Hello and welcome to the Spring 2025 issue of the GAIA magazine!
This issue has been in production for 3 Months so we hope that you enjoy the selection of articles that we have to offer. We would like to give a huge thanks to all those who have written articles for the magazine this term and to our fantastic team of editors who have been dedicated to making this magazine a success. Additionally, a thank you is owed to Silvia Marques who runs the GAIA society and has helped us along the entire production of this issue. As chief editors of the GAIA magazine, we are so grateful for the work our team has put into this year’s second issue and hope to deliver you an amazing Summer Issue in July. Gaia society has gone above and beyond this terms hosting multiple events, notably including the Bake sale which was a major success. So please sit down, grab a cup of Tea and enjoy everything our Magazine has to offer!
Luisa Hughes and Callum Smith
Pg. 2 Note from the Chief Editors
Pg. 3 Contents Page
Pg. 4 About GAIA
Pg. 5-7
Pg. 8-10
The rise and fall of the Roman Empire. By Sarah Kelly
The significance of Ancient Woodlands. By Isabelle Miller
Pg. 11 ………………………………………..…………..……………… The life of Socrates. By Keisha Ainsworth
Pg. 12. History Quiz
Pg. 13 Geography Quiz
Pg. 14 Geography Connections
Pg.15-16 ………….……..Why do humans like Volcanic Regions. By Aoife Grass & Georgia Fanning
Pg. 17-18
Hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic 1923. By Amelia Hunter
Pg. 19-20 ……………………………..…….…………...…. Roman Beliefs and Religion. By Gabriel Cayworth
Pg. 21-22
Latin Art & Culture. By Mia Green
Pg. 23-24 How King Leopold seized the Congo. By Harry Caygill
Pg. 25-26 Trump’s Second Presidential Term. By Lilly McManus
PG. 27-28 Roman Gladiators. By Rosaline Williams
Pg. 29 Riddle of the Term!
Pg. 30-31 …………….……… What was the role and life of women in Ancient Rome? By Sarah Kelly
Pg. 32-33
Pg. 34-35
Influence of Theatre on roman Culture. By Charlotte Raynor
The Roman Empire is arguably one of the world’s most influential political entities ever, known for its achievements in law, government, architecture, and engineering. Whilst the Empire can be seen to have drawn on many elements of Greek Culture, the developments of the Roman Empire have undeniably shaped the Western world. The Empire itself was established in 27 BCE after the fall of the Roman Republic, expanding via military conquest and diplomacy through Europe, North Africa, and parts of Asia. But the question remains: how did this Empire come to be, and ultimately, how did it fail?
According to Roman mythology, Rome was founded by Romulus and Remus in 753 BCE. Whilst it is not certain if this is historically accurate, archaeological evidence does suggest that Rome emerged as a city at this time. Later, in 509 BCE, the Roman monarchy was overthrown, and the Roman Republic was established. This was a system of government where power was held by elected officials, including two consuls, a Senate, and popular assemblies. By adopting this new political structure, Rome was able to expand its influence and control the Italian peninsula (including the conquest of Rome between the 5th and 3rd centuries BCE).
It would be then nearly 300 years since the conquest of Rome, when the transition from Republic to Empire would take place, and this can largely be attributed to Julius Caesar. Caesar was a military general and statesman, who was able to expand Rome’s territories (most notably in Gaul, modern-day France) through many military campaigns. In 49 BCE, Caesar crossed the Rubicon River, which was directly defying the Senate’s order to disband his army. This would spark a civil war, where Caesar would emerge victorious and take the role of dictator. However, it would be cut short by his assassination in 44 BCE.
Following the assassination of Caesar, the triumvirate of Mark Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian (Caesar’s nephew) ruled. However, this resulted in Octavian going to war against Antony in northern Africa in 31 BCE, and was crowned Rome’s first emperor, Augustus. His reign from 27 BCE to 14 CE was characterised by stability and peace. It can also be noted how Rome truly transformed under Augustus, as he introduced many reforms. He established a form of government known as a principate, which combined republic elements with the traditional powers of a monarchy. The Senate would still function, but Augustus remained in control of government.
The Pax Romana, meaning “Roman Peace,” refers to a period of relative stability and peace from 27 BCE to 180 CE. During this period there was internal peace, economic prosperity, and the expansion of Roman influence across vast territories, so it is clear to see why this is often referred to as the “Golden Age of the Roman Empire.” This period consolidated Roman power and the establishment of a vast empire which would create a significant impact on Western civilisation.
Peace would be established due to Augustus, who ended the civil wars which had plagued the Roman Republic. During this period, economic prosperity can also be seen, as trade flourished due to the creation of roads, connecting regions from Britain to the Middle East. This would provide access to valuable resources which would lead to the expansion of agriculture, mining, and manufacturing. During this period, the Empire undertook many military campaigns, causing regions such as Britain, Gaul, Spain, North Africa, and parts of the Middle East to be incorporated into the Roman Empire.
The Pax Romana also saw many other types of cultural advancements. The Pax Romana saw the codification and enforcement of Roman law, with emperors building upon the foundations of laws set by Emperor Augustus. The legal system established principles like equality before the law and protection of private property. Rome also underwent a cultural renaissance, incorporating literature and art, heavily inspired by the Greeks. Roman artists created mosaics, frescoes and sculptures often depicting scenes from mythology or everyday life. Literature produced included the Aeneid by Virgil and Metamorphoses by Ovid. During this period there was also significant scientific and technological development. Engineers excelled in constructing aqueducts, roads, bridges, and public buildings, as well as different techniques like the use of concrete. This was accompanied by progress in fields such as astronomy, mathematics, and medicine.
This clearly shows the significant development of the Empire, and how it helped to advance humanity, but how did an Empire of such stature fall?
Firstly, the Antonine Plague in the 2nd Century AD, likely caused by smallpox or measles, ravaged the empire during the reign of Marcus Aurelius, claiming the life of millions, as well as having significant socio-economic and political ramifications Due to a sizeable proportion of the population being lost, there were labour shortages, which would have disrupted agriculture and trade. The weakened state of the population also left the empire more susceptible to future disease outbreaks. Additionally, the plague weakened military effectiveness, particularly defending the borders, against those such as Germanic tribes. The military also had to replace dead soldiers, with recruits who were less experienced, diminishing military strength and cohesion. This is what set the foundation for the cycle of decline.
The Roman Empire faced a series of internal and external challenges in the period 235-284 AD, such as leadership changes, civil wars, economic instability, as well as invasions by Germanic and Persian peoples, contributing to a decline in centralised power and military strength. Furthermore, the division of the empire would exacerbate issues in the 3rd Century, and disparities would become apparent. The Western Empire faced economic decline due to inflation, taxation issues, agricultural decline, and a shrinking tax base. In contrast, the Eastern Empire, centred around Constantinople, remained economically prosperous due to its advantageous position for trade, and strong urban centres.
There were also a variety of socio-economic reasons for the decline. The vast wealth disparity between the elite and common people would contribute to social unrest and class divisions. The empire faced severe inflation, debasement of currency and economic stagnation, leading tax burdens to increase and a decline in agricultural productivity, which would cause food shortages. Slave revolts, most famously the Spartacus uprising, showed growing discontent among the poorest in society. Additionally, the erosion of Roman values due to the influx of diverse cultures within the empire contributed to this decline.
However, the turning point was during the 4th and 5th centuries, where Germanic tribes such as the Visigoths (led by Alaric), Ostrogoths, Vandals and others encroached upon Rome’s territory and eventually sacked Rome in 410. Eventually, in 476, the last Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was overthrown by the German chieftain Odoacer. This marked the end of the Western Roman Empire.
In contrast, the Eastern Roman Empire (the Byzantine Empire) continued to thrive, enduring another thousand years, until it fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. The Byzantines preserved and transmitted much of the ancient Greek and Roman knowledge, art, and culture.
