Armada International - December 2022/January 2023

DECEMBER 2022-JANUARY 2023

lAnD wArfAre

SHOULDER FIRED ARMS – REQUIREMENT AND TECHNOLOGIES

technology focus

LOOKING BEYOND THE MARK ONE EYEBALL How are devleopments in Image Intensification (I²) improving situational awareness on the battlefield? Stephen W Miller finds out.

Air wArfAre

MULTI-MISSION OPPORTUNITY FOR BALTIC AIR POLICING SQUADRONS Charlotte Bailey travelled to Lithuania to report on the successful air policing mission delivered by the Saab JAS-39 Gripens operated by the Hungarian Air Force.

Stephen W Miller reviews the deveoopment paths of shoulder fired weapons to learn how they continue to evolve - including the ammunition they use. 18 19

technology focus

BACK TO THE FUTURE Alix Valenti uncovers the growing potential for additive manufacturing onboard naval vessels while deployed at sea.

23

seA power BEATING THE MINEFIELD WITH AUTONOMOUS COUNTERMEASURES

Autonomous subsurface vehicles, sometimes working in tandem with unmanned surface craft, are taking human operators out of the danger zone. Tim Fish reports.

in May 2016 to see progress on construction of first V-280 test aircraft.

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THE END OF THE BEGINNING FOR FUTURE VERTICAL LIFT

The search for the replacement of the US Army’s UH-60 Black Hawk helicopter came to an end on Tuesday 6 December when the Department of Defense (DoD) announced that Bell Textron had been awarded a $1.3 billion contract to develop its V-280 Valor tiltrotor as the Future Long Range Assault Aircraft (FLRAA). The initial tranche of funds is set at $232 million.

This aircraft, like its defeated rival the Sikorsky-Boeing SB-1 Defiant, is ushering in a new age of more capable and dynamic military rotorcraft, a process that was arguably started when the US Marine Corps began to introduce the Bell-Boeing V-22 Osprey tiltrotor into service 2007.

The need for a new type of rotorcraft was partially founded on helicopter shortfalls in performance experienced during the asymmetric wars in Iraq and particularly Afghanistan, where the requirements for long range together with high and hot effectiveness combined to limit traditionally designed rotorcraft effectiveness.

Initially founded in the Army’s Joint Multi Role Technology Demonstrator (JMR TD) project, the aim has been to replace two of army aviation’s long serving helicopters, the Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk utility helicopter and the Boeing AH64 Apache attack helicopter, with a rotorcraft that is next generational not only in its aerodynamics but also in its lifecycle management. As progress was made, JMR TD transformed into the FLRAA and the Future Attack Reconnaissance Aircraft (FARA) programmes.

The FARA requirement again sees Bell Textron going up against the SikorskyBoeing partnership, however Bell’s 360 Invictus is not a tiltrotor and will rely on a developed articulated rotor system. Sikorsky Boeing’s Raider X continues with Sikorsky’s X2 development path which combines two coaxial rotors with a pusher propeller, achieving a speed up to 250 knots, which would allow it to better keep up with the V-280’s speed of around 280 knots.

Industry has worked with the DoD to push forward the development of the FVL platforms by incorporating digital design to accelerate the acquisition process by allowing different aspects of each platform to be developed in parallel rather than sequentially. The requirement for the incorporation of Modular Open System Architecture (MOSA) should also ensure that each platform will be upgradable over its lifetime by allowing it to receive new systems and technology from across industry, rather than stove-piped to a small number of proprietary system suppliers.

Aside from the US Army’s need to replace the UH-60 Black Hawk and AH-64 Apache, the appeal of this step-change in rotorcraft capability will be taken up by the international market for both FLRAA and FARA leading to busy production lines in the decades ahead.

Kallman

Shoulder Fired Arm S – r equirement A nd t echnologie S

Shoulder fired weapons are not only the mainstay of the infantryman but also a vital complement for other combat and support personnel.

W. Miller

Shoulder fired weapons are the infantry squad’s primary means of influencing combat by either directly engaging targets or suppressing an area to allow another element to manoeuvre, while other soldiers not directly in the front line may more often have the weapon for self-protection. These weapons may differ according to the differing needs of users, their environments and roles. Adding to the design challenges are often competing requirements for

automatic firing capability, weight/length preferences, various effective ranges, accuracy, ammunition performance, and logistics considerations. How these factors are addressed is often resolved by applying a mix of combat lessons, technologies, and traditions.

riFleS And cArBineS

‘Long arms’ usually fall into two categories – the service rifle and the carbine. The former are longer and employed by infantry,

while the later are shorter. Initially used by horse cavalry and cannoneers, the carbine became the weapon for non-infantry soldiers and special units. Service rifles with a longer barrel typically use larger calibre ammunition and have greater effective ranges and target effect. The carbine’s shorter barrel offers less opportunity for propellent burn and less powerful cartridges which result in decreased range and stopping power. For example, both the .30-06 M1 Grand of World War II and 1960s 7.62mm M14

Stephen

The Sig Sauer XM-5 was selected by the US Army as the infantryman weapon under its NGSW programme. It uses the new high velocity 6.8x51mm Sig Hybrid .277 round which reflects a possible return to the Battle Rifle using longer range full-scale ammunition.

Sig Sauer

used essentially the same size ammunition as their bolt action Great War predecessor the 1903 Springfield. Being lighter and more compact, carbines are easier to handle, but the rifle’s length and mass can provide a more stable platform. This also offers an advantage when employing a bayonet which for many decades was a major combat consideration.

WeAPon chArActeriSticS

For an individual weapon, physical aspects such as weight, length, and ease of operation are important factors. A lighter weapon is easier to carry and less fatiguing for the infantryman, while a shorter length barrel can be quicker to handle in dense vegetation, close-quarters, and urban combat. On the other hand, these factors need to be balanced against weapon performance. Longer effective range typically means a longer barrel. Similarly, target penetration

and lethality may require a larger calibre bullet, which may drive the weapon’s weight particularly for accurate automatic fire. The reality is that many desirable characteristics for the shoulder fired weapon are competing, meaning choices must often be made between them.

An army’s appreciation of its anticipated battlefield, threats to be encountered and tactics required, drive weapon choice and dictate which trade-offs are acceptable. Weapons manufacturers respond to these requirements by tailoring experiences and existing technologies to best meet these needs. A case in point, despite post-war combat analysis indicating typical engagements were around 200m and rarely exceeded 300m, the US and Western armies standardised NATO full size 7.62x51mm for its small arms which could effectively engage targets at ranges to and beyond 500m. While the longer range capability

Australia selected the EF-88 Bullpup over the M16 as its standard issue carbine. Even with a 16 inch (407mm) barrel, its Bullpup design offers a total length of only 28in (701mm) with a weight of 7.15lbs 3.25kg) making it ideally suited for close quarters, urban, and mounted troop use.

was also well suited to machine guns, it also meant the infantryman would carry a much heavier ‘battle rifle’ and less ammunition. The Soviets, drawing on different lessons, fielded the AK-47/AKM built around an intermediate calibre 7.62x39mm which had a 350m range but was lighter and allowed soldiers to carry more ammunition. The tradeoffs on even seemingly simple features such as a magazine capacity of 20 or 30 rounds can have significant impact on a weapon’s combat employment.

conFigurAtionS

Since the introduction of magazine fed shoulder fired weapons the typical configuration has largely mimicked earlier clip-fed, semi-automatic and bolt action rifles. These see the trigger placed behind the receiver and magazine. A stock or chassis is added so that the weapon can be shouldered. This layout drives the overall length,

complicating the drive for a shorter weapon while maintaining barrel length in order to preserve the performance benefits. The design of folding butt stocks is directly associated with the desire to shorten the weapon. This traditional configuration is more compatible with the larger 7-8mm standard calibres common up until 1980, and is used in most service and battle rifles including the M14, FN Herstal FAL, Heckler & Koch G3 (Gewehr 3), and others. This configuration continued to be the rule despite the move to intermediate calibres like the NATO 5.56mm and Russian 5.45mm as used in the US M16/ AR15, Soviet AK-47/74, Chinese QBZ-95 and others. It also has the advantage of its layout being familiar to soldiers since the majority of military shoulder fired weapons today use this configuration.

