How Did We Use AI To Create This Magazine?
AI was at the heart of creating our magazine, revolutionizing how we approached content and design For the front page, we used AI tools to generate multiple captivating layouts by inputting themes and keywords that embodied the magazine's focus. It provided visually striking designs with optimised typography, colour schemes, and layouts, allowing us to refine a cover that perfectly aligned with our vision. On the games page, AI played a creative role, generating engaging puzzles, crosswords tailored to the theme
Additionally, AI contributed to writing this very paragraph, helping articulate the details of its own involvement By analysing tone, structure, and content flow, it crafted a clear, cohesive explanation of its role in the magazine’s creation. This partnership between human creativity and AI efficiency resulted in a seamless, innovative publication process.
On the contrary, AI is extremely power consuming. OpenAI's ChatGPT consumes over 500,000 kilowatt-hours daily, due to over 1 4 billion requests per week (For reference, a kilowatt-hour (kWh) is the energy delivered by one kilowatt for one hour)
The average UK home uses 7 5 kWh per day, meaning this amount of energy could power 67,000 UK homes for a day 500,000 kWh would allow you to charge your phone 10,000,000 times. That's 10,000,000 times a day. That's also enough energy to boil 33 million cups of tea a day. Although AI and ChatGPT are very useful and fun to use (especially for writing essays like above), they are extremely power consuming, power which could be used to substitute fossil fuels and slow the effects of climate change Maybe moving forward, spend that little bit of extra time to do the research yourself, instead of taking the easy shortcut
What is the Europa Clipper mission and how will it find life on Jupiter’s moon Europa?
What is the Europa mission?
The Europa Clipper mission is a NASA program aimed to find if Jupiter’s moon with the same name is suitable for life The satellite launched from the Kennedy space centre on the 14th of October 2024 and is on a 6-year journey, hopefully arriving in April of 2030 The trajectory of the satellite will take it around Mars for a gravity assist in March 2025 and earth in December 2026
Why Explore Europa?
Now we know the timeline, why do we want to go to Europa and what is it in the first place? Europa is part of the Galilean moons of Jupiter, surprisingly discovered by Galileo in 1610, they are the four largest moons orbiting the large gas giant Europa is about the size of our moon but covered in thick ice We do not know how thick the ice is, although estimates range from 20km to 100km thick More importantly NASA believes there to be almost twice as much water there than the combined volume of earth’s oceans This liquid water combined with the carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulphur found on the surface leads scientists to believe that circumstances are right for life and that there might actually be aliens, micro bacterial ones of course
Energy Sources on Europa
Now, you might ask how the organisms get energy when they are ~780 million km away from the sun. They do not need the sun but instead gain energy from the back and forth stretching of the water and the planets core itself. The gravity of Jupiter is so strong that it stretches the water under the ice and also the core itself, this flux of matter creates energy and is highly likely behind the reason for the liquid water under the ice sheet. NASA gives a good explanation “The flexing forces energy into the moon’s interior, which then seeps out as heat (think of how repeatedly bending a paperclip generates heat.) The more the moon’s interior flexes, the more heat is generated.”[1] The heat from the core is released through hydrothermal vents. This is important as on earth we have found organisms that live deep underwater, who use the heat from the earth to live. This could be happening on the moon as well.
Jupiter’s Harsh Environment: Radiation and the Magnetosphere
Lastly, a major consideration of the mission is the radiation hitting the moon and the magnetosphere (the magnetic field) of Jupiter. The radiation around Jupiter is incredibly strong and for reference the European Space Agency (ESA) says that “Jupiter’s magnetosphere is on average 20 million kilometres across, which is about 150 times wider than its parent planet and almost 15 times the diameter of the Sun”[2]. This is a major problem as the radiation which is propelled around Jupiter using the magnetosphere causes absolute havoc on the electronics and circuits of the satellite and also can also affect the life on the planet.
Where is the radiation coming from you say? Well mainly from volcanic eruptions from Io, another moon. These eruptions release large amounts of sulphur dioxide Jupiter’s orbit and the magnetosphere around Jupiter propellers the sulphur dioxide and ionizes the atoms into plasma (ions composing [1] of S⁺ , O⁺, S⁺², O⁺² and S⁺³). The plasma is now spinning around Jupiter at the same angular velocity as the core (faster than the Europa) in a large torus shape. This would give a lethal dose for any human in a matter of hours on Europa. However, the water on the moon is a very effective shield and also provides fuel for the chemical reaction on the surface. The radiation splits hydrogen and oxygen from the water, the hydrogen escapes out into space but the oxygen, binds to other substances around (mentions in p2) this creates energy but also creates valuable compounds for life.
Furthermore, the impact of the radiation plays a major factor in the satellite’s orbit as it also strongly impacts the radio transmissions including the damage to the computer if exposed for too long, this means the satellite will make 49 very elliptical flybys switching from transmitting to measuring. This also allows for more efficient energy use as it is using solar panels, and the sun is very weak from Jupiter’s orbit.
How will the Satellite find life?