Therefore, we can see how a variety of political, military, social and economic issues culminated to cause the end of the Western Roman Empire. Whilst the Empire continued to flourish in the East for another 1000 years, the power and stature of the Empire was greatly reduced, thus ending its era of dominance over a large proportion of the world. However, it must be noted that the significance of the Empire is still felt today, through the cultural and scientific development it brought, thus making it one of the most influential periods in world history.
WrittenbySarahKelly
Edited by Philippa Horrobin
The significance of ancient woodlands
Ancient woodlands are remarkable ecosystems that harbour a rich diversity of plants and animals, reflecting the interdependence that develops between organisms over centuries. There are ancient woodlands that exist in England and are defined as an area of woodland that has existed since at least 1600’s and many have existed for many centuries before this. Given that they have been around for so long the ecosystem has developed special communities of plants and animals not found elsewhere. These ecosystems are characterised by their rich biodiversity and historical significance making them vitally important to protect.
Why must we protect ancient woodlands?
Our remaining ancient woodlands only cover 2.5% of the UK making them crucial for conservation efforts, however unfortunately the UK’s ancient woodlands are largely unprotected with only 20% being protected, leading to 80% of the remaining woodlands facing the threats of destruction.
Conservation efforts are more important now than ever before as climate change becomes an increasing threat, impacting global weather patterns leading to a huge impact on many ecosystems. In ancient woodlands, plants and animals that inhabit these areas are unable to adapt to these changes as they have spent centuries adjusting to this specific climate; subsequently, the changes in climate can significantly endanger ancient woodlands by disturbing the delicate balanced ecosystem.
What makes these woodlands so significant?
Ancient woodlands are sophisticated ecosystems that have developed interdependence between all the organisms throughout time. One of the most fascinating aspects of ancient woodlands in the symbiotic relationship between fungi and trees. The fungi we see above the ground is only the fruiting body which is a very small part of the fungi most of the fungi exist underground in a network. Some fungi filaments called hyphae, interwind with the tree roots, breaking down minerals in the soil to allow the trees to take up nutrients.
Additionally, research has shown that these connections known as the mycorrhizal network is critical to supplying the life-giving nutrient that keeps our forest healthy. The mycorrhizal network plays a distributing role to keep mycelium connected trees alive and suppling fungi with consistent carbon.
The mycorrhizal network is delicate and in recent years an increase in logging, agriculture and urbanisation has disturbed these important networks, leading to the loss of many ancient woodlands and this could be catastrophic. Since ancient woodlands are our richest and most complex terrestrial habitat in the UK, which contain centuries of undisturbed soils and the accumulation of wood debris, this has created the perfect place for development of communities that cannot be restored by planting a new woodland.
Why are ancient woodlands so irreplaceable?
Ancient woodlands are irreplaceable, delicate ecosystems. These ecosystems, which have evolved over hundreds, even thousands, of years, host an intricate web of life that cannot be replicated. Their complexity and biodiversity are unmatched, and many species that thrive within these woodlands are slow to recolonize and adapt to new environments.
This means that once ancient woodlands are lost, the unique flora and fauna that depend on them are at risk of disappearing forever.
Each ancient woodland is distinctive, shaped by its local environment and history. They serve not only as habitats for countless species but also as vital resources for our planet, contributing to air and water quality, climate regulation, and soil preservation. The rich tapestry of life within these woodlands plays a crucial role in sustaining ecological balance and helping to mitigate the impacts of climate change.
Ancient woodlands often are the centre of many communities as they provide protective factors that reduce poor wellbeing and consist of cohesive properties that help bind communities together and consequently this forms culture and history to these ecosystems. Furthermore, ancient woodlands offer cultural and historical significance. They are living records of our planet's past, containing invaluable insights into biodiversity, ecology, and human interaction with the natural world. The stories embedded in these landscapes enrich our understanding of nature and inspire future generations to cherish and protect our environment. Once the remnants of these ancient ecosystems are destroyed, they are gone for good.
There is no way to replicate the centuries of ecological richness and complexity they embody. It is imperative that we take urgent action to safeguard these irreplaceable ecosystems for the health of our planet and the well-being of future generations. Let us recognize the importance of ancient woodlands and commit ourselves to their protection, ensuring that they continue to thrive for years to come.
Once what little left is gone. It will be gone for good!
What are the threats ancient woodlands face?
Ancient woodlands are disappearing from the UK. Up to 70% of ancient woodlands have been lost or damaged due to infrastructure management and projects, overgrazing and change in farming methods and the spread of invasive species like rhododendrons.
Infrastructure management and projects - In recent years, globalisation has allowed a rapid increase in the population throughout the UK it is predicted by 2026 the population will increase to 70 million due to a plethora of factors such as improvements in health care and increase in accessibility. However, the rising population has increased the demand on housing, services and road networks. Unlimitedly, we are seeing a multitude of infrastructure projects consequently, ancient woodlands have taken the hit as they remain unprotected, and the vast amount of land that they inhabit has been a victim of deforestation, being cleared to make room for the ever-growing population.
Overgrazing and change in farming methods – The evident shift in population demographics has also put significant pressure on agricultural systems to produce vast quantities of food. Consequently, we are witnessing the loss of ancient woodlands as they are cleared for intensive farming practices. Unfortunately, once these woodlands are removed by intensive practice the unique interconnections are destroyed which cannot be replace by reforestation, as these woodlands are not just trees, but a delicate balance of organisms built over centuries. Unlimitedly, this can only be rebuilt over centuries so any loss of ancient woodlands can have catastrophic impacts on the local biodiversity.
Invasive species – Invasive species - invasive species can outcompete native flora in ancient woodlands for resources such as sun light, water, and nutrients, disrupting the delicate interconnection of these rare ecosystems. Invasive spe-
cies often lack natural predators, allowing them to thrive in an ancient woodland. This can lead to a decline in native plant species that are vital for supporting local fauna, including birds, insects, and mammals. The loss of native biodiversity diminishes the resilience of ancient woodlands, making them more vulnerable to pests, diseases, and climate change. Additionally, invasive species can change soil chemistry and hydrology, further affecting the growth patterns and survival of native trees. Some specific species that are ancient woodland indicators are wood sorrel, wood anemone, wild daffodils, lily of the valley, herb Paris, blue bells and golden saxifrage because of invasive species these have become at risk of endangerment. This transformation not only threatens the integrity of ancient woodlands but also impacts the wide range of ecosystem services they provide, such as carbon sequestration, water filtration, and recreational space for communities. Overall, the introduction of non-native species poses a serious challenge to the conservation efforts of organizations like the Ancient Woodland Trust, as they work to protect and restore these invaluable and irreplaceable ecosystems. Addressing the threat of invasive species is essential for preserving the biodiversity and health of ancient woodlands for future generations.
How are we protecting ancient woodlands?
As a young individual, I am passionate about protecting our woodlands, which is why I have become an ambassador for the ancient woodland trust. Joining Ancient woodlands UK as a volunteer has given me an opportunity to support these complex ecosystems.
Ancient woodlands UK is youth-led campaign, and the campaigns focus is to raise the profile of ancient woodlands using social media platforms to highlight the importance and the vulnerability of these ecosystems. As a campaign Ancient Woodland UK aims to educate individuals to help spread awareness to as many people as possible.
Ways
to help
Ancient woodlands are vulnerable and to help protect these woodlands as a young individual you could follow Ancient Woodland UK on Facebook Buckenham Ancient Woodland Trust - Facebook Instagram Ancient Woodlands UK (@ancientwoodlandsuk) • Instagram photos and videos or TikTok Mind you, ancient woodland has been about for so long it has to gain an understanding of the threats that these rare ecosystems face.
You can also visit your local ancient woodlands to enjoy this special habitat. If you want to do practical volunteering, you can reach out to your local community forest to see if they have any opportunities.
