration-governance-and-labour-mobility-north-africa_en
https://help.unhcr.org/algeria/unhcr-in-algeria/ and :رئازجلا
https://reporting.unhcr.org/operational/operations/algeria#toc-populations https://www.acm.gov.pt/ru/-/como-posso-frequentar-um-curso-de-lingua-portuguesa-para- 18 https://www.acm.gov.pt/-/projeto-one-stop-shopو estrangeiros 2024
data.uis.unesco.org
https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCODE-2011-title42/html/
.USCODE-2011-title42-chap6A-subchapII-partG-sec265.htm
https://www.dhs.gov/news/2023/04/27/fact-sheet-us-government-announces-
sweeping-new-actions-manage-regional-migration; https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/USCODE2011-title42/html/USCODE-2011-title42-chap6A-subchapII-partG-sec265.htm
https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/aufenthg_2004/__60d.html
AfDB (African Development Bank). 2023. “Project Appraisal Report: Streamlining Diaspora Engagement to Catalyze Private Investments & Entrepreneurship for Enhanced Resilience (SDE4R).” AfDB, Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire. https://www.afdb.org/en/documents/multinational-streamlining-diaspora-engagement -catalyze-private-investments-entrepreneurship-enhanced-resilience-sde4r-project-appraisal-report.
Andersson, H. 2020. “Ethnic Enclaves, Self-Employment, and the Economic Performance of Refugees: Evidence from a Swedish Dispersal Policy.” International Migration Review 55 (1): 58–83.
Atamanov, A., J. Hoogeveen, and B. Reese. 2024. “The Costs Come before the Benefits.” Policy Research Working Paper 10679, World Bank, Washington, DC.
Bah, T., C. Batista, F. Gubert, and D. McKenzie. 2023. “Can Information and Alternatives to Irregular Migration Reduce ‘Backway’ Migration from The Gambia?” Journal of Development Economics 165: 103153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2023.103153.
Baird, S., D. McKenzie, and B. Özler. 2018. “The Effects of Cash Transfers on Adult Labor Market Outcomes.” IZA Journal of Development and Migration 8: 1–20.
BAMF (Bundesamt für Migration und Flüchtlinge, Federal Office for Migration and Refugees, Germany). 2022. “Initial Distribution of Asylum-Seekers (EASY).” Asylum and Refugee Protection. BAMF, Nuremberg, Germany. https://www.bamf.de/EN/Themen/AsylFluechtlings schutz/AblaufAsylverfahrens /Erstverteilung/erstver teilung-node.html
Bansak, K., J. Ferwerda, J. Hainmueller, A. Dillon, D. Hangartner, D. Lawrence, and J. Weinstein. 2018. “Improving Refugee Integration through Data-Driven Algorithmic Assignment.” Science 359 (6373): 325–29.
Bazzi, S., L. Cameron, S. G. Schaner, and F. Witoelar. 2021. “Information, Intermediaries, and International Migration.” Working Paper No. 29588, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA. https://doi.org/10.3386/w29588.
Betts, A., I. Chaara, N. Omata, and O. Sterck. 2019. “Refugee Economies in Uganda: What Difference Does the Self-Reliance Model Make?” Refugee Studies Centre, University of Oxford, UK.
Bloemraad, I., V. M. Esses, W. Kymlicka, and Y. Y. Zhou. 2023. “Unpacking Immigrant Integration: Concepts, Mechanisms, and Context.” Background paper for World Development Report 2023: Migrants, Refugees, and Societies. World Bank, Washington, DC.
Cha’ngom, N. 2024. “Effectiveness of Mass Regularization Policies in South Africa: Evidence from the Dispensation of Zimbabwean Project (DZP).” Background paper prepared for this report. World Bank, Washington, DC.
Clemens, M., C. Huang, and J. Graham. 2018. “The Economic and Fiscal Effects of Granting Refugees Formal Labor Market Access.” Working Paper 496, Center for Global Development, Washington, DC.
