1 Introduction

South Sudan faces hard times ahead. For decades prior to independence, the country experienced conflict, marginalization, and underdevelopment, which led to a protracted humanitarian crisis and prevented the development of human and natural capital. Since independence in 2011, South Sudan has experienced generalized chronic instability and a protracted civil war resulting in hundreds of thousands of fatalities and displacement of at least 4 million people, with more than 2 million fleeing to neighboring countries, and at least 2 million internally displaced. Now, as the country grapples with unprecedented levels of food insecurity caused by conflict, political interference, climate shocks, COVID-19 (coronavirus), and rising global food prices, millions are in need of humanitarian assistance and at risk of famine. Populations continue to be displaced by violence, insecurity, and natural hazards. Weak governance, low levels of government transparency, and the isolation of key leaders and ethno-political groups from power-sharing arrangements are some of the risks to the country’s fragile institutions and transition toward stability. As populations grow and geopolitical conditions change, the country’s vast and unique natural assets are once again gaining increasing attention from regional and global powers. What is water’s role in these dynamics? Can water sector investments support South Sudan’s efforts to recover from decades of conflict and strengthen the resilience of its communities?

This report addresses these questions and shows that water, if successfully managed, can bolster South Sudan’s economic recovery and stability prospects. On the other hand, water’s destructive force also means that it can cause loss of lives and livelihoods and hinder the transition toward economic and political stability. Water sector policies and institutional frameworks to harness water’s productive potential date to the era before independence, but implementation has been limited because of the eruption of civil war and prolonged conflict. Following the Revitalized Agreement on the Resolution of the Conflict in the Republic of South Sudan, the country now has an opportunity to embark on a reform and investment program to address structural water challenges and move beyond the emergency humanitarian aid response that has steered water sector interventions for the past decade. A comprehensive and long-term development approach to water sector challenges in South Sudan—aligned with the 2021–2024 Revised National Development Strategy (Government of South Sudan and United Nations Development Programme 2021)—is urgently needed to adapt to a changing climate and provide sustainable services. To facilitate growth and livelihoods, South Sudan needs to act decisively on water.

This report builds on novel data and analysis to assess water security and its potential to contribute to human development and resilient livelihoods in South Sudan. The report highlights the complex interactions between water and selected key outcomes in the human, social, and political spheres. In doing so, it does not aim to provide a comprehensive picture of all the water-related impacts in South Sudan, but rather to highlight key areas where water-related risks and opportunities intersect with human development, social inclusion, and community resilience. The report seeks to elevate water security as an issue critical for national development and stability, and not just a humanitarian need as it has been considered in the past decade.

The report follows existing frameworks to analyze water security and adapts them to the context of South Sudan (Sadoff et al. 2015; Sadoff, Borgomeo, and de Waal 2017). Water security can be thought of as the goal of water management, and definitions of water security typically recognize the need for water management to (a) harness water’s productive potential for human well-being, livelihoods, and ecosystems; and (b) protect societies, economies, and ecosystems from the destructive impacts of water such as water-borne diseases, floods, and droughts (Grey and Sadoff 2007; UN Water 2013). Building on this understanding of water security, this report examines South Sudan’s status in three key areas: water security for people, water security for production, and water security for protection.

The report then analyzes how these three core areas of water security relate to broader water risks and impacts for communities and society. In particular, the report focuses on the influence of water security on human development (health and nutrition), conflict, gender, and forced displacement (figure 1.1). Although these aspects clearly cover only a part of the complex interactions between the water sector and the country’s economic, social, and environmental challenges, they were selected given their relevance to the country’s fragile context and alignment with the focus of South Sudan’s Revised National Development Strategy 2021–2024 on consolidating peace and stabilizing the economy. Broader links with macro-economic performance, trade, transport, and energy policy are not considered because of lack of data and because of the report’s focus on human well-being and community resilience.

The report is structured as follows:

• Chapter 1 provides an overview of South Sudan’s water sector and serves as an introduction to the topics that are explored in more detail in the following chapters.

• Chapter 2 examines South Sudan’s key water security challenges, grouping them into three main areas: water security for people, water security for production, and water security for protection.