This mission is very challenging and there are many problems that the engineers had to overcome. The engineers also tried to maximise the scientific payload of the satellite with 9 instruments, measuring the magnetic field too analysing the particulates around Europa. The last one being very impressive as, it is able to collect the particles which have been fired from the geysers on the surface and analysing them. The particulates, according to NASA an estimated 500kg around Europa at a time, get caught by the bucket shape of the instrument (SUDA); metal mesh grids at the front measure the speed and trajectory, the dust particulates then hit the metal plate at the back and the shear force splits it into individual molecules and ionizes a few of them. As ionized particles are charged, they follow the magnetic field of the instrument, which guides it to a detector. The ion’s mass to charge ratio determines the time for it to reach the detector. This timing “reveals the molecule’s mass and composition, “we can resolve the amino acids, sulphates, whatever”” – NASA[1]. The complete list of instruments are below, many are just as interesting as SUDA like PIMS especially due to Jupiter unique characteristics (see previous paragraphs).
EIS – Europa Imaging System
E-THEMIS – Thermal Emission Imaging System
Europa-UVS – Ultraviolet Spectrograph
MISE – Mapping Imaging Spectrometer
ECM – Magnetometer
PIMS – Plasma Instrument for Magnetic Sounding
Gravity/Radio Science
REASON – Radar for Ocean and Near-surface Assessment
MASPEX – Mass Spectrometer for Planetary Exploration
SUDA – Surface Dust Analyzer
If we find life?
Finding life would be a major discovery for humans and it could finally prove the fermi paradox wrong. It states that the probability of advanced life is contrasted by the lack of evidence shown in the universe that they exist. Which could be because alien life can be located deep under ice on moons This discovery could also advance biology, the first organisms that have evolved completely separately from the organism on earth How do they generate nutrients? Do they have DNA? Are they even carbon-based life forms? We will not know conclusively until the satellite arrives at its destination and even then, it will need to go through a lot of flybys before we get any substantial data All we can do really is wait and see
String Theory
What could the universe be made of
What is the universe made of? This question has fascinated humans for centuries. While some people turn to religious or philosophical beliefs, others explore scientific theories. Many of these theories remain unproven, but they offer intriguing possibilities. Among the most fascinating is string theory. This theory suggests that the universe might be composed of unimaginably tiny vibrating strings, and it aims to unify the fundamental forces of nature. Let’s explore the origins, significance, and challenges of this ground breaking idea.
Where does string theory come from?
String theory has its roots in the late 1960s when physicist Gabriel Veneziano discovered a formula called the Veneziano amplitude. This formula surprisingly matched experimental data about the scattering of particles called hadrons. Initially, it was part of a model called the dual resonance model, which aimed to explain the strong nuclear force— the force that binds protons and neutrons in an atom. Over time, this model evolved into an early version of string theory.
By the 1970s, scientists realized that string theory could explain much more than just the strong nuclear force. It had the potential to address some of the most fundamental questions about the universe, such as the nature of gravity and how it interacts with other forces.
What is string theory?
String theory holds a unique place in physics because of its potential to unify the two main frameworks of modern science
General relativity: This theory explains the behavior of massive objects, like planets and black holes, and describes the large-scale structure of the universe.
Quantum mechanics: This branch of physics deals with the behavior of particles at extremely small scales, such as atoms and subatomic particles.
These two theories are incredibly successful in their respective domains but are fundamentally incompatible with each other. String theory offers a way to bridge this gap, making it a candidate for the elusive “theory of everything.”
Beyond its theoretical promise, string theory has influenced many areas of science and mathematics. For example, the AdS/CFT correspondence, proposed by Juan Maldacena in 1997, has provided new insights into quantum field theory and even practical applications in condensed matter physics.
String theory has also deepened our understanding of black holes, particularly their entropy, which measures the amount of information hidden within them. Black holes behave like thermodynamic systems with temperature, entropy, and energy. For instance its energy corresponds to its mass – E = mc2 – These connections suggest that string theory could help us solve mysteries about the universe's most extreme objects.
Space time diagram
When you add up all the things in the both possible pion meson scattering graphs. you get a spacetime diagram that represents a particle. But it looks a lot like the Feynman diagram – a diagram with two lines coming into one then splitting back into two – with antiquarks and quarks. Then scientists observed a jump between opposing quarks and antiquarks. But there has to be something bridging the quarks. But what? At its core, string theory proposes that the fundamental building blocks of the universe are not point-like particles but tiny, one-dimensional strings that vibrate at different frequencies. These vibrations determine the properties of particles, such as their mass and charge.
To understand the origin of this idea, let’s look at some key discoveries:
Regge trajectories: scientists noticed that when they plotted particles’ angular momentum (L ) –their rotational motion –against the square of their mass(mc2), the particles formed straight lines on the graph. This pattern was consistent across many particles, suggesting an underlying connection.
Pion-Meson scattering: in experiments, two mesons – a type of particle – appeared to combine and form all possible excited states of the meson –like the rho meson – . This process was puzzling because it seemed to include contradictory behaviors such as a rho meson forming into two pi mesons – represented as π – .
String theory provided an explanation: the particles were connected by strings, which could account for both behaviors simultaneously.
