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former French allies to remain neutral. This contributed significantly to the ability of the British to prevail over the French. However, holding on to control of the territory was not guaranteed. The British did not conquer the Anishinaabe in 1760. This fact became clear over the next 3 years. The British had started to occupy former French Forts without Anishinaabe consent and also failed to continue the French practice of providing tribute or presents to the Anishinaabe. This aroused concerns amongst the Anishinaabe and other Indigenous Nations resulting in what is known as Pontiac’s War. The efforts of Sir William Johnson during these 3 years were instrumental to resolving these hostilities peacefully. In this period, Johnson’s main strategy was to renew or extend the Covenant Chain to the Anishinaabe, making them allies of the British. The Covenant Chain was a diplomatic and military alliance initially established between the Dutch, and then the English, with the Haudenausonee (the Iroquois Confederacy). The Covenant Chain Alliance signified a Nation-to-Nation relationship. Two key events in establishing this alliance relationship were the Royal Proclamation of 1763 and the Treaty at
Niagara in 1764. The Royal Proclamation recognized the autonomy, independence and territorial rights of Indian Nations, including the Anishinaabe. It prohibited squatting on Indian land; it prohibited colonial governments from granting patents to Indian lands and made purchase of Indian lands illegal by anyone except the Crown. It established a Treaty process by which the Crown could obtain the consent of Indigenous Nations to share their lands, through the negotiation of Treaty terms. Today, the Proclamation and the inalienability of Indian lands to anyone but the Crown, is recognized as the source of the fiduciary duty and the honour of the Crown. As monumental as the Proclamation was, to the Anishinaabe it was a Crown document, which had yet to reflect the consent of Indigenous Nations. Johnson knew this. Because of his knowledge and familiarity with the diplomatic protocols of the Great Lakes area, Johnson knew that to secure and strengthen the nation-to-nation relationship with the Anishinaabe would require holding a Council Fire. In 1764, Johnson held a Council Fire at Niagara where he presented the Anishinaabe with the Great Covenant Chain Wampum belt. Upon presenting the Wampum Belt, Johnson stated that “you will fix one end of it with the Chipaweighs at St. Mary’s whilst the other end remain at my House.” E-Wiindamaagejig: The Robinson Huron Treaty Times |
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