Spring Change and Adapt

CAFÉ CAFÉ SCIENTIFIQUE SCIENTIFIQUE

MESSGAGE FROM NEWSLETTER TEAM

Theme of this Term Events

STUDENT AND ARTICLES

Biology

Chemistry

Physics

Engineering

Geography

Medicine

Psychology

Book Recommendations

Museum Recommendation

TV/Film Recommendations

Photographs taken by Cherrie (Left), Eleanor (Centre) and Dheepthi (Right) Front

Photographs taken by Sahana (Left), Eleanor (Centre), Cherrie (Right)

THISTERM’STHEME fromtheNewsletterTeam MESSAGE

ThethemewehavechosenthistermalignswiththatofBritishScienceWeek:“Change andAdapt”. AswegothroughthetransitionfromWintertoSpring,“Changeand Adapt”resonatesdeeply–notonlyinthenaturalworldbutalsowithtransformative advancementswithinscienceandtechnology.

Changeandadaptabilityaretwoessentialfacetsinsciencethatallowustohandle unprecedentedchallenges. Fiveyearsago,inthemidstoftheCOVID-19pandemic, humanityshowedthetruevalueoffastandeffectiveadaptationinuncertaintimes throughvaccinedevelopmentandpolicymaking. Thus,thethemeof'Changeand Adapt'remindsusthatgrowth–whetherinmanmadeorecologicalsystems–requires ourreadinessanddeterminationtoadapttonewcircumstances.

Likehowalllivinganimalsoriginatedfromsingle-celledorganismsthatliveddeep withintheseamillionsofyearsago,weareallunitedbyoursharedprocessof changingandadaptingtotheenvironment. Thisterm,CaféScientifiquepresentsa myriadofengagingandrelevantscientificarticlespresentedbystudents,fromdietchangingtechnologytotheevolutionofwolvestodogs,toexpandhorizonsand (hopefully)allowyoutofeeljustaspassionateaboutscienceaswedo!

Science Week Kahoot Quiz - 12th March 2025

Guest Speaker from Equitix - 13th March 2025

KHS/WS Science Fair - 14th March 2025

How Has Technology in Cars Changed Over the Years?

Written By Rhia Mann, 12H

Illustrated By Sahana Karthik, 12L

In the early 19th century cars were invented as a faster way to travel, as they didn’t rely on animals. Originally they started off powered by gasoline or steam, and since then various modifications have been made to improve efficiency and carbon footprint as well as improving their safety But how did this change happen?

Engine technology: In 1853, the internal combustion engine was invented and was a major success The idea behind a combustion engine is that fuel (like petrol or diesel) mixes with the oxygen in the air and then are brought into the cylinder during intake The pistons compress this mixture of fuel and air, and a spark ignites it causing combustion The combustion gasses expand pushing the piston during a power stroke [See Figure 1]. Since this discovery, scientists have developed hybrid technologies, fuel injection systems and turbochargers which improve performance and reduce emissions

Safety features: When cars were first invented, they were not very safe On cars today there are various features like crumple zones, airbags and antilocking brake systems (ABS) which improve safety. The idea of crumple zones and airbags are to reduce impact in a collision by increasing the time to come to rest, making the rate of change in momentum less. Antilocking brake systems also monitor the speed of each wheel, adjusting the brake pressure applied to each wheel individually

Sustainability: Climate change concerns have been growing over the recent years and cars are a large cause. Scientists have been developing biofuels to improve engine sustainability For example:

- Biodiesel can be mixed with petroleum diesel or just used as it is.

- Ethanol can be blended with gasoline to burn cleaner than just gasoline There are also more developments that are still in research, like using non-food products like algae, however this hasn’t been finalized yet

Electric Vehicles (EVs): The biggest change seen from the beginning of combustion engines is the move to EVs. Electric vehicles work slightly differently Powered by electric motors, electric vehicles use lithium-ion batteries, which store electricity and provide power to the motor. The benefit of electric vehicles is the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. However, there are also performance advantages: conventional vehicles only convert 20-30% of fuel into actual movement, whereas EVs convert around 60-80% of fuel into movement Also, electric vehicles generally have better acceleration performance as they can convert energy into motion more efficiently

Overall cars have been forced to adapt various features to make them more viable for modern roads. This article was very brief but hopefully gives an overview about some of the changes made to cars since the start of their time in the 1850s

GLOSSARY

Biodiesel:Fuelsmadefromvegetableoilsand animalfats

> Fig. 1: Engine Technology: The Four-Stroke Cycle

The Fight to Stay Alive: How Animals Adapt to Human Destruction

Written & Illustrated by Cherrie Li, 12K

We as humans have destroyed habitats, abused resources, and caused irreversible damage to the climate. With little hope for other animal species to survive under the tightening grasp of humans, all they can do is adapt and resist our destruction

Animals can adapt rapidly to their changing environment in various ways, including undergoing physical changes, adjusting their behaviors, and modifying their environment The following animals channel their resilience against human threats by showing that they will not go down without a fight.

Change in Bodies

Animals adapt physically over time in response to widespread global warming caused by humans, where the size of their limbs, ears, or beaks could help them cope with higher temperatures. Large appendages and smaller bodies are often the most successful adaptation to warmer climates. In the dry grasslands of South Africa, the average foot length of Cape Ground Squirrels grew by 9% in just 18 years. This is because the feet play a crucial role in thermoregulation (regulation of body temperature), where larger feet provide larger surface area for heat dissipation, allowing animals to cool down quicker.

The beaks of some Australian parrot species, including Gang-gang Cockatoos and Red-rumped Parrots have grown by 10% in the past century due to the same reason.

> Fig.2: Red-rumped Parrot

> Fig.3: Gang-gang Cockatoo

> Fig.1: Cape Ground Squirrel

Fig. 1

Fig. 2

Fig. 3

Marine iguanas in the Galápagos have the ability to shrink or grow their body length as much as 20% throughout their lifetimes, as food availability and temperature changes. Marine iguanas are the only lizard known to forage food within the sea and feed on algae. Due to warmer oceans, this makes red and green algae that marine iguanas prefer less available To adapt to the lack of food, the size of marine iguanas shrunk as much as 20%

5

Animals also change their colour to adapt to the rising temperature. Dark-coloured dragonflies are getting paler as this reduces the amount of heat absorbed by the sun. Tawny owls in Finland camouflage into the snow by having either pale grey or russet feathers. But as snow coverage decreased in Finland, the population of russet owls increased from 12% to 40% between 1960s and 2010.

Change in Environment and Behaviours

Animals may change their diet, lifestyle, locations, acidity levels, and ways of reproduction based on global temperature.

Californian sea lions have moved further away from the coast and added new food to their diet to fight off starvation. Some California sea lions even underwent a 2,100-mile journey all the way to Alaska

Fig. 7

>Fig.6:CalifornianSea Lion

>Fig.7:Pink-footed Goose

Pink-footed geese in the Arctic established new migration routes and breeding grounds Some migrating birds even laid their eggs earlier to match the insect availability during their chick’s birth season, so their young will have food.

Adaptationsdonotmeanwecankeepharmingtheirresources

Thesechangeswillonlyprotectthemforsolong,butnotforever. Climatechangeisoccurringatan exponentialrate,makingittoofastforanimalstokeepup. Tenofthewarmestyearshavebeen recordedinthepastdecade,andwehavehitthe1.5°Cthresholdlastyear. Furthermore,manyof thesechangesareamassivecosttotheseanimals. Withchangingsizes,itmakesitmoredifficultfor animalstohuntandfeed;withchangingcolours,itmakesanimalsmorevisibleandproneto predation. Extremophilesandhighlyadaptedanimals,suchasthefennecfox,snowyowl,and notablythepolarbearhavenochanceofsurvivingagainsttherisingtemperature. Itisnowour responsibilitytoabateourdestructiveacts,toreturnthehomesofthesespeciestodelaythedeathof theseanimalspeciesforaslongaswecan.

> Fig. 4: Marine iguana

> Fig.5: Tawny Owl

Fig. 4

Fig.

Fig. 6

Dentistry - Responding to the Climate Change Challenge

Written By Simran Dhillon, 11K

The field of dentistry has been continuously evolving in response to the increasingly concerning issue of climate change. Dentistry has undergone significant advances from traditional dental practices to more innovative technologies, not only to reduce our overall carbon footprint, but also enhancing the overall quality of dental care Some of which include:

LEDLights–ReducingEnergyWaste

LEDlightsarenowcommonlyusedwithindentalpracticestoenhancevarious procedures,includingteethcleaningandwhitening. Theyaidvisibilitybyprovidinga powerfulsourceoflight,allowinghygieniststoaccuratelylocateanyplaquebuild-up andensurenoareasareleftuntreated. Thisisessentialinpreventinggumdisease, cavitiesandotheroralhealthissues. LEDlightsalsoplayacrucialroleinteeth whiteningasthelightactivatesthewhiteningagenttoacceleratetheprocess,providing moreeffectiveandrapidresults Priortothis,dentalpracticesusedmoretraditional bulbssuchasincandescentoneswhichproducedlightbyheatingfilamentuntilit glowed. However,thisprocessrequireslotsofheatenergyalongsidehavingamuch shorterlifespanthanLEDlights(lastingaround6,000hourslessthanLED)creating morewaste. Therefore,usingLEDlightshashelpedreducedentists'overallcarbon footprintbyreducingwasteandenergyloss

Dryvacuums–ReducingWaterWaste

Dentalvacuumsareusedtoremovedetritus(fooddebriswhichbuilds upandhardensastartar)fromtheoperationsite Typically,wet vacuumswereusedwhichsuppliedasteadystreamofwaterrunning throughthepumptocreateavacuum However,thisisamajor environmentalissueduetotheimmensewaterwaste,averaging around360gallonsofwaterperday. Thus,dryvacuumswerecreated whichgeneratethevacuumbypumpingdryair,usingturbines,to createsuction Furthermore,insteadofusingaconstantstreamof water,dryvacuumsincorporateacollectiontankwhereanywasteis collected;thisisdrainedintothesewer,eliminatingunnecessarywater waste.

DigitalImagingandSmartToothbrushes–Reducing CarbonEmissions

Smarttoothbrusheshaveutilisedadvancedtechnologytocombine artificialintelligencewithsensorstomonitorbrushingtechniqueand trackprogresstoprovidefeedback,allowingamoreeffectivewayto maintaingoodoralhealthasithelpspreventoverbrushingormissing crucialareasleadingtoplaquebuild-up. Alongsidethis,smart toothbrushescanusetheinformationcollectedtocreatecustom-made crownsindentists’officesusing3Ddigitalimagingtechnology. The benefitsofthisextendbeyondconvenienceasthisreducestheneedfor multipleappointmentsandusingoff-sitelabs,significantlyreducing ourcarbonfootprintandwastefulusingtemporarycrownswhilst waitingforthepermanentonestobemade

The world of dentistry is rapidly adapting to the demanding issue of climate change by implementing many new technologies to reduce carbon emissions and improve overall sustainability.

The Sour Seas: The Impact of Ocean Acidification

Written By Karine Lo, 12K

Illustrated By Sahana Karthik, 12L

We all know that the conditions of marine life are at an all-time low, thanks to the effects of climate change and water pollution. However there is a disturbing story – namely ocean acidification – that is also contributing to the decline of marine life

WhatistheProcessofOceanAcidification?

Beforewebegin,Iwouldjustliketoclarifythatwhatmakesthe oceanacidicistheincreaseofhydrogenions Thehigher concentrationofhydrogenionsintheocean,thelowerthepHof theseawaterandthereforethemoreacidicitis.Now,ocean acidificationismostlycausedbytheuptakeofcarbondioxide (CO₂)fromtheatmosphere Withinthecarboncycleofthe earth,weknowthattheoceanabsorbsalot,around30%,of carbonfromtheatmosphere,andasthelevelsofCO₂inthe atmosphererise,sodothelevelsofCO₂intheocean.

WhenCO₂isdissolvedinseawatertobecomeaqueous,italso formscarbonicacid(H₂CO₃),whichrapidlydissociatesto producebicarbonateions(HCO₃) Thesebicarbonateionscan alsodissociateintocarbonateions(CO₃²).Allthesereactions producehydrogenions(H⁺),andthehighertheconcentrationof hydrogenionsinasolution(seawater),theloweritspHandthe moreacidictheseawaterbecomes[SeeFigure1]

WhyisthisImportant?

