Asian Military Review - May/June 2022

Editorial

ASIAN INDIGENOUS UAV DESIGN IN MOTION

ilitary unmanned systems are still very much in the growth phase in Asia Pacific. New concepts are being developed from within the region including the building and trials of world leading capabilities such as the loyal wingman programme, now renamed MQ-28 Ghost Bat, between Boeing Australia and the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) being a case in point.

With a range of around 2,000 nautical miles (3,700km), a stealthy design and mission systems that will benefit from using artificial intelligence (AI), this takes the unmanned air vehicle to a new level of capability as both a loyal wingman flying in support of manned aircraft, as well as flying untethered missions as an intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) platform among others.

China is fully behind its own UAV platform development and the various types of UAVs that it is fielding shows a real intent to push its own ISR and attack mission profiles to longer and longer ranges, particularly in the maritime environment.

This is a policy that not only supports the island building strategy in locations such as the South China Sea, but also as a longer term ambition to push the US Navy (and its allies), away from what China claims as its own territorial waters (a claim continuously contested by many nations). This ambition of increasing naval dominance, through the use of the People’s Liberation Army Navy (PLAN), People’s Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF), and not forgetting the impressively equipped China Coast Guard, will also serve to increasingly isolate the Republic of China (Taiwan), Japan and other western and non-aligned nations in the region.

Those countries standing in the way of China’s expansion are already increasing their own unmanned ISR capabilities. Japan, through its Medium Term Defense Program (MTDP), has already committed to expand its C4I unmanned airborne, maritime surface and underwater capabilities, which will also incorporate AI. However, its acquisition of three Northrop Grumman RQ-4B Global Hawks, the first of which was delivered in a non-stop transatlantic flight in March this year, will give the Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF) an up-to-date high altitude persistent overwatch capability over its maritime environment.

Taiwan is hoping to purchase off-the-shelf unmanned platforms the US, although restricted in what it can import for its defence due to China’s exertion of pressure internationally. Due to this, it has been progressing its own indigenous projects mainly through its National Chung-Shan Institute of Science and Technology (NCSIST).

Real potential of indigenous unmanned UAV development lies with the aviation industry in the Republic of Korea (RoK). In 2021 Korean Aerospace Industries (KAI) revealed that it would work towards providing its new indigenous fighter, the KF-21 Boramae, with its own unmanned wingman developed around the FA-50. The Republic of Korea Air Force commanders have stressed manned and unmanned operations will be essential during the operational lifetime of 6th Generation Fighters. While KAI is currently focusing on the near future with its Next Corps Surveillance UAV, a long endurance ISR platform with a potentially scalable fuselage, beyond that, research is being undertaken for an unmanned combat aerial vehicle, that could perform a similar role to the Ghost Bat.

Andrew Drwiega, Editor-in-Chief

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South Korea expanded its space-based C4ISR capabilities with the ANASIS-II military communications satellite launched in July 2020. Use of ANASIS-II is gradually expanding as more ground terminals come online.

TAKING ON C4ISR AND CYBER

The war in Ukraine has demonstrated the absolute necessity of coordinating C4ISR in a major conflict. Nations in Asia have already been adding to their capabilities.

by JR NG

Asia Pacific countries have invested significantly over the past decade to expand and reinforce their command, control, computers, communications, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (C4ISR) capabilities.

The most progress can be observed within East Asia, with the military forces of China, Japan, and South Korea clearly leading their regional counterparts in terms of the scale and scope of their respective national modernisation programmes, as well as the visible outcomes.

With a professional force that comprises approximately two million personnel, the Chinese People’s Liberation Army (PLA) has in the past decade actively sought to modernise and improve its ability to conduct the full range of land, air, and maritime operations as a joint force, in addition to undertaking space, counter-space, electronic warfare (EW), and cyber operations.

Recognising that the elements of jointness, situational awareness, actionable data, and rapid decision-making are vital in modern warfare, China continues to maintain a high priority on modernising the PLA’s ability to

plan and execute complex joint operations in near and distant battlefields.

“The PRC [People’s Republic of China] is seeking to enhance the PLA’s joint command and control systems; joint logistics systems; and [C4ISR] systems,” the US Department of Defense (DoD) noted in its latest 2021 report on the state of China’s military modernisation efforts.

“In recent years, the CCP’s [Chinese Communist Party’s] efforts to strengthen its armed forces have also included undertaking the most comprehensive restructuring of the PLA’s command and control arrangements,

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forces structure, and administrative organs in its history,” the DoD added, noting that these reforms have sought to reinforce government control of the PLA, improve its ability to conduct joint operations, increase its combat effectiveness, and confront longstanding challenges such as corruption and the entrenched primacy of the PLA ground forces over the other services.

Of note is the PLA’s effort to master “informatisation” or in Western parlance, digitisation. Information dominance has emerged as an essential criterion for the Chinese approach to modern warfare; to secure victory by controlling the flow of information and disrupting the enemy’s access to it. In more recent years, the strategy has expanded to include new concepts such as “intelligentisation”, which aims to exploit emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI) and quantum computing for future force development.

The PLA Air Force (PLAAF) has made significant strides in its C4ISR capabilities, successfully developing and fielding new longrange airborne detection and command aircraft such as the Xian KJ-2000 airborne early warning and control (AEW&C) aircraft, which like its Western counterparts, fully integrate active electronically scanned array (AESA) phased radar technology with a comprehensive digital C4 suite. It is believed that the PLAAF currently operates four of these platforms which are based on the Russian-made Ilyushin IL-76 transport aircraft. However, it appears that resources are now focussed on developing the next generation of AEW&C platforms derived the Y-9 and Y-20 airframes as opposed to building more of the former.

Externally carried ISR and EW pods and internally integrated sensor capabilities

in PLAAF strike and multirole aircraft have become increasingly prevalent in recent years. In September 2021, the PLAAF unveiled an EW variant of the Shenyang Aircraft Corporation (SAC) J-16 multirole fighter aircraft at the Airshow China 2021 defence exhibition in Zhuhai.

The two-seat aircraft, officially designated the J-16D, was shown in public for the first time at the outdoor static display area in low visibility PLAAF markings. Although no official data of the J-16D has been released, the type is clearly distinctive from the baseline J-16 multirole fighter in several aspects. Notable differences include two prominent EW pods on its wingtips as well as a shorter nose radome that is believed to accommodate an active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar.

The aircraft’s 30mm internal cannon and the Infrared Search and Track (IRST) sensor system have also been removed, likely to free up space for the additional electronic systems required for its specialised role. Moreover, the aircraft was also seen with four large jamming pods under its wings and air intakes. Each pod is clearly physically distinct and is therefore likely to cover different frequency ranges in the electronic spectrum.

The first J-16D prototype reportedly first flew in late 2015 and seen with the KG600 EW pods developed by China Electronics Technology Group, although the new pods seen on the aircraft in Zhuhai have not been previously documented.

Japan Takes Cyber Seriously

Meanwhile, changes in Japan's regional security environment are prompting the Japan Self-Defense Force (JSDF) to modernise its C4ISR capabilities across all three services, with particular effort being placed on the cyber

and electromagnetic domains.

In March 2022, the MoD launched a new cyber defence command by reorganising related units of the Ground, Maritime and Air Self-Defense Forces (JGSDF, JMSDF, and JASDF). The new 540-strong cyber defence command is tasked with protecting the information and communications network that controls the operations of all JSDF units as well as strengthening its ability to address rapidly growing cyber threats from China, North Korea and Russia.

Japan’s effort to enhance it electromagnetic warfare capabilities is also supported by the recent formation of specialised JGSDF units such as the 301st Electric Warfare Unit at Camp Kengun in 2021, which is equipped with the newly developed truck-mounted Network Electronic Warfare System (NEWS). The 301st will initially provide EW support to the JGSDF’s Amphibious Rapid Deployment Brigade (ARDB), which is tasked with recapturing outlying Japanese islands occupied during a conflict.

The JASDF is also developing and fielding several new high-end C4ISR aircraft. It’s Air Development and Test Command (ADTC) is presently working on a dedicated signals intelligence (SIGINT) platform based on the Kawasaki Heavy Industries turbofanpowered C-2 tactical airlifter. Understood to be designated the RC-2, the SIGINT variant is clearly distinguished by radomes located around the fuselage and extended tail cone. It also features a belly mounted antenna array with around 18 blade aerials.

A second special mission aircraft based on the C-2 airlifter, this time being optimised for airborne EW operations, is also being developed. Announced in the MoD’s Defense of Japan 2021 white paper, the yet to be

China’s airborne C4ISR capabilities have come of age with advanced special mission aircraft such as the J-16D

named EW aircraft will support counter air operations by disrupting an adversary’s access to the electromagnetic spectrum at stand-off ranges. The MoD has not disclosed further details about the new aircraft, but a concept image indicates that EW and associated C4ISR systems will be prominently integrated to the nose and tail as well as its flanks to achieve allround spatial coverage.

The JASDF has also fielded its first longrange persistent unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) surveillance capability, with the first of three Northrop Grumman RQ-4B Global Hawk high-altitude, long-endurance (HALE) UAVs acquired via the US Foreign Military Sales (FMS) programme arriving at home base, Misawa Airbase, in northern Japan in March 2022.