WrittenByIsabelleMiller
Edited by Luisa Hughes
The life of Socrates
Socrates was a Greek philosopher from Athens who is credited as the ‘father of western philosophy.’ Unlike other philosophers of his time, Socrates did not write down his thoughts. Instead, much of what we know about him derives from the works of his students, primarily Plato, Xenophon, and Aristophanes, a comic playwright. This leads to the conclusion that his life was hugely enigmatic, although still very prevalent today for modern studies.
His influence on history
Socrates had a profound influence on history, particularly in shaping the course of Western philosophy and intellectual thought. His impact can be seen in several key areas: the Socratic method (asking a series of questions to stimulate critical thinking which lead to people understanding things of their own accord), and modern day understanding of ethics and morality. Socrates shaped the future of philosophy and moved it away from natural science. His emphasis on ethical inquiry is still used today.
Surviving works
Socrates did not leave any written works of his own. Most of the information known about him are found in the writings of his students, particularly Plato, Xenophon, and other contemporaries such as Aristophanes. These sources provide indirect accounts of his philosophy, actions, and teachings. In Plato’s Meno, Socrates engages Meno in a discussion about virtue, asking a series of questions that challenge Meno’s definitions and assumptions, encouraging deeper reflection and inquiry. This highlights the use of the Socratic method, showing how it influenced his students and continues to be used in teaching today. Plato’s Meno is a popular academic focus in many famous universities such as the university of Cambridge.
While volcanoes are mostly associated with high mortality rates, destruction of livelihoods and independent businesses, volcanoes can also significantly improve an individual’s life. There is a soaring population of 800 million people living in close proximity to the worlds 1,431 active volcanoes. This is over 10% of the world’s population. This 10% are attracted to the area as volcanic regions offer fertile soil developed by thin layers of ash during an eruption. This effectively acts as a natural fertiliser improving the natural ecosystem and boosting agriculture. Volcanic areas boost sustainable living through factors such as geothermal energy. In addition, volcanic regions also offer further economic benefits, for example, tourism which is a driving factor for producing an income for residents.
One advantage for humans in volcanoes regions is the fertile soil that it provides. Fertile soil is a result of minerals and nutrients present in volcanic ash such as potassium, phosphorus and nitrogen which are essential to plant growth. This eventually leads to the break down in plants which contributes to organic matter, and this leaves the improvement of soil structure and fertility which helps biodiversity by retaining moisture and nutrients allowing more species to inhabit the area. Overtime, ash breaks down into fine particles and minerals are released into the soil. This subsequently aids agricultural output offering a means of income to commercial farmers. Commercial farmers sell the majority of their produce and whilst paying their employees, the profit will be reinvested. A country’s economy can develop greatly from commercial farming as standard of living and quality of life improves due to more taxes being paid to the Government. As a result of the increased tax, further investment is made into architecture and infrastructure which in turn can create and sustain local businesses, thus creating a multiplier effect. An example of how fertile soil is used for is the growth of coffee. Coffee is grown in Andosols; this is volcanic soil formed by Tephra. Tephra is a mixture of volcanic particles and rocky fragments that are ejected during an eruption and eventually break down into Andosols. A country heavily depends on this is Ethiopia as 15-20 million people are tied to the production of it. This has many benefits such as economic growth, cultural, biodiversity, sustainability, global demand and employment opportunities. Fertile soil surrounding volcanoes offers an economic opportunity to improve their quality of life through having access to more disposable income.
In addition to creating agricultural employment opportunities, tourism is also a major economy in volcanic areas. Tourism aids local businesses to thrive in summer seasons as this creates jobs in the tertiary sector, including tour guides and in local shops selling souvenirs. Areas local to volcanos can earn most of their annual income in the summer months which sup- ports them year-round and allows them to improve infrastructure and ser- vices such as healthcare and education. This ultimately leads to a better quality of life and can increase life expectancy in the future. Tourism also promotes international connections through the exposure to a variety of cultures. This is a positive as it breaks down the stereotypes and prejudice towards different cultures and it gives us an insight to many factors that we didn’t know about previously. One of these factors is tradi- tions as these can become important globally an example of this is a Mexican tradition which is the Day of the Dead and for this tradition it brings a lot of income in due to all the celebrations and festival’s ongoing at this time of the year as tourists want that experience of feeling like an insider.
Furthermore, Volcanoes allow a country to develop sustainably. A sustainable source originating from volcanoes is Geothermal Energy Geothermal Energy is heat that is generated within the earth as you drill into the core, and this gives the access to hot water and steam. Steam is used to generate electricity, and this can be used by directly heating buildings. There are many benefits of geothermal energy as it is renewable because the earths internal heat is continually being replenished, and this produces very low greenhouse gas emissions compared to fossil fuels. Residents in Volcanic areas have the access to lower energy costs and it can stimulate local economies by creating new jobs in a tertiary industry and this can attract people to live and work here. Also, it helps to develop a country as once you build a powerplant they have long lifespans and normally they exceed 30 years which means that the country will continue to develop without harming the future generations, so this is an investment that provides long-term support without consequences to the environment. Humans have a lot of confidence in volcanoes as there are so many natural resources that are available to use for their advantage.
Today, humans see volcanoes as a reliable source that has endless opportunities, socially, economically and environmentally. The most significant factor is economic as it’s a key motivator for a lot of people as lives depend on money to fulfil their lives with basic essentials but also now people want to use their money for entertainment opportunities. However, they still live with the fatal threat of an eruption!
WrittenbyAoifeGrass&GeorgiaFanning
Edited by Lucy Winkel
Hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic
1923
What caused the crisis?
Hyperinflation was a major economic crisis that faced the Weimar Republic in 1922-1923. Germany’s economic troubles started during the First World War with prices doubling between 1914 and 1919. Germany abandoned the goldbacked currency in 1914, which is in retrospect, clearly one of the first steps to hyperinflation as they were sure the war would be short lived and could be financed by government borrowing instead of taxation and savings. After 5 years, Germany was defeated in the war and was forced to pay £6.6 billion (in 1922) in war reparations with goldbacked currency, further contributing to the economic disaster brewing in the country. The terms of the treaty of Versailles, which included the large sum of reparations that Germany had to pay and the loss of 13% of its land and colonies, meant that Germany could not rely on their cheap, raw materials or afford to buy imported goods. This therefore impoverishing the citizens of Germany further. During all of this, billions of hoarded marks from during the war had suddenly come back into circulation.
The events of hyperinflation
As there was a drastic increase in money supply, which combined with the rising prices of goods, the perfect conditions for inflation had occurred. Inflation was dramatically evident in exchange rates in 1914 when around 4 German marks was worth 1 American dollar, whereas in 1920 it was roughly 69 marks for 1 dollar. Although this was early enough in the crisis for the Weimar government to take a handle on the economy, they chose to worsen the situation by printing more money to pay the war reparations and debts. Hyperinflation arrived in July 1922, with prices rising by 700% and there was far too much money for far too scarce goods and resources.
The government was forced to print out paper money, with no matching productive economic activity to pay striking workers in the Ruhr. This resulting in the value of the currency decreasing even more alongside the increase in prices of goods, due to an extreme loss of confidence in the mark. Eventually, the Weimar government had printed onemillion-mark notes and one-billion-mark notes, with the hyperinflation spiralling so much that by November 1923, a single US dollar was worth 1,000 billion marks. It was noted that by this time it cost more to print a note than the note itself was worth.
Famous cases of hyperinflation include people transporting their money in wheelbarrows to the shops - which was still insufficient to buy a newspaper-workers being paid twice per day as their wages were virtually worthless by their lunchtime and the price of a cup of coffee rose by 2,000 marks in the time it took to drink it. Furthermore, the price of a loaf of bread rose from 250 marks in January 1923 to 200 billion marks in November the same year.