An alternative configuration is the Bullpup which locates the receiver within the rifle-chassis placing the trigger forward of the magazine. This approach allows a 8-10in (200-250mm) shorter weapon length while maintaining the full barrel. It also equally distributes the loaded weight offering the shooter both a balanced feel and more stability in rapid firing. The addition of accessories like laser pointers, flashlights and particularly suppressors can be accommodated in the Bullpup design, without shifting weight forward. This results in the Bullpup being easier to manoeuvre. The Bullpup does have a radius using iron sights, although this is not a factor using an optic sight. Possibly the principal adjustment for

the soldier is getting used to the different magazine position. The first widely fielded Bullpup was the French FAMAS in 5.56mm calibre. The British Army adopted the SA80 which was transformed into the L85 and subsequently improved by H&K as the L85A5. Likely the best known Bullpup is the Steyr AUG which has evolved to the A3 version as well as the latest Australian Lithgow produced F90 (officially the F88 Enhanced). In addition, the Peoples Liberation Army (PLA) Bullpup, the QBZ-95 in 5.8x42mm was fielded as a family of weapons. Another widely fielded Bullpup is the Tavor TAR-21 by Israel Military Industries which was adopted as the X95 by the Israeli Army over the M4A1. It has subsequently been purchased and in use with over 30 militaries including the Thai Army. In addition, PT Repubilik Armamen in November debuted its IFAR22, a Bullpup design for the Indonesian Future Assault Rifle.

rugged And reliABle

With a strict focus on its user audience Mikhail Kalashnikov designed the AK-47 as a weapon that could be reliably operated by just about anyone. Though its manufacture was less than refined it was rugged and required minimum care. It becoming one of the most widely used individual assault rifles. The design, using 7.62x39mm, reflected the assessment that typical riflemen engagements occurred inside 300m with the ability to deliver more shots perceived as more important than accuracy at longer

ranges. This relatively simplistic philosophy was carried over by Kalashnikov in the AK-74 following the shift to smaller calibre/ higher velocity ammunition which began with the introduction of the US 5.56x45mm. This change allowed a weapon weight reduction and its lower recoil made it easier to handle, while providing increased 500m effective range while maintaining the 30 round capacity magazine.

SmAll ArmS FAmilieS

The idea of having a common weapon design that would fill many shoulder fired weapon roles has definite benefits, particularly where employed by combat teams. The Eugene Stoner 63A introduced in the mid1960s achieved this design objective using a common receiver which was reconfigurable to six specific versions. These included a magazine feed combat rifle, carbine, and automatic rifle and belt-feed light, medium, and fixed machine guns. Remarkably, the 63A are also very lightweight with the light machine gun only 11.7lbs (5.32kg). Although well received in combat evaluation and actually fielded by the US Navy SEALS, it was not widely adopted. The principal concern being that it might be beyond the capability of the average soldier. However, this modular weapon encouraged other designers.

Providing a family of shoulder-fire weapons offers some of the benefits of a comprehensive modular design, but limits the adaptations directly to the individual soldiers’ roles. One approach is designing a weapon that can fill multiple individual applications by providing different lengths and weight. The Heckler & Koch HK416, which has been adopted by 27 militaries including Norway, the French Army and US Marines, offers this. Its family character is in its multiple barrel lengths of 10.4 in (264mm) sub-compact, 14.5in (368mm) carbine, 16.5in (419mm) rifle, and 20in (508mm) full-size. The muzzle velocity increases with each length increasing its effective range from the subcompacts 300m to 800m for the full-size rifle. The price for greater range is more weight with the sub-compact at 8.2lbs (3.7kg) increasing to 8.8lbs (4kg) in the carbine.

Poland’s FB RADOM MSBS GROT is designed as a modular individual weapon that can be configured as a standard or Bullpup assault rifle, a carbine, a squad automatic rifle (with a heavier barrel), and marksman rifle. Its modularity allows field reconfiguration, changing the barrel between the 10in

The US Marines joined France and Norway in adopting the Heckler & Koch HK416 assault rifle as their standard long arm. This meant that each Marine armed with the M27 (their designation) had the capability to serve as an automatic rifleman.

and 16 inch and either a MSBS standard or AR carbine stock. It can also adapt for either right or left-handed shooters. Company spokesperson, Krzysztof Kozieł, shared that the GROT design is further able to provide in 5.56mm NATO, 7.62x39mm, or other rounds based on user and applications.

The FN SCAR provides a common weapon that can be provided in either 5.56x45mm NATO or 7.62x61mm, referred to as the SCAR-L (Light) and SCAR-H (Heavy). Each of these are further offered in Close Quarters Combat (CQC), Standard (STD), and Long Barrel (LB) versions. Each version has a high degree of commonality. The rifle is adaptable with FN even introducing a sniper version the SCAR 20 SSR (Sniper Support Rifle) with 20in barrel. User reviews suggest that SCAR is easily handled (the folding stock is much appreciated), has low shooter recoil, is light and accurate. The calibre versatility may contribute to its wide use by special units.

inFAntrY/SquAd AutomAtic WeAPonS

Since the 1940s the squad has typically comprised riflemen and members with an automatic fire weapon. In practice these two roles have been filled most often by different weapons, still the idea of a common design to fill both roles has attraction. An

attempt to provide an automatic rifle (AR) version of the M14 rifle proved unsuccessful due to inaccuracy and overheating in full-auto firing and its low 20 round magazine capacity. The US Marines in 2011 adopted the M27 (based on the H&K HK41) as its Infantry Automatic Rifle (IAR) replacing the belt-fed M249 Squad Automatic Weapon (SAW) . SAW has higher light machine gun (LMG) rate of fire but with an 12 MOA of less accuracy than the magazine feed IAR’s 2 MOA. Field experience suggested that IAR’s more precise shot placement could offer equivalent suppression to an LMG. It was also much lighter at 4kg (9 lb) vs 10 kg (22lb) and could be used in close and urban combat. The Corps 2018 decision to field the M27 to every combat squad member fulfilled the idea of a common individual squad weapon.