By the mid-1980s, scientists had developed five different versions of string theory, each mathematically consistent. In the 1990s, they realized these were not separate theories but different aspects of a single overarching framework called M-theory – this was a rather exciting field to study at the time . This theory suggests that the universe might require 11 dimensions – 10 spatial dimensions and 1 for time –. While we perceive only 3 spatial dimensions, the extra dimensions are thought to be “compactified,” meaning they are folded into tiny, miniscule shapes far too small for us to detect.
D-Branes and higher dimensions
One of the most exciting developments in string theory is the concept of Dbranes, introduced in the mid-1990s. D-branes are multidimensional surfaces where open strings can attach their endpoints or in latent terms where they can end. These structures play a crucial role in understanding how strings interact and could help explain phenomena like black hole entropy.
The idea of higher dimensions –beyond our familiar three dimensions of space and one of time – is also a cornerstone of string theory. These dimensions are incredibly small, curled up in intricate shapes like Calabi-Yau manifolds which is a very interesting field and offers many new opportunities in string theory. Understanding these shapes and their properties is an active area of research, with implications for both physics and mathematics.
What lies ahead?
Despite these challenges, many scientists remain optimistic about the future of string theory. Advances in technology and mathematics could eventually help us test its predictions. For example:
Astrophysical observations: highprecision measurements of cosmic phenomena, such as black hole mergers or the cosmic microwave background, could provide indirect evidence for string theory.
Mathematical progress: continued research into areas like topology and geometry could shed light on the theory’s higher-dimensional aspects.
Conclusion
In the meantime, string theory continues to inspire new ideas and cross-disciplinary research in all the fields whether science or mathematics . Even if it is not the ultimate “theory of everything,” as it has been called multiple times by scientists all over the world, its contributions to science and mathematics are undeniable.
What are the challenges of string theory?
Despite its pristine elegance, string theory faces significant challenges, particularly in terms of experimental verification. One major hurdle is the scale problem. String theory operates at the Planck scale, which involves energies around ≈1019 GeV, a ginormous number. This is far beyond the reach of current particle accelerators – which are machines that crash two particles together at an immense speed– , such as the Large Hadron Collider which is the collider that discovered the Higgs boson in 2012. Another challenge is the sheer number of possible solutions that string theory allows. The theory predicts a vast "landscape" of possible universes – kind of like multiverses , each with different physical laws. Determining which solution corresponds to our universe remains an open question. Additionally, string theory competes with other approaches to quantum gravity, such as loop quantum gravity, another theory that focuses more on gravity and quantum relativity alone . These alternative theories offer different insights into the nature of space, time, and gravity, adding to the complexity of the search for a unified framework.
String theory is a bold and ambitious attempt to answer one of humanity’s most profound questions: what is the universe made of? By proposing that the universe is composed of tiny vibrating strings and exploring higher dimensions, it offers a framework for unifying the forces of nature and understanding the cosmos at its most fundamental level Although it remains unproven, string theory’s potential to revolutionize physics and mathematics makes it one of the most exciting areas of scientific research As technology advances and our understanding deepens, we may one day unlock the secrets of the universe and finally answer the question: What could the universe be made of?!
The Power Of Controlling Life:
Introduction
To transcend the worlds and people, and be able to shape our own, which is one of the oldest dreams and almost a recurrent theme of human history we can use CRISPIR technology. CRISPR, which stands for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats, is the name for the genome sequences that direct the process. One of the most transformative of the tools opening this new frontier is CRISPR-Cas9, a gene-editing technology which is like molecular scissors that allows researchers the ability to alter genetic codes. It is this tool that has given us advances like longer lifespans and cures for once incurable diseases — and even the design of new species.
Yet in translating science fiction to reality, it poses ethical quandaries and unintended consequences.
What is CRISPRCas9?
Developed in 2012, CRISPRCas9 has been called a “game changer,” the closest health care comparison being that of the discovery of antibiotics. For a long time genetic engineering the oldfashioned way had been slow, expensive and difficult. In contrast, CRISPR-Cas9 is accurate, easy and inexpensive. It was such a revolutionary innovation that Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna shared the 2020 Nobel Prize in Chemistry on account of it.
CRISPR-Cas9
CRISPR-Cas9 is essentially a tool that scientists employ to edit genes with great precision. It is an immune system adapted from nature, used by bacteria to protect themselves from viruses.
How Does CRISPRCas9 Work?
CRISPR-Cas9 is modeled on the way bacteria protect themselves from viruses. When a virus invades a bacterium, the bacterium keeps a “memory” of the virus’s DNA. If the same virus attacks again, the bacterium uses the Cas9 protein to slice that virus’s DNA, effectively killing it. And scientists have adapted this system to humans.
CRISPR uses a special guide RNA to find and edit parts of the human genome — like disease-causing genes — by matching the guide to a specific sequence of DNA. Cas9 then snips the targeted DNA like scissors, letting scientists delete malfunctioning genes or insert new ones.
Think of it in the way that you would use the “Find and Replace” function in Microsoft Word. Let’s say one of the genetic causes of cancer in humans is what is known as “Mr. TONY.” What CRISPR does is scour your DNA to find “Mr. TONY” in all its appearances. Once it locates the gene, Cas9 snips it out, and your body mends the DNA, filling it in with random strands. This process’ risk of creating faulty genes can be mitigated by inserting fragments of the wanted RNA.