The end of the hyperinflation crisis
The hyperinflation crisis was combatted by Gustav Stresemann who worked as Chancellor from August 1923 to November 1923 and was foreign minister from 1923 to 1929. He introduced a new currency, the rentenmark, in August 1924, which was backed by the US gold reserve and restored confidence in the German economy. He also renegotiated terms of reparations through the Dawes Plan 1924 and the Young plan in 1929, which both secured Germany loans from America and restored their international status.
Did the German economy really recover?
The years 1924-1929 are famously known as Germany’s ‘Golden Years’ due to the continued survival after the verge of collapse due to the hyperinflation crisis in the years prior. However, it is arguable whether the economy actually recovered after the crisis. On the surface, the loans from America stabilised the German economy and helped to end hyperinflation and therefore were seen as a clear sign of recovery for the Weimar economy. However, German industry became dependent on these loans from the USA displaying obvious signs of weakness for the economy. Furthermore, employment statistics showed that during these years, unemployment did not fall below 1.3 million while even increasing to 1.9 million in 1929.
WrittenbyAmeliaHunter
Edited by Rosaline Florence Williams
Roman beliefs and religion
The Romans had a polytheistic belief system, consisting of a range of deities from their own beliefs as well as undergoing religious syncretism with much of their Empire. This meant that there were many deities rooting from both individual and a combination of religions which created an intricate and complex belief system which spanned across most of the empire, and seemingly having regional denominations.
Due to their similar proximity, many of the ancient Romans’ beliefs sprouted or paired nearly entirely with the Greek ideas of the 12 Olympians. Many of the Roman deities were effectively alternative counterparts to the Grecian beliefs; reminiscent of how Allah, Yahweh, and God may be from the same root deity, despite different interpretations and beliefs, based on different ideas. As well as this, several of the Roman gods (which also had Grecian counterparts) became the names for the planets, which are still used today. Jupiter – the Roman equivalent of Zeus; God of the Sky and lightning, Mercury – Roman Hermes; the god of travellers, messengers, thieves and more, Mars – Roman Ares; the God of War, Venus – Roman Aphrodite; the Goddess of love and beauty, Neptune – Roman Poseidon; God of the Oceans and Pluto, who is the Roman counterpart to Hades, God of the Underworld. These are just some of those gods who have counterparts within other religions.
As well as adopting other cultures’ Gods entirely, the Romans also merged some of their Gods, with cultures and beliefs which they managed to bring into the empire. This was the process of religious syncretism. Some examples of this include the Roman-Celtic and Roman-Germanic deities of Sulis Minerva, Apollo Sucellos and Mars Thingsus.
These were some of the earlier forms of religion present within the empire of Ancient Rome. However, as time passed, more different branches of similar or entirely new belief systems became present within the Empire. For example, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam all appeared, with waxing and waning levels of influence over time. The roman empire was seen as one of the earliest multicultural societies with a vast array of religions which were widely accepted. However, with the development of the ‘modern religions’ previously mentioned, religion within the Empire changed.
As well as beliefs changing over time, so did the development of religious practices. One of the most well documented changes in religious practices is the changes in treatment after death. At varying periods in time, the Roman empire seemed to entirely switch between burial, and cremation. The two methods of dealing with the dead seemed to compete for decades, with each taking precedence at different periods in time. The changes seemed to occur around times of war and generally increased death tolls, and therefore there was a requirement for mass storage of the dead, often leading to large scale cremations, and their storage in large mausoleums. There would often be days and festivals to celebrate the dead. This would be days of great cultural importance for the Romans, as it allowed them to connect with their past, as well as being in the present with family and others. However, as previously mentioned not all the Roman dead were cremated. A substantial proportion of their dead were buried. The burial sites were just outside of city walls,
allowing for the cities to stay relatively clean and clear of the burial sites, whilst still allowing for easy access to them Plots were either used on mass depending on the death rates, or they could be more lavishly decorated and adorned for those of higher societal class, which could be stored in family tombs and mausoleums.
Religion played a significant role in the everyday lives of Roman citizens, as they would often pray to the Gods for a wide range of things, including asking for assistance with the harvest, illness, fertility, general guidance through life and anything else that prayer could be used for. As a part of this, Roman citizens would often provide the Gods with offerings to the Gods to try and gain their favour. This could include animals, food, money, crops, and other objects of importance. These offerings were often burned to try and send them up to the Gods.
Religion and beliefs were very culturally significant within Roman society, as priests and priestesses had a large social influence, often acting as religious or general advisors to those with greater political power. This meant that religious leaders could potentially act as shadow leaders, using politicians as puppet leaders for their own agendas or personal gain, supposedly being able to induce the wrath of the Gods if their demands were not met. Not all religious leaders may have been advisors though, as some ‘lower level’ deities and their priests/ priestesses had a more community level influence, potentially assisting in the healing and prayer for the ill, as well as potentially tending to the vulnerable, whether they be young or old. Wealthier families even tended to have individual personal shrines within their home, which were dedicated entirely to one God, which would often be the family’s chosen patron god. These chosen patron gods would generally continue down the family line.
WrittenbyGabrielClayworth
Edited by Callum Smith
Latin Art & Culture
Roman art culture held such a fundamental part of society, that its study from a modern audience is fascinating. From the beauty of Latin frescos (paintings) to the delicacy of rediscovered sculptures, all the beauty of Roman Latin art can be viewed and illustrate the societal trends and constructions of the time.
Music:
Roman music's early influence was from Etruscan music and later Greek music. Initially music was used for military purposes, however as time went on quickly became an overwhelming part of everyday life. Music could be heard from everywhere: ballet pantomimus(an early form of ballet), sung libretto (live opera), events in the arenas and many more. Music was a statement in many social occasions of the time and was though to reflect the orderliness of the cosmos. It was often associated with mathematics and knowledge, and was an integral part to may religious occasions. A key event was the Secular Games (a key religious event where the Gods were celebrated) and here, in 17BC, was where a mixed children's choir performed the secular ode horoe which was commissioned by Augustus. Another key occasion were songs(carmen) were preformed was funerals, using a woodwind instrument, as they were believed to ward off evil spirits. Because of its popularity, the music soon travelled, as during the Imperial period Romans took their music to the provinces, but also adopted some North African, Asian Minor and Gaul. Therefore, music can be seen as an enriching aspect to the roman culture, which filled society with beautiful notes of celebration and change.
Painting:
Another big part of Roman Latin art culture was paintings (frescos), and sculptures. More sculptures remain then paintings, and sculptures were considered the highest form of art by the Romans. Many roman arts were influenced by Greek models, whilst also encompassing Etruscan and Egyptian visual culture, and much roman art is in an eclecticism style, where someone does not hold rigidly to a single set of assumptions, and instead draws upon a set of theories and styles. Paintings are shown to hold a variety of scenes, landscapes, animals, still life images, portraits and mythological subjects. Some wall paintings of the period have been uncovered from the homes of aristocratic families in Rome, and many paintings that did survive led to the grotesque style of paintings featured during the renaissance period. A popular type of painting was Fayum mummy portraits. These were portraits on wood added to the outside of mummies and were usually done by a Romanised middle class. It can also be seen that from the 3rd century AD to round the 400, there are several large body paintings from the catacombs in Rome, portraying this decorative tradition in burial.
Pottery:
Another beautiful aspect of Roman Latin art culture was pottery. Pottery was used for many things in the empire, from decoration to transporting goods, and was produced in enormous quantities. There were common everyday forms of pottery found amongst
all social classes, dishes, jars and storage, however there were also fine wears used for formal dining which were usually more intricate and had an elegant appearance. More expensive pottery often used relief decoration, this was a form of sculpting where the sculpted pieces remain attached to a solid background of the same material, and was usually moulded, rather than colour and often copied shapes and decoration from the more prestigious metalwork. Pottery was crafted mainly using either, terracotta or fired clay, and over the centuries the way pottery was crafted and designed greatly developed. Initially pottery was made by hand but later there was the use of tombs and molds, and the painting technique on pottery became more indicative, which give archaeologists today a great indicator the piece was crafted.