The US Army chose its own path toward this goal. Its Next Generation Squad Weapon combines a new weapon with the introduction of a new 6.8mm calibre - the objective being to replace the current 5.56mm, M4 and M249. Following a competition Sig Sauer’s adaptation of its MCX SPEAR was selected and designated XM5 as the combat rifle and MMG to the XM250 automatic weapon. The XM250 is a belt-fed light machine gun style weapon that is lighter than the M249 at 13lbs (5.9kg) without a suppressor. Although a LMG, the

XM250 does not have a quick-change barrel (like the M249) which addresses barrel overheating with sustained fires.

The XM5, which the Army will issue only to forward fighters, is heavier than the M4 and uses a 20 round magazine. Mark Cochiolo, a retired Navy SEAL, in an online review observed: “where the M4 is an assault rifle using an intermediate ammo, the XM5 is a return to the Battle Rifle with heavier and ‘hotter’ rounds (much like the M14). The result is a rifle that is heavier at 9.78lbs (4.4kg) with 20 rounds than the M4 Carbine with 30 rounds at 7.75lbs (3.52kg), which it is replacing. However, the XM5’s 6.8mm has greater effective range and is intended to penetrate body armour at 500m using the Sig Sauer proprietary hybrid case ammunition. Initial unit low scale fielding of the new weapons is expected in late 2023.

PerSonAl deFence WeAPonS

A relatively recent weapon class is the Personal Défense Weapon (PDW). It resulted largely from the concern at the time that soldiers in support and logistics roles which were primarily equipped with pistol calibre hand arms would be unable to effectively engage body armour outfitted opponents (like paratroopers). A NATO 1989 requirement seeking an easily handled more compact weapon with effective range around 200 meters that could penetrate Level III body armour. The last influenced the consideration of smaller calibre higher velocity ammunition. FN’s P90 at 5.7x28mm in a 19.9in (505 mm) with a uniquely shaped 50 round top magazine weapon was the first designed and offered in 1990. It was followed in 2001 by the H&K MP7A1 at 4.6x30mm with 16.3in (415mm) minimal length but with a collapsible stock in a more traditional design. Both successfully met the requirements, including armour defeat. However, a reduced concern of supporting soldiers facing body armoured threats saw special operators more attracted to the P90 and MP7A1 rather than the original intended pistol users. This also saw the introduction of pistol (example the H&K MP5K) and other calibres including 5.56mm NATO by a variety of manufacturers in PDWs. The US SOCOM contracted in May 2022 with SIG Sauer for its Rattler.300 Blackout round. Their rationale mirrors the current application of most PDWs today, which is “providing a more portable weapon that a rifle or carbine with more power than a pistol for use in close-quarters”.

The FN P90 was originally intended as a personal defence weapon for vehicle and artillery crew to provide effective fires against body armour equipped enemies. It uses a Bullpup design and top 50 round horizontal magazine to remain compact 20in (500mm). It is 5.7x28 mm calibre with an effective range of 200m.

Ammunition

Weapons and ammunition are tightly intertwined. The characteristics of each combined with the skill of the shooter dictate the performance in an engagement. Variations in bullet size (calibre), propellent types, and case design can significantly alter recoil levels, trajectory, range, penetration, target effect, accuracy and round weight. This directly impacts on the performance of the round. For example, as suggested earlier the “full size” 7.62mm NATO Ball will reach out further and penetrate foliage without altering the bullet path. It, however, is heavier meaning less rounds can be carried, requires a heavier weapon, and has more recoil. The 5.56mm NATO uses a lighter, faster bullet with less recoil offering more comfortable firing and a lighter weapon with the ability to carry more ammunition. It, however, can be more easily deflected, less range and lower penetration.

Accuracy, range and, to a degree penetration can be addressed by higher velocity and through the bullet composition. The later includes bullets with a hardened steel, tungsten, or tungsten carbide cure penetrator. Examples include the 5.56 SS109 and M955 or 7.62 M993. Higher velocities can be achieved with a longer barrel allowing propellent to burn longer or/and use of more or “hotter” propellent. An example of the former is shown in the muzzle velocity of the M4 Carbine with M193 round is 2,986 ft/s (910m/s) with a 14.5 inch barrel but drops to around 2600 ft/s (792m/s) in the 10.3 inch Close Quarter Battle version.

An obstacle to substantial velocity increases through propellent changes has been limited by the use of brass casings which if used can fail. This has been overcome by at least two new technologies. Sig Sauer explained it has introduced a hybrid steel base/brass cartridge ammunition in its 6.8x51mm (.277 Sig FURY) used with the XM5 and XM250. The steel base accepts chamber pressures to 80,000psi. The round is also 20 percent lighter than full brass. It is, however, likely more costly which is one reason, as US Army GBen William Boruff Joint PEO, Armaments and Ammunition explained the Army is also buying a full brass 6.8mm with less performance for range/training”. The other approach comes from True Velocity (TVI) which employs a specialised polymer composite case with stainless steel case head. TVCM rounds are 30 percent lighter than brass/metal cased meaning with 5.56 a basic load of 2100 rounds comes in at 3.9

lbs (1.8kg) against 5.6lbs (2.5kg) with brass. A soldier could carry 300 rounds for the same weight – a major advantage in a firefight. In addition, TVCM provide consistent velocity between shots, as confirmed by an evaluation by Richard Mann as detailed in his report in the National Rifle Association Shooting Illustrated web site. It stated TVCM “produced velocities closer to advertised than any other load tested… only 8 ft/s deviation”. The round case also does not conduct heat from the firing to the chamber reducing barrel overheating a major concern with sustained fires. In fact, fired cases are cool to the touch. According to Patrick Hogan, chief of sales and marketing “TVI has already demonstrated its TVCM 6.8x51mm in an upgrade to 7.62x51mm NATO chambered guns by simply changing the barrels. These then gain the ballistic, lethality, and weight benefits with minimal investment”.

BAcK to BASicS

Despite being the most widely fielded weapon in every military, the individual shoulder fired weapons are not simple. Their features, capabilities and performance are a complex balance against very often contradictory requirements. In fact, the appreciation of the various factors involved in the weapon itself and its ammunition are only two of the dynamics that influence the suitability and effectiveness of these weapons for combat. Today one must also consider the sighting/fire controls, the suitability for mounting various shooting aids and accessories, and increasingly new functions like noise suppressors. In the end, however, it is the perspectives of many aspects of combat that each military user/agency has of the battlefield and threats it will face that will drive their stated requirements and, therefore, the weapons that they will seek and put into the hands of each soldier.

True Velocity’s Composite (CM) cased ammunition offer performance and logistics benefits over conventional brass-case ammunition. It is 30 percent lighter, accepts higher chamber pressures, offers consistent velocities between shot, and reduces weapon overheating.

The US Army IVAS, a customised version of Microsoft’s HoloLens goggles,are as yet not fielded. It is intended to not only transform how soldiers see the battlefield, but to project crucial battlefield information onto the inside of the goggles,

LOOKING BEYOND THE MARK ONE EYEBALL

The need for soldiers to know their immediate surroundings is essential to both their combat effectiveness and survival.

Stephen W. Miller

US Army

Basic ‘situational awareness’ on the battlefield comes down to the reliance on, predominantly, an individual soldier’s visual senses. The development of Image Intensification (I2) which uses a photocathode plate that ‘gathers ambient light’ which is then electronically displayed on a phosphor screen in a wavelength visible to the human eye has proved to be a game-changer.