Althoughthelevelsofthesereactionscanchange,astheyare reversiblereactions(i.e.theproductscanreacttogethertoget thereactantsback;soitispossibleforcarbonateionstoform backintobicarbonateionswhichformbackintocarbon dioxide),ifthereisalargeruptakeincarbondioxidefromthe atmosphere,thereactionsinFigure1willmoveawayfrom producingcarbondioxideandproducemorecarbonateionsand bicarbonateions,thereforereleasingmorehydrogenionsinto theseawatersolution

We all know that life such as fish and clams live in the ocean These organisms are living things that are regulated by proteins, which can only work at a specific pH. If the pH of the seawater that they live in gets too low due to the reactions in Figure 1, the reactions inside them (metabolism) that allow them to survive will slow down and they will become more susceptible to external changes in the environment This is particularly important to organisms that rely on their shells to shield them from predators or use them for shelter. This is because the carbonate ions mentioned above can combine with calcium to form calcium carbonate, which is what the shells of organisms and also what most coral species in coral reefs are made from However, due to ocean acidification, the recent pH range of the ocean has caused bicarbonate ions to become the most prevalent in seawater. This low level of carbonate ions means that organisms with shells such as crabs, clams and abalones cannot make their shells. They will slowly degrade over time until eventually they completely dissolve into seawater

This effect will become faster and even more dangerous to these animals because the formation of calcium carbonate depends on two things: temperature and acidity. We know that ocean acidification contributes to the increasing acidity levels, but don’t forget the temperature of oceans is also gradually rising due to global warming This makes the degradation of shells and coral reefs faster – which could not only cause the extinction of coral reefs to accelerate, but also mean that animal species with shells that live underwater could be more susceptible to being preyed on, and over time, if the population of predators’ food goes down, they themselves will have their populations gradually die out too, devastating ocean ecosystems in the long run

How Can this be Solved?

I hope I succeeded in showing the severity of ocean acidification along with global warming to marine ecosystems – and thankfully there is hope to elevate the effects of this process Because ocean acidification and global warming share the same cause: namely the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere due to human activity, if we continue with our schemes to decrease the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, we can cool off our planet and slow down all the processes mentioned above However, it will be a long and arduous battle to take back the consequences of polluting our oceans. We can all contribute to the fight against ocean acidification by supporting responsible companies that have undergone an environmental audit, that reviews its protocols for environmental safety We can also see if some products have placed some ‘green stamps’ on their products to show that it was produced sustainably

SOURCES

> Fig.1: Ocean Acidification Process

Chandrayaan: Missions of Change

Written & Illustrated By Sahana Karthik, 12L

The Chandrayaan (from Sanskrit: “lunar vehicle”) programme refers to the ongoing series of lunar explorations by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). This programme, particularly in its most recent pursuit – Chandrayaan-3 – truly embodies the theme of ‘Change and Adapt’.

Chandrayaan-3, the third mission in the exploration series, was a follow-on mission from 2019’s Chandrayaan-2 which ended in a partial failure. The aims of Chandrayaan-2 were to map the Moon’s topography, investigate the surface mineralogy, and pivotally to explore the uncharted south pole territory of the Moon – which was believed to contain water and hydroxyl ice as evaluated from Chandrayaan-1. However, due to a software error, the Chandrayaan-2 lander made a hard landing on the Moon surface which led to its crashing failure Despite this setback, the orbiter component of the mission continues its seven-year observation of the Moon.

> Chandrayan-3 Integrated Module

Flawlessly landing 600km from the lunar South pole – a previously unexplored region – Chandrayaan-3 continued the legacy left by Chandrayaan-2. Findings from the Chandrayaan-3 mission include the detection of uniform soil composition at the Moon’s south pole, which supports the lunar magma ocean hypothesis; the identification of elements such as Sulfur, Titanium and Aluminium on the Moon’s surface and the discovery of a highly degraded buried crater.

In conclusion, the success of Chandrayaan-3 demonstrates ‘Change and Adapt’ by adapting to technological and resource limitations – as ISRO faced budget constraints compared to NASA and ESA; changing the mission approach for attaining success; and finally demonstrating positive changes in space exploration.

SOURCES

Chandrayaan-3

Details | ISRO

Chandrayaan 3: Why ISRO chose this path to the moon | Cuemath | YouTube

What the First Findings from ISRO’s Chandrayaan-3 Mission Tell Us About the Moon | IndianExpress

Following from this generally unsuccessful endeavour, ISRO developed ‘Chandrayaan-3’ which was launched from the SDSC site in Andhra Pradesh on July 14th 2023. Using the Earth’s rotational motion to provide an eastward push upon its launch and the orbital motion of the Earth around the Sun, scientists calculated how the rocket could receive two boosts. At first, this allowed Chandrayaan-3 to orbit Earth as gravity and the rocket’s momentum were balanced

Chandrayaan-3 made five increasingly larger elliptical orbits around the Earth, where the fifth orbit was significantly increased, bringing the rocket closer to the Moon where it could be captured by the Moon’s gravity. The spacecraft then made more elliptical orbits around the Moon, this time in decreasing size, allowing the soft-landing procedure to occur successfully. The landing took place on August 23rd 2023 and was telecast live on national TV

> Chandrayaan-3 Mission Orbit Profile

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GLOSSARY

Evolution of Human Skin

Written By Kashvi Kashyap, 7S

Illustrated By Sahana Karthik, 12L

All Homo sapiens are born with similar anatomical structures, yet, our appearances differ significantly, particularly in skin colour. This often shapes our perceptions of different cultures and races, extending beyond biological differences! So, how and why did varying pigmentation come about?

There’s an interesting theory by Nina Jablonski, an anthropologist, that addresses an evolutionary adaptation of skin colour to varying level of ultraviolet (UV) rays. The earliest humans (genus Homo) are believed to have evolved in equatorial Africa, and their skin was a dark colour. We all share a rich heritage of darkly pigmented skin around 2-1.5 million years ago.

The Sun strikes Earth directly at the equator, resulting in the strongest ultraviolet (UV) radiation in that zone. While a certain amount of exposure helps human bodies produce Vitamin D, excessively strong rays can however cause severe damage to the body and strip away folic acid (an essential nutrient for growth and development). So humans in equatorial Africa evolved to produce melanin (skin’s brown pigment) as a natural sunscreen that helped prevent damage to our DNA. The higher the melanin, darker the skin!

But if we share the same heritage, how did lightly pigmentated skin evolve? As humans started to disperse outside of the equatorial Africa, they faced a considerable change in temperature and climate. The migrants to the Northern Hemisphere, for example, experienced extremely low levels of UV radiation as the sunrays strike Earth at a tilted angle and radiation dissipates through the thickness of the atmosphere. These developments significantly influenced the continued evolution of skin pigmentation Melanin levels adjusted over time to better synthesise Vitamin D which led to the formation of lightly pigmented skin.

The map above was created by Nina Jablonski and George Chaplin showing predicted skin colours of human natives of various regions based on the levels of ultraviolet radiation from the sun in each region. Nina’s work helps us understand that skin colour is a result of natural selection – a sophisticated adaptation for human survival, rather than a marker of race or identity.

Why do Cats Have a Large Variety of Coats?

Written & Photographed By Cherrie Li, 12K

Asacatlover,Itakenumerousphotosofcats everywhere–catsinmyvillage,butalsocatsall aroundtheworld Iwaslookingthroughmy camerarolloneday,andaquestionflashedin myhead:‘whydocatshavesuchalargevariety ofpatternsandcolours?’Here,Iwillbe exploringthisquestion,andhopefullysolving thismystery.

Catshaveamassiverangeofcoloursand patterns,andthisisduetoablendofgenes The geneswhichinfluencetheirappearanceare surprisinglycomplex Multiplegenesdetermine thecolourandpatternofcats,andcombinations ofthesegenesleadtoavarietyofphenotypes. Allcatsoriginatefrom2colours:orangeand black Theorangegene(O)justmeansthecatis orange,however,theblackgene(B)hasrecessive genes:thecatcanbechocolate(b)orcinnamon (b’) Ifbothofthesegenesarepresented,this meansthecatalsohasthedominantdensegene (D)However,youmightbewondering:‘Mycat isgrey-’.Lighter-colouredcats,suchasgrey, cream,andlilac,havethedilutegene(d),which isrecessive,andmustbeinheritedfromboth parentswiththedilutegeneintheirphenotype aswell Thisishowthedilutegeneaffectstheir colour:

Orange↠cream/buff

Black↠grey/blue

Chocolate↠lilac/lavender

Cinnamon↠fawn/lightlilac

Theirlightnessdoesnotendhere.Thereexist evenlighter-colouredcats.Ifacatisdilute(has dgenes),theymayalsocarrythedilutemodifier gene(Dm),whichisadominantgene,andwill makethemevenlighter:

Cream/buff↠apricot

Grey/blue↠blue-basedcaramel

Lilac/lavender↠lilac-basedcaramel/ taupe

Faun/lightlilac↠faun-basedcaramel

Sexalsoinfluencestheircolours!

FemaleshaveXXchromosomes,andmales haveXYchromosomes

Theorangegene(O)isonlyfoundonX chromosome,whichthegenetellsthecatto becomeorange.TheYchromosomedoesnot havegenestocontrolcolour AsfemaleshaveXX chromosomes,thismeanstheymustinheritthe Ogenefrombothparentstoappearfullyorange Meanwhile,maleshaveXYchromosomes,so theyonlyneedtoinheritOgenesfrom1parent toappearfullyorange.Thisiswhy80%of orangecatsaremale.

Thismeansnon-orangefemalecatsmusthave blackgeneontheotherXchromosome Weirdly,thebodycellsonlyactivateoneofthe Xchromosomes Soduringembryonic development,somecellswillactivatetheX chromosomewithOgenes,whileotherscells activateXchromosomeswithBgenes.The resultisablackandorangetortoiseshellor calico(blackandorange,withwhitespecs–thiswillbeexplainedlater) Asthesepatches ofcolourarerandom,thismakesthepattern oneverytortieorcalicocatunique Itis knownthattheYchromosomedoesnothave genestocontrolcolour,meaningamalecat caneitherbeblackororange,butnotboth. But

StripedPatternsonCats

Alldomesticcatscarrythestripedtabby patternintheirgenes Thereare2alleles responsibleforthispattern:Agouti(A)isthe dominantgenewhichcreatesbandsofcolour oncoats;non-agouti(a)istherecessivegene whichcreatessolid-colouredhair.Thismeans tabbycatsonlyneed1parentforthegenetobe inherited,hencemostcatsaretabbycats Anotherinterestingnoteisthatallorangecats aretabbies,astheorangegene(O)masksthe solidnon-agoutigene(a),makingitimpossible forcatstobesolidorange.Thismeansthe orangegene(O)isanepistaticgene:agene whichalwaysmasksanothergene.

TortoiseshellandCalicoCats–HybridColours

Tortoiseshell(a.k.atortie)catshaveablendof onlyorangeandblack,whilecalicocatshaveall threeorange,blackandwhite.Asmentioned before,femalecatscanonlybeorangeifbothXX chromosomescarryOgenes

FunFact:ThereareMaleTorties andCalicos!

MalecatshaveXYchromosomes,meaning theycannotbetortiesorcalicos Howeverin somerarecases,somemalecatshaveanextra Xchromosome,possessingXXYchromosomes, whereoneXhasorangegenesandtheotherX hasblackgenes Sadly,thismeansmaletortie andcalicoaresterile,andoftensufferfrom Klinefelter’sSyndrome.Thiscausescognitive anddevelopmentissues,frailty,diabetes,heart diseasesandmore

SoWherearetheWhiteCats?

Let’sgobacktocalicocats–whicharelike tortiesbutalsowithwhitespecs.Calicosor bicolouredcats(amixofwhitewithother colours)haveawhitespottinggene(S)thatis notacolourgene Asthegeneisnotsexlinked,bothmalesandfemalescanhavewhite spotsDifferentcombinationsofthewhite spottinggeneresultsinspotsatdifferent areas,anditonlyrequires1parenttohavethe whitespottinggeneforittoappearinthe phenotypeoftheoffspring:

ssmeansnowhitespotting

Ssmeanswhitespottingonareaslikefeet, tummy,noseandchest

SSmeanswhitespottingcoversmorethan halfthebody,butthereisasmallchance thecatiscompletelywhite

WhatifyourCatisCompletely White…?