Nuclear fusion - Can you tell which essay is AI generated?
This is a new segment in the BaCoN Magazine, in which the reader can guess which essay is produced by AI (in this case Chat GPT) and which is produced by a human.
Essay A
Nuclear fusion, the process that powers the sun, is the dream that promises to revolutionize the world's energy sector. Unlike nuclear fission, which splits atoms and produces long-lived radioactive waste, fusion combines hydrogen isotopes-deuterium and tritium-to create helium, releasing immense energy with minimal environmental impact.
One of the biggest advantages of fusion is its nearly limitless fuel supply. Deuterium can be extracted from seawater, and tritium can be bred from lithium, thus providing the energy security for several millennia. As the International Atomic Energy Agency estimates, one liter of water contains enough deuterium to produce energy equivalent to 300 liters of gasoline. Moreover, fusion reactions yield, per kilogram of fuel, roughly four million times more energy than coal or oil, which makes it one of the most efficient sources of energy.
Fusion is also incredibly safe: unlike fission reactors, there is no possibility of devastating meltdowns occurring in fusion. Since the reaction requires incredibly high temperatures-on the order of 150 million degrees Celsiusthe reaction just simply ceases if containment is lost. Besides, fusion does not emit greenhouse gases, and that is important in the fight against climate change. ITER, the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor, will be the first European fusion project to demonstrate net energy gain by the 2030s and pave the path for commercial reactors by 2050.
Further advancements could see fusion displace the use of fossil fuels, deliver abundant, clean electricity, and enable related innovations such as hydrogen production for transport. If harnessed effectively, nuclear fusion has the potential to provide the world's growing energy needs and decrease carbon emissions, potentially lowering global CO₂ output by over 50% by 2100.
While there are still many challenges, nuclear fusion embodies a future where humanity will have unlimited access to clean, sustainable energy.
Essay B
Nuclear fusion, often hailed as the "holy grail" of clean energy, holds immense promise for revolutionizing the global energy landscape. This technology replicates the power of the sun on Earth, releasing nearly four million times more energy than burning coal, oil, or gas, and four times as much as nuclear fission reactions. Recent breakthroughs have brought fusion energy closer to reality. In December 2022, scientists at the National Ignition Facility achieved a net fusion energy gain of over one megajoule, marking a significant milestone in fusion research. This progress has fuelled optimistic projections that we could see the first fusion reactors producing net energy within the next 10 to 15 years. The potential benefits of fusion energy are staggering. A study by the MIT Energy Initiative found that incorporating fusion into New England's electrical grid could cut annual energy costs by $36 billion, or 7%, by 2050. Extrapolating this to the entire United States could save consumers $119 billion per year. On a global scale, fusion power could increase global GDP by $68 trillion in a conservative scenario, or up to $175 trillion in a more aggressive scenario. Fusion energy offers several advantages over current energy sources:
1.High energy yield: Fusion produces far more energy than traditional sources.
2 Clean energy: It generates no carbon emissions or long-lived radioactive waste.
3.Abundant fuel: Deuterium can be extracted from seawater, ensuring a virtually limitless fuel supply.
4 Safety: There's no risk of meltdown or runaway chain reactions.
Despite these promising prospects, significant challenges remain. Most experts agree that large-scale energy generation from nuclear fusion is unlikely before around 2050. However, with continued investment and international cooperation, fusion could become a gamechanger in addressing climate change and energy scarcity. The UK government, recognizing fusion's potential, has committed over £300 million in funding up to 20257. This investment, along with similar initiatives worldwide, aims to accelerate the development of this transformative technology, potentially ushering in an era of clean, abundant, and affordable energy for future generations
Ethanol as an alternative fuel
Introduction
Picture a world where the highways are silent, filled with abandoned rusting cars when the last drops of gasoline run dry; on Christmas, neighbourhoods huddled in the freezing dark, burning furniture just to survive the night. The cosy atmosphere of Christmas Eve became a thing in the past; and the fields lay barren, tractors silent, as hunger turned bustling cities into ghost towns ruled by desperation. This is the reality if the global oil crisis remains unaddressed as “the oil market will face a supply shortage by the end of 2025 because the world is not replacing crude reserves fast enough” (Hollub). Other sources, namely coal, are an alternative, but it will cause environmental issues when combusted for fuel. Hence, finding a sustainable and renewable energy source is no longer an option but a necessity. Currently, researchers are exploring alternatives to crude oils (any substance that can produce heat and energy when burned, typically extracted from crude oil); among these alternatives, alcohols, particularly ethanol stand out due to their versatility and availability for cleaner combustion.
Why ethanol, not coal?
Coal is mainly composed of carbon, along with hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur; it has a high energy density, releasing a significant amount of energy when combusted. For instance, “a single metric ton of coal can produce up to 1,927 kilowatt-hours of electricity” (Just Energy, 2024). Coal’s abundance makes it a suitable alternative to crude oil for energy production. Nonetheless, since coal contains a large amount of carbon, it releases substantial amounts of CO₂ when combusted, as oxygen reacts with the carbon. CO₂ is a greenhouse gas that traps heat in the Earth's atmosphere, contributing to global warming.