Clement, V., K. K. Rigaud, A. de Sherbinin, B. Jones, S. Adamo, J. Schewe, N. Sadiq, and E. Shabahat. 2021. Groundswell Part 2: Acting on Internal Climate Migration. Washington, DC: World Bank. http://hdl.handle.net/10986/36248
de Brauw, A., B. Kramer, and M. Murphy. 2021. “Migration, Labor and Women’s Empowerment: Evidence from an Agricultural Value Chain in Bangladesh.” World Development 142: 105445.
Do, Q.-T., A. Levchenko, S. Sotelo, and R. D. Zarate. 2024. “Population Aging and Immigration.”
Background paper prepared for this report. World Bank, Washington, DC.
Eckert, F., M. Hejlesen, and C. Walsh. 2022. “The Return to Big-City Experience: Evidence from Refugees in Denmark.” Journal of Urban Economics 130: 103454. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jue.2022.103454
European Migration Network. 2014. “Synthesis Report—Migrant Access to Social Security and Healthcare: Policies and Practice.” European Migration Network, European Commission, Brussels, Belgium. https://emn.ie/files/p_201407070444042014_synthesis_report_migrant_access_to_social security.pdf.
European Union. 2023. “SMEs and Skills Shortages.” European Union, Brussels, Belgium. https://europa .eu/eurobarometer/surveys/detail/2961
Fabbri, C., H. Stöckl, K. Jones, H. Cook, C. Galez-Davis, N. Grant, Y. Lo, and C. Zimmerman. 2023. “Labor Recruitment and Human Trafficking: Analysis of a Global Trafficking Survivor Database.” International Migration Review 57 (2): 629–51.
Fernando, N., and N. Singh. Forthcoming. “Regulation by Reputation? Intermediaries, Labor Abuses, and International Migration.” Review of Economics and Statistics. FSB (Financial Stability Board). 2023. G20 Roadmap for Enhancing Cross-border Payments. Consolidated Progress Report for 2023. Basel, Switzerland: FSB. https://www.fsb.org/wp-content/uploads/P091023-2.pdf. GCA (Global Center on Adaptation). 2024. “Rapid Climate Risk Assessment: Djibouti City, Djibouti.” GCA, Rotterdam, Netherlands.
Ginn, T., and H. Dempster. 2024. “Will the Window for Host Communities and Refugees Survive ‘SimplifIDA’?” Center for Global Development, Washington, DC. https://www.cgdev.org/blog/will -window-host-communities-and-refugees-survive-simplifida
Government of Italy, Ministry of Labor and Social Policies. 2023. Implementation Modalities for Vocational and Civil-Linguistic Training Programs and Criteria for Their Evaluation. Rome: Government of Italy. https://www.lavoro.gov.it/temi-e-priorita-immigrazione/focus/linee-guida-programmi-di-formazione -professionale-civico.
Holzmann, R. 2016. “Bilateral Social Security Agreements and Pensions Portability: A Study of Four Migrant Corridors between EU and Non-EU Countries.” International Social Security Review 69 (3–4): 109–30.
Ibourk, A. 2020. “Exploring the Potential for Skills Partnerships on Migration in West Africa and Sahel.” International Labour Organization, Geneva.
IFC (International Finance Corporation). 2024. “The Kakuma Kalobeyei Challenge Fund.” IFC, Washington, DC. https://kkcfke.org/.
ILO (International Labour Organization). 2021. “Extending Social Protection to Migrant Workers, Refugees and Their Families: A Guide for Policymakers and Practitioners.” ILO, Geneva.
ILO and IOM (International Labour Organization and International Organization for Migration). 2019. “Tool for the Assessment of Bilateral Labour Migration Agreements: Pilot-Tested in the African Region.” ILO/IOM Project Towards Comprehensive Global Guidance on Developing and Implementing Bilateral Labour Migration Arrangements (BLMAs): Unpacking Key Obstacles to Implementation in the African Region. ILO, Geneva. https://www.ilo.org/publications/tool-assessment-bilateral-labour -migration-agreements-pilot-tested-african
IOM (International Organization for Migration). 2016. Migration Information Centre Opens in Ghana’s Brong Ahafo Region. Geneva: IOM. https://www.iom.int/news/migration-information-centre-opens -ghanas-brong-ahafo-region.