“[The UAVs] are introduced for the purpose of gathering information on regions relatively far from Japan and will constantly conduct aerial monitoring when the situation becomes tense,” the JASDF said in a statement. “The aircraft will contribute to the strengthening of the operational ability of the Air Self-Defense Force and strengthen interoperability between Japan and the United States”.

Although South Korea has seen considerable success for its domestic defence industrial base, having supplied major platforms and weapon systems to the Republic of Korea Armed Forces over the years, Seoul has nevertheless highlighted several research and development (R&D) deficiencies. In 2021, its Defense Acquisition Program Administration (DAPA) reported that there was a requirement to boost technology in eight

The Japanese Self-Defense Force has invested heavily into building its signals intelligence and electronic warfare capabilities, with new equipment such as the Network Electronic Warfare System emerging in recent years.

core areas, including C4ISR, and reduce its reliance on defence imports (notably from the United States) as well as position its defence industry as an engine of growth for national economic development.

As an example, South Korean industry previously had marginal experience in developing AESA radars, with such requirements historically met by the United States through the FMS mechanism or from other suppliers such as Israel. When development of the Korean Fighter Experimental (KFX) programme for the Republic of Korea Air Force (RoKAF) commenced, DAPA had initially sought AESA radar and other related technologies from Washington through a defence offset package tied to Seoul’s order of 40 Lockheed Martin F-35 fighter aircraft in 2014, but this was ultimately rejected. DAPA eventually selected Israel Aerospace Industries’ (IAI’s) Elta division to collaborate with the Agency for Defense Development (ADD) and local defence prime Hanwha Systems for initial R&D work.

Some recent progress has been made, with the country’s first indigenously developed AESA fighter aircraft radar which leverages on the experience and knowledge gained from the earlier work, and which was rolled out for flight testing in March. DAPA stated that the flight testing, which is being conducted aboard a Boeing 737 testbed as a surrogate, will help to mitigate integration risk aboard the KF-21 and optimise software development. Testing is expected to continue through April 2023 and comprise 62 evaluation categories over the course of 50 flights which are intended to

validate the prototype radar's detection and performance. The radar will subsequently be integrated onto the KF-21 and will undergo developmental and operational test evaluation until mid-2026.

Airborne ISR and SIGINT operations will also be boosted with the expected delivery of four new reconnaissance aircraft to the RoKAF by the end of 2026. In December 2021, Korea Aerospace Industries (KAI) was awarded a $675 million contract under the BaekduII programme to replace the four Hawker 800SIG Peace Pioneer reconnaissance aircraft that entered RoKAF service from 2001. The new replacements will be based on the Dassault Falcon 2000LXS business jet and mission systems will be developed in cooperation with defence electronics specialist LIG Nex1.

Besides the Baekdu-II programme, the RoKAF is also looking into procuring new Joint Surveillance and Target Attack Radar System (JSTARS) aircraft with KAI, Northrop Grumman, and Raytheon Technologies already expressing interest. It is also seeking to upgrade its four Boeing E-737 AEW&C aircraft. In addition, DAPA is expected to award a contract for additional foreign-made AEW&C aircraft that would enter service by 2030.

Finally, South Korea has made great strides on space-based ISR capabilities. Hanwha Systems and LIG Nex1 announced in September 2021 that they were awarded contracts by DAPA for work related to the ANASIS-II (Army Navy Air Force Satellite Information System-II) military communications satellite.

Hanwha Systems announced it was awarded a $307 million contract to establish a network control system as well as manufacture portable ground terminals compatible with the ANASIS-II satellite, which launched into space in July 2020.

LIG Nex1 disclosed that it had won a $183 million contract to mass produce terminals for the new military satellite communication system by 2025. The company noted that these new terminals will provide increased datalink transmission performance as well as security.

DAPA earlier announced in August 2021 that the government plans to invest $13.5 billion over 10 years to boost the development of indigenous defence-related space technologies and reduce the country’s reliance on American space-based ISR assets.

Southeast Asia

Over in Southeast Asia, the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) will set up a new branch called the Digital and Intelligence Service (DIS) by the end of 2022 to address a growing concern over threats in the digital domain. The ground-

Jr Ng

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The Singaporean Armed Forces has created a new branch called the Digital and Intelligence Service, the first of its kind in the region and possibly the world. The new branch will bring together the considerable C4ISR capabilities across the other services.

breaking move was announced by Defence Minister Ng Eng Hen during a parliamentary debate in March.

The DIS will consolidate the SAF’s existing C4 and cyber capabilities and become the fourth service after the army, air force and navy. The move follows the creation of a C4 command in November 2017, which integrated existing brigade-equivalent units such the C4 Operations Group (C4OG) and Cyber Defence Group (CDG) and will be staffed by around 2,000 regular troops and conscripts by 2027.

“The DIS should not and cannot be just like [Singapore’s] Army, Air Force and Navy with similar troops operating in the digital domain instead of the physical domain,” explained Ng.

“The addition of this fourth service, the DIS, will allow the SAF to better train and fight as a networked, integrated, and expanded force to deal with the spectrum of threats that we know exist today, but also the digital domain that we know will increase in the future,” he added, noting that Singapore had already invested heavily to boost the SAF’s C4ISR capabilities over the past decade.

The Republic of Singapore Air Force (RSAF) has introduced several new sensor systems such as the IAI Elta E/LM 2083 Aerostat Early Warning Radar aboard its two 55m TCOM aerostats, E/LM-2084

multi-mission radar (MMR), and the Thales Ground Master 200 3D radar which serve the RSAF's air-defence network. These radar systems are managed by an indigenous combat management system (CMS) which fuses information from multiple sensors to present a highly detailed air-situation picture.

The Singapore Army announced in July 2021 that it had achieved a key milestone in its ‘3rd Generation' (3G) modernisation programme, which seeks to develop an advanced and highly integrated fighting force capable of responding to a wide spectrum of threats with its 3G Combined Arms Division (CAD).

According to the Ministry of Defence (MINDEF), the 3G CAD is able to field mechanised and motorised Combined Arms Brigades (CABs) as well as a Division Strike Brigade that can seamlessly command strike assets such as the army's High Mobility Artillery Rocket System (HIMARS) and the RSAF’s Boeing F-15SG and Lockheed Martin F-16 combat aircraft and Boing AH-64D Apache attack helicopters.

These brigades are equipped with the indigenous 3G Command and Control Information System (CCIS) and Battlefield Management System (BMS) developed by local defence scientists and engineer, which are designed to connect and synergise deployed

tactical forces with brigade and divisional headquarters of the 3G CAD.

The pace of C4ISR modernisation has been somewhat uneven elsewhere in the region, with several military forces clearly in need of upgrades but without access to the necessary fiscal support to mount a sustained effort. Nevertheless, industry appears to be cognisant of emerging opportunities in this respect and are positioning themselves for any opportunities that might arise.

State-owned Indonesian defence electronics firm PT Len Industri announced in April 2022 that it is partnering with Thales to jointly explore C4ISR and cyber (C5ISR) solutions as well as UAVs, including plans to develop a national CMS based on the latter’s Tacticos CMS suite based on existing systems used aboard some of the Indonesian Navy’s surface combatants. The companies will also work on civilian and military radar systems, including the co-development of a national C2 radar and local maintenance, repair, and overhaul (MRO) activities.

A newly set up subsidiary of Vietnam’s stateowned Viettel Military Industry and Telecoms Group, Viettel High Technology Industries Corporation (VHT), is also aiming to develop and offer a range of C5ISR capabilities to the Vietnamese armed forces, with the longer-term intention to enter the export market.

A close-up of a full scale model of the Teng Yun UAV being developed by the Aeronautical Systems Research Division (ASRD) of Taiwan’s National Chung-Shan Institute of Science and Technology.

ASIA PACIFIC UAV reg I on A l A n A ly SIS

The value of unmanned aerial vehicles continues to grow in importance, with indigenous development increasing in all categories.

by JR NG

Regional military forces are accelerating their acquisition and development of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) as part of ongoing modernisation efforts amid an increasingly uncertain geopolitical situation. In most of these cases, applications such as border/maritime patrol and surveillance, where extended range and loiter performance is required, has emerged the most pressing requirements.

Aerospace and defence market forecaster Teal Group noted in its 2021/2022 study that global military UAV procurement will increase to $13 billion annually by 2030, totalling $123.1 billion over the next decade. The agency also noted that research spending could be worth another $64.5 billion during the same period on the back of accelerated development work to field new platforms and capabilities.

While contemporary tactical and medium-

altitude long endurance (MALE-class) UAVs have traditionally served in the intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) roles, there is nevertheless an emerging interest in the development of next-generation platforms that can undertake higher-end operations such as air-to-air combat, electronic warfare (EW), and long-range strike.

This supplement covers the latest UAV acquisitions and ongoing programmes for military forces in the Asia Pacific region.

Andrew Drwiega

OCEANIA

Australia: For some time the Australian Defence Force (ADF) has been aggressively pursuing unmanned and autonomous aircraft development, with its three services concurrently managing a broad range of development and acquisition programmes, from pocket-sized ‘nanocopters’ to high-end MALE and high-altitude long endurance (HALE) platforms, and even next-generation ‘loyal wingman’ combat systems.