Literature:
Like music, and art, literature was also influenced heavily by Greek authors. Some of the earliest forms of text entail the military estrapades of the empire, however as the Roman Republic expanded so did its literature, to works of poetry, comedy history and tragedy. For examples, an influential individual was Cato the Elder who was a roman senator, but more importantly, wrote history in Latin for the first time. Alongside that, was the importance of poetry which played a humongous role in society compared to today. Poetry was the first form of literature to arouse people's questions in style and ended up being viewed as that important that Quintillan, the greatest authority on education, wanted schools to focus of teaching poetry and leave the teaching of prose to university level. That is just the tip of the iceberg with how much literatures impact on society grew and developed over the centuries, that started with the Latin Roman Culture valuing its beautiful art form.
Roman Latin art culture contains such a wide variety of artefacts and fascinating facts that it is hard to truly encapsulate the beauty and power that the evolution of art culture did for Roman society, and the world. Here I have showed some of the most beautiful, and powerful parts of the culture, which changed traditions and formed a new Roman society. Thank you for reading
WrittenByMiaGreen
Edited by Oscar Sheldon
How King Leopold seized the Congo
Although today it is primarily known for chocolate, waffles and the European Union, Belgium hides an extremely dark past only a century behind, of a tyrannical absolute monarchy of murder, plunder and exploitation, the consequences of which are still painfully felt today. The Congo Free State existed as one of the most brutal and oppressive regimes in history, and Leopold’s seizing of the area 76 times the size of Belgium is one of the best examples of political deceit in history. Immortalised by Joseph Conrad’s infamous 1899 novella Heart of Darkness, the horrors of the Congo Free State prove how truly dark human nature can be, describing as it as “The vilest scramble for loot that ever disfigured the history of human conscience.” Several historians argue for a case that the Congo Free State is the worst place to live at any point during human history but arguably the most fascinating part of the story is the deceit and cunning with which King Leopold II of Belgium to assert his iron grip over the free state, under the nose of several other European and world powers with the pretence of a humanitarian mission, while simultaneously engaging in some of the most abhorrent acts in history.
As Belgium had only gained independence from the Netherlands in 1830, Leopold felt that his own nation was inadequate and insignificant compared to his powerful neighbours. Leopold had to expand to compete with the colonial possessions of other European powers. According to The Rest is History, in the years following his accession in 1865 Leopold made several attempts to gain territory, including requesting to buy parts of Argentina and the Philippines from Spain, and the Nile Delta from France. As only subSaharan Africa was uncolonised by the mid-19th century, the choice for Leopold was obvious. He was ever the opportunist, and upon hearing of Welsh explorer Henry Morton Stanley’s expedition which mapped the African Central Great Lakes returning, he immediately requested his assistance for his own sinister intentions. Leopold’s first major action was to convene the 1876 Brussels Geographic Convention, where he called several notable philanthropists, humanitarians and geographers with the primary directive of “discovering” and “civilising” the Congo. Although Leopold had sent a preliminary expedition to the Congo in 1877, it was not until 1879 that he sent Henry Morton Stanley with the primary purpose of establishing government outposts, and by 1884 he had established 40, introduced steamers, signed 500 treaties (many of which provided the International African Association with almost absolute rights over property, people, land and goods over much of the Congo) and met countless tribes. As a result of Stanley’s expedition and opportunistic use of treaties (which the tribesmen did not understand as they had no written language), Leopold had seriously asserted his control over the Congo while other nations remained oblivious to the horrendous human rights abuses and exploitation of resources. In 1879, the International African Association was dissolved and replaced by the International Association of the Congo, which Leopold established to begin the economic exploitation of the Congo, for the main prize: ivory. Leopold’s crowning achievement of deception was the 1885 Berlin Conference, which he requested Otto Von Bismark convene to organise the dividing of the remaining nations of Africa between 14 European countries, including Belgium. Although the conference’s primary directive, The General Act, allegedly sought to end slavery by powers in Africa, in actuality it provided Leopold with the legitimacy to accelerate his exploitation of the Congo as it asserted that the territory occupied by the International Association of the Congo was to continue its Belgian administration. That same year, although never being approved by the conference, the association was renamed
and became the infamous Congo Free State, with King Leopold II as the unrivalled ruler. Thus, Leopold had achieved his goal, and for now, the other nations were in support of his “humanitarian designs” and “philanthropy in putting down the slave-trade” while simultaneously he could export enormous amounts of ivory and rubber. The failure of major powers to see through his intentions combined with Leopold’s own deceit resulted in an absolute monarchy being established, which although short in lifetime would have devastating impacts and an incomparable human cost which permanently scarred the entire continent.
WrittenbyHarryCaygill
Edited by Luisa Hughes
The Global Ramifications of Donald Trump’s second presidenTial Term: a feminist and Climate Conscious Perspective
Donald Trump, who initially won the 2016 American presidential election, has recently been elected for a second term. This major historical event has caused global discourse, with lots of discussion around the rolling back of roe v wade and policies which protect the climate- Donald Trump infamously exclaiming his administration will ‘Drill baby, drill’ in reference to extracting more oil and gas from the United States. But underneath all of the confusing dialogue, what does this really mean for the future of our planet and the people who occupy it?
The Hyde Amendment
On January 25th 2025, President Trump signed the executive order to enforce the Hyde Amendment, which rescinds President Biden’s 2022 executive order that funds abortion services and classifies abortion as healthcare. This tragically means that Medicaid- which provides healthcare cost coverage to millions of low-income American families- no longer covers out-of-state abortions. As a result, abortion is completely inaccessible through legal means to American women who occupy a large quantity of states: Alabama, Arkansas, Idaho, Indiana, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Tennessee and Texas.
In addition to the introduction of the Hyde Amendment, Trump also reinstated his 2017 policy that ends the federal funding of abortion overseas and, in 2022, Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organisation, 597 US. 215 (2022) overturned Roe v. Wade. Three of the justices deciding this case were appointed by President Trump, which clearly highlights his extreme anti-abortion stance- not to mention his historic presence at the 47th Annual March for Life. With the rise of rampant misogyny, exacerbated by the likes of right-wing influencers (such as Andrew Tate) and proTrump politicians in England (the likes of Nigel Farage), we must intervene before other nations follow suit to the global superpower of America.
The United Nations Paris Climate Agreement
The Paris Climate Agreement, to quote the United Nations webpage, is ‘a legally binding international treaty on climate change’. This agreement was adopted by 196 parties in the United Nations, at the Paris COP21 and entered into force on November 4th, 2016- ironically mere days before Trump won his first Presidential election. The agreement works toward a goal of preventing climate change by holding the increase in average global temperatures to no more than 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial times. On January 20th, 2025 (President Trump’s first day in office during his second term) Trump immediately withdrew from ‘any agreement, pact, accord, or similar commitment made under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change’. Moreover, the U.S International Climate Financial Plan was revoked and rescinded immediately, meaning the frozen funds could be revoked and re-allocated. Following
this controversial decision, President Trump openly encouraged dangerous rhetoric that promised to prioritise American energy production and- infamously‘Drill baby, drill’, for crude oil in Alaska. Not only would this behaviour displace the Gwich’in people of Alaska and destroy a large sanctuary for a variety of wildlife, but the burning of this oil will also invoke the Greenhouse effect, with devastating consequences to our climate.
Writtenby:LillyMcManus
Edited by Faye Amelia Rose Glover-Smith
Roman Gladiators
Gladiators were the entertainers of Rome working tirelessly in gladiatorial games to provide entertainment, while simultaneously providing a political role working as advocates for their sponsors. The gladiators gradually became symbols of heroism and endurance, often risking death to participate in the games. The large following of these brutal games made them a significant part of Roman culture.