IOM (International Organization for Migration). 2019. 10,000 Ghanaian Youth Learn about Pitfalls of Irregular Migration. Geneva: IOM. https://www.iom.int/news/10000-ghanaian-youth-learn-about -pitfalls-irregular-migration
IOM (International Organization for Migration). 2024. Africa Migration Report. 2nd ed. Geneva: IOM. https://publications.iom.int/books/africa-migration-report-second-edition.
Leighton, M. 2024. “Overview of Methods of Collaboration on African Migration beyond the Continent.” Background paper prepared for this report. World Bank, Washington, DC.
Maitra, P., and S. Mani. 2017. “Learning and Earning: Evidence from a Randomized Evaluation in India.” Labour Economics 45: 116–30.
Mobarak, A. M., I. Sharif, and M. Shrestha. 2023. “Returns to International Migration: Evidence from a Bangladesh-Malaysia Visa Lottery.” American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 15 (4): 353–88. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.20220258
OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). 2022. International Migration Outlook. 46th ed. Paris: OECD. https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/30fe16d2-en.pdf?expires =1718824593&id=id&accname=ocid195787&checksum=E43062F81A69E543CC306E9265A601B.
OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). 2023. “Health at a Glance 2023: OECD Indicators.” OECD, Paris. https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/content/publication/7a7afb35-en
Ratha, D., V. Candra, E. Kim, S. Plaza, and W. Shaw. 2023. “Migration and Development Brief 39: Leveraging Diaspora Finances for Private Capital Mobilization.” World Bank, Washington, DC.
RCCC (Red Cross Climate Center). 2023. “Climate Crisis and Conflict Push More People to Drought-Stricken Djibouti.” RCCC, The Hague, Netherlands.
Rossiasco, P., and P. de Narváez. 2023. “Adapting Public Policies in Responses to an Unprecedented Influx of Refugees and Migrants: Colombia Case Study of Migration from Venezuela.” Background paper for World Development Report 2023: Migrants, Refugees, and Societies. World Bank, Washington, DC.
Sarzin, Z., and O. Nsababera. 2024. “Forced Displacement: A Stocktaking of Evidence.” Background paper prepared for this report. World Bank, Washington, DC.
Shrestha, M. 2020. “‘Get Rich or Die Tryin’: Perceived Earnings, Perceived Mortality Rates, and Migration Decisions of Potential Work Migrants from Nepal.” World Bank Economic Review 34 (1): 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1093/wber/lhz023.
Signorelli, S. 2024. “Do Skilled Migrants Compete with Native Workers? Analysis of a Selective Immigration Policy.” Journal of Human Resources 59 (5): 0922-12535R3. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr .0922-12535R3
Soto-Mayor, G. 2024. “Libya, Tunisia, and Niger as Case Studies for Counter-Productive Anti-Migration Policies.” Middle East Institute, Washington, DC.
Svensson, J. 2000. “Foreign Aid and Rent-Seeking.” Journal of International Economics 51 (2): 437–61.
UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees). 2022. Global Report. Geneva: UNHCR. UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees). 2024. “UNHCR Response to Media Inquiries Related to the UK-Rwanda Asylum Partnership.” UNHCR, Geneva. https://www.unhcr.org/africa/news /press-releases/unhcr-response-media-inquiries-related-uk-rwanda-asylum-partnership#:~:text =UNHCR%20has%20been%20consistently%20clear,decisions%20and%20for%20protecting%20refugees
United Nations. 2021. “Tunisia and Libya: UN Experts Condemn Collective Expulsion and Deplorable Living Conditions of Migrants.” United Nations, New York. https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases /2021/11/tunisia-and-libya-un-experts-condemn-collective-expulsion-and-deplorable#:~:text=UN%20 human%20rights%20experts*%20today,to%20dangerous%20conditions%20in%20Libya
United Nations. 2022. “Common Situational Analysis—Education and Health Services for Migrants and Refugees in Egypt.” Joint Platform for Migrants and Refugees in Egypt, United Nations, Cairo, Egypt.