The image is typically yellow-green (using a P-43 screen) or white (with a P-45 screen) although other colours including red are possible. A key advantage is that it is passive emitting no signature itself. Currently, the Generation (Gen) III I2 using gallium arsenide photocathode tubes offer the highest clarity and performance. Gen IV includes ‘gated’ technology that adjusts more quickly to changes in the surrounding light levels. With Gen III not only has the price of I2 has been lowered but both weight and size have been significantly reduced. As an example, the 1996 AN/PVS-2 Starlight Scope weighed 7.5 pounds (3.4 kilogrammes) and was 17.5 inches (700 millimetres) long while today’s equivalent the PVS-14 is only 12.5 ounces (0.35kg ) and 4.5in (114mm).

These factors have seen I2 widely fielded with palm-size hand-held surveillance and weapon mounted sighting versions, head or helmet mounted monocular and binocular goggles. I2 is ideally suited to meeting stand-alone night situational awareness needs of air crews, infantry, and general use. Its reliance on ambient light has become of less of a concern in newer systems with greater sensitivity performing at much reduced light levels. Like human vision, it is hindered by smoke, fog and other obscurants. As in any sight the field of view is narrowed reducing the wearer’s perception and peripheral vision. This can be a particular concern with a head or helmet goggle necessitating constantly turning the head to view a full scene. The introduction of panoramic (also called ‘Quad’) night vision goggles with four image tubes begin to address this expanding the field-of-view (FOV) to 97 degrees in the L3Harris and EOTech models and 104 degrees in Photonis Defense’s version.

LOW LIGHT LEVEL TV

I2 tubes display the resulting image directly to the viewer and does not emit an electronic or digital signal. Although ideal for stand-alone applications, it is difficult to

Image intensification (I2) is the most widely used night vision augmentation, with the latest being lightweight and compact allowing their adaption for individual use including weapon sights and helmet mounted goggles. Being passive, they offer discrete night viewing. The Panoramic night vision goggle (EO TECH Quad) provides a wider up to 107 degree field of view.

incorporate the imagery into a broader situational awareness system. In such applications, Low Light Level TV (LLTV) is often preferred. LLLTV is a CCD camera sensitive in the 0.4 to 0.7 and 1.0 to 1.1 short-wave infra-red micrometre wave lengths which are outside human normal ‘visible’ viewing. It detects objects in extremely low light levels but shows the resulting electronic digital signals. This digital data can then be converted for display, processed, and/or integrated with other sensor information. Typically, LLLTV have been monochrome

(black & white). However, the firm SPi’s x27 LLLTV provides high-definition full-colour digital images approaching daylight quality even at low light levels of one millilux! The SIOYX ultra-low colour light camera is used in the US Army IVAS (discussed later). A digital signal from x27 and other LLLTV cameras can be incorporated with other digital imager information including thermal imaging cameras, offering a more comprehensive picture. These cameras can be compact permitting them to be more easily be positioned all-around a vehicle,

Low Light Level TV (LLLTV) provides images approaching daylight outdoor viewing in near complete darkness, offering the advantages of small camera size while providing digital output that can be integrated with other digital inputs.

for example, thereby providing 360-degree surveillance as is the case in Rheinmetall’s SAS - Situational Awareness System.

THERMAL IMAGING

Where I2 relies on of ambient light, thermal

imaging detects the temperature differences of objects. The performance of the thermal imager is a function of the sensitivity of its detectors to these temperature differences, referred to as T (Delta T), with sensitivity levels of 0.2 degrees C (0.4F) and

better are possible. Thermal imaging does not rely on any outside illumination so it is effective even in a tunnel or building and can view through smoke, fog and vegetation. It is particularly effective in detecting objects with ‘hot’ signatures including vehicles, humans and animals. Displays can be programmed to assign colours to various temperature differences or in monochrome scenes to ‘reverse polarity’ with either white or black showing the hottest objects.

A drawback of thermal imaging has been its lower resolution and lack of finer image details. This can make it difficult for users to identify the specifics of what they are observing. Even at relatively close range, though it might be evident one was viewing a tank for example, the type or if was friend or enemy was not so obvious. The danger was the possibility of firing on friendly forces – something that unfortunately occurred a number of times during battles in Iraq in 2003 which saw the first widescale use of thermal sights on combat vehicles. The developments in two-dimensional Focal Plane Arrays increased the number of pixels giving a higher resolution to address this. For example, a 160x120 array with 19,600 pixels has low resolution, while a 320x240

360 degree Situational Awareness systems for armoured and tactical vehicles generally utilise networked day and night cameras like the Rheinmetall SAS shown positioned around the vehicle perimeter. These provide the crew and embarked soldiers with views of the surroundings without exposing themselves.

The Vegvisir situational awareness system integrates all surveillance cameras, optical sights and alerting sensors on a vehicle using customised processing to identify both close-in and distant hazards and threats. These are presented to the crew using a helmet display while prompting protective measures for a possible response.

Defensphere

NEXT GENERATION

MULTI WEAPON SIGHTS

FIRE CONTROL SYSTEM

For use on Multiple Weapon Platforms with built-in laser range finder, inclinometers, gyro, and ballistic computer calculating for lead and distance to moving, stationery and airburst targets. Exceptionally high first hit probability while reducing collateral damage.

RED DOT SIGHTS

TRUSTED BY MILLIONS

The Acro P-2™ represents the next generation of RDS optics. With over 5 years of constant-on use and tested to withstand over 20,000 rounds of .40 S&W ammunition, the Acro P-2™ goes above and beyond the call of duty. For use on Multiple Weapon Platforms.

FCS13RE™

array with 76,800 pixels has medium resolution and a 640x480 (307,200 pixels) is the highest. These arrays also do not require scanning reducing their complexity. Early thermal imagers also required cryogenically cooling of the detectors which increased size, weight, and cost while adversely influencing reliability. The development of the uncooled array operating at room temperature positively resulted in more compact imagers including handheld and infantry weapon sights. Uncooled 640x480 thermal binoculars and weapon sights are available at under well under 2.2lbs (1kg) and have become more affordable. Actively cooled detector arrays continue to offer the highest sensitivity and resolution and remain preferred where size, weight and power needs are less critical.

The rapid advance in thermal imager technology is illustrated by comparing the US Army Thermal Weapon Sight (TWS), first fielded in 2006, with its current replacement - the Family of Weapons

Sights – Individual (FWS-I). At 6.7x3.6x3.9in (170x91x99mm ) and 1.85lb (0.839kg) it is significantly more compact while having increased performance. The later permits not simply detecting a target signature but being able to recognise it around 4,600 feet (1,400 meters! The stand-alone, clip-on FWS is manufactured by firms including L-3Harris and Leonardo DRS, which was awarded the most recent US Army contract in October 2022.

The Enhanced Night Vision Goggle (ENVG) combines thermal imaging technology and the white phosphor I2 to provide dual wave augmented vision to the soldier. The thermal imaging used has a larger fieldof-view and is ideally suited to detecting targets in low-visibility including smoke or fog and concealed in vegetation. The I2 binocular can see through glass and allows maps to be read and complements the thermal imaging. With a fused presentation, the soldier receives the benefits of both technologies. In addition, the ENVG full-colour

display is compatible with wireless communications, rapid target acquisition and augmented reality. This includes the ability to input the image and reticle of a weapon mounted thermal sight into the goggle, permitting heads-up rapid engagements. The US Army has awarded contracts to bot L3 Harris and Leonardo DRS for delivery of ENVGs. It is intended to be employed primarily by dismounted infantry with initial fielding having begun in 2022.