Gladiatorial combat is believed to have originated in the Etruscan civilizations that predate the Roman Empire, working as a significant part of ritual. However, the Romans made it a grand spectacle gaining its notoriety. The first recorded games took place in 264 BC to honor deceased aristocrat Junius Brutus, showing how commonly the games were used for special events or remembrances such as festivals.
Games were held in large open spaces meaning many arenas were specifically built for different games such as chariot races, animal fights or combat. For example, the notorious long-standing Colosseum for combat that could hold over 80,000 spectators.
They were typically large events with many mock battles. Gladiators were initially highly trained athletes who trained for years in schools known as ludi and were trained specifically in different forms of combat. Gladiators were divided into different categories based on weapons and armor, increasing the excitement of the games. For example, the Murmillio was armed with a gladius (short sword) and rectangular shield with a fish-shaped crest helmet. Therefore, gladiator games became a riveting new part of Roman culture.
However, the gladiator games were not merely used for entertainment but played a crucial political and social role. Victorious fighters who were not originally freemen could win freedom and alternatively could expand wealth increasing status as a fighter while earning money and getting gifts. Whilst many joined the ranks to achieve freedom, the main reasons were economic, this is made evident by the large number of freemen volunteers who joined for individual social and economic advancement.
Additionally, they worked as an essential political tool to maintain the hierarchy of Rome by providing necessary votes to their sponsors. Many of the public sponsored games, not only for an economic purpose but to gain status and praise whilst concurrently gaining support. Therefore, gladiators' participation allowed them social mobility, however the games consistently supported the ruling elite. For example, emperors such as Titus- who used games to support his position in Rome and history ensuring remembrance.
One of the most famous gladiators was Spartacus, a Thracian slave who led the revolt against the Roman Republic in 73 BC. Spartacus trained as a gladiator in the famous ludus of Capua that gave him good combat skills. He rallied many other current or former slaves to join the revolt of the 3rd Servile war, one of the most famous uprisings in Roman history. Spartacus demonstrates perfectly the social mobility provided by gladiator work and strength. Alterna-
tively, many gladiators didn’t fight for freedom but rather fame and fortune. Commodus was a famous victor who fought in the colosseum and is arguably one of the most successful Roman gladiators.
Many women also participated, though often overlooked as fighting for a financial reward that could allow substantial change, as housework- often the primary role of women- went unrewarded. Whilst it is commonly assumed that these women were low-born or slaves, there is evidence of many widows or high-born women who competed for fame and money as they wanted to be self-reliant or disliked the constraints of marriage. The gladiatrix or gladiatrices commonly fought each other, or animals as opposed to their male counterparts. Nero arguably hired them as a novelty act; however, they were regarded as excellent performers, reenacting historical events or stories of mythology. Though as poet Decimus Junius Juvenalis reports, they were often viewed as inferior although they had the same training methods as the men despite the lack of gladiator schooling. Two of the most famous gladiatrices were Amazon and Anchillia who famously fought in Pompeii and are known unambiguously from famous statues that demonstrate their popularity and notoriety Their reliefs imply concepts of gaining freedom by fighting, reflecting the element of independence and selfreliance many desired.
However, the success of gladiator games was not unanimously celebrated and gradually declined. Initially, women gladiators were banned from working. In 11CE high-born women were banned by a Roman senate- though this only initially expanded to women under 20, as it paved the way for Septimus Severus to employ a complete universal ban for women to work as gladiators. Later, all gladiator games were banned by Constantine as there was a growing disillusionment due to moral issues that followed the adoption of Christianity in the Roman and Byzantine Empire.
Therefore, the games ended for violence and believed immorality.
To conclude, the gladiator games were a crucial part of Roman culture, working to provide entertainment, social advancement and mobility while allowing an elite ruling class to maintain positions by gaining votes and support with games and gladiator sponsorships.
WrittenbyRosalineWilliams
Edited by Keisha Ainsworth
Riddle of the term
I began my journey through time the mightiest being, but was chased out of existence. You have made a spectacle of me, however still acknowledge my ferocity. But outside you’re escapisms I’m considered no more than the average Rock to you. Who/What am I?
Have an answer? Last term there were no correct answers sent in so why not have a go this term? Send it to J001441 on Teams and there will be a draw on 02.05.2025 for those who guessed correctly and winner will receive a sweet treat of their choice! Good Luck.
What was the role and life of women in Ancient Rome?
The life and role of women in Ancient Rome is complicated for many reasons. While it is clear that the patriarchal society dictated that women were legally and socially subordinate to men, this dependence was ignored in some cases. There are many cases of powerful Roman women and female gladiators. This makes the role and life of women in role extremely complex and often hypocritical, though still being deeply rooted in patriarchy.
It is certain that women in ancient Rome were primarily valued for their roles as wives and mothers. Sometimes girls were married off before puberty, to ensure the legitimacy of future heirs. Women had little say in the Roman family unit, with the male paterfamilias being the head of the household, going as far as to having authority over all members of the family. This left women to attend to the domestic sphere of the family doing tasks like managing slaves and engaging in tasks such as weaving. Though, like most societies, if you were upper-class, you were granted significantly more opportunities, as many upper-class women studied literature and philosophy. However, women in Rome could also have the roles of empress (such as Helena Augusta), priestess, goddess, shop owner, midwife, prostitute, and daughter. Despite this, women still had no public voice and were largely silenced by history.
Much like most of history, there were significant beauty standards for Roman women. Some writers saw elaborate hairstyles and makeup as a betrayal of Roman values and a dishonest way for women to hide themselves, thus telling women to never let a man see her getting ready, and to hide her beauty products from him. However, there was still a significant beautification process for wealthy women, who often employed multiple slaves to create elaborate hairstyles held in place by pins or even sewing, as well as waxes. Despite this, wigs and dyes were looked down on by Roman society as they were seen as a means of hiding disfigurement, leading to many Roman women keeping their hair simple. Similarly, Roman men looked critically upon makeup, claiming that Roman women had another facial whitener made from crocodilea (crocodile dung). Women typically used blush, green or black eyeshadow and eyeliner applied by a stick or needle, but there is no mention of lip colouring. It is typical that Roman men preferred Roman women to be natural yet still used the same materials that women used for makeup for artwork.
Many women in ancient Rome however did not stick to the societal ideals of being a wife or mother and many became gladiators. The gladiatrix was the female gladiator who fought wild animals to entertain audiences. Whilst very little is known about them, we do know they used the same equipment as men but were fewer in number than their male counterparts. Unsurprisingly, Romans found the idea of a female gladiator novel and entertaining, with the poet Juvenal describing a female beast hunter in the arena “with spear in hand and breasts exposed.” Others took a far harsher view, regarding female gladiators of any classes a symptom of corrupted Roman sensibilities, morals and womanhood. This disdain is further exemplified when Septimus Severus may have attended the Antiochene Olympic Games, which included traditional Greek female athletes, which was met by the crowd with ribald chants and catcalls. This is thought to have contributed to the later banning of female gladiators by Severus. Therefore, it becomes clear that whilst some brave women defied the status quo, this was likely unsuccessful due to the inherently patriarchal nature of Roman society.
Despite the many setbacks for Roman women, there were still major examples of powerful Roman women. Aelia Pulcheria was born into the ruling family of the Eastern Roman Empire in the late 4th century CE. Her father died, leaving her 7-year-old brother the throne. However, at age 15 Pulcheria dismissed the officials ruling on her brother’s behalf and claimed the rule as his guardian, then taking a vow of perpetual virginity to avoid having to take a husband to avoid losing power. Under her leadership the court became pious, and her brother proved to be a weak ruler, thus allowing Pulcheria to continue to guide affairs. After her brother died, Pulcheria ruled the empire alone for a month, though due to her sex she was not considered a suitable ruler so was forced to marry, despite her vow of chastity. But her husband was made to swear he would respect her vow, and the marriage was never consummated.