Chemical equation for fermentation of ethanol from glucose
Additionally, coal combustion produces pollutants like sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, leading to poor air quality. Also, excessive CO₂ missions contribute significantly to environmental issues, including rising sea levels, acid rain, and disruptions to the carbon cycle.
Ethanol
as a cleaner fuel alternative
Ethanol possesses several characteristics that make it a viable alternative to conventional fuels. Initially, unlike coal, alcohols are more sustainable and release less carbon dioxide when burned, as they contain only a small portion of carbon in their composition, thus less likely to increase the carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere, thereby reducing the risk of environmental issues.
Moreover, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reports that blending ethanol with gasoline reduces tailpipe emissions of carbon monoxide (CO) by up to 30%, and ethanol-only engines produce no sulfur oxides (SO₂), unlike crude oil derivatives. This allusively suggests the environmental friendliness of ethanol over coal.
Next, renewable sources will not run out of supply since they can be quickly produced and replaced over a short period and produced at the same rate, or even faster, than they are being consumed, making them generally infinite. Biofuels, including bioethanol, are examples of renewable sources, as they are derived from organic materials and produced through biological carbon fixation.
The science behind ethanol production
Specifically, ethanol is produced by fermenting biomass such as corn or sugarcane, which contain high amounts of fermentable sugars or starches that can be easily converted into glucose during the process. Starch, for example, consists of amylose (linear chains) and amylopectin (branched chains), both of which are made up of glucose units linked by α-1,4glycosidic bonds. The glucose units in starch are specifically in the α-D-glucose form, and when enzymes like amylase break down the starch, they release these glucose molecules, which are then available for fermentation. Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a type of yeast, ferments glucose anaerobically, converting it into ethanol and carbon dioxide.
Ensuring a continuous supply of Bioethanol
In general, bioethanol will not run out of supply, as glucose is produced in the Calvin cycle during photosynthesis, a process that most plants continuously perform. Accordingly, there will be a sufficient supply of glucose for fermentation.
Could other type of alcohols work as well?
Each type of alcohol can be tested for its enthalpy change during combustion, which refers to the heat energy released when 1 mole of a substance is burned in excess oxygen under standard conditions. This can be measured using calorimetry, an apparatus designed to measure the temperature change in a known mass of substance water during combustion of alcohol. The temperature change can be used to calculate the heat released or absorbed during the reaction, which corresponds to the enthalpy change (ΔH) under constant pressure. A higher enthalpy change indicates that more energy is released when the substance is combusted, which can be used as an alternative to crude oil.
Potential Methods and Innovations
Recently, researchers from Stanford University proposed the idea of using an electrichemical method to produce ethanol using CO₂, water, and electricity, produced without biomass. To be exact, a specialized copper (751) catalyst facilitates the conversion of CO₂ into ethanol and propanol with minimal byproducts. The process occurs in an electrochemical cell, where an applied voltage drives the reaction. This approach could be an inspiration in future ethanol production as it reduces reliance on biomasses, consequently decreasing the amount of carbon dioxide released by fermentation.
Challenges and Limitations
Despite the potential use and advantages of alcohol as an alternative fuel, there are many limitations and challenges that may hinder this choice. Biofuels are more expensive than petroleum, with “biodiesel costs currently 70% to 130% higher than petrol and diesel on the wholesale market” (T&E), making them less feasible in low-income countries. Therefore, scaling up production to achieve economies of scale is crucial for making these fuels economically competitive. What's more, although biofuels are environmentally friendly, they release less energy than coal. According to the EIA, “ethanol has a lower energy content than coal, with an energy density of approximately 21–30 MJ/kg. This is about 60–70% the energy density of coal.” This means that large quantities of ethanol must be combusted to release a sufficient amount of energy for important machinery to function in our daily life and to produce the same output as coal. Alternatively, the environmental benefits of ethanol depend on the sustainability of its production processes. For instance, cornbased ethanol has high water usage and land requirements, which can negate the key environmental benefits of using ethanol.
A set up of calorimetry
A Vision for the Future
As technology develops and biofuel production becomes more efficient, future innovations could bridge the energy gap, enhancing biofuels' viability as a sustainable energy source. With continued research and development, biofuels have the potential to play a vital role in more sustainable energy future, expanding the innovative use of ethanol as an alternative to crude oil.
Forensic sciences are ‘scientific tests or techniques used in connection with the detection of crime.’ However, what truly is it? And can we go deeper into said scientific tests.
NE-DONOTCROSS-POLICELINE-DON
Forensic science is a broad topic with many criminal cases and many ways of identifying evidence It connects law to science and has been used to solve many criminal affairs. Forensic document examination (FDE) is the science of examining handwriting, contracts, wills, ID cards, handwritten documents and more. But how exactly do they find evidence of this? Writing tools, rubber stamps, envelopes and office/stationary equipment in the suspect’s possession could be collected by the
investigator. In digital documents, evidence could be obtained from electronic files, providing information such as who the author is and when the document was written Some of the objectives of FDE is to determine if a document is counterfeit or not. Verifying signatures and handwriting analysis (making sure a signature was not forged). Identifying changes (for example, eraser marks, writing over or additions) Investigating the materials, tools, or methods used to create the document.
