8
l
FROM JOBS TO CAREERS
That said, significant evidence is emerging that suggests that apparel employment can be associated with female empowerment. But whether it represents a transition from jobs to careers has not been explored. THE “FEMINIZATION U HYPOTHESIS” Economic development is closely related to female empowerment and specifically to labor participation. Since the 1960s, numerous researchers have stylized the “U-shaped” pattern found between female labor force participation (FLFP) and development (as evidenced by GDP per capita). Figure 1.2 illustrates what is now often called the “feminization U hypothesis”—that is, that FLFP first declines and then rises with the socioeconomic development process (Sinha 1967; Goldin 1995). FLFP rates are high in poor countries because of the share of women engaging in subsistence activities, especially certain types of agriculture, as paid or unpaid workers on family farms. As countries industrialize, FLFP rates fall in middle-income countries, and the upward slope is characterized by growth in services, which opens opportunities for women and is accompanied by declining fertility rates and expansion of education for women.
FIGURE 1.2 Incidence of the U-Shaped Relationship between FLFP and National Income, 2017 100
80
KHM
FLFP (%)
VNM 60 US 40
BGD LKA
PAK
20
TUR
EGY
0 5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Log of GDP per capita (current US dollars) Sources: International Labour Organization model estimates and World Development Indicators data. Note: The data cover 176 countries across all regions and income groups. The polynomial trend is not the best trend, because of outliers. ISO alpha-3 codes designate the seven case study countries: Bangladesh (BGD), Cambodia (KHM), the Arab Republic of Egypt (EGY), Pakistan (PAK), Sri Lanka (LKA), Turkey (TUR), and Vietnam (VNM). FLFP = female labor force participation; ISO = International Standards Organization; US = United States.