Thecolourandpatternsofcatsiswaymore complexthanIeverthought,andthisismore thanjustinheritancefromparents.Inshort, theinteractionbetweendifferentcolourgenes andsexchromosomeincatshasledtothe widevarietyofcoatcoloursincats,making patternsandcolouroneachcatunique

GLOSSARY

Don’tworry,yourcatdoesnothaveabad mutation Solidwhitecatshavethedominant whitegene(W) Whentheyareborn,there willbeafewheadhairsthatarenotwhite Interestingly,thisgeneisactuallymaskingthe supposedtruecolourofthecat Somewhite catscouldalsobealbinos,whicharebornwith adamagedTYRgene,hencetheylackthe enzymewhichproducesmelanin(tyrosinase) Thedifferencebetweenwhiteandalbinocats isthatalbinocatshavepinkskinandpale blueorpinkeyes,asopposedtotypicalwhite cats

Allele:Differentversionofagene

Chromosome:Thread-likestructuremade ofDNAandproteinswhichcarries geneticinformation;differentanimals havedifferentnumberofchromosomes

Dominantgene:Traitwillappearin phenotypeevenifonly1copyofalleleis inheritedfromaparent

Phenotype:Observabletraitsinan organism,suchascoatcolourandheight

Gene:ShortsectionofDNAwhichcodes foraprotein

Recessivegene:Traitisonlyexpressedin phenotypeiforganisminherits2copies oftherecessiveallele,onefromeach parent

XXandXYchromosomes(Sex

Chromosomes):Determineanorganism’s biologicalsex;XXresultsinfemale,while XYresultsinmale

SOURCE

Cat Genetics: A Progressive Look at Coat Colors & Patterns | Liz’s Kitty Boot Camp

> This means my cat Oreo has the BSs gene; as he is black with white spots on his tummy, paws, and end of his tail.

Photographs of cats from Portugal, Hong Kong and the UK in my camera roll.

Change and Adapt - Evolution

Written By Abby Tsang, 12S

The Power of Change: Understanding Evolution and Adaptation

All living organisms change and adapt, it is the key to survival. This idea is at the centre of Charles Darwin’s ‘Theory of Evolution by natural selection’, which changed how people think about life on Earth. Darwin explained that natural selection is the process where the strongest or most suited individuals survive and pass on their traits. Over time, this helps entire species to adjust to their living environments whether they are favorable or not. Evolution isn’t just a scientific idea –it’s a story about how life finds a way to keep going.

Darwin’s journey showed him just how much species adapt. For example, the finches on the Galápagos Islands had different beak shapes depending on what they ate. Birds with beaks that worked best for their food survived and had babies, leading to small changes over generations. Eventually, these differences became so noticeable that they created new species. It is remarkable how the power of natural selection drives adaptation.

To further illustrate this point on the grounds of fiction, in Rudyard Kipling’s “The Elephant’s Child,” part of his ‘Just So Stories’, he creatively explored how animals might have acquired their unique traits. An overly curious elephant gets his trunk pulled by a crocodile. While the story is complete fiction and a figment of imagination, the elephant ends up better off with a long trunk, which helps him in everyday life and hence it survives. While it’s not scientific, it’s a fun way to think about why animals look and act the way they do today.

Lessons from Nature: Why Adapting is Key to Survival

Beyond fiction, real life examples are observed based on that exact theory. During the Industrial Revolution in England, soot from factories made tree trunks darker. Peppered moths, which were usually light, started getting eaten more because they stood out. Over time, darker moths became more common because they could blend in. This showed how fast natural selection can happen when the environment changes.

This cycle of change and adaptation isn’t just about animals; it’s everywhere. Plants evolve to survive in tough climates, as well as humans. Evolution reflects our capacity to adapt culturally and biologically. As the world changes faster than ever with things like climate change, Darwin’s ideas remind us that survival belongs to those who embrace change, adapt creatively. Whether it’s science or fun stories like Rudyard Kipling’s, the lesson is the same: change isn’t something to fear it’s a way to grow and thrive.

What is Adaptation?

Written By Grace Kettell, 7G

In historical terms, adaptation has been described and spoken of since the time of Ancient Greek philosophers, showing its meaning and significance in our entire universe. Greek philosophers spoke on it in unscientific ways, not being factually correct – however later, Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace proposed instead that it was explained by natural selection.

The process of adaptation is closely linked to biological fitness, which governs the rate of evolution. Often, even two or more species co-adapt and co-evolve to benefit in life and interlock with these other species, for example flowering plants and pollinating insects. For mimicry, species evolve and adapt to resemble their environment and other living things around them. This is mutually beneficial co-evolution as each group of strongly defended species (for example wasps having the ability to sting) come together and advertise their defences in the same way. Features that originally evolved for one purpose can be co-opted for a different reason, as when the insulating feathers of some species of dinosaurs were co-opted for bird flight!

Adaptation is actively happening in the world around us, but what is adaptation? Adaptation, in biology, has three rstly, it is the dynamic evolutionary ection that fits organisms to their cing evolutionary fitness. Secondly, it the population during that process. tive trait, with a functional role in s maintained and has evolved ction.

ily a process rather than a physical ody. In a practical term, adaptation you might call a ‘product’ those which is resultant of the process. two main processes that explain the similar species, such as different Darwin s finches. The other process is something called speciation, where new species arise, typically through reproductive isolation (the inability of species to breed successfully with related species)!

Before Darwin, adaptation was usually seen as a fixed relationship between an organism and its habitat. At the time, it was not appreciated that as the climate changed, so did the habitat – and as the habitat changed, so did the biota (which is the animal and plant life of a particular region, habitat or geological period). Also, habitats are subject to changes in their biota: for example, invasions of species from other areas. The relative numbers of species in each habitat are always changing. Change is the rule, though much depends on the speed and degree of the change.

When the habitat changes, three main things may happen to a resident population: habitat tracking, genetic change or extinction. In fact, all three things may occur in sequence. Of these three effects it is only genetic change brings about adaptation.

Why are we Empathetic? An Explanation Provided by Mirror Neurons

Written By Karine Lo, 12K

As humans, how we developed into ‘social creatures’ is primarily based on two-way communication. This can be verbal and non-verbal communication, where by understanding what the opposing party wants based on their actions, our brain thinks in response to those actions. This not only allows us to form emotional connections with other people through understanding and empathy, but also develop new skills and acquire new knowledge through learning and imitation One significant adaptation that is believed to have allowed us to have these functions is the existence of mirror neurons.

Illustrated By Cherrie Li, 12K

Mirror neurons are neurons that fire when one person executes a task and another person observes that same task They were discovered relatively recently, in the 1990's, yet scientific research suggests that they have quite an impact on neurorehabilitation and the future of neurotic treatments. Through the network of mirror neurons, a procedure of actions allows a person to understand what someone else’s purpose of doing something is The procedure is as follows [Figure 1] Let’s use the example of hypothetically, you watching somebody lift a teacup.

> Fig.1: The use of mirror neurons in daily life

1) Observation: You see someone perform the action of reaching for a teacup and placing it close to their mouth. (This form of stimulus does not have to be sight; it can be a sound, like the sound of someone ripping a piece of paper.)

2) Imitation: You imagine in your head that you perform that same action and think of the intention behind why you would perform that same action

3) Action understanding: You understand that the other person wants a sip of tea.

The functions of mirror neurons can explain many things. For my fellow A-Level psychologists, this can explain the reciprocity theory between a baby and their caregiver, where the baby imitates a caregiver’s actions and in turn, learns to perform it. In other instances, it may also explain why some people are classed as ‘psychopaths’; they are unable to show affective empathy, which suggests that they may have dysfunctional mirror neurons. This also explains how we develop our schemas, which are the structured frameworks that shape how we think about the world around us. By developing our own perceptions of the world from learning about how people act in the world, we develop ways to interpret information in the world and therefore, develop an understanding of the world.

There have been multiple studies that serve as evidence of the existence of mirror neurons. They don’t have to be simply object-directed, but can also support intransitive actions, or actions that do not involve a particular object, such as dancing A study done on dancers of ballet and capoeira (two distinct forms of dance with different cultural bases) showed less activation of mirror neuron systems when ballet dancers observed capoeira dances, and the same was observed with the contrary, as the different forms of dance were unfamiliar to the opposite party

However, the issue with research surrounding mirror neurons is that it is usually overhyped. Yes, researchers are able to point out many links between mirror neurons and neuroscientific imbalances in the human body which suggests many exciting new discoveries, yet due to the novelty of mirror neurons as a discovery, researchers seem to have negated the fact that mirror neuron systems interact with other hormonal systems and brain regions, making mirror neurons seem more important than they actually are – ignoring the fact that they work holistically with other brain systems.

But overall, without the functions of mirror neurons, we probably would not have been able to develop essential skills that aid us in navigating the world. Without mirror neurons, we may not have been able to find like-minded people, who have the ability to make us feel just a bit less lonely.

SOURCES

MirrorNeurons|Psychology Today

Humansee,humando:Ballet dancers'brainsrevealtheartof imitation|UCLNews

Dr DanSiegel-ExplainsMirror NeuronsinDepth|PsychAlive (Youtube)

How Does Cancer’s Ability to Change and Adapt Impact the Way it’s Treated?

Written By Isabelle Johnson, 12H

Illustrated By Cherrie Li, 12K

It is estimated that nearly 3.5 million people in the UK are living with cancer. Tumour cells have the ability to change and adapt to survive in many different environments, from healthy tissue to the blood stream, to even organs in the body. This adaptability is what makes cancer so prevalent and so difficult to treat. Although the adaptability of cancer cells makes it dangerous, it also gives a distinguishing point from other healthy cells and therefore can be used against them – treatments could potentially be designed to target this quality and kill cancerous cells. Currently, cancer therapies don’t target this feature of a tumour however this could be the future of cancer treatments.

Cancer cells can avoid treatment by metastasising (spreading of cancer cells to other places in the body). The primary cancer cells can break away because they don’t stick together as well as healthy cells; they then travel to another part of the body through the blood stream or lymphatic system and start growing in new places To be protected, cancerous cells may attach to platelets (part of the blood) to form clumps, giving them some protection and helping them invade surrounding tissues. Once the cancer has metastasised, it becomes much harder to treat as there are more places that have to be targeted by treatments.

The ability of cancer cells to adapt also means that they can resist chemotherapy – tumour cells can lie in a ‘dormant’ state for several years without dividing. Chemotherapy only targets dividing cells; if the cancer cells are in a dormant state and not dividing, they can escape the treatment and survive. They can then be reactivated later on and continue dividing/spreading causing metastases.

Poly-aneuploid cancer cells (PACC) are a type of cancer cell that appear in every type of cancer, and in all patients with metastatic disease. These cells can divide rapidly to create new cells with many different properties, increasing the chance they will be well-adapted to the environment – an especially useful feature of these many different properties for cancer cells is their ability to resist the body’s defences and chemotherapy.

These varied characteristics can then be inherited by the next generation of cells, allowing the cancer to resist treatment. Compared to other cancer cells, PACCs also likely have a greater ability to move around the body and invade other tissues, triggering the growth of metastatic tumours, due to their varied properties. They survive many types of treatment by remaining in a dormant state, or entering a state called quiescence – quiescent cells exit the cell cycle (process of cell growth and division) but retain the ability to re-enter the cell cycle when conditions are more favourable e.g. when treatment is stopped. This means PACCs can protect their genetic material, avoid destruction upon exposure to chemotherapy, and allows them to survive/continue making new cancerous cells.

To reproduce through division, PACCs are reliant on the protein kinesin-14 for this division process, however normal cells are not reliant on this protein. Therefore, a form of treatment could be used against PACCs where chemotherapy is used to trigger creation of PACCs through stress responses, then the patient would receive a drug specifically targeting kinesin-14. The drug would block the kinesin-14 protein meaning the PACC cells wouldn’t be able to divide, and without PACCs, the cancer would become vulnerable to other cancer treatments This, the ability of the PACCs to be adaptable to the environment can be turned into a vulnerability as this feature could be used to treat cancer

GLOSSARY

Chemotherapy:Atypeofcancer treatmentthatusesdrugstokilldividing cancercells.

LymphaticSystem:Thenetworkof vesselsandnodesinthebodythathelps fightinfectionsanddrainexcessfluids.

SOURCES

CancerStatisticsintheUK|MacMillan

TheAdaptiveCancerCell:HowMetastasesEvolvetoResist Treatment|researchoutreach.org ExploitingtheAdaptabilityofCancerCells|KnutandAlice WallenbergFoundation

MetastaticCancer|NationalCancerInstitute HowCancerCanSpread|CancerResearchUK CancerCellAdaptationtoChemotherapy.DiNicolantonioF.et al.|BMCCancer(2005)|Vol.5Is.78

The Keys to Communication

Written & Illustrated

By Sahana Karthik, 12L

The QWERTY keyboard is an overlooked cultural icon, since in recent times, language is routinely produced without speech – causing the keyboard to act as a mandatory filter Hence, our fingers have become the primary mode of articulation, as opposed to parts of our vocal tract in the process of communication A 2012 study by Jasmin & Casasanto proposes a link between the meanings of words and the action of manual articulators used for typing them – ergo, “if letters on one side of the keyboard can be typed more fluently than letters on the other side, motor fluency could mediate relationships between the locations of letters on the QWERTY keyboard and the valence of the words they compose (i.e., the positivity or negativity of their meanings).” This exploration resulted in some particularly interesting findings

QWERTY Keyboard:

> QWERTY layout is asymmetrical, with more letters on the left side than the right side The inherent asymmetry suggests that letters on the right side are associated with positive feelings – this is known as “The QWERTY Effect”

Jasmin & Casasanto conducted experiments investigating the QWERTY effect in different ways, such as whether the QWERTY effect predicts emotional valence for words across languages (English, Spanish and Dutch) and whether QWERTY influences only new words – including text abbreviations such as ‘LOL’ – rather than older words Their findings were such that, across all three languages, words with a right-side advantage (more letters found on the right-hand side than the left) had greater positive connotations They also found that words having a right-side advantage affects both pre- and post-QWERTY words, but positive associations are more common and significant in post-QWERTY words.