A step beyond the ENVG is the US Army Integrated Visual Augmentation System (IVAS). An adaption of the Microsoft HoloLens, it not only incorporates night/ thermal vision but can present a wide range of information to the wearer. These include passive targeting, navigation, friendly positions, and the ability to share and view data from outside sources. Referred to as ‘mixed reality’ it can combine real views with overlaid simulated objects, terrain or characters. This has benefits allowing its use as a training aid as well as operational tool.

The use of helmet mounted display of images from a low light TV or thermal camera offers a immersive presentation to the wearer. The approach, already widely adopted for aircraft pilots, is being applied to infantry and combat vehicle crews. For the later synchronised to perimeter cameras they can “see through the vehicle armour”. Here US Army Stryker crews evaluate IVAS in mounted operations.

IVAS faced a number of technology challenges including the low performance of its current lowlight sensor as well as image distortion, its limited FOV, and soldier form factors. Although a contract was awarded in 2020 the procurement had been on-hold waiting further testing. However, in September 2022 the acquisition of 5,000 of both IVAS 1.0 and 1.1 versions was approved by the Secretary of the Army. BGen Christopher Schneider, Program Executive Office – Soldier commander, stated that “work is continuing to correct the issues identified in the current IVAS with a version 1.2 already in the works.” Part of this is development of an Advanced Low Light Sensor (ALLLS) an effort for which Elbit Systems received a contract in September 2022. The objective is to have this new sensor sometime after 2025 for an IVAS 2.0.

VEHICLE 360 DEGREE

The greatest weakness in a tactical vehicle, particularly armoured vehicles, is the restricted visibility of the crew, which can hinder mobility. The introduction of very compact cameras opened the possibility of placing them to cover blind spots. This was initially used with specialty protected mine clearance and explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) vehicles and expanded to other combat vehicles. With onboard digital it became possible to increase the number of cameras linked in an onboard network. Airboss Defense Systems 360 SA, for example, includes four fixed 102 degree wide-angle plus a single pan/tilt 36X zoom PTZ cameras with controls to allow the operator to switch views. Copenhagen Sensor Technology’s (CST) Cortex Resolve Platform uses seamless stitching combining images from multiple Citadel high definition, low latency cameras to provide all-around views for combat vehicles. Elbit Defense’s Iron Vision takes a similar approach with both perimeter cameras and other surveillance and targeting sensors, but displays information on a soldier’s helmet mounted visor which draws on its experience with aircrew displays. As Tom Carlisle, director Army Solutions added: “It also provides for integration of external surveillance information such as that from a tethered UAS.” Rheinmetall’s SAS incorporates both day and night sensors while employing automatic target recognition and threat sensors like Acoustic Shooter Localisation (ASLS) and laser warning to reduce crew task load. By linking the SAS with onboard active

protection and fire controls it facilitates response to an identified threat.

The introduction of wide FOV drivers vision enhancers like Leonardo DRS’s ESA with a 107x30-degree coverage using three uncooled thermal cameras augmented by side and a rear camera expand on previous drivers’ viewers by offering perspectives covering not only road edges but other hazardous areas.

The benefits of integrated 360-degree surveillance go beyond simply offering a wider vision of a vehicle’s surroundings. It also enhances safety particularly when moving in tight quarters like urban areas and forest. In a networked system all members of the crew and, in the case of infantry carriers and fighting vehicles, the embarked squad members are able to actively monitor the situation outside the vehicle. For the later they are able to prepare themselves and assure they are ready to deploy appropriately prior to disembarking. The latest Situational Awareness (SA) systems are taking advantage of image processing advances are able to offer automatic target detection. This offers the possibility of proving an alert to the crew of a potential hazard or threat. The performance of a SA system is partly based on the sensors, especially cameras utilised.

Ryan Edwards, business development director for Soldier and Vehicle Electronics at BAE Systems explained, “Our 360 MVP uncooled thermal cameras provide 120 degree horizontal by 75 degree vertical field of view with a 1920x1200 pixel pitch delivered at 60hz. The advantages include superior detection range and coverage (fewer cameras needed). The higher frame rate also enables reduced false alarm rate for threat detection applications.”

It is the integration of the various onboard sensors, cameras, and other detection assets that offers the optimum tactical return in a vehicle situational awareness system. Simply adding cameras and displays runs the risk of simply complicating the ability of the crew in performing their functions in fighting the vehicle. Too much information can result in task overload. To address this requires a “smarter” system that manages and potentially processes these various sensor inputs.

One approach is Defensphere’s Vegvisir’s, an Estonian-Croatian firm. Vegvisir combines inputs from on-board sensors and innovative cameras that are synthesised to not only display objects of

immediate interest but those as much as six miles (10km) distant. Company CEO Ingvar Pärnamäe stated that it “is a modular system that combines four complementary layers of sensors to ensure awareness in a range of tactical situations”. Information is displayed on helmet mounted displays. In fact, the US Army has similarly explored the application of its IVAS as an option for integrating and presenting information to the combat vehicle mounted infantry. In such an application these embarked troops can not only access the vehicle SA assets while on-board but then smoothly transition to dismounted squad combat. The concept has been demonstrated by Army Stryker units in field experiments.

“BAE Systems BattleView 360 concept”, as Dan Lindell, BAE Systems’ platform manager for the CV90 Infantry Fighting Vehicle explained, “is focused on a way of helping soldiers on the battlefield understand their environment, to quickly identify hazards and react to rapidly evolving scenarios.” It not only provides soldiers with a 360-degree, real-time view outside of their combat vehicles but stitches together a complete picture of the battlefield. It further allows plugging into a computer to digitally collate, map, and classify various features on the battlefield to track their environment. In addition, soldiers can share what they are seeing with other crew members or their commanders.

FUTURE INTEGRATION

The objective of developments in the past has been focused on improving the soldier’s ability to see better. Technology advances have pushed this to include aiding vision at night, in low visibility and to detect in wave lengths beyond those of the human eye. Generally, each of these were stand-alone capabilities – such as I2 or thermal – each with its own advantages and weaknesses.

The current direction is towards integrating these into a common fused display. Beyond that is the possibility of capitalising on digitalisation, processing power, and memory storage capabilities to further augment the soldier’s vision. Advances in these fields have the potential to not only detect but to classify and identify what it is that is being viewed. In addition, the seamless sharing in near-real time that image with others will expand the broader awareness at multiple levels. Battlefield ‘vision’ will become no longer an individual task but rather a community effort.

MULTI-MISSION OPPORTUNITY FOR BALTIC AIR POLICING SQUADRONS

On 29 July, 2022, four Saab JAS 39 Gripen Cs of the Hungarian Air Force’a (HunAF) ‘Puma’ Squadron departed the 59th Air Force Base in Kecskemét bound for Šiauliai Air Base, Lithuania. Their task? To serve as ‘lead nation’ for the 60th rotation of NATO’s Baltic Air Policing (BAP) Mission; an international effort to protect the airspace above Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia. Since its inception in 2004 (originally operating on a three-month deployment, later extended to four), 17 nations have taken part, primarily operating out of a base that was, up until 1993, a Soviet facility.