In the latest development in May, the Australian Department of Defence (DoD) made a single-source procurement of the rotary wing Schiebel S-100 Camcopter for the first phase of the Royal Australian Navy's (RAN's) three-block $900 million Project Sea 129 Phase 5 Maritime Unmanned Aircraft System (MUAS) programme. An undisclosed number of S-100 Camcopters, reportedly up to 40 air vehicles, will be embarked on the eight in-service Anzac-class frigates and 12 Arafura-class Offshore Patrol Vessels (OPVs) which will enter service from 2023. Future phases will refresh the offshore patrol vessel (OPV) capability and equip the RAN's nine future Hunter-class frigates as well as other ship classes.

In March 2022, Insitu Pacific was announced as the preferred supplier by the DoD for the Australian Army’s new Tactical UAS under the Land 129 Phase 3 programme. The company will provide its Integrator UAS as well as associated ground control systems (GCS), with delivery expected between 2023 and 2024.

The Schiebel S-100 has been downselected by the Australian Department of Defence as

The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) is set to expand its long-range maritime surveillance capabilities with six Northrop Grumman MQ-4C Triton HALE UAVs, acquired in separate deals between 2018 and 2019. These are expected to enter service in mid-2023 and be fully operationalised by 2025. They are intended to complement the

RAAF’s Boeing P-8A Poseidon maritime patrol aircraft.

Australia is investing $19 million in the Loyal Wingman/Boeing Airpower Teaming System, which seeks to jointly develop a new generation of autonomous combat aircraft with potential fielding by the RAAF. The programme has progressed significantly, with two of three prototype aircraft having already flown by the end of 2021, as well as the launch of a new manufacturing facility at Wellcamp Airport in Toowoomba, Queensland. In March, the RAAF’s Loyal Wingman programme was renamed the MQ-28A Ghost Bat although Boeing will continue to use the Airpower Teaming System designation for export purposes.

However, not all has been smooth sailing for the RAAF, with its Project Air 7003 programme – which had already progressed to selection of the strike-capable General Atomics Aeronautical Systems (GA-ASI) MQ9B SkyGuardian along with a sensors and weapons package - unexpectedly cancelled in April to free up funds for cyber security development.

New Zealand: The New Zealand Defence Force (NZDF) currently operates the locally developed Kahu mini-UAV but has indicated its desire for more capable ISR UAVs in its Future Land Operating Concept 2035 paper, which outlines potential challenges for its armed forces in the next decade and beyond.

A similar desire had also been highlighted by the NZDF in its latest 2016 Defence White Paper, which proposed spending $12.5 billion out to around 2030 to enhance the capabilities of its various services, although both documents do not offer any specific timelines or preferred systems. In November

2018, then-NZDF chief Air Marshal Kevin Short told media that the service is seeking a new UAV capability by the mid-2020s.

The Royal New Zealand Navy (RNZN) has also indicated an interest to field a maritime UAV aboard its Otago-class OPVs, which would greatly benefit from an organic highspeed surveillance capability for their extended maritime and economic exclusive zone (EEZ) patrols. However, no formal requirement has been raised to date.

EAST ASIA

China: The People’s Liberation Army (PLA) has fielded numerous types of UAVs across its ground, naval and air forces over the past decade. Most, if not all of these are produced by state-owned defence primes such as the Aviation Industry Corporation of China (AVIC) and China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation (CASC), although the number of private firms involved in military and dual-use UAV development has increased significantly. However, many of China’s military UAV programmes continue to be shrouded in secrecy.

The PLA Air Force (PLAAF) currently operates the AVIC Wing Loong I and II, designated Gongji-1 and Gongji-2 (Attack-1 and Attack-2), as its primary multirole ISR and aerial strike platforms. Developed by AVIC’s Chengdu Aircraft Design and Research Institute (CADI) subsidiary, the Wing Loong is a family of MALE-class UAVs that shares a close physical semblance to the US-made MQ-1 Predator and MQ-9 Reaper.

For more specialised missions such as strategic reconnaissance and ballistic missile targeting, the PLAAF has fielded the WZ-7 Xianglong (Soaring Dragon) and WZ-8. The

Xianglong is believed to be the primary HALE UAV operated by the PLAAF for high-end ISR missions and is often compared to the US-made RQ-4 Global Hawk. The high-speed WZ-8 was first revealed at a military parade commemorating the 70th anniversary of China’s founding in October 2019. Although no official information has been released, the WZ-8 is believed to be powered by two solid-state rocket engines and designed to be launched by a host aircraft such as the H-6 bomber.

The PLAAF also revealed the stealthy Gongji-11 (GJ-11) at the same parade. The GJ-11 is believed to be derived from AVIC’s Lijian (Sharp Sword) unmanned combat aerial vehicle (UCAV) development, albeit improved with a blended fuselage that features enclosed exhaust nozzles. Close-up imagery indicates that the air vehicle is equipped with two internal payload bays.

Meanwhile, the PLA Navy Air Force (PLANAF) mainly uses the Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics (BUAA) BZK005 multirole MALE UAV that is specifically designed for long-range reconnaissance missions. It has been recorded flying close to Japanese waters since 2013, and has also been sighted periodically deployed to some of the disputed islands in the South China Sea including Woody Island in recent years.

While there is little public information about PLA UAV procurement programmes, there have been clear indications that there are multiple efforts underway across the various services. For example, the PLANAF is likely seeking a next-generation long-range maritime ISR UAV and has been testing potential candidates such as the twin-engine Tengden TB001 (Twin-tailed Scorpion). The type was sighted for the first time operating close to Japanese waters in August 2021, suggesting that it is undergoing evaluation.

Operational trials of rotary wing UAVs by the PLA Ground Force (PLAGF) have also been documented. These include the AVIC AV500W under development by AVIC's China Helicopter Research and Development Institute (CHRDI). The AV500W is a modified version of the civilian model AV500 VTOL UAV with a more robust structure and improved performance. Armed versions of the AV500W have also been tested by the PLAGF. The service has also ordered the armed Ziyan Blowfish A2 and the long-endurance reconnaissance Ranger P2-X VTOL UAVs for high-altitude border operations along the disputed Sino-Indian border.

Japan: The Japan Self-Defense Force (JSDF) is poised to expand its UAV operations, having recently receiving its first long-range

AVIC’s Wing Loong I and Wing Loong II are being used as the Chinese air force’s primary armed reconnaissance UAVs.

JR Ng

persistent surveillance capability with the first of three Northrop Grumman RQ-4B Global Hawk HALE UAVs acquired via the US Foreign Military Sales (FMS) programme arriving at the Misawa Airbase in northern Japan in March 2022. The Japanese RQ-4Bs are equipped with the Raytheon Enhanced Integrated Sensor Suite (EISS).

Japan has also outlined in the latest Medium Term Defense Program (MTDP) its intent to actively develop technologies that will provide increased automation for the JSDF, including several initiatives to grow its indigenous UAV capabilities. One example is an ambitious UCAV project aimed at supporting the Japan Air Self-Defense Force’s (JASDF’s) future manned fighter aircraft such as the F-X, which has secured $77 million in funding for further study. Initial lab research had already been conducted on a subscale UAV demonstrator from 2019 and flight testing of the air vehicle is expected around 2024. North Korea: North Korea earlier acquired several types of Chinese and Russian-made UAVs such as the Xi'an ASN Technical Group ASN-104/D-4 and Yakovlev OKB Pchela-1T, but has since started local manufacture of the Chinese ASN-104 design, known locally as the Panghyon I, as well as the improved Panghyon II based on the ASN-105. Reports also indicate that the DPRK is developing a long-endurance UAV, with South Korean officials claiming that “numerous test flights” by such prototypes have been detected since early 2016. South Korea: The Republic of Korea (RoK)

Taiwan is developing the Teng Yun UAV for persistent surveillance operations, but a recent move to acquire US-made SeaGuardian UAVs has cast doubt on the domestic programme.

is one of a handful of Asia Pacific countries that possess advanced aerospace industries and is pursuing wide ranging UAS development programmes. Present domestic development efforts largely centre on MALE-class platforms for the Republic of Korea Air Force (RoKAF) and Republic of Korea Army (RoKA), the introduction of an unmanned combat air vehicle (UCAV) capability, as well as VTOL and tiltrotor platforms.

Beyond serving the needs of its armed forces, the country aspires to be one of the leading manufacturers and exporters of worldclass UAV systems, through key government agencies and industry primes such as the Agency for Defense Development (ADD), Korea Aerospace Industries (KAI), and LIG Nex1.

In late December 2021, the Defense Acquisition Program Administration (DAPA) formally approved plans to indigenously develop shipborne surveillance and reconnaissance UAVs. The shipborne UAV project is expected to begin in 2023 and be completed by 2031 and has been provisionally allocated up to $475 million in funding. The new UAVs will be operated onboard the Republic of Korea Navy's (RoKN's) KDX-II destroyers and will help monitor maritime areas and the north-western islands near the inter-Korean border.