Interestingly, words spelled with more letters on the right side of the keyboard were rated more positively in emotional valence even when not typing – but also through speaking and reading. Therefore, the QWERTY keyboard has even influenced our subconscious preferences [Figures 1-3].

> Fig.1: Increased usage of words that have a higher proportion of letters featured on the right-hand side of the QWERTY keyboard, particularly since the emergence of the internet

> Fig.2: YouTube video titles which have right-side advantage typically have a greater number of likes

> Fig.3: People in the USA are more likely to give their children names with higher proportion of right-hand side letters on the QWERTY keyboard

There are several hypothesised reasons to explain the keyboard disparity causing right-side advantage. Firstly, the right side of the keyboard may be fundamentally favoured due to majority (around 90%) of the population being right-hand dominant – hence words on the right-hand side of the keyboard are more convenient to type – however the effect has been proven true for left-handed people as well, which may be due to the lack of characters on the right-side making it easier for everyone to type

Additionally, it seems that cultures across the globe exhibit a core preference for the right-hand side being positive and the left-hand side being negative – e.g. “sinister” means ‘ on the left’ in Latin, and “dextrous” means ‘ on the right’; similarly, “좌” in Korean means ‘left’ and “좌천” means ‘demotion’.

It has also been suggested that the vowel sounds associated with the letters on the right-hand side of the keyboard –" y, " " u, " "i," and " o " – relate to positive words and meanings, as emotions are usually expressed through vowels rather than consonants

Wubi 86 Input Method:

> The Wubi input method allowing over 70,000 characters to be typed digitally was developed in the 1980s.

SOURCES

The QWERTY Effect: How typing shapes the meanings of words Jasmin, K , Casasanto, D | Psychonomic Bullet Review (2012) | Vol.19 Is 3 | pp 499-504

The layout of QWERTY keyboards shapes our feelings about words | NewScientist

Wubi Method | Wikipedia

Regardless, it is clear that automation has had a profound effect on human behaviour. A similar phenomenon has been observed using the Chinese keyboard – known as “The Wubi Effect”. Each character is broken down into its components (often their radicals) and are typed in the order in which they would be written by hand. Like the QWERTY effect, character frequency and selection was altered based on their position and access convenience on the keyboard. Hence, Wubi influenced the characters that became more commonly used in digital communication (typically the ones which are more convenient to type).

Using the Wubi method, each character can be inputted with four or fewer keystrokes, as for complex characters one enters the first three components and then the last, allowing for fast and efficient typing As a result, Wubi reshaped people’s perspectives on written Chinese –requiring people to learn a new system of radical-based keystrokes as opposed to remembering the full shape of a character This led to a more visually orientated experience of writing and reading Chinese, rather than auditory (as demonstrated with the Pinyin system), as people became more attuned to the structural components of characters

In conclusion, the subtle implications of keyboard layouts (such QWERTY and Wubi) show how the instruments we use in our daily lives affect our cognitive processes, communication styles, and language development. Since QWERTY has come to symbolise the digital age, it perfectly embodies the psychological notion of "path dependence " Given that Wubi is specifically made to meet the demands of modern life, keyboard layouts are also artefacts of innovation and adaptability

These tools continue to impact our mental frameworks as technology advances, demonstrating the substantial effect of seemingly minor technologies on our minds

Should the NHS Adapt and Become Private to Face the Growing Demand for Healthcare within the UK?

Written By Eleanor Yates, 12G

The NHS is currently facing a crisis with huge wait lists of 7,479,960 in November 2024 This is due to a multitude of factors, the greatest being COVID-19 putting huge demands on hospitals which were already stretched with their resources. Therefore, privatisation of the NHS or simply more private healthcare within the UK could be a viable solution to this as it will be able to alleviate these wait times

Privatisation of the NHS could have many benefits for the UK and healthcare as a whole. The biggest benefit would be to drastically reduce the wait times which are dangerously high due to COVID-19, meaning that more patients would be treated faster This is ultimately good for the overall health of the country. Also, due to the extreme pressures doctors face particularly within hospitals, many doctors are choosing to leave the UK and work in countries with private systems as they will have a larger salary and less pressure If we had a private healthcare system in which doctors were paid more, they may be incentivized to stay in the UK If we had a private healthcare system, this could potentially alleviate money within the government that is currently used on healthcare that could potentially be used to benefit other sectors of society like education which is also underfunded.

SOURCES:

NHSBacklogDataAnalysis|BMA

NHSHottopic:Privatisationof theNHS|TheMedicPortal Humanrights|WHO

However, there are lots of problems when considering the privatisation of the NHS. For example, as healthcare is considered a fundamental human right by WHO (World Health Organization), then is it not the duty of the government to provide equal, good-quality healthcare for all within our country? It goes against the medical ethics pillar of ‘Justice’ (one of the four key ethical pillars doctors work within in the UK). Good healthcare would only be available to those who have the financial means to fund their healthcare Those who often need healthcare most, the elderly, children and those with a disability

affecting their ability to work, may be unable to fund this and it seems unethical to deny these people with life changing healthcare. Furthermore, it seems unfair that those with lifelong medical conditions should have to pay more for healthcare. Their quality of life may be significantly reduced if they have to spend thousands every month to support their health condition

So, in conclusion, while the privatisation of the NHS could lead to reduced wait times, I believe the NHS should not become private in the current situation This is due to the inequality it could bring within the country which is simply wrong when it comes to healthcare. Healthcare should be accessible to all and not just those who can afford it. However, there is a potential to increase the number of patients who are

treated for routine operations privately to decrease wait times for others and themselves. This is already happening to an extent with many patients, who can afford it, deciding to go private to reduce their wait time for treatment This is a good solution to both keep the NHS as the valuable healthcare system it is, but also to alleviate the pressures on the doctors and the NHS.

GLOSSARY

Medical Ethics: Moral principles set by the general medical council (GMC) which primarily includes autonomy, beneficience, justice and non-maleficience

Privatisation: The transfer of ownership from public sector (government) to private sector (businesses/individuals)

Cognitive Boost in our Brains After Exercising Can Last Throughout the Day

Written By Cherrie Li, 12K

Previously,researchshowedourbrain’scognitiveperformanceimprovesinhoursafterexercising,butthelengthofthisbenefitis unknown AnewstudyledbyUniversityCollegeLondon(UCL)researchersshowedthiscognitivebenefit,onaverage,forpeople aged50to83whodidmoremoderatetovigorousphysicalactivitiesonagivendayperformedbetterinamemorytesttheday after. Moderate/vigorousactivityaccountsforanythingthatgetsyourheartrateup,includinggardening,walkingupaflightof stairs,orevenwalkingyourdog;itdoesnotneedtobeastructuredregimenexercise Further,lesstimespentsitting,and6hours ofmoresleepwerealsolinkedwithhigherscoresinmemoryteststhefollowingday Moredeepsleepalsoboostsmemory function,andresearchersatUCLfoundthistobelinkedwithbetterscoresinmemoryteststhenextday.

TheExperiment

Theresearchteaminvestigateddatafrom76people(bothmenandwomen) Theyworeactivitytrackersfor8daysandtook cognitivetestsdaily Thewrist-worntrackersdeterminehowmuchtimetheparticipantsspentbeingsedantary,doinglight physicalactivity,doingmoderateorvigorousphysicalactivity. Theyalsoaccountedsleepduration,andtimespentinlightersleep (rapideyemovement)anddeepersleep(slow-wavesleep)

DataAnalysisandFindings

Lookingattherelationshipbetweendifferentactivitymoderationandnext-daycognitiveperformance,theUCLresearchteam highlightedarangeoffactorsthatmightcontributetotheimprovedcognitivetestscores. Theynotedthatparticipantswhoare habituallymoreactiveandhavehigher-qualitysleepperformbetterincognitivetests

Theteamfoundthatmoremoderateorvigorousphysicalactivitythanaveragewaslinkedwithbetterworkingmemoryand episodicmemory(memoryofevents)thenextday. Moresleepoverallwaslinkedwithimprovedworkingandepisodicmemory, butalsopsychomotorspeed(ameasureofone’sreactiontimetoexternalstimuli) Deepersleepwaslinkedtobetterepisodic memory Ontheotherhand,moretimespentsedentaryincomparisontoaveragewasinkedwithworseworkingmemorythe nextday.

Theirfindingssuggestthatshort-termmemorybenefitsfromphysicalactivitiesmightlastlongerthanpreviouslythought,lasting untilthenextdayinsteadofjustafewhoursafterexercising Sittingless,sleepingmore,andhavingmoredeepsleepseemsto contributetothiscognitiveboost.

Further,improvingcognitivefunctionisimportantforgoodqualityoflife,well-being,andindependenceinolderadults

However,thisstudydoesnotshowwhethertheseshort-termboostsincognitivefunctioncontributetolong-termcognitive health:althoughevidencesuggestsphysicalactivitymightslowdowncognitivedeclineandreducedementiarisk,thisrelationis stillbeingdebated

SoWhyDoesExerciseImproveShort-termMemory?

Hoursafterexercising,bloodflowtothebrainincreasesandstimulatesproductionofneurotransmitters,likedopamineand norepinephrine,whichaidscognitivefunctions. Itwaspreviouslyunderstoodtheseneurochemicalchangeslastforafewhours, buttheresearchersatUCLnownotedcertainbrainstateslinkedtoexercisewerelong-lasting Forinstance,evidencefrom numerousstudiesshowexercisingwaslinkedwithenhancedmoodforupto24hours

SignificanceandLimitationsofthisStudy

Thisstudywasoneofthefirsttoevaluatenext-daycognitiveperformanceusinga‘micro-longitudinal’studydesign,where participantsweretrackedastheycompletenormaldaily-lifetasksratherthanhavingtostayinalab However,allparticipants inthisstudywereacognitivelyhealthygroup,meaningtheresultsmightnotapplytopeoplewhohaveneurocognitivedisorders Thisexperimentusesasmallsamplesize,soitneedstobereplicatedonalargersamplesizeforresultstobereliable.

Other Studies

Another study also found increased hippocampal function, characterised by more synchronised activity in the hippocampus, which helps memory function, for 48 hours after high-intensity interval training (HIIT)

Conclusion

This study highlights the immediate cognitive benefits of exercise that might last longer than previously thought. The duration and intensity of physical activities, along with amount of sleep, especially deep sleep, can affect cognitive performance This reminds us, once again, the importance of an active lifestyle and sufficient sleep is crucial for our cognitive health

The Unique Co-evolution of Canines with Humans

Written & Illustrated By Cherrie Li, 12K

“THE ONLY ABSOLUTE AND BEST FRIEND A MAN HAS IN THIS SELFISH WORLD, THE ONLY ONE THAT WILL NOT BETRAY OR DENY HIM, IS HIS DOG.”

From Wolf to Dog

This was what King Frederick II of Prussia said before his death in 1789.

As we ’ ve all heard, the dog is man ’ s best friend The connection between humans and dogs runs deep within history, with early signs of domestication dating back to 33,000 years ago Not every species has been so integrated into human society Codependence between humans and dogs throughout the centuries provided this unbreakable bond, where dogs are known to be our hunting partners, emotional supports, and even cancer detectors

In recent years, a tremendous amount of research has been done to shed light upon this complex interspecies alliance, providing insight into this bond through studies in psychology, archaeology, genetics, philosophy, history and biology.

The tale of the interspecies alliance took the form of a parable: early huntergatherers adopted wild wolf puppies after killing their parents for their fur and meat. Raised by humans, these pups evolve alongside humans, becoming more friendly and domesticated, and transforming into the canines we know nowadays

A study was done, where wild wild pups were raised in captivity. However, the study demonstrated that this would be certainly impractical due to the impoverished lifestyle of hunter-gatherers. Regardless of how much love and affection these pups require, this proves an impossible task as huntergatherers would probably not have the time and patience to deal with these pups. Further, the study shows wolf pups were very difficult to train as they constantly contested with their trainers for dominance

> Fig.1: Replica of a cave art painting depicting a hunter and a dog

Instead, wolves are more likely to become acclimatised to human presence while scavenging the remains of kills from humans – which the wolves themselves probably kickstarted the domestication of dogs These wolves followed humans around for food and birthed offspring which are more vigilant to humans, which over many generations were then domesticated by humans, where humans selected these domesticated wolves to carry out tasks such as hunting and as a means of transport

This relationship is further reinforced by the innate human attraction to pedomorphic traits – the attraction to infantile features, where characteristics like wide eyes and shortened faces seen in wolf puppies were exaggerated in domesticated dogs

> Fig. 2: Dogs have facial muslces (levator anguli oculi medialis ‘LAOM’ and retractor anguli oculi ‘RAOL’) which allow them to raise their inner eyebrows, making their expression easier for humans to read.