The four-month rotation marks the HunAF’s third participation in the mission (having previously been deployed there in 2015 and 2019) and, under unprecedented circumstances, overlapped with the Czech Gripens of the previous deployment. The

Italian Air Force had cited their apparent inability to operate from the base’s ‘current infrastructure’, which meant that the Czech mission had to be extended by eight weeks. However, since taking over as lead nation on 1 August, the HUNAF have certainly been busy - not just with Alpha scrambles - but a whole host of training missions.

Given the current geopolitical climate and obvious tensions with Russia, the expectation might have been that the number of ‘quick reaction’ scrambles performed by the HUNAF would have increased since their 2019 stint. However, as Lt. Col. Attila Ványik (HDF BAP Block 60 Commander) explained: ’’They’re sometimes not so friendly, but I wouldn’t call them aggressive”.

In fact, the overall amount of Alpha scrambles have remained roughly the same since the Hungarian’s previous deployment here: 18 occasions where, within a fifteen-minute window, two armed Gripens

The Hungarian Air Force is no stranger to the Baltic Air Policing role; its Saab Gripens have just completed their third tour with a fourth already planned.

Charlotte Bailey

A Hungarian Air Force JAS-39 Gripen pilot climbs out of the cockpit after fly a successful training scramble

A Hungarian Air Force JAS-39 Gripen launches on another mission from Siauliai Air Base as part of the Baltic Air Policing mission in Lithuania.

were airborne and ready to intercept a flight perceived as potentially hostile. This situation typically occurs when “something is missing”, explained pilot Major József Papp, such as an aircraft flying in international airspace without a flight plan, or lack of use of radio or transponder. However, with unwarranted attention notably focused elsewhere in Eastern Europe, the Hungarian detachment noted no significant escalation in tension. “They try to make our life a bit harder, but it’s not especially aggressive”, noted Papp. Even the fighter escorts (commonly accompanying recognition, VIP and special cargo flights), while ‘usually armed’, were “pretty much the same as before”.

One significant aspect was different this time round: it was noted that hostile aircraft are no longer ‘cutting the corner’ of airspace en route to the Russian province of Kalingrad, perhaps indicative of a desire not to further escalate international tension.

However, the Hungarian activities extend far beyond their 18 Alpha scrambles. As of 14 November 2022, their team of seven pilots have undertaken 60 Tango (training) scrambles, one Sierra scramble, 10 Readiness State 5 alerts (with engine running in hangars) , 23 RS10 alerts (APU running and standing by in hangars), and 25 training flights - with a collective total flight time of 275 hours.

A new schedule introduced in October saw the participant air forces (including

the augmenting nations: the Polish mission at Šiauliai flying Lockheed Martin F-16Cs, the Germans at Ämari and the Italians based in Malbork - both flying Euofighter Typhoons) rotated though a series of ‘hot’ and ‘cold’ weeks. During the later (which occurs once a month), two pilots are kept on ‘readiness state 180’: a three-hour window to be armed and in the air (although it’s usually achieved within two). Its purpose? To maximise training opportunities, which Papp describes as a “great decision”; allowing the ‘cold week’ nation to “fly some special missions, some different missions” that wouldn’t otherwise be possible with fully-armed aircraft. “When we want to maximise training opportunities, we fly the mission and rearm the jet after landing,” explained Papp. “I think we are the only nation doing that; certainly repeated that often.”

This quick turnaround time is, in part, made possible by the Gripen itself, which can typically be re-armed by a crew of four in under 30 minutes. Also invaluable is the ‘hot pit’ procedure used to refuel and re-arm

jets immediately after landing (without shutting the engine down) before the next mission; a process taking as little as 15-20 minutes depending on the stores required. A total of 78 HUNAF personnel deployed on this mission include 20-25 technicians, split into two groups; the first working on the Gripens every day, and the second a ‘troubleshooting’ group. “It only takes two people to operate this aircraft daily if everything goes according to plan,” observed Papp, adding that even major repairs requiring a flight back to Hungary can be turned around the same day.

Unlike the limitations imposed by manufacturers of other platforms, the ability to generate sovereign mission data after every mission – something that happened on a daily basis – was of huge benefit; allowing the HUNAF to update their library mission to mission.

What’s next for the Hungarian Gripen fleet? As part of Saab’s rolling programme of improvement, an upgrade to the MS20 Block 2 configuration is due within “the next year”. Regarding armament itself,

despite being “in the ball park with the other nations here,” Papp mentions the potential for weapons upgrades as being the “main area to improve” (although there’s no comment as to the variant of AIM-120 AMRAAM in use). Perhaps the upcoming ‘Saab users group’ – a biannual event where users of the type can collectively identify areas for further improvement – may divulge more.

As three Gripens prepared to depart on a morning’s training exercise, two unarmed jets destined for a 1v1 air combat sortie, while a third undertook a navigation and reconnaissance flight close to the border, it was easy to understand how this comparatively inexpensive, cost-effective, capable fighter might be a deemed of use to Ukraine. Although Ványik declines to comment, think-tank analysts (conducted by the Royal United Services Institute for Defence and Security Studies) recently cited the airframe as “by far the most suitable candidate in terms of operational requirements”.

The current BAP schedule will see the HunAF Gripens returning this role for a fourth time in 2025.

“They’re trying to make our life harder, but it’s not especially aggressive,” Commander Lt. Col. Attila Ványik.

HunAF BAP Block 60 commander Lt. Col. Attila Ványik and pilot Major József Papp.

The Puma One One’ formation, depicted on the HunAF’s 60th rotation deployment patch.

BACK TO THE FUTURE

Can Additive Manufacturing processes really deliver useful support to deployed naval vessels?

Alix Valenti

On 1 August 1785, Jean François de Galaup (comte de Lapérouse) set sail for his famous expedition around the world. The mandate was clear: over the next four years, Lapérouse and his crew were to continue mapping coasts and islands around the Pacific. To this end, the expedition comprised two frigates - La Boussole and L’Astrolabewith 220 crew onboard and… 2,000 tons of materiel. Sets of sails and canvas, raw pine wood, capstan, anchors, chains, pulleys and ropes were all essential elements to renew the rigging entirely, if necessary, during the journey.

The increasing complexity characterising navy ships today would make it impossible for Lapérouse to strive for the same level of logistics autonomy. Instead, when knowhow and/or spare parts are not available onboard to repair potential damage; ships have to call on ports where they can get the necessary logistics support. Additive Manufacturing (AM) - also known as 3D printing - is often seen as the magical solution to the logistic burden of extended deployments away from home ports: with one machine, crew can print spare parts and repair damages. Yet while it holds much potential, several challenges must be addressed before AM can deliver on its promises.

AM 101

The ISO/ASTM 52900:2021 defines AM as “the process of joining materials to make parts from 3D model data, usually layer

upon layer.” By ‘layer’, the standard refers to material that is being laid out to create a surface.