The Korean Air Aerospace Division (KALASD) is in advanced stages of its KUS-FS development. Also known as the MediumAltitude UAV (MUAV), the KUS-FS MALE

JR Ng

UAV is being developed for the RoKAF and is in the same class as the US MQ-9 Reaper. The multirole air vehicle is expected to perform missions such as communications relay, EW, ISR, as well as signals intelligence (SIGINT).

KAL-ASD is also developing a rotary-wing unmanned platform based on the MD-500 light attack helicopter. Flight endurance is extended to four hours with the installation of a large fuel tank in place of the rear passenger seats. If successfully developed, the KUS-VH could potentially support manned/unmannedteaming operations with the RoKA’s AH-64E Apache Guardians, which already feature the ability to command UAVs.

The company is offering an unmanned tiltrotor aircraft developed jointly with the Korea Aerospace Research Institute (KARI) and based on the latter’s TR-60 system. The KUS-VT can carry a 30 kilogramme payload and has an operational radius of 108 nautical miles (200km) with an endurance of six hours. It is expected to perform autonomous VTOL and shipboard operations.

Taiwan: The Republic of China Air Force (RoCAF) has been reluctant to adopt unmanned technologies, with no UAVs known to be currently in service. The country’s

largest and most capable UAV, the tacticalclass Abatross/Chung Shyang II, is operated by the Republic of China Navy (RoCN). The country’s UAV development efforts are led by the National Chung-Shan Institute of Science and Technology (NCSIST).

NCSIST is presently leading efforts to develop an indigenous MALE-class UAV called Teng Yun (Cloud Rider). The prototype Teng Yun was revealed at the 2015 Taipei Aerospace & Defense Technology Exhibition (TADTE), which appears to be modelled after the US RQ-9 Reaper platform. An updated and more robust prototype was subsequently rolled out at TADTE 2019. At least three Teng Yun prototypes were constructed, with one of these destroyed in a crash in February 2021.

However, it was revealed in November 2020 that Taiwan has also requested four ‘weapons ready’ GA-ASI MQ-9B SeaGuardian MALE UAVs and associated equipment.

Besides the four air vehicles, specific mission equipment and other services requested by the Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office in the United States (TECRO) includes two static ground control stations (GCSs), two mobile GCSs; Wescam MX-20 electro-optic/ infrared (EO/IR) sensors, Raytheon SeaVue

X-Band maritime radars, and Leonardo SAGE 750 electronic surveillance measures (ESM) systems.

Whether Taiwan will continue with development of its indigenous Teng Yun remains to be seen, given its interest in procuring proven and mature US military systems.

SOUTH ASIA

India: India has been involved in UAV development for over two decades, with research and development (R&D) organisations and defence companies such as Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL), Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL), National Aerospace Laboratories (NAL), developing UAVs with ISR, targeting, and weapon guidance capabilities for decades.

The Indian Air Force (IAF) is known to operate at least 20 Heron MALE UAVs for long endurance ISR missions, with the first examples delivered in 2001 and additional aircraft acquired since to equip army regiments situated along the disputed Sino-Indian border. The Indian Navy (IN) is believed to operate at least 12 Heron UAVs, with a number of these located at its Porbandar facility on the

The Philippine Air Force received a significant boost to its maritime ISR capabilities with the Elbit Systems Hermes 900 UAV, along with a range of smaller air vehicles.

Elbit Systems

west coast to monitor the waters off Karachi. Taken together, the total number of MkI and MkII Herons in Indian military service likely exceeds 50 units.

India is reportedly in advanced discussions with the United States to acquire up to 30 MQ-9B Reaper UAVs – with customised variants for each service – worth up to $3 billion through FMS. However, there has been renewed interest in pushing indigenous UAV development in recent months with the Indian Ministry of Civil Aviation (MoCA) announcing a ban on foreign UAV imports. The ministry noted that there can be waivers to facilitate imports for R&D and defence and security purposes, but such exceptions will be subject to clearances. Local media has reported that the number of Reaper UAVs may be ultimately reduced.

Instead, the locally developed Tactical Airborne Platform for Aerial Surveillance (TAPAS) UAV may be a potential candidate to meet the Indian armed forces’ armed reconnaissance UAV requirement, having completed a series of flight trials which will progress towards user evaluation trials.

Under development by HAL and DRDO’s Aeronautical Development Establishment (ADE), the TAPAS is an evolution of the Rustom II UAV with the intention to produce an indigenous multirole MALE UAV to equip all three Indian military services. The platform is expected to undertake long-endurance missions, including communications relay, ISR, maritime patrol, as well as artillery fire direction and battle damage assessment (BDA).

HAL is also developing a Loyal Wingmantype UAV known as Combat Air Teaming System (CATS) Warrior, which was first unveiled at the Aero India 2021 exhibition following three years of initial R&D work. The CATS Warrior is a concept that adopts a similar configuration to the US Kratos XQ58A Valkyrie and is currently envisaged as a low-observable, multirole unmanned combat air vehicle that can be commanded from a Tejas light combat aircraft. The prototype CATS Warrior is reportedly expected to enter flight testing by 2024. Pakistan: Likewise, Pakistan has attempted to grow its indigenous UAV industry after acquiring several types of Western-made UAVs, such as the German-made EMT Penzberg Luna, Italian Leonardo Falco, and US BoeingInsitu ScanEagle. Concerted efforts to develop its indigenous UAV production capabilities have borne fruit, with several domestically produced systems already in service with the Pakistan armed forces.

These include the Global Industrial & Defence Solutions (GIDS) Uqab II, a tactical short-range UAV system developed from the

Eagle Eye and the National Engineering and Scientific Commission (NESCOM) Burraq. The latter appears to be heavily inspired by the Chinese-made CH-3 tactical UAV, of which at least 20 examples were believed to have been delivered to Pakistan in 2011. The Burraq entered service with the Pakistan Air Force in November 2013 and is equipped with two underwing hard points, which can be used to launch a variety of munitions including Barq laser-guided missiles.

In May 2019, the Pakistan Aeronautical Complex (PAC) released promotional material of the stealthy ZF-1 Viper UCAV concept, depicting a blended wing design with a 18m wingspan and a 35,000 pound (16,000kg) maximum take-off weight (MTOW). The effort is part of Pakistan’s ‘Project Azm’ which seeks to develop next-generation military aviation capabilities.

Pakistan has received five Cai Hong 4 (Rainbow 4, or CH-4) multirole mediumaltitude long-endurance (MALE) unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) from China, according to official export-import (EXIM) logs released by the government. The UAVs, which were delivered by Chinese defence contractor Aerospace Long-March International Trade Co Ltd (ALIT), arrived in the South Asian country in January 2021. It is unclear, however, which variant of the CH-4 was ordered by Islamabad, and whether this delivery is part of a larger UAV order or just a limited acquisition of this UAV type, possibly for testing.

SOUTHEAST ASIA

Indonesia: Indonesia has maintained a stated need for UAVs for several years in a bid to shore up defences across its huge territorial waters. Attempts to procure and indigenously develop UAV platforms for the Indonesian armed forces (Tentara Nasional IndonesiaTNI) have been hindered by a lack of industrial and technical capabilities as well as financial constraints.

The Indonesian Air Force (TNI-AU) presently operates the China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation Cai Hong-4 (CH-4) MALE UAV which have been equipped with satellite communications systems that enable these air vehicles to operate out to 1,080nm (2,000km). The TNIAU is the first regional air force to possess an armed UAV capability, having received AR-2 precision guided missiles for the CH-4B fleet in April 2021.

Indonesia has launched an indigenous MALE UAV programme called the Elang Hitam (Black Eagle). Under development by a consortium of local companies and led by PTDI, the Black Eagle is expected to enter serial production in 2024.

Malaysia: The Malaysian Armed Forces (MAF) presently operates UAVs such as the ScanEagle and the indigenously developed Alliance Unmanned Developmental Research Aircraft (ALUDRA) Mk1 tactical UAV. The country is looking to expand its use of UAVs –particularly by the Royal Malaysian Air Force (RMAF) and Royal Malaysian Navy (RMN)as it seeks cost-effective measures to monitor developments in the South China Sea, Straits of Malacca, and the Sulu Sea near Sabah.

Local firm Deftech showcased two new systems at the Defence Services Asia 2022 (DSA 2022) exhibition in Kuala Lumpur in March, an unnamed tactical-class and the SR-01 hybrid vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) UAV. Both are aimed at meeting future RMAF requirements.

The MAF continues to show interest in a MALE UAV capability, with Turkish Aerospace Industries' (TAI’s) Anka thought to be a leading contender. Myanmar: The Myanmar armed forces (Tatmadaw) is believed to be operating a range of Chinese, Israeli, and Russian-made UAVs, with several examples being highlighted in the coup that it launched against the civilian

government in February 2021 as well as ongoing military action against rebel groups along its borders.

The Myanmar Air Force (Tatmadaw Lay) operates the Chinese-made CH-3A tactical UAV for long-range surveillance and close air support missions, while the army uses the Elbit Sytems Skylark I-LEX mini-UAVs. Russia is understood to have also supplied an unspecified number of Orlan-10E reconnaissance UAVs to Myanmar as part of a broader deal that also includes Pantsir-S1 surface-to-air missile and radar systems.