UNODC (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime). 2015. “The Role of Recruitment Fees and Abusive and Fraudulent Recruitment Practices of Recruitment Agencies in Trafficking in Persons.” UNODC, Vienna, Austria.
US BLS (US Bureau of Labor Statistics). 2024. “Employment Projections 2022–32.” US BLS, Washington, DC. https://www.bls.gov/emp/tables/fastest-growing-occupations.htm.
US Embassy in Algeria. 2023. “2023 Trafficking in Persons Report: Algeria.” US Embassy in Algeria, El Biar, Algeria. https://dz.usembassy.gov/wp-content/uploads/sites/236/2023-Trafficking-in-Persons -Report-Algeria.pdf.
Washington Post. 2024. “With Europe’s Support, North African Nations Push Migrants to the Desert.” Washington Post, May 20. https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/interactive/2024/eu-migrant-north -africa-mediterranean/
World Bank. 2013. “Ethiopia Economic Update II: Laying the Foundation for Achieving Middle Income Status.” World Bank, Washington, DC.
World Bank. 2017. Forcibly Displaced: Toward a Development Approach Supporting Refugees, the Internally Displaced, and Their Hosts. Washington, DC: World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-0938-5
World Bank. 2018a. Asylum Seekers in the European Union: Building Evidence to Inform Policy Making. Washington, DC: World Bank.
World Bank. 2018b.“Ethiopia Program-For-Results/Investment Project Financing Economic Opportunities Program.” Program-for-Results Information Document Appraisal Stage Report No. PIDA 0151612, World Bank, Washington, DC.
World Bank. 2018c. “Migration from Venezuela to Colombia: Short- and Medium-Term Impact and Response Strategy.” World Bank, Bogotá, Colombia. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle /10986/30651
World Bank. 2020. “Internationalisation de l’enseignement supérieur dans la région Moyen-Orient Afrique du Nord.” World Bank, Washington, DC. https://www.cmimarseille.org/sites/default/files/newsite /updated_french_online_tertiary_education_report_2_0.pdf.
World Bank. 2021a. “Recovery and Advancement of Informal Sector Employment.” International Development Association Project Appraisal Document PAD4065. World Bank, Washington, DC.
World Bank. 2021b. “Window for Host Communities and Refugees.” World Bank, Washington, DC. https://ida.worldbank.org/en/replenishments/ida19-replenishment/windows-host-communities -refugees
World Bank. 2022a. “10 Things to Know about the Window for Host Communities and Refugees.” World Bank, Washington, DC. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/factsheet/2022/10/28/10-things-to -know-about-the-window-for-host-communities-and-refugees.
World Bank. 2022b. “Enhancing Labor Mobility from Papua New Guinea.” International Development Association Project Appraisal Document PAD4342. World Bank, Washington, DC.
World Bank. 2023a. “Harmonizing and Improving Statistics in West and Central Africa.” HISWACA— SOP 1 Project Appraisal Document PAD5154 (SADC) Regional Statistics Project Appraisal Document PAD5178. World Bank, Washington, DC.
World Bank. 2023b. “SADC Regional Statistics Project Appraisal Document.” PAD5178. World Bank, Washington, DC.
World Bank. 2023c. World Development Report 2023: Migrants, Refugees, and Societies. Washington, DC: World Bank.
World Bank. 2024. “International Mobility as a Development Strategy: Bosnia and Herzegovina Country Report.” World Bank, Washington, DC.
http://www.worldbank.org/corporateresponsibility

ISBN 978-1-4648-2211-7