> Fig. 3: Dogs have larger and rounder eyes and shortened faces, which triggers a nurturing response from humans, just as how humans react when they see babies.

An ethnographic study shows that contrary to our stereotyped image of a man foraging with his dog in the wild, women historically saw dogs as loyal and useful friends. This perception is likely to have strengthened the bond between humans and dogs and formed the human-dog relationship we know nowadays.

All in all, the co-evolution of dogs and humans is not just a one-way street but instead is a series of events, spaced across time and space

Signs of Early Domestic Dogs

Anthropological analysis has found that dogs have also gone through human-like burial rites for thousands of years, and this is found all over the world. However, not all domesticated dogs were buried in a way as ideal as imagined. Knife marks on canine skulls discovered suggest that plenty of dogs were sacrificed in religious rituals or slaughtered for food Other canine remains that were discovered along human burials suggest a symbolic rather than companionable relationship, with many graves including just single elements, such as the jaw bone. Archaeologists found that skulls and bones from 12,000 to 14,000 years ago are where morphological and genetic differences in skull fragments are significantly different from wolves, showing signs of domestic dogs – with skulls of shorter faces and wider eye sockets being found from this period onwards.

Therearecountlessarchaeologicalexamplesofearlydomesticateddogs. Oneset ofremainsfoundinGermany,knownastheBonn-Oberkasseldog,showedsigns ofphysicaldeteriorationduetoadvanceddistemper,suggestingthatitwascared forduringitsillness. AspecimenfoundinRomanburialinTunisiawas estimatedtohavebeen18yearsoldatthetimeofdeath,withmissingteethand severearthritis,meaningitmusthavebeenwellcaredfor. Amongstthemost notableexampleswasanadultwomanwithherheadnestledagainstadog/wolf pup,dating12,000yearsagofoundinagraveinIsrael

Theseexamplesreflectthegrowingco-dependecebetweenhumanandcanines Theburialmethodofcaninesalsoreflectsthewayhumanswereburied. Specimensofcanineremainswereoftenfoundburiedwithgravegoods,and weresometimescurledupasifsleeping AgraveinSkateholm,Swedenincluded flintbladesanddeerantlersalongthecorpseofadog,whichisalsocommonto befoundinmalehumangraves

An Evolving Relationship

Animalwelfareisstillacurrentissue,withmanypure-bredandselectively-breddogs sufferingfromcongenitaldisorders,musculoskeletaldisorders,breathingdifficultiesand abandonment Whilethisisdeclining,it’sstillamajorissue

Ontheotherhand,thereisincreasedevidenceshowingagrowingvalueplacedonthis interspeciesrelationship. Morethanhalfofmillennialsowndogsatsomepoint,withthe vastmajorityofdogownersconsideringtheirdogsasafamilymember EveninChina,where dogsareservedasfoodinsomeareas,petownershipisincreasingexponetially.

Interestingly,womenaretheprimarycarersofdogsinmorethan70%ofhouseholdswith dogs Bothmenandwomenspeaktodogsinawaythat’scalled“doggerel” Thisisvery similarto“motherese”,akainfant-directedspeech,wherewetalkatadifferentpitchand tonetoinfants.

Overall,dogshavebeenourbestcompanion(evenbetterthancats)throughoutourexistance, andwehadco-evolvedsidebyside,makingourinterspeciesbondstrongerthanever

Neuroplasticity: How the Human Brain

Adapts to New Environments and Experiences

Written By Shraddhaa Seshadri, 12F

WhatisNeuroplasticityandWhyisitImportant?

Neuroplasticityisthebrain’sabilitytochangeandadaptovertime, byformingnewneuralconnectionsinresponsetolearning, experienceorinjury.

Therearetwomaintypesofneuroplasticity:

Functional Plasticity – the brain’s ability to move functions from a damaged area of the brain to other undamaged areas

Structural Plasticity – the brain’s ability to change its physical structure as a result of learning

In the past, scientists believed that the brain was fixed after a certain age, and stopped growing after childhood However, current research suggests that the brain continues to develop and adapt throughout life This development can involve functional changes due to brain damage, or structural changes due to learning. Neuroplasticity is highly important: it allows humans to learn and remember information and skills throughout life, recover from brain injuries or strokes (through the brain rerouting functions to undamaged areas) and it can aid in improving the lives of those struggling with mental health conditions as neuroplasticity is the foundation of a variety of therapies.

TheSciencebehindNeuroplasticity

Neuroplasticityoccursasaresultoftwoprimarymechanisms:synaptic plasticityandstructuralplasticity.

Synapticplasticityreferstochangesinthestrengthandefficiencyof connectionsbetweenneurons(synapses). Whenneuronsareinfrequent communicationwithoneanother,thesynapseisstrengthened,makingthe transmissionofinformationmoreefficient. Thisalsomeansthatwhena neuralpathwayisrarelyused,theconnectionweakens,potentiallyleading tothepathwayweakeningordisappearing Atbirth,everyneuroninthe cerebralcortex(thepartofthebrainthatisresponsibleforhelpingprocess language,perceptionandmemory)hasaround2500synapses. Bythetime achildis3yearsold,thisfigurehasgrowntoanestimated15,000synapses perneuron,6timesmore! Inspiteofthis,anaverageadultonlyhashalf thatnumberofsynapses. Thisisduetosynapticplasticity. Aswegainnew experiences,someneuralconnectionsarestrengthened,whilstothers disappear

Structuralplasticityreferstophysicalchangesofthebrain’sstructure,for examplethroughtheformationofnewneuralpathwaysandthegrowthof newneurons. Thisprocessiswhatallowsthebraintochangeandadapt.

To conclude, neuroplasticity is a vital process that promotes lifelong learning, improves mental health, and provides us with adaptability to our constantly changing environment. As scientists continue to research into the intricacies of neuroplasticity, the potential for new treatments and personal growth that this remarkable ability of the brain holds is endless

Plant Adaptations in the Arctic Tundra

Written By KHS Student

Living organisms across the world have adapted to living in different conditions in order to survive The climate of the Arctic Tundra is notable for its extremely cold, harsh conditions. Temperatures are low, falling below -30°C in winter, and ranging from around 3- 12°C in summer. Furthermore, due to the earth’s tilt, the Tundra experiences long winter seasons, including prolonged dark periods, and short summers. This means that the growing season for plants is very short, averaging around 6-8 weeks. Furthermore, the tundra experiences harsh winds and very little precipitation – less than 250mm annually (for reference, the UK has an average of 1,200mm). This has caused the plants in the Arctic Tundra to adapt to survive the conditions.

One adaptation that some plants have made is to their size. Some plants, for example Arctic Poppies, flower close to the ground Doing this means that they are sheltered from the strong winds, helping to prevent frost damage, and are protected by the warmth of the soil. They have also adapted to be a lighter colour than other poppy species, allowing them to camouflage with the arctic environment and maximise the amount of sunlight they receive.

Some plants have developed structures to help retain heat. They have purple or dark green coloured structures or leaves, for example the Arctic Willow. This helps the plants to make the most of the short summer growing season by absorbing as much heat and sunlight as possible, which increases the photosynthesis rate and keeps the plant warm in the harsh conditions.

Some plants, for example lichens and mosses have a fuzzy texture This helps them to grow more efficiently, as it traps heat from the sun which helps them keep warm. Mosses and lichens have also adapted to survive through the long winter periods with limited sunlight, by being able to photosynthesise under low light levels.

The Set-Point Theory: Why does our Weight Remain Relatively Constant?

Written & Illustrated by Cherrie Li, 12K

Have you wondered: “Why does our weight stay quite similar during adulthood?” Well, this is due to the setpoint theory, which accounts for numerous biochemical factors.

The set-point theory describes a form of homeostasis. This theory states that the human body has a predetermined weight or set fat mass range Various physiological mechanisms maintain this predetermined point A feedback system also acts against any deviations from this set-point. In 1953, Kennedy proposed that body fat storage is regulated. In 1982, nutritional researchers William Bennet and Joel Gurin built upon Kennedy’s theory, and developed the set-point theory.

Set-point theory is notable in obese individuals trying to lose weight, where research shows the rate at which one regains weight after weight loss is relatively high, with individuals giving back 80% of the weight on average. When an individual loses weight, the feedback mechanism occurs – the body triggers increased appetite by decreasing satiety hormones, changing food preferences to caloric-dense food, and changing one ' s behaviors of a more sedentary lifestyle. Further, metabolism reduces, driving the body back to its set-point weight range On the other hand, weight gain also triggers this feedback system, but it's weaker compared to the feedback of weight loss. This mechanism brings evolutionary advantages of storing fat for survival during prolonged periods of caloric deficit, which could be caused by migration or change in seasons back in the hunter gatherer days.

Factors Maintaining Set-point Homeostasis

Neurohormonalchanges,metabolismchanges,andbehaviouralmodificationcountersweightchanges,allowingour weightandfatmasstomaintainwithinaset-pointrange

Neurohormonal

Neurohumoralregulationofeatingbehaviorsinvolvetwohormones:satietyhormonesandtheCNSfeedingcenters. The hypothalamusplaysakeyroleinthisregulation,involvingorexigenicandanorexigenicpathwaystocontrolappetite. The orexigenicpathwayisactivatedbythehormoneghrelin(releasedbythestomach),whichbindstoneuronalreceptors, releasingneuropeptideYY,andsendsorexigenicsignalstothebraintoincreasehunger. Ontheotherhand,the anorexigenicpathwayisactivatedbyleptin(secretedfromfattissues)alongwithotherhormonesfromthe gastrointestinaltract,whichactivatesPOMC,causingthereleaseofalpha-melanocyte-stimulatinghormones. This hormonebindstothemelanocortin-4receptor,signalingthebraintoactivateorexigenicpathwaysanddecreasesappetite. Inresponsetoweightloss,aseriesofchangesoccursinthesepathways,suchasanincreaseinorexigenichormonesanda decreaseinanorexigenichormones Further,foodpreferenceschange,causingpeopletofavourhigh-sugar,high-fat,and caloricallydensefood

AdaptiveThermogenesis

Adaptivethermogenesisreferstothereductionofrestingandnon-restingenergyexpenditureinresponsetoweightloss andunderfeeding Thisisoneofthecausesofdifficultyinweightloss Decreaseincaloricintakewhenoneattemptsto loseweightcausesadaptivechangestooccur,wherethebodyconservesenergybyreducingrestingenergyexpenditure (REE) Duringearlyweightloss,adaptivethermogenesiscausesareductioninregulatoryhormones(likeinsulinand leptin)toprovidethebrainwithsufficientenergytofunction

Leptinisakeyhormoneinset-pointweightregulationthroughadaptivethermogenesis. Duringweightlossmaintenance, leptinleveldropstomaintainvitalbiologicalfunctions,likereproduction. Leptinalsocontributestodecreasedthyroid activityandsympatheticsystemactivitytoreducemusclethermogenesis. Studiesshowthata10%weightlosscancause a20to25%reductionintotalenergyexpenditure.

Ontheotherhand,overcompensationmechanismsinresponsetoweightlosscanleadtoexcessivegainafterstarvation Thisisduetothesuppressionofadaptivethermogenesis However,overfeedingisnotfullyunderstood,withsome reportedweightgainwasnotasexpectedinresponsetoexcessoverfeeding Thisisduetoincreasedenergyexpenditure fromweightgain,increasedthermiceffectoffood,increasedREE,andincreasedphysicalactivityexpenditure

FactorsthatChangetheSet-pointWeight

Theset-pointtheoryremainsasatheorysincethemolecularmechanismsinvolvedintheset-pointregulationareunclear, withsomeresearchersconsideringthistheoryasoversimplified.Thetheorystatesourpredeterminedweightissetinearly life,andremainsrelativelystableunlessactedonbyspecificconditions. Factorssuchaschildbirth,menopause,aging, obesogenicenvironment,anddiseasescanalterthesetpointthroughoutone’slife Further,mostindividualsdonotjusthave one,butseveralset-pointweightsintheirlives Herearesomefactorsthataltertheset-pointweight:

Genetics–Mutationsofleptin,leptinreceptor,andmelanocortin-4receptorareshowntoaltersetpointweight,leading toobesity.