Detecting hidden details, using methods to recover content. Some visual examinations of FDE are magnification, side lighting or comparison. Magnification is when you use microscopes to study finer details such as paper fibres. Side light is when you shine a light to the side of a piece of paper to be able to identify indentations or erasures Comparison is exactly like its name, directly comparing questioned and known samples for consistency.
Can reflexes enhance AI thinking?
Introduction
I believe many of you have experienced asking AI simple questions that we can answer easily without thinking. However, for AI, it still needs to go through a complex processing routine. For example, when we perform simple multiplications like 4*4 or 7*8, we can quickly give out the answer because we have memorized these answers and formed reflexive responses. This type of thinking isn’t suitable for AI because, currently, AI cannot form reflexes in the same way humans do. Therefore, I can’t help thinking: would the ability to form reflexes simplify the AI thinking process?
To further explore this, we should first examine the principle of reflexes.
Basic concepts
There are two types of nervous reflexes: conditioned reflexes and unconditioned reflexes. Unconditioned reflexes are innate responses that people are born with, such as the knee-jerk reflexes. Conditioned reflexes, on the other hand, are formed through training. The concept of the conditioned reflex was first discovered by the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov. Initially, Pavlov noticed that food naturally causes dogs to salivate, which is an example of an unconditioned reflex. He then introduced a neutral stimulus, the sound of a bell, shortly before presenting the dogs with food. At first, the bell elicited no response. However, after several repetitions of pairing the bell with the food, the dogs began to salivate upon hearing the bell, even when no food was presented. This experiment established a conditioned reflex in the dogs, as they had learned to associate the sound of the bell with the arrival of food.
After understanding the concept of conditioned reflexes, we will now look at how AI works today. The working principles of AI mainly include three parts: data acquisition, training, and reasoning. AI relies on data; it needs large amounts of data as the foundation for its study.
In the training step, there are two types of learning: machine learning and deep learning. Machine learning is akin to building a mathematical model. AI receives a large amount of data, then summarizes and categorizes that data to create a model. When we input new data, AI uses the model it has built to infer the result. This method of learning is more like a statistical tool. I find this method like solving differential equation application problems, where some data is given, and I need to find the relationships among them.
In contrast, deep learning follows a different process. In deep learning, AI uses simpler concepts to understand more complex ones.
This process is somewhat like when we try to understand a new word. When we encounter a new word, we may attempt to identify its root or affixes. In doing so, we are simplifying complex concepts.
Current Limitations
Though both machine learning and deep learning are effective, they still have their limitations. Firstly, both learning methods require large amounts of data and time, and the quality of data directly influences the quality of learning. For example, the Chinese social media Weibo has developed a comment AI, but users sometimes describe its responses as “aggressive.” Most people believe the reason for this is the irregular quality of data, specifically the comments on Weibo, that the AI used for learning. Therefore, when using these two learning methods, developers need either a highquality database or significant effort to eliminate low-quality data.
The Elixir of Life: From Myth to Modern Science
Introduction: A Timeless Fascination
The phrase “Elixir of Life” is often portrayed as a fictional concept, depicting images of magical substances that can increase lifespan or even grant immortality. This idea has captivated human imagination for centuries, appearing in myths, legends, and stories from various cultures across the world. It features in some of the most prominent works of humanity today, such as JK Rowling’s bestselling fantasy novel “Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone”. However, in our modern, globalized world of advanced science and technology, the ideology of an "Elixir of Life" may begin to take on a more realistic form. In this article, I will explore two potential “Elixirs of Life” that may help scientists better understand longevity, ultimately leading to greater and more significant scientific advancements.
Candidate 1: Bacillus F
– Life Frozen in Time
Discovery and resilience
The Bacillus sphaericus (or Bacillus F) is a spore-forming bacterium found in the early 2000s in extreme environments like permafrost—— frozen soil that had been locked in ice for millions of years. The Bacillus F is known for its ability to survive under harsh conditions such as heat, radiation, and dehydration due to its ability to form resistant endospores. Furthermore, since the bacteria have reportedly inhabited the permafrost for millions of years, they could have developed special biological mechanisms that would help them survive over long periods of time.
Health-boosting properties
Moreover, the Bacillus F is also known to produce chemicals like antioxidants, which help balance out harmful molecules that can cause severe cellular damage and are associated with aging and countless diseases. Thus, if the Bacillus F can produce antioxidants, it may have potential influence over aging and health. In addition, the Bacillus F can also produce beneficial compounds like enzymes and protein, which possess immune-boosting properties, thereby contributing to better overall health.
Scientific Experiments and Observations
The notable health benefits that this bacteriumpossesses has attracted the attention of numerous scientists, and several experiments were conducted. For instance, the Bacillus F was previously tested on fruit flies. Researchers injected the bacteria into flies to study its effects on their immune system and overall health. The results indicated that the Bacillus F could increase the flies’ lifespan and make them more resistant as a whole, potentially due to the chemicals and healthbenefiting compounds found within the bacteria. These findings support the bacteria’s ability to lessenthe effects of aging and environmental stress on living organisms, though further and larger-scale research was needed to determine the level of its effectiveness.