Arguably, Fulvia was the most powerful Roman women, living in the last days of the Roman Republic. Fulvia married Mark Anthony and was seen as his partner in his political career, defending her husband from Cicero’s brutal linguistic attacks. When Cicero was later killed, it is said that Fulvia stabbed the tongue of his decapitated head with her hairpin as revenge for what he said of her. When Mark Anthony and Octavian left Rome to pursue Caesar’s assassins, it is thought that Fulvia ran the city in their absence. When Antony and Octavian split the Roman world between them, she remained in Octavian’s West and proved a thorn in his side. Stirring up troops against Octavian, she raised eight legions and occupied Rome. She was defeated, unsupported by her husband Antony, and died. She was the first living woman to have her face on a Roman coin.
The role and life of a Roman was certainly contradictory, as the majority of Roman women lived their lives domestically, adhering to the societal expectations and beauty standards of the time, though it is clear to see that this was not always the case. Female gladiators are a prime example of the strength of Roman women, and women such as Fulvia and Pulcheria being prime examples of the determination of Roman women to succeed and prove that they could be just as powerful and successful as men when they fought for the chance.
WrittenbySarahKelly
Edited by Lucy Winkel
The influence of the theatre on Roman culture
Roman theatre was a central part of Roman culture with Roman playwrights such as Terence and Plautus influencing comedic play performances even through the Renaissance. Theatre in Ancient Rome evolved from Greek origins, being heavily influenced by drama. Popular genres flourished such as tragedy and comedy, however the rise of the Roman Empire saw a decrease in popularity in theatre with it being replaced by more subtle performances like mime and pantomime. Early Roman theatre was also shaped by Etruscan traditions, including masked performances and ritual dances. Roman theatre initially emerged as part of religious festivals, particularly the Roman Games held in honour of Jupiter. Over time, theatre became more secular, emphasising spectacle and entertainment over religious or moral instruction. Arguably, the Roman theatre was crucial culturally as it shaped both entertainment and literature in the Western world.
Roman theatres were built in all areas of the Empire, with numerous theatres being built around the world with uniquely Roman attributes because of the Romans’ ability to influence architecture. The buildings were semi-circular and possessed architectural structures such as an elaborate stage backdrop, known as a scaenae frons, supported by columns and the proscaenium, a wall that supported the front edge of the stage. The use of awnings (velarium) was for the purpose of audience comfort suspended over the top of theatres in the heat of the day. The largest theatre at Pompeii could hold up to 5000 people, with many flocking to see several plays that were put on throughout the day carrying cushions and provisions, lasting all day. Seating was reserved for the important citizens at the front of the auditorium, but the theatre remained free and accessible to all as wealthy citizens would patronise the performances in order to influence the plays being shown in order to gain popularity in political elections. The rising popularity of the theatre led to the popularity of actors with Pompeii even featuring the graffiti of ‘Actius, our favourite, come back quickly,’. Unlike Greek theatre, Roman plays reduced the role of the chorus, relying more on instrumental accompaniment and exaggerated gestures.
Plays written by playwrights such as Plautus, Terence or Seneca with the main genres being written being comedy or tragedy but a range of styles could be used such as pantomime, dance or history. Comedies were often farcical using mistaken identities, clever slaves and stock characters such as the braggart soldier, the cunning slave and the old miser. An example of this is Miles Gloriosus a comedic play written by Titus Maccius Plautus in which an arrogant man kidnaps an Athenian woman but is tricked by her lover into returning her without bloodshed. Conversely, Seneca, the major Roman tragedian, wrote dark, philosophical works, influenced by Greek tragedy but with more violence and moral dilemmas. Interestingly, his tragedies were meant more for reading rather than performance. An example of a tragedy is Thyestes, in which Seneca explores themes of revenge and fate following the story of Atreus’ revenge against his brother which involves tricking him into unwittingly eating his own children, a macabre and gruesome ending. Mime and pantomime also became more popular than these traditional plays by the Imperial Era. Mimes were short, comedic performances with everyday, more relatable themes often disdainful and vulgar. Pantomimes were silent, expressive performances, often based on fantasy and mythological themes. Overtime, Roman theatre morphed into larger spectacles, including gladiatorial games, animal hunts and sea battles in flooded arenas.
Stock characters in Roman comedy include the adulescens, an unmarried man usually in late teens or twenties where his actions surround the pursuit of the love of a prostitute or slave, who is later revealed to be a free born woman, and therefore eligible for marriage. The adulescens character is typically accompanied by a clever Slave character, the pseudolus servus who attempts to solve the adulescens’ problems or shield him from conflict. The senex is primarily concerned with his relationship with his son, the adulescens. Although, he often opposes his son’s choice of love interest, he sometimes helps him to achieve his desires. He is sometimes in love with the same woman as his son. He never ends up with her and is often dragged off by his irate wife. The Leno is the character of the pimp or ‘slave dealer’. Although the activities of the character are portrayed as highly immoral and vile, the Leno always acts legally and is always paid in full for his services. The parasitus is often portrayed as a selfish liar. He is typically associated with the miles glorisus character and hangs upon his every word. The parasitus is primarily concerned with his own appetite, or from where he will obtain his next free meal. The matrona is the character of the wife and the mother and is usually displayed as an annoyance to her husband, constantly getting in the way of his freedom to pursue other women. After catching her husband with another woman, she typically ends the affair and forgives him. She loves her children but is often temperamental towards her husband.
The increasing popularity of violent spectacles overshadowed traditional plays. The rise of Christianity led to moral opposition against theatre due to its association with pagan festivals and immorality. By the 5th Century CE, theatre had largely declined in the Roman world. Medieval theatre absorbed elements of Roman performance, particularly in religious mystery plays and comedic interludes. Renaissance playwrights, such as Shakespeare and Molière, were heavily influenced by Roman playwrights like Plautus and Seneca. The architectural design of Roman theatres influenced later theatre construction across Europe. Roman theatre’s legacy lives on in modern comedy (e.g. sitcoms with stock characters) and in the continued use of theatrical techniques such as masks, music, and exaggerated performances. In summary, Roman theatre evolved from Greek and Etruscan traditions and it was characterised by elaborate theatre architecture, distinctive acting styles, and popular comedic and tragic genres. Despite its decline, it had a profound influence on later theatre traditions.
WrittenbyCharlotteRaynor
Edited by Phillipa Horrobin
What did Romans do for entertainment?
First we need to know why the romans indulged in Public Entertainment and where they held it!
One of the main reasons for public entertainment was to prevent uprisings within society and to keep people content in order to maintain control and some form of peace (similar to what we have today with modern day technology to keep people happy).
Firstly we need to know where the romans entertainment took place! Roman entertainment typically took place in Colosseums where a variety of entertainment was held. One of these major places was Campus Martius. Campus Martius was a vast floodplain that acted as a playground for the roman youths and was famously known as one of the most popular recreational areas. This was where many of the youths found entertainment in activities that ranged from something as simple as racing to wrestling! It’s amazing to think of how these forms of entertainment are still used to this day!
Another key location was the Circus Maximus. The Circus Maximus was the largest colosseum of its time where a variety of public events were held, the most common being chariot races. It’s a shame to see that the ruins of this impecable piece of history barely remain today, but it’s amazing to think about the impact that this one building had on roman culture!
However Roman entertainment typically only applied to the young boys and men as it was only in very rare cases that women ever participated and when they did it was usually in more domestic games such as ball games and swimming.
What were some of the Romans favourite activities?
· One of the romans preferred activities from a young age was horseback riding. Horseback riding was a vital part to the Roman life as it was a preferred skill for young boys to learn given that they would have to hunt to provide for their future families. Its easily debatable if this was a form of entertainment as a young boy rather a social pressure but none the less it was still a key part of the roman entertainment whether that was for young boys or fully grown men!