Epigenetics–Environmentalandnutritionalfactorscanalterhistones,causingpermanentchangestogenetics,andcan passtofuturegenerations.Epigenome-wideassociationanalysisshowsconditionssuchasgestationaldiabetescanpass ontooffspringinuteroexposure,highlightingtheimportanceofmaternalhealth.

Obesogens–Thesearechemicalswhichpromoteobesitybychainingadiposetissuesindirectly Theycanimpact metabolism,foodcaloricintake,andenergybalance,leadingtochangesinsetpointandcausingobesitylaterinlife. Some environmentalsourcescontainobesogens,suchasphthalates(chemicalsusedtomakeplasticmoredurable)andnonsteroidestrogens(drugsusedtotreatsymptomsofmenopause).

ObesogenicEnvironment–Theseareenvironmentswhichpromotealterationinset-point. Thisincludespromotionof fastfood,energy-dense,high-sugar,high-fat,andlow-costlarge-servingportions. Mechanicalizedtransportandurban designswhichlimitactivityalsocontributetothisenvironment. Socioeconomicfactorsmaycontributetoanobesogenic environment,withlowerincomecausinglimitedaccesstohealthyfoodoptionsandrecreationalactivities Chronicstress alsocontributestostresseating,increasedalcoholconsumption,andalterationtothehypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA)axis,leadingtohigherchancesofchangesinset-point

BariatricSurgery–Thisisatypeofweight-losssurgerywhichinvolvesmakingchangestothedigestivesystemtohelp withweightloss Studiesshowbariatricsurgeryreduceshungerandlowerssetpointweight,thisalsomodifieshormone levels,suchasincreasingGLP-1secretionanddecreasingghrelinlevels

Dietandphysicalactivity–Asedentarylifestyleandavailabilityofcaloric-densefoodcanpromoteweightgain Decreasingcaloricintakeandincreasingphysicalactivitycanaddressthis. However,weightchangesfromintake restrictionandphysicalactivityoftenshowshort-livedresultsastheset-pointmechanismkicksin,eventuallyleadingto weightgainoncedietarychangesandphysicalactivitiesarereduced.

Obesitypharmacotherapy–Therearemedicationsavailabletoaidweightloss. However,resultsshowthatwhen medicationsarediscontinued,itislikelyonegainsweightagainduetoset-pointmechanisms.

Allinall,ourbodymaintainsaconstantbodyweightthroughoutouradultlifeduetohomeostasis Insimplerwords,ourbodies areabletosensechangestoourfeedingbehaviorsandcaloricintake,andwillopposeanychangesinweightbysecretionof numeroushormoneswithintheorexigenicandanorexigenicpathways,sowestayataconstantweight However,therearelots ofexternalfactorsthatcaninterruptthissystem.

SOURCE

Obesity and Set-Point Theory. Ganipisetti, V M , Bollimunta, P | StatPearls (2023)

GLOSSARY

CNS:CentralNervousSystem;thebrainandthespinalcord Histones:proteinsthatDNAwrapsaround Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal(HPA)Axis:Amajor neuroendocrinesystemthatcontrolsreactionstostress,and regulatesmanybodyprocesses,includingimmuneresponse, digestion,sexualactivity,emotions,andenergystorageand expenditure

Adaptations in Pharmaceuticals

Written By Erica Corrigall, 12W

Illustrated By Sahana Karthik, 12L

Drug development is the process of bringing new pharmaceuticals drugs to the market once a key compound has been identified through the process of drug discovery. We use medicines and drugs to treat all sorts of illnesses, but how do we get a drug from an idea to an approved medicine that can be sold?

For any drug, the pathway from discovery to marketing is long and involves extensive testing and research – from the research that led to the discovery, to the extensive pre-clinical testing and clinical trials, and finally to the approval of the FDA (Food and Drug Administration). For most drugs, it will take 10-15 years for this process to be completed, and hundreds of millions of dollars later, there is a new, perfected drug ready to be distributed worldwide.

Due to its complexity, drug discovery is recognized as one of the most financially risky enterprises in science. The majority of funding poured into these projects is lost, in fact 75% of total research and development costs is lost due to failures in the drug. And while these failures can be heartbreaking for those who have worked for years to develop the drug, they still contribute to the knowledge of disease processes.

The Rise of Digital Surveillance in an Adapting

World: Should We Be Concerned?

Written By Zoë Milne, 12T

Illustrated By Sahana Karthik, 12L

Many countries have increased state security in recent years through further implementation of digital surveillance. But in a world of rising concerns about data collection and monitoring, how worried should we be about the increase in these surveillance technologies? This article will consider some of the arising concerns, focusing on the ongoing developments in China

China is home to the world’s three most surveyed cities including Chongqing, that reportedly has 258 million cameras for a population of 15 million Technologies like facial recognition cameras and CCTVs (closed-circuit television) have become increasingly present over the state, sparking concerns in the West over the data collected from these, and what it is used for/where it goes. In the province of Xinjiang, for example, both Uyghurs and Tibetans are heavily surveilled and facial recognition is used to detect and monitor their actions, and these technologies rolled out as part of the Chinese government’s Strike Hard Campaign in the province have aided the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) to send more than a million Uyghurs and Tibetans to ‘political education’ camps, often without evidence of crimes committed There is also currently little evidence to suggest that facial recognition is a good device for improving security and law enforcement; in London, the Metropolitan police have been trialling the technology in streets to detect criminals, with inaccurate matches being produced 96% of the time In addition, inherent biases have been found in AI algorithms used in the United States to predict crimes as the data fed into the systems is based off old crime statistics collected by police known to target African Americans.

Considering this, what are the benefits of the rise of surveillance technologies? Across some provinces in China, the Social Credit System (SCS) exists – an initiative that relies on digital monitoring to create scores on citizens and companies assessing their everyday acts in order to encourage better behaviour. Individuals with low scores (caused by a variety of things from jaywalking to committing fraud) can be blacklisted, and face punishments such as travel restrictions or public shaming Those with good scores can access benefits like improved access to government services and tax deductions, from actions such as visiting and caring for elders and in-laws, good financial records and charitable behaviour. Whilst this system may seem like something out of an Orwellian novel, it is not widely rolled out across China yet despite China’s plans to finish its construction in 2020 and is comprised instead of multiple independent, largely voluntary trials across provinces. It is worth noting that whilst it has been estimated that 15 million PRC (People’s Republic of China) citizens have been subject to these punishments through some form of SCS, arguably these systems hold the potential to better societal behaviours in China and the trustworthiness of citizens through the rise of surveillance technologies across the nation Furthermore, surveys carried out suggest that many Chinese citizens have no issue with the development of SCSs and the collection of their data from these surveillance initiatives, with 49% of 2,209 Chinese citizens strongly approving of the Social Credit System according to a 2018 survey carried out by Freie Universität Berlin (see below).

So, if the development of social credit systems in China, thanks to the rise of digital surveillance, is anything to go by, should we be concerned about how our data is being collected and used by technologies that are becoming ever present in our changing world? Whilst there are many answers to this question, it is evident that more protections and restrictions are needed to ensure that our information is not used in discriminately and does not give too much unsolicited power to those who collect it, whether it be used for improving social management or otherwise.

Seasoning with Science

> Spoon which aims to reduce salt intake

Written & Illustrated By Sahana Karthik, 12L

Almost all populations are consuming excessive quantities of sodium, i.e. salt. High salt intake is largely problematic due to the range of non-communicative diseases it is associated with – most prevalently, hypertension; obesity; osteoporosis; gastric cancer and increased risk of cardiovascular diseases. It is even estimated that almost 2 million deaths per year can be attributed to high sodium consumption As a result, there is an urgent need for reducing sodium intake – which WHO claims as “ one of the most cost-effective ways to improve health”.

According to the National Health and Nutrition Survey (2016), Japan’s average salt intake per person is approximately 10 grams per day – which is double the sodium intake recommendation by the World Health Organisation (WHO) The majority of this comes from seasonings such as soy sauce and miso during cooking and eating.

Recently, a solution to sodium intake has been proposed and is simply an adapted version of an ordinary culinary utensil: the spoon. Jointly developed with Meiji University’s School of Science and Prof Homei Miyashita (who also won the Ig Nobel Nutrition prize in 2023), this spoon enhances the taste of saltiness by passing a weak electric field from the spoon to concentrate sodium ion molecules on the tongue, the perceived saltiness of the food is enhanced by 50%.

SOURCES

Kirin’s Award-winning Electric Spoon Adds a Salty Taste Without Extra Salt | FastCompany

| KIRIN

Spoon that Enhances Salty Taste Goes on Sale in Japan | Kyodo News

Thespoon,commercialisedbyKIRINHoldings,costs 19,800¥(around£100)andrunsonarechargeable lithiumbattery. Ithasreceivedvariousawards already,notably:

WinneroftheScienceCouncilofJapan President'sAwardatthe6thJapanOpen InnovationAwards:foranoriginaland pioneeringproduct

64thACCTOKYOCREATIVITYAWARDS–CreativityandInnovationCategory (Bronze):Japan’slargestawardsprogram recognisingoutstandingcreativity CESInnovationAwards®2025DigitalHealth (Honoree);Accessibility&AgeTech (Honoree):KirinGroupbecomesthefirst companytowinintwocategoriesatoneofthe world'slargesttechnologyawards

Inconclusion,theKirinElectricSaltSpoonshows howcreativitycantransformeverydayobjectsinto solutionsthataddresspressinghealthissues. This straightforwardyetefficientmethodprovidesan excellentmethodtolowersodiumintakewithout significantlycompromisingdietaryoptionsthrough electricalstimulationtoimprovethesaltiness flavour. Thisadaptivetechnology,whichisexpected togoonsaleinternationallyfromMay2025, illustratestheabilityofchangetoimprovehealth whilesatisfyingmodernneeds

Tunnelling through Time

Written By Emma Green, 12H

Tunnelling is a crucial area within civil engineering, and the process of building tunnels has changed throughout history; engineers have faced challenges and adapted by creating new concepts and thinking creatively. For instance, when the Babylonians built the first underwater tunnel in 2160 BCE, their solution was to temporarily divert the entire Euphrates River for the duration of the construction This article explores how modern-day engineers have adapted many techniques that prioritise safety and efficiency; significant examples include improving tunnel lining methods and technologically advanced machines called tunnel boring machines (TBMs).

The lining of a tunnel is a fundamental component as it supports the structure to prevent collapse. Lining techniques date back to the Greco-Roman period when engineers developed an incredible technique where they heated and quickly cooled the surrounding rock of an excavated tunnel This method strengthened the rock, which resulted in more secure and longer-lasting tunnels. Over time, engineers have designed different lining methods for different ground conditions, meaning that modern-day tunnels are more reliable than before In loose rock environments, engineers employ wire mesh and steel bolts as lining to prevent falling debris, contrastingly, in hard rock environments, TBMs lay concrete slabs (precisely designed and cut segments) to build the lining as they progress Overall, the evolution of tunnel lining techniques throughout history has led to the enhanced structural integrity of 21st-century tunnels.

TBMsaredesignedtogrindrock,carryawayexcavated materialandlinethetunnelwithconcretewall segmentssimultaneously. MarcBrunel(thefatherof theinfamousIsambardKingdomBrunel)firstused themin1843toconstructatunnelundertheRiver Thamesinclayground Hedesignedasimpleiron framecalledaminer’scage,protectingmenwhilstthey excavatedwithpickaxesandshovels. Sincethen, engineershavesignificantlydevelopedtheconceptto address:

Differentgroundconditionstunnelsare excavatedin

Improvementsforthesafetyofworkers

Increasingtheefficiencyofconstruction.

Onesignificantadaptationwastheintroductionofthe bentonitetunnelmachinebyJohnBartlettin1964 Beforethis,tunnellinginnon-cohesivesoilsrequired internalpressurefromacompressedairsystemto preventtunnelcollapseandwaterintrusion.This methodwasdangerous,andworkersoftendiedfrom decompressionsicknessbecausetheywereexcavating andconstructingthetunnelliningwithinthezoneof compressedair Bartlettcombinedacuttingheadanda pressurisedbentoniteslurry,whichmechanically excavatedandremovedspoilviaapipe,meaningthe workerscouldlaythebrickliningatnormalair pressure.Modern-dayTBMsnowbenefitfrom automatedcontrols,designsforvaryingground conditions,andadvancedsafetysystems Theworld’s largestTBMhasadiameterof175m,whichexcavateda subsearoadtunnelinHongKong.

Interestingly, all TBMs are named after historically influential women; for example, for the recent Silvertown tunnel project under the River Thames, they called one of their TBMs ‘Jill’ after the first female bus driver in London. This tradition began to honour St Barbara, the patron saint of mining, who died on December 4th, 200 AD, which is now known as St Barbara’s Day Legend has it that as she was dying, she prayed for the safety of miners, recognising the dangers of their work. Since then, miners have traditionally prayed to her for protection before beginning work.