A Bold Human Trial
Now, this was where the Russian geocryologist Anatoli Brouchkov comes into the story. He wondered whether the health benefits and longevity the bacteria provided for other tests subjects including the fruit flies mentioned above, mice, and crops also applied to humans, and decided to take matters into his own hands by injecting himself with the Bacillus F a few years later in 2009.
The sample that Brouchkov worked with was trapped in several levels of permafrost in Siberia for 3.5 million years, which made it particularly interesting for scientists studying longevity and aging. While Brouchkov reported a few years after the injection that he is feeling more energetic and did not encounter any sicknesses for two years, these claims are not scientifically proven, and Brouchov’s improving health and immunity may just be a result of the placebo effect.
Future Possibilities
Thus, while the Bacillus F is of significant scientific interest for its health benefits, its effects on human health remain speculative Overall, after conducting further research, the Bacillus F may prove to be highly advantageous in learning how to extend human lifespan, ultimately being modified to serve as an effective ‘Elixir of Life’ in the future
Photo of Anatoli Brouchkov after injecting Bacillus F.
Was Stephen Hawking a humanoid or Simply Human?
The Father of the Universe Who Became a Star
On the 14th of March 2018, one of the greatest physicists of mankind, Stephen Hawking, passed away Despite his ground-breaking distributions to science, including the theory of black hole radiation, Stephen Hawking was diagnosed with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also known as motor neuron disease (MND), in 1963 when he was just 21 years old and suffered for more than 50 years until he passed away Due to ALS, Stephen Hawking has lost almost all of his voluntary muscle control, and it also led to an emergency tracheotomy, leaving him permanently unable to speak and walk Therefore, Stephen Hawking had to use a speech-generating device and a wheelchair to continue his career as a physicist
TheEmergenceof Humanoids
Humanoidsonceexistedonlyin imagination,havebecomeareality todaywiththeadvancementof scienceandtechnology The developmentofhumanoidrobots beganinthe20thcenturyandwas boostedinthemid-20thcentury withtherapidgrowthofartificial intelligence,mechanicsand computing Manyhumanoids, includingtheWABOT-1inventedin 1973byWasedaUniversityinJapan andtheASIMOinventedin2000by Honda,amazedtheworldwiththeir incredibleresemblancewithhuman andtheirabilitytowalk,runand interactwithpeople These humanoidrobotshaveimpacted variousindustries,revolutionising thepreviousmethodsofworkand serviceby improvingefficiency, accessibility,andhuman-robot collaborationacrossmultiplefields However,insomepartsofthe world,concernsthathumanoid robotswouldtakeawayhuman jobs,andevenstandagainst humansroseaswell.
Humanoids or Simply Human?
As humanoids developed and became more human-like, distinguishing humans from humanoids is thought-provoking, especially when we compare the definitions of both terms On one hand, humans are biologically classified as Homo sapiens, characterized by traits such as bipedal locomotion, advanced cognitive abilities, and complex social behaviours On the other hand, a humanoid refers to “a machine or creature with the appearance and qualities of a human” often used to describe robots or artificial beings that mimic human characteristics. Then what about people like Stephen Hawking, who highly depends on science and technology to survive? With Stephen Hawking's reliance on a speech-generating device and wheelchair due to his ALS diagnosis, some may question, ‘Could he succeed in becoming a great scientist if he did not have the aid of technological enhancements? Should the technology he used to maintain his intellectual and emotional engagement with the world categorize him as something other than fully human, or does his human consciousness and identity remain intact despite his physical limitations?’ This question can be asked to all the people with injured limbs who have started to find robot prosthetics to replace them
At the same time, we must not lose sight of an important philosophical dilemma: As technology becomes more deeply integrated into our bodies and minds, will we always be able to define what is truly ‘human’? This question should remain at the forefront of robotics research, reminding engineers of the ethical considerations that must guide their work.
Ultimately, I hope that future robotic prosthetics will not only assist individuals in their daily lives but also empower them to express themselves and push beyond their limitations—just as Stephen Hawking did.
Ethical Considerations for Advances in Prosthetics
Regarding the relationship between robotic devices and users, the user should always retain sovereignty and control. For instance, when a person with a bionic arm falls, the robot should never autonomously decide that the user is in danger and attempt to protect them without consent. While the robot may be assisting the user, what if the user does not want that intervention? Regardless of the outcome, the robot must not judge or act independently. Thus, in the context of robotic prosthetics, the user’s autonomy must always come first.
The importance of this consideration becomes clearer when we look at recent developments in implantable braincomputer interfaces, such as Elon Musk’s Neuralink, which enables users to control computers or mobile devices using their thoughts. Before long, these microcomputers could actually be implanted in people’s brains and assist some people with intellectual disabilities or autism. This technology could enable these individuals to function normally, just like ordinary people. At first glance, this may seem like a groundbreaking solution. However, there is one crucial issue. Yes, as these people have limitations in cognitive functioning and adaptive behaviours, indeed, they usually will not make the right, correct decision, so it does seem like implanting a computer brain interface is a good decision. But if a computer interferes and influences their decision - even if it aids the user in making the right decisioncan we still consider them as fully human?