Philippines: The Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) and the Department of National Defense (DND) have in recent years made significant efforts to boost long range aerial surveillance with the acquisition of tactical and MALE-class UAVs. In particular, the Philippine Air Force (PAF) has sought UAVs to significantly bolster its ISR capabilities in the South China Sea to offset its limited inventory of patrol aircraft.

The Elbit Systems Hermes 900 is the first MALE-class UAV platform to be acquired by the Philippines, featuring a MTOW of approximately 2,650lb (1,200kg) and a 15m

wingspan. Nine of these air vehicles were acquired under a $153 million package announced in October 2019 with all nine systems believed to have been delivered by the end of 2020.

Outgoing Philippine Secretary of Defence Delfin Lorenzana earlier stated that the Hermes 900s will probably operate from air bases on Palawan, an island facing the South China Sea, and on Mindanao, an island in the south of the country. The procurement of the MALE UAVs is part of the PAF's ongoing modernisation programme, which also includes the acquisition of three Hermes 450 long-endurance tactical UAVs, two of which were handed over in August 2019.

Apart from the Hermes 450 and 900, the AFP has also ordered an undisclosed number of Elbit Systems’ Skylark LEX and Skylark 3 UAVs along with associated GCSs, support equipment, training, and integrated logistics support.

Singapore: With a perennial shortfall in manpower, the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) see technology as a critical force multiplier with the ongoing modernisation effort focusing deeply on the integration of command and

Thailand has fielded several new tactical UAV capabilities such as the RV Connex U-1. It is also intending to develop a longer-ranged tactical UAV with Chinese technical assistance.

control, ISR, and precision strike. In that regard, UAVs are considered a key enabler for the SAF’s transformational initiatives.

The Republic of Singapore Air Force (RSAF) has operationalised a number of Hermes 450 tactical UAVs in March 2015, which were first delivered in 2007. The RSAF's Hermes 450 UAVs are operated by 116 Squadron, which is based at the western Tengah Air Base. The RSAF also operates the MALE-class Heron 1 UAV, which was introduced in May 2012 and replaces the ageing IAI Searcher tactical UAV. The service’s Heron 1 UAVs were declared fully operational in March 2017, and are assigned to the 119 and 138 Squadrons.

The Singapore Ministry of Defence (MINDEF) is already looking into a replacement under its Next-Gen UAV programme, which is expected to introduce new systems to replace those “that are approaching the end of their operational lives in a few years”. According to an official modernisation roadmap released by MINDEF in March 2019, it is understood that the new UAVs will be introduced in the 2020s and are likely to be MALE-class platforms although specific details of the programme have yet to be disclosed.

Nevertheless, MINDEF announced in June 2021 that it has selected the locally designed Veloce 15 VTOL UAV to replace the Singapore Army’s Skyblade III mini-UAVs. The ministry subsequently announced in March 2022 that it has acquired the Aeronautics Limited Orbiter 4 UAV for the RSAF’s Close Range UAV (CR-UAV) requirement.

Thailand: Thailand's requirement for improved intelligence gathering has increased in recent years, with a concomitant growth in indigenous UAV research and development capability. The state-run Defence Technology Institute (DTI) is spearheading efforts to grow its indigenous UAV production capabilities and spur innovation within the local defence industry, with technical assistance from countries including China and Israel.

The Royal Thai Air Force’s (RTAF’s) Research and Development Centre for Space and Aeronautical Science and Technology has developed the medium-range Tigershark II tactical UAV and has reportedly received funding worth $18 million in 2016 to procure parts for up to 17 air vehicles.

The RTAF has fielded the indigenously developed R V Connex U-1 tactical UAV based on technologies derived from the Tigershark II and Sky Scout developments. The company is also integrating lightweight air-to-surface missiles to the air vehicle, with a potential candidate being the Thales Lightweight Multirole Missile.

In late June 2021, DTI signed a

The Singapore Armed Forces has operationalised the locally developed Veloce V15 vertical take-off and landing UAV. It is also looking out for a next-generation MALE UAV capability.

Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with the Royal Thai Army to develop a medium-range tactical UAV for the service’s Army Aviation Centre. The new UAV, called D-Eyes 04, is expected to replace the army’s Searcher MkII UAVs made by Israeli Aircraft Industries (IAI) which have been in operation since the early 2000s. DTI will partner with the army to develop and test UAV prototypes, with production outsourced to private manufacturers when completed.

The proposed D-Eyes 04 design will be based on Chinese firm Beihang UAS’ CY-9 platform. AMR was the first to report that Beihang entered into an agreement with DTI in November 2018 aimed at co-operation in areas such UAV research and development, production, and flight training. The D-Eyes 04 UAV is expected to be used by army artillery regiments as airborne battlefield surveillance and targeting assets, a role presently filled by the Searcher MkII platforms.

Vietnam: Vietnam is pursuing selfsufficiency in UAV development and production by leveraging on its considerable indigenous aerospace and communications R&D capabilities provided by the state-owned Vietnam Aerospace Association (VASA) and telecommunications company Viettel Group.

Vietnam reportedly acquired two Aeronautics Orbiter 2 and Orbiter 3 miniUAVs between 2014 and 2015 to boost the situational awareness and targeting abilities of its artillery and coastal-defence missile units.

The country is also one of the recipients of the US government’s $425 million Maritime Security Initiative (MSI) programme, which aims to mitigate the lack of maritime surveillance capability among its Southeast Asian partners. Under this initiative Vietnam would receive six ScanEagle UAVs along with associated training for operating these systems.

However, in recent years Hanoi has turned its attention to growing indigenous capabilities. For example, Viettel Group unveiled its Patrol VT tactical UAV in 2014. The air vehicle, which is developed by the company’s Flight Instrument Centre, is stated to be capable of operating out to 50km and carries an optical infrared camera that provides real-time transmission of high-definition imagery. It is now in service with the Vietnamese armed forces.

Local firms also appear to be moving up the value chain in terms of ambition. Vietnamese media have reported the existence of the HALEclass HS-6L, which has a twin-boom airframe and a wingspan of 22m. Stated performance include a range of up to 2,160nm (4,000km) and a 35-hour flight endurance. A prototype was reportedly completed by November 2015 with flight testing occurring during the second quarter of 2016. In addition, a mock-up of a new MALE-class UAV featuring a twin-boom airframe design was unveiled during a display of Vietnamese military equipment at the end of September prior to the launch of the 11th Party Congress in late September 2020.

RESUPPLY OPERATIONS RESUPPLY

KRI Nagapasa (403), the first of three new Nagapasa-class submarines of the Indonesian Navy that was commissioned in August 2017. The second Ardadedali was commissioned in April 2018 and the third Alugoro entered service in April 2021.

SUBMARINE STATUS

Operating submarines can enhance the reputation of the naval force employing them, but they should be properly funded and not just for show

by Tim Fish

Conventional submarines (SSKs) in the Indo-Pacific region are getting larger and more sophisticated as naval forces attempt to introduce a new submarine capability to their fleet or expand on an existing one. The last decade has seen the submarine race in the region gather pace as China’s People’s Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) puts ever increasing numbers of SSKs to sea and other rivalries between smaller states mean that navies want to acquire more boats to keep pace with or get ahead of their neighbours.

Today, most countries in the Indo-Pacific have submarine acquisition programmes in some form or another. Some navies want to replace or add to their existing inventories of boats, whilst others are trying to acquire them

for the first time. The decision about the type of SSK and the capabilities that navies want are affected by numerous factors not least the budget, but also by geography, the role submarines will play within the service, the expected operational profile and what rival navies are procuring.

Submarine expert H.I. Sutton told AMR: “Buying a submarine is not like walking into a car show room. Every deal has a strong political element and every design is heavily customised. Often politicians will focus on the economical and industrial aspects, even if this means compromising the submarine's requirements or timelines.”

But an overall trend when these decisions are made is that some navies are choosing larger boats than those they have operated previously. There are several reasons for this,

but the main factor is endurance. Larger boats can store more fuel to undertake longer patrols, they have more power to sustain more powerful sensors, and they have space for more weapons. They are also more comfortable for the crew. This trend is of particular note in Northeast Asia.

Dr Collin Koh Swee Lean, from the Institute of Defence and Strategic Studies at the S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies in Singapore told AMR that Northeast Asian navies are “more inclined towards larger boats that have blue-water capabilities” because of the endurance and range for open-waters operations. He said that this reflects “their envisaged geostrategic area of interests/operations”.

AIP on the rise

Sutton explained that one of the reasons

Navy

sea power

for larger SSK designs being selected is the adoption of Air Independent Propulsion (AIP) systems which “involves adding large oxygen tanks and extra machinery” that all needs extra space. “Asian navies are leading the world with the adoption of AIP and also other nonnuclear propulsion technologies,” he added.

The benefits of AIP are that submarines can remain submerged for significantly longer than those without – usually up to about three weeks – and this means a better chance of remaining undetected. The submarine’s main weapon is its stealth. SSKs can then sit near maritime choke points or outside rival naval bases undertaking surveillance operations without being discovered.

Other reasons for larger boats include new weapons outfits. Sutton said that the reason the Republic of South Korea Navy (ROKN) is acquiring larger boats is so that they can carry ballistic missiles. “Arming an AIP submarine with precision strike ballistic missiles is a world first,” he said, “Asian navies have shown a willingness to embrace new technologies. In this respect they are now leading the world.”