To date, as noted in the ISO document, there are seven AM processes. Each of these processes is suited to different types of materials and applications, Guillaume Rückert, senior expert in Metallic Materials Manufacturing at Naval Group, told Armada International (AI): “Each type of material can take different forms, such as wire or powder, and depending on what is being used for which purposes the process will be different.” For instance, while binder jetting - joining powder through a liquid bonding agent (or powder bed fusion) - fusing regions of a powder bed through thermal energy - are suited for powder, while Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) is designed to work with wires.

“Experimentation with AM by individual customers [armed forces], offices and companies has been ongoing for a few years,” Matthew Caris, senior director at Avascent, told AI. And while navies have been slower in their adoption of the technology compared to land and air forces, over the past couple of years the pace of progress has picked up.

As is often the case, the US Navy (USN) has been leading the way, making significant strides over the past year. In July 2022, a 3D printer capable of printing aluminium parts up to 10x10 inches was installed onboard the Wasp Class amphibious assault ship USS Essex. The testing took place during the Rim of the Pacific (RIMPAC)

exercise and aimed to demonstrate AM’s added value in increasing naval forces’ autonomy at sea. Shortly after, in October 2022, the USN opened its first Additive Manufacturing Centre of Excellence, based in the Centre for Manufacturing Advancement on the campus of the Institute for Advanced Learning and Research, Virginia, USA. The centre will feature three bays in order to facilitate scaling up of AM activities and serve as an operational hub. Finally, in November 2022, the first metal 3D printer was installed on Wasp class USS Bataan.

The USN may be leading the way, but the French Navy (Marine Nationale) is following closely and, together with Naval Group, it has been carrying out a number of experiments. Two of its Mistral class amphibious assault ships - Dixmude and Tonnerre - carried a 3D printer based on polymeric melt-wire AM processes. Over 145 days, 150 parts were printed onboard the Dixmude, of which nearly 60 percent were for living and recreational purposes, while approximately 20 percent were technical parts, according to a paper published by the FRS in June 2020, The development of 3D printing in the Armed Forces: a breakthrough innovation? Additionally, since February 2019, a similar 3D printer has been installed onboard the Charles de Gaulle aircraft carrier and, in early 2020, the first Rafale took flight from the aircraft carrier with a 3D printed control unit for emptying fuel tanks. Finally, in 2019 Naval Group successfully printed a propeller for the Tripartite class mine hunter, Andromede. Featuring five 1,100lb

In July 2022, a 3D printer capable of printing aluminium parts up to 10x10 inches was installed onboard Wasp Class amphibious assault ship USS Essex

(200kg) blades, the WAAM printed piece was certified by Bureau Veritas.

Over in the Pacific, the Royal Australian Navy’s (RAN) approach to AM has also progressed through a series of small pilot innovation programmes and proof of concept activities ashore and afloat. More specifically, an Australian defence spokesperson told AI in a written statement that starting from 2017 one of RAN’s priorities was to get entry-level plastic printers onboard its ships. In parallel, it has also worked on evolving both policy and knowledge base in order to facilitate AM’s operationalisation. “Trials and exercises have proven the potential of basic AM, but an enterprise-level implementation demands deeper coordination,” the spokesperson noted.

WHAT CAN AM DO FOR YOU?

When looking at the AM projects implemented by the USN, the French Navy and the RAN - a small sample of the breadth of ongoing research worldwide - one of the main advantages AM can bring to navies is operational autonomy. Yet AM actually presents a vast potential that could span across the whole lifecycle of a Navy ship.

Even before moving into construction and production, AM can bring significant benefits to the design phase of naval systems and parts. First, because it works by adding layer upon layer, AM opens-up new possibilities in terms of shapes. “Having a

certain degree of freedom is key to creating innovative shapes,” Alexandre Astruc, head of Section Metallic Materials and Coating at Bureau Veritas, told AI. “The process of AM favours the conceptualisation of geometrically optimised designs that can, for instance, result in lighter parts.” Naval Group, for instance, is experimenting with the development of hollow propeller blades, which would improve propeller performance by virtue of being lighter. “Perhaps just as interestingly, lighter blades could allow us to add damping loads so as to improve propeller acoustic discretion,” Rückert pointed out. Furthermore, as noted in the DoD strategy, AM opens the possibility to combine many parts in single assembly, reducing part count, manufacturing cost and weight “while improving system reliability.”

AM can also contribute to “drastically lower the cost and complexity threshold for the production of test-ready prototypes,“according to the Australian Defence spokesperson. The ability to print-out prototypes at a faster rate and lower cost eliminates the burden of having a perfectly locked in design from the start. “This, in turn, opens-up the opportunity to iterate on the design with the customer and refine it over time,” Kelleigh Bilms, senior director at Avascent, told AI. Additionally, as noted by Caris, easier prototyping could avoid the design of parts and solutions that “are not conducive to production,” thus significantly reducing overall design and production costs.

In fact, another key advantage of AM at production level is that it lowers the scrap factor. “While the operator may need to carry out some light machining to smoothout the printed part, the printing process produces few scraps,” Maxime Leprince, Welding Engineer at Bureau Veritas, told AI. This is of particular interest when exotic and expensive materials are used for 3D printing. “Consider the titanium used for aircraft engines,” Bilms said: “when the original scrap factor is approximately 70 percent, the use of a 3D printer would bring considerable cost benefits.” Additionally, because 3D printing allows for in-process inspection - non-destructive inspection of parts during the production process - it prevents the production of parts that are not fit for purpose. “The identified faulty piece is fixed immediately, rather than scrapped at the end, as it sometimes happens,” Leprince added.

Finally, at operational level, AM’s key

benefit is the reduction of the logistics footprint on missions. First, as noted by Martin Huber, Project Officer Logistics at the European Defence Agency (EDA), defence materiel - especially naval - is often used for years - decades - before being replaced. Yet spare parts and associated maintenance tools may no longer be available. “3D printing would allow armed forces to print rather complex parts and tools themselves,” Huber highlighted. Furthermore, when receiving new assets, armed forces need to secure a minimum amount of spares. However, logistic supply chain and warehouse, as well as associated staff and procedures, are all costly and time-consuming. The use of AM would, once again, reduce costs and burdens for navies. Finally, AM could also allow navies to break defence primes’ control, which is often associated to service contracts.

Secondly, “when combined with trained personnel and agile field engineering, AM enables the forward production of stores items and supports the Battle Damage Repair [BDR] that is needed to keep equipment in the fight, even in a conflict,” the Australian Defence spokesperson wrote. A statement supported in unison by Bilms, Caris and Huber.

WHAT CAN YOU DO FOR AM?!

Yet for all its promises, AM remains a rather new technology. Mature enough to have an emerging market, as noted by Huber, there are nevertheless a number of hurdles that need to be address before it can deliver full autonomy - from continental logistics chains and primes.

The first hurdles present themselves even before a part or solution is even designed or produced. “One of the first challenges we face is understanding all the eligible materials and carefully matching them with the best process according to part specifications,” Rückert said. Each part presents specific challenges and opportunities and, as indicated in GE Additive’s playbook, ‘Building the Business Case: Identifying Criteria to Measure ROI for Additive Manufacturing’, one must “evaluate multiple parts for their level of complexity and assess which ones deliver the best ROI [Return On Investment] from design freedom, less labour and more efficient use of materials.”