Could it be that they are losing “the instinct of choice,” one of the key factors that make humans far superior to other animals? This is why I previously mentioned that it could be a different situation if Stephen Hawking took technology as an essential means of survival.
Disabilities may create challenges, but they should never define a person’s worth or diminish their right to selfdetermination. Every individual deserves to be treated with dignity and respect, including the fundamental freedom to make their own choices. As robotic prosthetics continue to advance, it is crucial to ensure that they empower users without compromising their autonomy
While waiting for the next Stephen Hawking…
In conclusion, the development and advancement of robotics and prosthetics should continue. However, the primary focus of this research must shift. When designing robotic prosthetics, the key question should not be ‘How can we integrate this new technology into the human body?’ but rather, ‘How can we create a device that truly meets the user’s needs?’ A user-centred approach—prioritising the needs and experiences of users throughout the entire development process—will lead to more effective and meaningful prosthetic solutions.
In what ways has artificial intelligence benefitted healthcare?
A Brief History of Artificial Intelligence
Although AI has only come into mainstream use in the past decade, the history of AI in fact goes back thousands of years. In ancient times, inventors made things called ‘automatons’ which were mechanical inventions that moved independently of human invention. The word ‘automaton’ comes from ancient Greek ‘αὐτόματος’ meaning ‘self-moving’ or ‘self-willed’.
More recently in the early 1900’s, there was a lot of media created circulating the idea of artificial humans and various plays and books were written on the idea Artificial Intelligence was then born in 1950-1956 where Alan Turing published ‘Computer Machinery and Intelligence’ in 1950, eventually becoming the Turing Test which experts use to measure the intelligence of AI. In 1952 a computer scientist names Arthur Samuel developed a program to play checkers, which became the first ever program to learn a game independently
By 1955, John McCarthy held a workshop where the term "artificial intelligence" was first speculated Fast forward to today and AI has matured beyond what was thought imaginable, with a booming development during the 1980’s and speech recognition software released by Windows in 1997. In 2011 Apple released Siri, the first popular virtual assistant
These landmarks are alongside hundreds of others contributing to the rapid growth of AI, leading us to modern day society where we cannot imagine a life without it
The incredible capabilities of this conception have already had a measurable influence on the NHS with its increasing efficiency and decreasing costs, and will no doubt continue to expand its presence in the healthcare system over the coming years. The infiltration of AI into the healthcare system could be one of the most positive and impactful ways it is being used today, but of course there are still aspects to be wary of when using AI so frequently This article discusses how AI is being used today in healthcare and how its effects and limitations are impacting the world
Types of AI Used in Healthcare Today
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is currently used across healthcare to enhance a variety of common medical processes such as diagnosing disease and identifying treatment plans, with four main different types of AI used: machine learning, deep learning, neural language processing and robotic process automation
Machine learning AI is a branch of artificial intelligence which focuses on the use of data and algorithms to imitate the way humans learn, is used to make a prediction or classification based on input data For patients’ healthcare journeys, the NHS have proposed one potential implementation of machine learning for chronic illnesses such as chronic heart disease. This patient would be able to stay at home and be monitored with a smart watch to measure their heart rate, so if it were to increase, the patient could book an online consultation with their General Practitioner (GP)
During this consultation, the GP is presented with ‘online observations, and a decision support algorithm’ by AI, which would further process the information given by the patient and rank the many possible differential diagnoses in real time. Alongside this, the AI would transcribe the whole conversation and suggest follow up investigations if need be.
Despite the AI having processed all the information and presented the GP with the analysis, the GP would always be the one to make the final decision as it not only gives the patient and the family comfort of a human interaction and decision but also rules out any errors In this hypothetical instance, the application of AI would have not only improved the speed of the decision as the AI gave the GP an instance summary and various options to choose from, but also the quality of this decision due to the GP’s new ability to see every possible option and an analysis of each.
The Importance of Human Interaction in Medicine
Although the NHS have included the aspect of human interaction carefully within this example, it is important to remember the power that comes with the broad capabilities of AI and how significant this continued human presence is.
A 2024 article published by Dalmacito Cordero in the department of Theology and Religious Education of De La Salle University, Philippines highlights the negatives of using AI in healthcare. The article states there is an ‘absence of an emotional bond between the health professional and the patient.
The doctor-patient relationship is key to effective care, offering comfort, trust, and clear, personal communication while respecting patient autonomy and confidentiality
Crossword Puzzles
Anagrams - Famous Scientists
Crossword Puzzles answers
Sodoku
Anagram
1.Marie Curie
2.Isaac Newton
3.Alan Turing
4.Charles Darwin
5.Stephen Hawking
6.Galileo Galilei
7.Erwin Schrodinger
8.Pythagoras
Charlie
Cynthia Cao
Archie Tosswill
Max McKenzie
Alec Galloway
Maddie Houseman
Lucas Groombridge
Leo
Mahtani
Sir Francis Bacon