The ROKN’s latest Dosan Ahn Changho-class KSS-III submarines are built to an indigenous design and will be manufactured by Hyundai Heavy Industries (HHI) and Daewoo Shipbuilding and Marine Engineering (DSME). These new boats displace about 3,000 tonnes and 83.3 metres long – a significant increase in size on the ROKN’s 65m-long 1,800t Son Won-Il class KSS-II SSKs that were built to the Type 214 submarine design from Germany’s ThyssenKrupp Marine Systems (TKMS) and the earlier 56.4m-long, 1,200t KSS-I Chang Bogo-class SSK that were built to TKMS’s Type 209 design.

The larger size of the boats allows the fitting of both AIP and a Vertical Launch System (VLS) to carry the Cheon Ryong land attack cruise missiles that have a range of 809 nautical miles (1,500 kilometres). The KSS-III boats will also host the Series 30 optronic mast

from Sagem, torpedoes and mines. A total class of nine SSKs are expected broken down into three batches of three built by KHI and MHI. The second batch is reportedly to be fitted with Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries from Hanwha Industries and will be the second country to fit its submarines with these batteries in place of traditional lead acid batteries.

The first country to install Li-on batteries in SSKs is Japan. The Japan Maritime Self Defense Force’s (JMSDF’s) new Taigei-class SSKs displace about 4,000t and buck the trend of increasing boat size staying similar in dimension and tonnage to the predecessor Soryu-class and Oyashio-class boats. But the last two Soryus to enter service and the new Taigeis are being fitted with Li-ion batteries from local company GS Yuasa, in place of AIP systems as an alternative way of providing increased underwater endurance – again another world first.

With the PLAN firmly in mind, Taiwan is attempting to expand its own submarine force from a pair of WW2-vintage ex-US Navy Guppy II-class SSKs and two 1980s-vintage Dutch Hai Lung-class boats and replace them with new SSKs under its Indigenous Defense Submarine (IDS) programme. The keel was laid for an initial prototype in November 2021 at the CSBC shipyard in Kaohsiung. Local media reports suggest it will be launched in 2023 or 2024 with delivery soon after. Between six and eight IDS SSKs are expected and models and images of the design indicate that they will have an X-rudder and displace about 2,500t.

Smaller down south

In Southeast Asia, Collin said that the focus is on smaller boats, mostly within the 1,5002,000t bracket because these are predominantly green-water navies “with more confined littoral responsibilities”. He added that because submarines can be upgraded through life via retrofits, “this allows flexibility to adapt the

boats to the prevailing strategic circumstances.”

While the boats remain relatively small in size to other boats, particularly in the north, they are more modern and offer more capability than legacy platforms. Collin explained that that while most SSK have basic payloads such as torpedoes and mines, with modification they can launch other payloads such as missiles and unmanned systems if needed, depending on the threat profile.

Malaysia was one of the first to introduce a new submarine capability in the region with the purchase of two Scorpene submarines from French shipbuilder Naval Group. These are named the Perdana Menteri-class and were introduced in 2009. Displacing about 1,500t, the design was selected because it would give the Royal Malaysian Navy (RMN) a new SSK capability and provide a significant advantage locally over its neighbours Indonesia and Singapore, which at the time possessed older second-hand submarines. This would put it in the bracket of the modern naval powers and above other regional rivals like Thailand, the Philippines and Vietnam, as well as ahead of those slightly further afield such as Taiwan and Myanmar. However, some of these countries have responded with their own submarine projects, leaving the RMN still operating just two boats.

Indonesia received three new KSS-I Chang Bogo-class SSKs from DSME during the period 2017-2021 that have been renamed the Nagapasa-class. The third boat was assembled locally by Indonesian shipbuilder PT Pal with support from DSME. This is indicative of the growing demand by governments buying new submarines to secure more of the benefits of these programmes with more local investment providing for jobs, skills and facilities incountry. Collin said that this would include the production of various components at local sites and “most importantly” seeking the transfer of technology, rather than trying to build the whole submarine. The total cost of all three is about $1.1 billion. A further three are planned under a $1 billion loan from the South Korean DAPA acquisition authority. These will be built in Indonesia using a much larger amount of local content.

Singapore has been operating four older second-hand ex-Swedish Navy SSKs but is set to upgrade its submarine capability with the delivery of four new 2,000t Type 218SG boats from TKMS in Germany. Named the Invincible-class, the quartet are scheduled for delivery from 2022-2024, making Singapore “an exception in Southeast Asia given that the Type 218SG is a fully customised variant for its needs” according to Collin.

The Invincibles have been modified with attributes to suit them better for service in the

ROK

The Republic of South Korea Navy (ROKN) Dosan Ahn Chang submarine at sea. The Dosan Ahn Chang-ho-class KSS-III are built to an indigenous design and built by Hyundai Heavy Industries (HHI) and Daewoo Shipbuilding and Marine Engineering.

The lead boat of a new class of SSKs for the JMSDF, JS Taigei, seen here at her launch in October 2017 represents the future of Japan’s submarine capability. Tokyo maintains a steady drumbeat of SSK production with orders sustaining both MHI and KHI shipyards and is able to undertake a gradual process of modernisation through successive classes.

Republic of Singapore Navy. The Straits Times reported in 2019 at the launch of Invincible in Kiel that this includes more corrosion protection against the saltier tropical waters of Singapore’s nearby operating environments, an X-shaped rudder for improved manoeuvring in shallower littoral waters, AIP for more submerged endurance, increased automation to reduce crew size and levels of fatigue as well as design elements to suit the size of Singaporean submariners. This will provide a large jump up in capability compared to the two 1960’s-vintage ex-Sjoorman-class SSKs bought from Sweden in the mid-1990s, (named the Challenger-class), and the pair of ex-Vastergotland-class boats (named the Archer-class) brought into service in 2011-13.

Other countries have not had this luxury when buying off-the-shelf, for example both Vietnam and Myanmar have bought Russian Kilo-class SSKs. These are an exception compared to other submarines in the region being somewhat larger than rival boats. Vietnam purchased six new 3,000t Type 636.1 Kilo submarines variant from Admiralty Shipyard that were delivered between 201417. These are an advanced version of the boats and thus give Vietnam one of the most modern SSK fleets in the region. This contrasts with Myanmar’s effort whereby it took delivery of a 2,300t second-hand exIndian Navy Singhugosh-class 877EM Kilo variant INS Sindhuvir (S 58) in 2020 (with permission from Moscow). Named UMS Min Ye Thein Kha Thu it is the Myanmar Navy’s first submarine and is reportedly used for training purposes. Then in December 2021 Myanmar took delivery of an ex-Chinese PLAN 2,100t Type 35B Ming-class SSK to bring its fleet to

two boats. But both boats are old, Sindhuvir was commissioned in the Indian Navy 1988 and the Type 35B Ming-class were built from 2000-2003 making it 20 years old.

Meanwhile Thailand is trying to acquire an S26T submarine from China. However recent media reports indicate that Germany has refused to supply the MTU diesel engines that the boat needs, putting the programme at risk. The order was placed in May 2017 for $375 million with China Shipbuilding & Offshore International, together with options for a further two boats. The S26T is based on the Type 039B Yuan-class SSK in-service with the PLAN displacing about 3,900t and equipped with the latest Chinese anti-ship missiles, torpedoes and sensor payloads. It is

not clear whether China will be able to secure the engines needed to complete the first boat or if Thailand is willing to accept a Chinese engine as a substitute. In the meantime, news reports suggest that China will instead offer the Royal Thai Navy (RTN) a pair of Type 035 Ming-class or Type 039 Song-class SSKs as a substitute for training until the S26T issues can be resolved. In 2014 the RTN purchased a Submarine Command Team Trainer (SCTT) simulator from Rheinmetall to prepare for the deliver of the S26T that allows training to be performed at the Sattahip Naval Base.

According to the company the SCTT is a type-agnostic simulator that can replicate major submarine systems and components of the combat information centre (CIC), including combat management systems, heavy torpedoes, missiles, modern sonar systems and non-acoustic sensors (radar, link, ESM, periscope, etc.), which are simulated with high levels of fidelity. This allows operators to train on specific systems or conduct command team training. SCTT can also network with other simulators such a control and tactical systems, as well as specific warfare packages to offer additional training opportunities. Rheinmetall said that one of the RTN’s requirements was to ensure that the SCTT could be linked to an Anti-Submarine Warfare simulator that the company had provided in 2010.

Sutton adds that submarine training “takes place both in port and at sea so crews can still remain ready and capable,” and that “most countries do not need to operate their submarines at the same tempo as the US Navy and Royal Navy. Their submarines spend less time at sea and when they are, sometimes it is only for a day or two.”

He added that Myanmar and Thailand’s

Japan MoD

KD Tunku Abdul Rahman in the Royal Malaysian Navy base at Port Klang following delivery from France in September 2009. It is the first of two Scorpene submarines built jointly by French shipbuilder Naval Group and Spanish shipbuilder Navantia.

Wikicommons

efforts at introducing a submarine capability are very much in the “me too” category of acquisition – an attempt to follow neighbouring countries and introduce a nascent submarine force to boost prestige.