Even centuries later, miners and tunnellers still make tributes to her; for instance, on St Barbara’s Day 2023, the well-known High Speed 2 rail project blessed two of their TBMs in her honour and placed statues of her inside the tunnels Although tunnelling has changed over time, annual acknowledgements of her serve as a reminder to appreciate the risks of tunnelling and remember the people who made sacrifices to help advance engineering.

Since the 22nd century BCE, engineers have been innovating new tunnelling methods and adapting preexisting ones Lining techniques and tunnel boring machines demonstrate how tunnelling has evolved to improve reliability, efficiency, and safety In 1825, TBMs were excavating just 8 meters per week, but today, some projects achieve over 200 meters per week. The rapid advancements in technology sit comfortably alongside the enduring tradition of honouring St. Barbara, and engineers will continue to embrace the changes necessary to respond to challenges of projects and the desire to always improve.

Overall, the adaptations engineers have made to TBM technology have led to incredible advancements in the efficiency and safety of the construction of modern tunnels.

Molecules to Miracles: COVID-19 mRNA Vaccine

Written & Illustrated By Sahana Karthik, 12L

The research, testing, and manufacturing of vaccinations typically take a decade to complete. However, the unexpected was achieved during the COVID-19 pandemic, as a vaccine was formulated in less than a year.

This seemingly impossible feat was accomplished through the use of mRNA mRNA – which stands for ‘ messenger ribonucleic acid’ – is a naturally-occurring molecule involved in the translation stage of protein synthesis Hence, researchers exploited mRNA’s ability to code for proteins when developing the COVID-19 vaccine By analysing the SARSCov-2 virus’ sequence using advanced bioinformatics, they selected the spike protein gene to be utilised in the vaccine.

Since the spike protein is necessary for the virus to join to a host cell, it serves as an effective antigen that the immune system can identify and attack. Consequently, the target spike protein gene is created artificially and inserted into a plasmid. As plasmids are simple to reproduce and continually transport the target gene sequence, they are used in the manufacturing of mRNA vaccines. A new plasmid can be developed in a matter of weeks after a sequence is chosen, facilitating the rapid testing and distribution of novel mRNA vaccines The additional benefit provided by the mRNA vaccine is that individuals who are vaccinated are not exposed to the actual virus

mRNA is a fragile molecule, so needs to be injected into lipid-based nanoparticles which are approximately 1000 times smaller than the average cell These lipids have been specially made to protect the mRNA during its passage through the human body while enabling its entry into cells The mRNA is released intracellularly after the lipid coating of the nanoparticle fuses with the phospholipid surface membrane of the cell

Even though ribosomes in the cytoplasm aid in the production of viral proteins within body cells, the viral genetic material cannot alter human DNA, since DNA remains intact in chromosomes within the nucleus Considering that mRNA is a small, short-lived molecule, it would need supplementary enzymes and chemical triggers to even reach DNA (that the mRNA vaccine does not supply). Most importantly, the spike protein is not contagious or dangerous in the absence of the rest of the virus; however, it still sets off an immune response, thereby making the vaccine effective as the body creates antibodies that remain and defend against possible coronavirus infections in the future.

SOURCES

Before use, the mRNA vaccine must be kept at extremely low temperatures (-20 to -80°C) to ens degrade Once thawed to be kept i refrigerators, they have a short she weeks) compared with traditional present in the vaccines also rapidl presence of light Overall, this mak vaccines more complex – particula adequate infrastructure.

After the COVID-19 pandemic, mRN technology remains relevant as it o exciting opportunities in treating o diseases. A current topic of focus i of mRNA vaccines as a cancer trea

> mRNA vs Traditional vaccine

> SARS-Cov-2 ‘covid’ virus

We Need YOU to Save the Earth

Written & Illustrated By Cherrie Li, 12K

ClimatechangeisslowlytighteningitsgrasparoundtheEarth,suffocatingournatureandouranimals Globalbiodiversityhasdeclinedatanalarmingrateinthelasthalf-century:morethan42,100speciesareatriskof extinction,withclimatechangebeingmainlyresponsibleforthesituation. IntheUKalone,speciessuchasLittle Terns–whichnestonbeaches–areincreasinglyatriskofrisingsealevelsandsummerstormsurges. Globally, morethan36billionpeopleliveinareasofhighvulnerabilitytoclimateimpactssuchasdroughts,floods, heatwaves,extremeweathereventsandsea-levelrise–andone-fifthofhousinginEnglandisatriskofflooding. Butwearethecauseofthisdisturbingevent,hencewehavetheresponsibilitytosolvethis–oratleasteasethe sufferingofourplanet. Weneedyoutotakeactionnow. Belowaresomecrucialactionsyoumustcarryoutto savetheEarthandspeciesfromtheirdeath:

Take Action in Your Community

Join a local climate action group to develop proactive, local solutions to make your town more climatefriendly Warwickshire Climate Alliance is an environmental group devoted to pushing stronger actions within the country on the climate emergency. (https://warwickshireclimatealliance.org/)

Power Up on Plants, and Reduce Your Consumption of Red Meat

Meat and dairy products accounts for 14% of glocal climatechanging emissions Further, eating too much meat is not good for you, with numerous studies showing that eating more red meat increases the risk of heart disease, diabetes, and bowel cancer. Each year, we could prevent thousands of early deaths in the UK, saving the NHS a fortune, by eating less or no meat Plant-based recipes are easily found on Google, so why not try to cook some of them?

DitchtheCars,andImproveyourFitness

Petrolanddieselcarsemitlotsofclimate-wreckingemissions, andincreaseairpollution IntheUK,theaverageperson takes363tripsperyearviacar Thisincreasescongestion, furtherinducingtheenhancedgreenhouseeffect.

Topupyourfitnessandtackleclimatechangeatthesame timebyditchingcarjourneys,andoptingforcyclingor walking.Tootired?Youcanhoponthebusortrain.

GetyourElectricityfromtheWind andSun

Wouldn’titbenicetogetfreeenergyfromnature, whileweakeningthebigclimatepollutorofburning fossilfuels? Youcaninstallsolarpanelsoroptfor greenenergytonotonlysavetheplanet,butalsosave money! Cleantariffsareoftencheaperthanstandard fixed-ratetariffsinmostUKhousehold.Moreonthe energypricecapcanbefoundontheBritishGas website.

Photographed by Cherrie Li

Take the Train, Not the Plane

If you ’ re a frequency flyer, your carbon emissions will be sky high On a 200-mile trip, a flight would emit around 50kg of CO₂ per passenger; that trip on a train or a bus would only emit 12kg and 7kg of CO₂ per passenger respectively. Further, you get better views! Europe is the home to some of the world’s most beautiful train stations; from the botanical garden at Madrid Atocha, to Neo-Baroque central station of Antwerp and the powerful Art Deco and Art Nouveau of Milano Centrale

Antwerp Central Station, Belgium

Porto Campanhã & São Bentio, Portugal

Save Energy at Home

Even though lots of our electricity now comes from renewable sources, the UK still relies a lot on climatewrecking gases This is not only bad for the climate, but also your wallet. Switching off lights and unplugging appliances will help. But the best thing that you can do is having proper insulation at home. Further, use more eco-friendly heating options, like smart controls and heat pumps.

All in all, saving the Earth from climate change is our duty.

As Greta Thunburg said:

“YOU ARE NEVER TOO SMALL TO MAKE A DIFFERENCE.”

Take action now.

SOURCES

TheTruthofIt–CombatingClimateChangeisCriticaltoStopWildlife Extinctions|RSPB

OurBrokenPlanet:ThePodcast|NaturalHistroryMuseum

WhatCanIDotoStopClimateChange?|FriendsoftheEarth WarwickshireClimateAlliance

NTS2023:CarAvailabilityandTrendsinCarTrips|DepartmentofTransport |gov.uk

Photographed by Sahana Karthik

Photographed by Cherrie Li

The Changing of Seasons: An Astronomical Point of View

Written & Illustrated by Dheepthi Siddhan, 12G

Introduction

Thechangingofseasonsisoneofseveralperiodicnaturalphenomenawhichhavebeenusedtomarktimefrom asearlyas4200BC ItisaconstantobservableeffectofthecombinationofEarth’srotationandrevolution aroundtheSun Seasonscanbedefinedastronomically,meteorologically,ecologically,etc,butessentiallythey splitayearinto4divisions:Spring,Summer,Autumn,andWinter.

HowareSeasonsDefined?

Thewayinwhichaseasonisdefinedisknownas‘seasonalreckoning’.Therearenumerousdifferentseasonal reckoningsindifferentfieldsofstudy,countries,regionsofEarth,cultures,religions,communities,etc.Oftenin meteorology,seasonsarefourgroupsofthreewholemonths,distinguishedbydifferentclimatesand temperaturesinaregionsuchthateachseasonstartsonthefirstdayofamonth–whereasinsomecountries thestartoftheseasondependsonthedailymeantemperature:forexampleinScandinavia,Summeriswhen thedailymeantemperatureisabove10°C Countriesintropicalregionsonlyexperience2seasons(usually summerandmonsoon).Thepolarregionsonlyexperiencepolarday(Summer)andpolarnight(Winter).

AncientEgyptiansconsidered3seasonswithrespecttohowfloodedtheriverNilewasduringthattime. AncientRomansdefinedtheseasonsbasedonwhichconstellations(Aquarius,Taurus,LeoandScorpio)the Sunappearedtobepassingthrough Ecologydefinesseasonsbasedontheplantsthatareobservedandanimal behaviourduringacertaintimeperiod,splittingtheyearinto6seasonssimilartootherreligionsandcultures TheyallshareanoverarchingthemewhereSummeristhehottestpartoftheyear,Winteristhecoldest,and AutumnandSpringaretransitionseasons.

>

AstronomicalSeasonal-Reckoning

Astronomicallyspeaking,aseasonisdefinedbasedontheamountofdirectsunlightaregionreceives,light densityandthedurationofsunlightaregionreceivesinaday.‘Directsunlight’iswhenthesun'srayshitthe Earthataround90°.AlthoughthelightfromthesunonlyhitsEarthfromonedirectionthecurvatureofthe EarthcausesthelighttohitEarth’ssurfaceatdifferentanglesreducingthesun’sintensity Thisconceptalso linkswith‘lightdensity’whichistheamountofsunlightabsorbedpersquarecentimeteronEarth’ssurface Althoughthetotalamountofsunlightisrelativelyalwaysthesame,thedensityincreasesanddecreaseswith theseasons.

Position of the Earth Compared to the Sun During Different Seasons

Astronomical seasons start on their respective Equinoxes and Solstices. Equinox in Latin refers to ‘equal night’, on this day both day and night last for about 12 hours each, and the equatorial regions receive direct rays of sunlight Equinoxes mark the beginning of Spring and Autumn Solstice in Latin refers to ‘Sun stop’: on the Summer solstice, the temperate region receives more direct rays of sunlight and experiences the longest day marking the beginning of summer. On the Winter solstice, the temperate region receives less light density and experiences the shortest day marking the beginning of Winter.

What Causes the Changing Seasons?

It is a common misconception that due to the slightly elliptical shape of Earth’s orbit, Summer is when the Earth is closest (perihelion) to the Sun; and Winter is when it is the furthest (aphelion). In reality, the difference in distance between perihelion and aphelion is only 3 million miles which is very small in comparison to the average distance between the Earth and the Sun (approximately 94 million miles), so Earth’s proximity to the Sun does not play a role in the changing seasons In fact, perihelion occurs during Northern Winter and aphelion occurs during Northern Summer.

The real cause of the changing seasons is Earth’s axial tilt Every day, the Earth rotates around its axis which is an imaginary line going through the North and South Pole, however, this axis is not perpendicular to the plane of ecliptic (Earth’s orbital plane) as most would expect. Earth’s axis has a tilt of approximately 23.45° from the vertical. It is theorized that Earth’s tilt is due to its collision with Theia (a planetary object that caused the formation of the moon) The Earth also experiences axial parallelism which is when a planet’s axis always points to the same point in space: Earth’s axis always points towards the star Polaris According to the Milankovitch cycles, the direction of Earth’s axis changes every 26,000 years, but this is too big a timescale to affect the present human civilization. Earth’s axial tilt is the reason the Northern and Southern hemispheres experience the exact opposite seasons at a given time When the Earth is tilted towards the Sun, the Northern hemisphere receives more direct rays of sunlight and experiences Summer; while the Southern hemisphere receives less direct rays of Sun, experiencing winter. During the equinoxes Earth’s axis is on a plane perpendicular to that of the direction of sunlight meaning neither hemisphere is tilted towards the sun, causing both hemispheres to experience transition seasons

Effects of Changing Seasons

One of the more obvious effects is the changing of the environment around us, with trees blossoming in spring and hedgehogs hibernating in the winter. Each season brings along its own beauty. The seasons affect weather patterns, wind, and water cycles, which affect human transportation and travel. The changing of seasons is also interconnected with human beings, it can determine our physical and mental health by altering our physical activity, sleep patterns, Vitamin D levels, mood, social gatherings, etc. It also has a philosophical aspect, the changing of seasons is a beautiful reminder that nothing in life is permanent, everything is constantly changing, yet you can always rely on the seasons to return. It reflects our own life cycles as humans: going through phases of happiness, sadness and growth Finally, it influences us to adapt to changes around us because change is the one thing we can depend upon.