· Another type of entertainment the romans enjoyed was swimming! Swimming typically took place in the Tiber River which was located next to Campus Martius. This was one of the few forms of entertainment that some women had the pleasure of knowing how to swim yet there aren’t any recorded incidents where Roman women were documented swimming. Many of the Roman baths were equipped with their own plunge pools where this activity could be enjoyed without having to go anywhere else making it all the more effective as they could wash straight after it!
Another important factor of the roman entertainment was gladiators! Now this might seem like something you’ve heard of in the films and fortunately there are some similarities. Originally gladiator fights only happened at funeral services but the public loved and enjoyed them to such a large extent that it became a part of everyday life. Gladiators were often prisoners of war or slaves but there was the occasional gladiator who opted for that lifestyle though that was rare. Gladiator fights were open to the public for free however they were events for popular public figures to display the extent of their wealth, for example, the wealthier people of society such as emperors displayed their wealth based on the amount of Talent and the number of gladiators they had. Gladiator fights ranged from ‘weapons fights’ and in rare circumstances, when the Colosseum be-
came flooded, they would resort to naval combat! How amazing is that ( there is some resemblance of this in Gladiator 2… just saying)!
This is an example of some of the armour the gladiators used to wear when fighting. Its so amazing to see the difference in what people viewed as protection now vs then!
Another feature of everyday roman entertainment was musical and theatre performances. Similar to the gladiator shows was that it was completely free given that the shows were used as a publicity stunt in order to gain popularity for future elections. The theatres were extremely large, one theatre in Pompeii could hold up to 5000! Now that’s a lot of people. The theatre performances would last a full day. Numerous members of the audience would come with their own cushions to provide at least some comfort given that the seats they would sit on would be made of stone.
Overall its incredible to see how similar Roman forms of entertainment are so similar to what we have today! It just proves how much Romans have influenced our day to day lives even from so long ago!
WrittenbyLibbyDavies
Edited by Luisa Hughes
Answers
Alexander Fleming
Roman baths
France, Russia, Great Britain
Nicholas II
Margaret Thatcher
The Mongol Empire
Battle of Waterloo
Abraham Lincoln
Italy
Answers
Lima
6
Danish krone
Lion
13
The Himalayas
SouthAfrica
Rhode Island
Germany
Answers
UN Agencies:
UNICEF. UNHCR. UNIDO. WHO
States at the 4 corners monument:
UTAH.COLORADO.NEWMEXICO.ARIZONA
Tectonic Plates:
NAZCA.ARABIAN.NORTHAMERICAN.EURASIAN
Processes of Erosion: ABRASION.SOLUTION.HYDRAULICACTION.ATTRITION
Jane Austen was an English novelist born on the 16th of December 1775, primarily known for her six novels, which present a strong social commentary on the English gentry in the early 19th century. Whilst Austen’s life was cut short in 1817, her sharp language and feminist undertones set the stage for the literary realism movement of the mid-19th century. Her social critique includes happy, unhappy and convenient marriages, subtly exposing the economic need and social pressure forcing women to marry. Her work continues to inspire others today, as a reminder of the transformative power of literature.
Limited success in her lifetime:
Austen was the second daughter of a Church of England clergyman and part of a humble household in Hampshire. However, by the age of 20 she had already completed early versions of Sense and Sensibility and Pride and Prejudice. It took until 1811 for Sense and Sensibility to be published, and 1813 for Pride and Prejudice, with Emma published in 1815, which was later pulped for only selling 563 copies of 2000. During her lifetime, Austen only earned £600 (now less than £20,000) from her work. Her other works such as Persuasion and Northanger Abbey were published after her death.
An influential woman:
Austen’s fortunes turned when the first biography of her life was written at the end of the century, by her nephew, which piqued the interest of Victorian society due to her quiet life. Over the past century, readers have appreciated her heroines defying gender norms and messages portrayed in Austen’s work. Austen is by no means a feminist in the way we mean it today, but her work strongly advocated for the equality between the sexes. At the time of her writing, women had very few legal, social or economic rights, with very few upper and middle-class women owning their own property. Women had little formal education and could not enter professions, and once married a woman was under her husband’s control. Austen even highlighted that women could not inherit wealth, leaving many destitute after their husband’s death. Even writing a novel was radical.
In her novels, Austen offers a possibility for her heroines, marrying for mutual love and esteem, they could marry a man who loved and respected them even if this was not a legal demand. Her female characters fight for their own happiness and right to choose, with her most famous heroine Elizabeth Bennet rejecting two proposals. In Pride and Prejudice, Austen criticizes the societal construct of marriage and questions traditional stereotypical gender roles, which considered women to be objects with no rights. Austen is an influential woman as her social critique was radical in exposing the hardships faced by women of the time, but also in her advocacy for gender equality in both society and the law. Her writing stands out for its comedy, self-awareness and realistic, detailed portrayal’s of characters and their relationships, making her work intelligent and skilled.
WrittenBySarahKelly
Edited By Luisa Hughes
Melisende of Jerusalem
Melisende of Jerusalem is often explained as an aside to the warrior Kings who ruled over the Kingdom of Jerusalem during the age of the Crusades, but Melisende was crowned King and was respected by her nobles and chroniclers.
A Multicultural and educated woman: Melisende was born in the County of Edessa, in modern day Turkey. Her mother was Morphia of Melitene and her father was Fulk of Anjou. She was therefore half Eastern and half western, as Asbridge highlights ‘the living embodiment of the new oriental Frankish society’. She spoke many languages and was educated in the arts and philosophy. She enjoyed horse riding, nature and was bored by the tasks confined to a woman, instead reeling in political debates with men.
A woman who refused to be put aside: In 1131 Melisende was crowned joint King of Jerusalem alongside her husband Fulk and her son Baldwin III. Her father, Baldwin II recognised that to keep the royal bloodline alive he needed to insist that his daughter was crowned alongside her husband. Melisende therefore ruled as co-King. When her husband, attempted to exclude her from the political scene, she was accused of adultery – a classic way to villainise a powerful woman – and civil war almost erupted in the Kingdom, was it not for the support of her nobles and cousin Hugh of Jaffa. Fulk soon realised that he had misunderstood the power his wife welded, and in the words of William of Tyre, from then on Fulk "did not attempt to take the initiative, even in trivial matters, without her knowledge". His apology was heartfelt, having a precious prayer book, called a psalter, commissioned in her honour. The psalter, which now resides in the British Library, reflects Melisende’s position as a great King, a woman of enormous faith and her cultural heritage. The image on the front, in carved ivory, depicts King David and his six acts of mercy. Inside the illuminated images of psalms reflect Byzantine, Islamic and Romanesque European Art. Fulk seems to have, at last, understood the woman he had married.
When her husband died in 1143, she ruled alongside her son Baldwin III. Melisende issued charters in her own name and William described her as ‘a very wise woman, fully experienced in almost all spheres of state business,’ who took ‘charge of important affairs.’ This is especially significant as it contrasts with the misogynistic attitude of others of the time.
Baldwin III had come of age and wanted to rule in his own right without her interference. Melisende was besieged in Jerusalem and her son was crowned King in his own right in 1153. Yet rather than step down completely, Melisende maintained influence over the religious and cultural development of the Kingdom, ensuring that her sisters gained wealthy suitors, rebuilding the Holy sites in Jerusalem and founding the Convent of St Lazarus in Bethany for women.
Everyone has flaws; but can still be an inspiration: She has been criticised for not stepping down for her son to rule, as a warrior king was required to defend the kingdom of Jerusalem against the growing power of Muslim resurgence. The Christian of city of Edessa fell to the mighty Muslim warlord Zengi, due to her failure to send an army quickly enough. Perhaps she should have stepped down as King. Melisende was a strong, passionate, independent woman, in a time where men dominated the political sphere. Melisende of Jerusalem is an inspirational woman, not only because she was a king in her own right, but because of her intelligence, unwillingness to be dominated by the men around her, by her continued passion for her culture and her care for the women around her.