Collin highlighted that smaller navies “tend to face bigger challenges in sustaining a small submarine force.” He explained that procuring such expensive assets “usually eats up the bulk of funding, and it’s also possible to imagine that after-sales services and life cycle support may lag for some of them leading to operability and safety issues.”

Collin said that the loss of the Indonesian Cakra-class (Type 209/1300) submarine KRI Nanggala (402) in April 2021 is one of several examples worldwide where small submarineoperating navies are afflicted with such problems, such as the case of Argentina with the loss of the ARA San Juan (S-42) in 2017.

According to Collin the main challenge is “lack of long-term fiscal, operational and technical planning. It’s not just about buying the platforms, but involves training the personnel, both submariners and shore-based support staff, the infrastructure available, the

funding to remunerate the crew and allow the submarines to undergo proper and funding maintenance cycles.”

Countries with established SSK fleets consisting of locally built submarines will be able to better manage the up-sizing of new platforms but may struggle to recruit for the submarine profession when an advanced economy offer other career options. Meanwhile the smaller submarine fleets will have to manage the costs of procuring and maintaining their fleets as the learning curve and cost margins will remain high for such an exclusive naval capability.

advanced

RSS Invincible under construction in drydock at ThyssenKrup Marine Systems facility in Germany in December 2019. Delivery is expected in 2022 to be followed three others by 2024.

Specifically designed in partnership with the Singapore DSTA for Republic of Singapore Navy service, the new boats will be a significant improvement on the existing second-hand SSKs.

Helwin

Scharnimage cropped

Hà Nội (HQ-182) (Hanoi) is the first of six Kiloclass (Type 636.1) SSKs in Vietnamese Navy service. It was built by Admiralty Shipyards and commissioned in January 2014. The other boats are named Hồ Chí Minh City, Hải Phòng, Đà Nẵng, Khánh Hoà, Bà Rịa-Vũng Tàu.

US Navy

THINKING WARSHIPS

The increasing adoption of open architecture and artificial intelligence is growing the capacity of naval combat management systems.

by Dr Lee Willett

In simple terms, naval platforms deliver military effect by detecting the presence of a potential target via the ship’s sensors, identifying and classifying the target, and (if action is required), directing weapons systems to fire and deliver their effects. This process is enabled – integrated – by the ship’s combat management system (CMS). CMS systems were always designed to integrate sensors and weapons to deliver effect for the platform. Today, they have evolved to become an integral part of the naval operational network using open architecture and, increasingly in the future, artificial intelligence (AI), to enable them to share data and information and to support the platform’s command-and-control (C2) decision-making process.

Responsible for integrating the data provided by sensor systems and disseminating it to weapons systems, a CMS can be seen as the ‘brains’ behind the generation of a naval platform’s operational effect. A CMS combines and manages data provided by the platform’s ‘eyes and ears’ – the sensors – to provide information to guide the use of the platform’s ‘teeth’ – the weapons.

In structural terms, a CMS is a software package installed across a platform’s operating system but centred around a set of workstations located in the platform’s control room or combat information centre, the location from where a ship’s operations are managed and directed. Thus, as well as being the ‘brain’ determining how a ship delivers its operational outputs, a CMS is also the ‘heartbeat’ of that

ship’s operational capability, pulsing out the operational effects it generates.

Changed effect

The two primary changes in naval warfare in recent decades that have fundamentally reshaped the capability, if not role, of a CMS have been: the increased development of multi-role, as opposed to single-role, naval platforms; and the increased requirement for the integrated use of information to generate enhanced operational effect.

Multi-role platforms have increased in numbers since navies found it ever more difficult, in the post-Cold War ‘peace dividend’ period, to justify and afford the building of several different types of surface platform. This increase in role requirement, and the

Chief petty officers keep watch on the bridge of the US Navy (USN) Freedom-class Littoral Combat Ship (LCS) USS Billings, in the Caribbean Sea in April 2022. The USN’s Freedom-class LCS vessels are fitted with the Lockheed Martin COMBATSS-21 system as their combat management system (CMS).

consequent need to add different ranges of sensor and weapons systems, mandated better integration within the CMS to manage these different roles, sensors, and weapons.

The changing nature of naval warfare in the information age has also changed the capability requirements for a CMS. Individual naval platforms are not only required to make more efficient and effective use of the data their sensors gather; they are also increasingly required to integrate that data with other platforms. In the era of information integration, a CMS is the hub of such integration.

In terms of this increased requirement for integrated information, the greater number of sensors – both onboard the platform itself, onboard organic platform systems operating offboard (for example, a ship’s helicopter or deployed unmanned systems), and on other platforms in the information-sharing network – have increased the amount of data available to the operator, but similarly have increased the need to process, analyse, and distribute such data, and to make decisions based on it. Thus, a contemporary CMS is required to do more

to develop the data it gathers, to turn it into usable information.

Two key developments here, one now well established and one emerging, are shaping how a CMS uses such data and information. First, open-architecture approaches to developing CMS systems, as well as sensors and weapons systems, mean that a greater range of systems can be plugged in to a CMS; different CMS’ also can be connected to each other. Second, the need to make better use of the data available to inform and enable decision making is seeing navies taking advantage of the development of software-based approaches to data enhancement, notably through the increased use of automation in decision making and, particularly, the role of AI in enhancing the efficacy of decision making.

The beating brain

In this context, the development of a CMS to enable it to inform a ship command’s decision-making process rather than for it to just conduct functional actions suggests this evolution underlines the CMS’s role as the

ship’s brain, rather than just its heart beat.

Writing in a white paper titled Brains of a ship: software that manages combat at sea, sensor and weapons system house Lockheed Martin stated: “In simplest terms, a naval CMS is the computer and software that integrates all of a ship’s weapons, data, sensors, and other equipment into a single system. Basically, it allows the crew to counter threats faster and more efficiently, especially during combat or security operations.”

The paper pointed out that a CMS performs four key functions: situational awareness using sensor systems to collect information about the surrounding operational environment; intelligence-gathering, by converting data gathered into actionable information; planning, by providing information to the ship’s company and decision-makers therein in a format supporting the development of plans; and command and control (C2), which links the information to the use of weapons systems to enable threat engagement and the delivery of effectors and effects.

Lockheed Martin produces a number of

Sailors working in the combat information centre (CIC) onboard the USN Arleigh Burke-class destroyer USS Higgins are pictured conducting an exercise in March 2022, while operating in the Philippine Sea. In a CIC, the ship’s CMS will provide data and distilled and disseminated information to support sailors’ decision making.

notable CMS products. First, and perhaps most prominent, is its Aegis combat data system, the latest variant of which is the Baseline 9 version. Aegis is deployed across the US Navy (USN) and broadly across the world, especially among navies with high-end operational capability.

Second, Lockheed Martin also has developed its CMS 330 system for the Royal Canadian Navy (RCN), Chilean Navy, and Royal New Zealand Navy (RNZN). For the RCN, its future Canadian Surface Combatant (CSC) programme will see the planned 15 future frigates fitted with an Aegis-enhanced CMS 330.

For the RNZN, CMS 330 was added to its two ANZAC Meko frigates Te Kaha and Te Mana during a Frigate Systems Upgrade (FSU) programme that was undertaken in Canada by Lockheed Martin Canada, between May 2018 and August 2021. According to Lockheed Martin, “These upgrades provide the ship with a greater degree of survivability through a faster decision-making process and response to a variety of threats.” In March 2022, the New Zealand Defence Force noted that Te Kaha had been working up back in New Zealand since 2021 and Te Mana was scheduled to leave Canada in mid-2022 following completion of post-upgrade system testing and trials.

Third, Lockheed Martin has derived the Aegis weapon system to develop

COMBATSS-21, a CMS that contains in-built access to a Common Source Library (CSL). According to Lockheed Martin, CSL is “a software repository that allows for sharing and re-use of code, without an additional cost. This way, when software is developed, debugged, or upgraded, it can quickly be released across a fleet, similar to how smartphones receive app updates”.

COMBATSS-21 is based around an open architecture construct to allow CMS capabilities to be tailored to the platform in question and to allow software upgrades to be integrated when available. In its CMS paper, Lockheed Martin COMBATSS-21 programme manager David Kugler said, “With the CSL, as sensors and weapons evolve, the software that supports them requires minimal development and minimal crew training in order to adapt to new interfaces”.

COMBATSS-21 is installed in the USN’s Freedom-class Littoral Combat Ship (LCS) programme, with the CMS planned also to be installed in the ‘sister’, Independence-class LCS programme.

Based around an open architecture construct that enables rapid technology insertion and response to emerging threats, and around CSL technology that enables commonality across surface platforms, COMBATSS-21 “allows for the seaframe integration of advanced radars, missiles,

and launchers, which increases the lethality of smaller ships,” said Lockheed Martin. COMBATSS-21’s Aegis derivation is also key to its effective integration, the company added: “By integrating an Aegis-derived system on new ships, the USN [for example] will be able to leverage the knowledge of sailors already skilled to operate Aegis. Existing Aegis training programmes can prepare sailors to operate components of COMBATSS-21. Now, sailors can come off an Aegis destroyer or cruiser, and board an LCS with a high level of familiarity with the system they need to operate.”