SOURCES

WhatCausestheSeasons?|NASASpacePlace WhydoweHaveSeasons?|weather.gov

ChangingSeasons|NationalOceanicandAtmospheric Administration

MeteorologicalVersusAstronomicalSeasons|National CentersforEnvironmentalInformation Chapter2:ReferenceSystems|NASA

Best Climate Change Charities for You to Support Today

Written By Cherrie Li, 12K

Looking to support a local or international environmental organisation? You are at the right place.

The Friends of Earth is a leading environmental non-profit organisation based in the UK working to create a sustainable future They fight for climate justice by working with grassroots campaigns in local communities all around England, Wales, and Northern Ireland They also have sister organisations in Scotland and all sound the world. Some issues that they campaign for include a fossil free future, demanding for increased use of renewable energy in the UK, and ending natural resources exploitation (such as soy, palm oil, timber and wood products) by directly addressing big businesses.

Cool Earth is an international NGO that works with indigenous communities to protect endangered rainforests in order to combat the climate crises and protect ecosystems. They are associated with long-term partnerships with indigenous tribes, direct and unconditional cash provision to rainforest communities, and advocating for basic income as a conservative strategy.

ClientEarth is an international environmental law charity, with offices located in London, Brussels, Warsaw, Berlin, Madrid, Los Angeles, and Beijing. They are a group of lawyers and environmental experts, who use the haw to hold governments and other companies accountable for climate change, nature loss, and pollution. Coldplay is one of the Patrons of ClientEarth.

The Climate Coalition is the UK's largest environmental organisation, working to take action against climate change in the UK Along with their sister organisations, Climate Cymru and Stop Climate ChaosScotland, they are a group of over 130 organisations They call on Prime Minister, Chancellor and government ministers to take responsibility in keeping people safe and protecting the climate and nature; which includes safeguarding energy security, implementing zerocarbon transport, using Britain’s economic influence to ensure public spending and private finance invest in projects that cut pollution and protect nature, ending fossil fuel funding overseas, habitat conservation, and more

Greenpeace is an independent global campaigning network which aims to “ ensure the ability of the Earth to nurture life in all its diversity” and focuses on campaigning for worldwide issues such as climate change, deforestation, overfishing, commercial whaling, genetic engineering, anti-war and anti-nuclear issues. They take action through direct action, advocacy, education, research, and ecolodge to achieve their goals

The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) is an international NGO that works in wilderness preservation and reduction of human impact on the environment WWF is the world’s largest conservation organisation, with over 5 million supporters worldwide, working in over 100 countries, and supporting around 3000 conservation and environmental projects WWF aims to “stop the degradation of the planet’s natural environment and build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature”

Iceland: Where Glacial Processes Changed the Local Landscape

Written & Photographed by Cherrie Li, 12K

This set of photographs were taken during my geography field trip to Southern Iceland in October, 2023.

1. Gullfoss

During my geography trip to Iceland in October, I visited the waterfall Gullfoss, located in the canyon of the Hvítá river in southwest Iceland. A rainbow is created in the foreground by the water vapour from the waterfall and the sun.

This photo depicts the sunrise by the horizon of a hot spring in Laugarvatn,

2. Laugarvatn

Iceland.

3. Reynisfjara

The view of one of the most beautiful beaches in Reynisfjara, Vík is shown. It is a black volcanic beach, and the photo is taken during sunrise.

5. Vestmannaeyjabær

Also known as the Westman Islands in southernmost Iceland is being depicted in this photo This photo was taken during the boat ride across the harbour from Landeyjahöfn to Heimaey.

4. Þingvellir

This is a waterfall that flows from the North American plate to the Eurasian plate. The photo is taken in Þingvellir National Park, Selfloss during sunset.

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By Andrew Hodges

Darwin’s Dragons By Lindsay Galvin

Illustrated By Sahana Karthik, 12L & Cherrie Li, 12K

TV SHOW RECOMMENDATION

VOL.3 2024/2025 CAFÉSCIENTIFIQUE

CELLSATWORK

Written By Tiffany Lee, 12L

- Story By Akane Shimizu

Illustrated By Sahana Karthik, 12L

If this series has never showed up on your feed, you’ll probably be missing out on one of the most helpful introductions for your Biology Chapter: Immunity.

With White Blood Cells battling Pneumococcus bacteria, B memory cells losing their mind to a book, the slice-of-life originally written by Akane Shimizu dedicates these cells of our human immune system to the everyday community of jobholders.

There is never a dull moment when cells give it their all, working together to their deaths. You’ll be work shadowing Red Blood Cell in her daily operations and encounter different cells of the immune system, some during times of great peril. In my opinion, I find the B plasma (B-Cell) the most entertaining character to watch because he ticks my humoral response. Sorry.

The scientific portrayal of the anime should be well appreciated to be accurate despite it being very fictitious in storytelling. In the perspective of it being an educational guide, watching ‘Cells at Work!’ can help develop factual recall and sequential photographic memory. Although I admire the Cells at Work! creative team’s efforts, I must add though that this series is better understood with online research as there is room for interpretation in terms of mainly details in setting and biological interaction between cells.

So, to conclude, I would highly recommend watching ‘Cells at Work!’ as a form of review or simple introduction to the topic. Best of luck in your endeavours.

FEATURED FILM/TV TITLES

Suggested by KHS Students & Newsletter Team

MUSEUM REVIEW

The Grant Museum of Zoology, UCL VOL.3 2024/2025

Written & Photographed By Cherrie Li, 12K

Whether by inflating themselves to make it more difficult for predators to eat them, developing antifreeze genes to survive the freezing winter, or regenerating completely new limbs and organs, all biological organisms change in order to adapt to their surroundings The Grant Museum of Zoology, situated at the heart of London, embodies more than 100,000 animal specimens found in every corner of the Earth. Their extensive collection highlights the wondrous nature of all living organisms, and provides an eye-opening glimpse into how different species adapt to their changing environment

> The Grant Museum of Zoology

As I entered the museum, I was greeted with endless skulls, a fuzzy Eurasian Otter, and a little domestic cat with its tongue stuck out. The flawless preservation of the otter and the cat hints to me this museum is no ordinary museum. I ventured deeper into the museum, and the specimens started to get larger, weirder, and more exotic.

> An elephant heart – the size of a rugby ball

> Fuzzy Eurasian otter

> Well-preserved domestic cat

> Capybara and jaguar skulls

I ventured deeper into the museum, and the specimens started to get larger, weirder, and more exotic. Our close relatives- the orangutan, this organism which I’ve never in my life heard of- the susu, a massive elephant heart the size of a rugby ball, and a thick armour-like elephant skull lined the walls of this tiny but overfilled museum. These specimens are preserved in an immaculate manner, and feels rather like a piece of art than s navigating the world.

> Left: An orangutan specimen and a sasu skeleton

> Right: An elephant skull

A peculiarly lit room dimly glows at the corner of my eye – a room plastered with yellow glowing squares, each with a small irregular shape dotted in the middle. My curiosity lured me into this side room After a detailed examination and a lot of guesswork with my friend, we realised we were looking at hundreds of perfectly prepared microscope slides, each showing a unique and rare specimen I would have never guessed what were on these slides; as these specimen ranged from the jaws of the ‘Large Green Saw Fly’, to some sort of giant insect called Notonecta; from a four-day old chicken, to calliphora newly emerged with phitinum This collection of flawless slide preparations was the most immaculate view in my entire day out in London, and this got me thinking about my failed slide preparation of onion root hair cells in Biology class earlier that week

> The room filled with perfect slide preparations > Close-up photographs of slide preparations

As we made our way to the end of the museum, things started to appear more realistic, and these specimens brought me to the realisation of which they were once living Despite feeling uneasy and apologetic, this furthered my appreciation for their sacrifices and beauty. In this last section, the specimens also become a bit unusual, including skulls of felidae placed in order of size, a giant buffalo skull, a creature which looks like a hybrid of a platypus, a hedgehog and a bird, and a seemingly decolourised fruit bat which has the ability to see and smell The most uncanny scene was seeing a jar of frogs submerged in fluid, like pickles on the kitchen counter, surrounded by snake skulls.

> Felidae placed in order of size

> Skull of a bull

> Hybrid species of a platypus, a hedgehog and a bird

> Jar of frogs submerged in unknown fluid

> A decolourised fruit bat

The Grant Museum of Zoology is an extraordinary location to visit. With the most exotic and perfect specimen neatly crammed into an old and studious hall, this place is mind-blowing, and will convince everyone to appreciate the beauty of nature. It is located within a 10-minute walk from Euston station, and it's free to enter! If you are heading to London, why not take a short visit to The Grant Museum of Zoology?

QuestionBy

EdithFrost,13H

Answered&IllustratedBy

CherrieLi,12K

PhotographedByCherrieLi&KarineLo,12K

The short answer is cancer cells have damaged DNA, causing them to divide rapidly, and making them more prone to DNA damage caused by radiation. Radiation works by breaking DNA of cancer cells, preventing them from growing and dividing, and ultimately causing cell death Normal cells are also affected by radiation, but normal cells possess the mechanism to repair their DNA, unlike cancer cells. This leads to a higher survival rate of normal cells.

As mentioned above, cancer cells have damaged DNA. This DNA damage disrupts cancer cell’s ability to repair their DNA after breaks in DNA caused by high-energy radiation, causing them to be more prone to radiation compared to normal cells.

Cancer cells are unable to repair their DNA due to several factors relating to genetic mutations. These are some key reasons for their ineffectiveness in repairing their DNA:

Defective DNA Repair Pathways

In our DNA, there are genes which are responsible in repairing our DNA, such as the BRCA1 and BRCA2 gene. These genes are used most often during cell division to ensure DNA is correctly replicated. However, cancer cells have mutated or lost DNA-repairing genes, so their ability to repair damaged DNA is reduced

Genomic Instability

Cancer cells have a high level of genomic instability, meaning their DNA is constantly changing This is due to mutations in genes which control cell division, apoptosis, and DNA repair With constant changes to DNA, their DNArepairing genes are less effective.

RapidCellDivision

Cancer cells divide rapidly,leaving little time for DNA-repairing genes to fix damaged DNA. As most mutations arise during cell division,this means that cancer cells

LossofTumour-suppressorGenes

Tumour suppressor genes,such as p53,are crucial in checking for any mistakes during DNA replication If there is DNA damage,p53 initiates DNA repair or apoptosis However many cancer cells often lack p53 gene,affecting their ability to properly respond to DNA damage. This means cancer cells can still survive despite severe damage to DNA,further contributing to mutations in repairing genes.

Changes in Repair Pathways

Some cancer cells are able to repair their DNA, but the way they do so is less accurate, so they are more prone to repairing their DNA incorrectly. are unable to repair their DNA before the next cell division cycle, causing mutations in DNA to accumulate, further compressing the effectiveness of DNA repairing genes.

In short, while cancer cells are more vulnerable to DNA damage, their compromised DNA repairing ability makes them more prone to radiation compared to normal cells, further damaging their DNA.

SOURCES

HowRadiationTherapyisUsedtoTreatCancer|American CancerSociety

RadiationTherapytoTreatCancer|NationalCancerInstitute

DNADamage/RepairManagementinCancers|National LibraryofMedicine

GLOSSARY

Apoptosis:Cellsuicide

Mutation:RandomchangestoDNAsequence

Radiation:High-energywavesorparticles

>Photographs showing stained onion root hair cell undergoing mitosis under a light microscope.

THE HALL OF MEMES THE HALL OF MEMES

By Sahana Karthik, 12L

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the following students for their contributions...

Erica Corrigall

Simran Dhillon

Edith Frost

Emma Green

Isabelle Johnson

Kashvi Kashyap

Grace Kettell

Tiffany Lee

Rhia Mann

Zoë Milne

Shraddhaa Seshadri

Dheepthi Siddhan

KHS Student

Abby Tsang

Eleanor Yates

This newsletter is presented to you by...

Sahana Karthik

Cherrie Li

Karine Lo & Members of Café Scientifique

Please look forward to our next issue.

Thank you for reading!

~ C H A N G E A N D A D A P T ~ ~ C H A N G E A N D A D A P T ~