COMBATSS-21 is also based around a modular software design. According to Military Aerospace magazine, this means “COMBATSS-21 can run on computer configurations ranging from one commercial processor running a commercial operating system to more distributed configurations, making the COMBATSS-21 system adaptable to vessels ranging from patrol craft to largedeck ships.”

COMBATSS-21 is understood to be considered as the CMS capability for the USN’s Constellation-class FFG(X) future frigate. It is also demonstrating appeal beyond just the USN. In December 2021, the US Defense Security Co-operation Agency (DCSA) announced that the US Department of State approved a possible Foreign Military Sales (FMS) case for a multi-mission surface

The Royal New Zealand Navy (RNZN) ANZAC frigate HMNZS Te Mana (left) works with the USN Nimitz-class aircraft carrier USS Carl Vinson in the Pacific Ocean in 2018, during the USN’s annual ‘RIMPAC’ exercise off Hawaii. The RNZN’s two ANZAC frigates have recently completed upgrade work, including the addition of the Lockheed Martin CMS 330 combat management system.

combatant (MMSC) to Greece, as part of the US submission for a Hellenic Navy competition for the modernisation of its frigate force. The proposed US package included, alongside four MMSC platforms, five COMBATSS-21 CMS systems (with four to be fitted and one to be spare). The US MMSC concept is a derivate of the USN’s LCS Freedom-class design.

COMBATSS-21’s evolution as a prospective international naval CMS is not a new development. In October 2015, the DCSA noted that the US State Department had approved possible sale of four MMSC platforms to Saudi Arabia. Again, the package included five COMBATSS-21 kits (four as fits, one as spare). The sale was formally agreed in May 2017, with a contract signed in December 2019. The first two, of what are known formally as the Saud-class frigates, are in build.

Intelligent integration

The BAE Systems INTeACT CMS is another example of an emerging family of CMS capability, with INTeACT being the ‘umbrella term’ under which BAE Systems’ CMS product lines are now developed.

As well as being based around open architecture capability, INTeACT is also an example of a CMS programme that is seeking

to integrate AI capability into CMS.

In CMS operation, AI is used to help distil information from data, to disseminate the right information to the right user, and to prioritise such information to support the user’s decision making.

According to BAE Systems, its nextgeneration INTeACT products – which build upon the DNA/CMS-1 CMS set-ups installed in the UK Royal Navy’s (RN’s) Type 23 Dukeclass frigates, Type 45 Daring-class destroyers, Forth-/River-class Batch 2 offshore patrol vessels (OPVs), and Queen Elizabeth-class aircraft carriers – “provides warship crews with all the information they need to track, analyse, and respond to threats in combat, as well as the ability to co-ordinate resources in other operations such as intelligence gathering and humanitarian assistance, both independently or as part of multinational coalitions”. The open-architecture construct enables rapid adaptability and integration to enhance capability, including through adding other software applications.

The addition of software applications is itself enabled by INTeACT’s Software Development Kit (SDK) concept. According to BAE Systems, SDK is an open interfacebased set-up that includes software libraries and other tools to enable development and

integration of new applications. SDK’s initial focus is on integrating applications that address tactical picture visualisation and elements of tracking capability.

Indeed, tracking capability is a central element of the INTeACT SDK capability. According to a September 2020 BAE Systems paper, the INTeACT SDK Combat System Track Service “provides a consolidated view from multiple sensors and decision aids”, with a ‘Combat System Picture Correlation App’ determining “whether tracks from different sensors correspond to the same object”.

As well as providing a fused tactical picture to support real-time maritime situational awareness, and using open architecture to enable integration of various sensors and effectors, INTeACT SDK also incorporates autonomy and AI into its structure and outputs.

Reflecting the range of platforms that predecessor UK CMS systems were fitted across, BAE Systems stated that INTeACT CMS is relevant for ships ranging from patrol vessels to aircraft carriers. According to the company, INTeACT SDK also “delivers an open [architecture] approach that meets the needs of the RN’s vision for future combat systems”.

The UK Royal Navy (RN) Forth-/River-class Batch 2 offshore patrol vessels HMS Spey (left) and HMS Tamar prepare to sail from HM Naval Base Portsmouth in September 2021, for permanent forward deployment to the Indo-Pacific region. The ships carry a modified BAE Systems CMS-1 combat management system.

copyright/UK

CUTTING RUSSIA’S COMPONENT PIPELINE

By Tim Fish

Russian military capability is likely to suffer as its war in Ukraine continues. Increasing economic and industrial pressure through growing international sanctions will mean that sources of key components that are needed for the manufacture of complex weapons and platforms are increasingly harder to source.

While many major international firms in the Indo-Pacific region with headquarters in Europe or the US have withdrawn from the Russian market, many Asian companies are maintaining their exports. But with the Ukrainian government in control of Kyiv and much of the country, companies will be urged to cut ties with Russia.

In a rare move on 26 April, Chinese drone manufacturer DJI announced in a three-line statement that it “will temporarily suspend all business activities in Russia and Ukraine” following complaints from Kyiv that the company’s products were being used in Russian military operations.

There were publicly announced halts to trade with Russia in March by South Korean communications giants Samsung and LG along with Japanese companies Toyota and electronics company Panasonic.

This is significant. The impact of the loss of supplies of electronic and machined items will be severely detrimental to Russia’s ability to produced weapons, particularly guided weapons. In its recent report on the RussoUkraine War entitled Operation Z: The Death Throes of an Imperial Delusion, the Royal United Services Institute (RUSI), a UK-based think tank, stated that Russia’s cruise and ballistic missile capabilities were key to its ongoing war effort in Ukraine.

But Russia will find it difficult to sustain its stockpiles of precision munitions because these weapons are “heavily dependent on critical specialist components manufactured abroad,” the report said. Because it can’t produce new weapons to replenish its stocks, Russia is reluctant to employ weapons such as ballistic missiles like Iskander-M in Ukraine on a large scale as it needs them in case of any wider war

with NATO. Instead Russian is utilising an array of other less suitable weaponry for longrange strikes and other missions.

The report cited fieldwork by RUSI and the Central Scientific Research Institute for Armaments of the Armed Forces of Ukraine, which found that the 9M727 cruise missile fired from the Iskander-K uses a special computer with robust components that can stand the stresses of missile flight. The computer receives data from the sensors to control the missile’s flight. However, RUSI said that six of the seven sockets used to transfer the data were US-built. In addition, the rails connecting the circuit boards to the computer housing and the circuit boards themselves are sourced from the US.

The report added that there was a “similar pattern” across Russia’s equipment portfolio. “Almost all of Russia’s modern military hardware is dependent upon complex electronics imported from the US, the UK, Germany, the Netherlands, Japan, Israel, China and further afield,” it added.

Other examples cited include Russia’s 9M949 300mm guided rocket, which uses a US-made fibre-optic gyroscope for its inertial navigation system and the TOR M2 air defence system that has a British-sourced oscillator for radar control. Meanwhile the Iskander-M, the Kalibr cruise missile, the Kh-101 air-launched cruise missile as well as the Aqueduct family of Russian military radios (R-168-5UN-2, R-168-5UN-1 and R-168-5UT-2) include “critical electronic components manufactured in the US, Germany, the Netherlands, South Korea and Japan.”

Anastasia Kapetas, the National Security editor of The Strategist at Australian thinktank the Australian Strategic Policy Institute (ASPI) told AMR that a cut in the supply of semiconductor chips “would be disastrous” for everything that Russia might want to field militarily including Orion drones, fifth generation Sukhoi fighters and the Armata tank.

Semiconductors are used in the manufacture of most military equipment designed for communications, data storage

and processing, automotive systems, industrial electronics and even satellites.

“If you can’t get chips you can’t launch satellites,” Kapetas said. Russia has the GLONASS constellation that is similar to the US GPS satellites. “At this level [the Russian Army’s] basic navigation capacity could be affected – everything from communications in the field between different units to the ability for missiles to find their targets. That could get degraded very quickly and is really bad news.”

Russia is heavily dependent on the import of semiconductors, especially from the Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company (TSMC), which has suspended shipments to Russia. Taiwan dominates the semiconductor market taking 60 percent of the market share, with TSMC representing over 50 percent of this and Taiwan’s United Microelectronic Corporation (UMC) on about seven percent. Samsung Electronics is second with about 18 percent with US firm Global Foundries vying for third and fourth position with UMC also on about seven percent.

Kapetas said that replicating the production of chip systems is “extremely difficult” creating a “big problem” for Russia in securing supplies. Moscow’s attempts to develop microprocessor manufacturing facilities under its import substitution policy through companies Elbrus and Baikal Electronics have been negligible.

However, according to a list of companies produced by the Yale School of Management, China’s Semiconductor Manufacturing International Corporation (SMIC) company is still defying US sanctions rules and exporting to Russia. SMIC is attempting to copy TSMC but due to a global shortage in the supply of semiconductors China is prioritising its own needs first and is it not clear if they have exported semiconductors to Russia.

“The US is seriously looking at semiconductors and Russia. If the US found out SMIC was exporting to Russia it would definitely sanction them and the company would lose access to US technology, industrial partnerships and the resources it needs from the US and Taiwan to actually make their own products,” Kapetas said.

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