Additionally, Rückert told AI that aiming to recreate in 3D a part’s identical twin is not desirable because material and process

Officials coordinate the on load of a 3D printer aboard Wasp-class ship USS Bataan

constraints need to be taken into consideration. As such, Naval Group is currently working on a software solution it will be able to offer its customers to help their decision-making: first the software will help identify the potential material to be used for the specific piece, then it will support them in choosing the best process according to certain technical and economic criteria.

On the production side, Bilms explained that while there is a lot of focus on maturing the technology - both at armed forces and industry level - “the biggest skepticism is on testing and qualification.” Any 3D printed part will have to undergo the same qualification and testing processes as those manufactured through traditional processes, which can be costly and time consuming. In agreement with Bilms, Caris added that currently in the USN much of the experimentation is on printing aircraft maintenance parts, and truly integrating AM in defence will be a cultural challenge. “If you can only use AM for non-critical parts or parts that will only operate in non-stressful environments, then it may be a point of entry to build trust in the process,” he said, though this will take time.

As for bringing 3D printing to the tactical edge and facilitate BDR, the road ahead remains long - and possibly rather winding. Ships evolve in a complex, unforgiving environment. The type of material used to print the spare parts will have to be stored adequately to avoid being compromised by humidity. The type of process used will have to take into account ship’s motions while the printing process is ongoing; “for now, it looks as though 3D printing onboard can mainly be done in quiet seas or at harbour for complex parts,” Huber added. Certification and qualification of the parts might have to be done on a case-by-case basis, as long as standards are in the making, “however currently return on experience is limited, so discussions on ISO standards are ongoing but at a very slow pace,” noted Astruc.

Another significant hurdle will be the extent to, or modality in, which armed forces will be able to use original design files to print parts. Firstly, maintenance contracts are an important part of the procurement process, and where industry stands to make the best ROI on each programme. Allowing navies to print their own spare parts would considerably reduce such revenue stream. One solution to the issue would be for industry to understand how to deal with the

Intellectual Property (IP) rights. As Huber discussed: “Would navies pay for each file upload? Would they pay for a license fee for a certain number of print parts [a sort of equivalent to maintenance contracts]? Or would the cost of IP rights be part of the procurement process?”

Secondly, being able to download files means ensuring secure end-to-end data transfers to avoid any interference and tampering with the original files - which could severely compromise parts and systems. To this end, the DoD’s AM strategy presents a goal called “Secure the AM flow” aimed at ensuring “cyber security throughout the AM workflow, to secure the digital thread which includes the creation and transfer of data, as well as the protection of the AM production and testing processes.”

Ultimately, “printing is only one small part of a much bigger process,” Rückert highlighted. A process that starts with design constraints and important ROI considerations and ends with the adequate training of crew onboard.

BACK TO THE FUTURE

There is no doubting that AM can bring considerable benefits to navies throughout the whole lifecycle of their solutions. From allowing far more design freedom than traditional manufacturing techniques, to decreasing production costs and bringing increased autonomy to the tactical edge, both industry and navies have much to explore. Yet multiple hurdles remain to be addressed and a number of potential benefits remain aspirational to date.

The work being carried out in countries including the US, France, Australia and, to a certain extent, the UK, show that defence culture is willing to change and potential benefits far outweigh current challenges. In January 2021 the US Department of Defence [DoD] released its first ever Additive Manufacturing Strategy. Focused on key benefits and challenges for the integration of AM at armed forces level - including training, cyber security and IP rights - it no doubt benefitted from the US Marine Corps’ (USMC) Additive Manufacturing Policy, published in March 2020. Similarly, France’s land forces have been experimenting with plastic AM in Gao (Mali) and N’Djamena (Chad) since 2019 to: carry out a cost-benefit analysis of different AM processes; and, to implement a blockchain so as to address issues of IP and industry revenue, as well as guarantee file integrity to foster trust in the process.

At European level, the European Defence Agency (EDA) has been setting up a number of initiatives in the past few years to support armed forces and industry in the promotion and integration of AM in defence. This includes supporting as well as organising demonstrations and workshops to provide a space for armed forces, industry and academia to meet and discuss on a regular basis. Beyond defence, the participation of industry partners such as Bureau Veritas M&O to projects such as Grade 2XL - funded through the Horizon 2020 EU programme - can also bring significant advancements to use of AM to support navies. Grade 2XL seeks to increase the capability WAAM can deliver in terms of durable engineering structures.

When all is said and done, “one can hypothesise that the design/production side will take off first because that is where we are seeing investments and where there are fewer conflicts of interest,” Bilms concluded. One aspect that could eventually contribute to growing adoption of AM across industry and navies is its potential for enhancing sustainability. From the freedom to design more efficient propellers, to the ability to use different materials on a single piece - e.g. strong, lighter material coated with anti-biofouling and non-corrosive material - and, ultimately, to a considerable reduction in logistics transports and costs, AM could play a significant role in greening navies.

“Looking at the logistics benefits AM can bring is, in a way, like going back to the future for navies,” Caris concluded: “sustaining ships that are deployed further and further away from their home bases is in navies’ DNA.” Lapérouse would have approved.

In 2019 Naval Group successfully printed a propeller for the Tripartite class mine hunter, Andromede.

Naval

BEATING THE MINEFIELD WITH AUTONOMOUS COUNTERMEASURES

The potential for autonomous mine hunting is now being realised - and the demand for it is growing.

Tim Fish

Technological developments in mine countermeasure (MCM) systems have been leading the way in the application of true naval autonomous systems. Restrictions on data transfer capabilities in the underwater domain limits the ability to command and control platforms. This means that platforms operating under the water need to have a higher degree of autonomy to understand the environment

and calculate which actions and tasks to complete without a human operator.

Naval forces have been introducing Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs) for MCM operations for over two decades, but most of these have been connected to the operator on board a ship or on the shore by a cable. This has meant that the range of operations has been limited by the length of the cable. To conduct extended range, long endurance military operations subsea - and

for this activity to be networked - then autonomy is essential. The use of Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) linked together and cooperating with unmanned surface vehicles (USVs) and crewed platforms is the future of MCM and is set to revolutionise this capability.

Dominique Giannoni, the CEO of French maritime technology company ECA Group told Armada International that the trend in MCM over the past few years is

The A18-M AUV from ECA Group has an endurance of up to 24 hours and can operate at depths up to 300m. The interferometric UMISAS sonars on board offer a spatial resolution of 3x3cm to classify small and irregularly shaped objects of about 50cm side-on to the sonar’s view.

“moving from a second-generation solution using ROVs deployed from a mothership close to the danger zone, to a third generation MCM solution with a mothership operating much farther away from the danger zone and deploying a mix of AUVs, Unmanned Surface Vessels (USVs) and even Unmanned Air Vehicles (UAS) together with ROVs.”

The Russo-Ukraine War has highlighted the importance of MCM. The effect of deploying mines is to deny sea control to opposing forces but also to prevent the continuation of trade, making them an effective tool in a blockade that can impact the local and international economy. The mere risk of hitting a mine deters warships and commercial vessels from key trade routes and ports.

TRANSITION

MCM forces are at the start of a major

transition. Modern tier one naval forces are beginning to move away from using dedicated (and expensive) single-role MCM vessels (MCMVs) such as mine hunters and minesweepers. These ships are specialised as they are built of non-metallic material and incorporate high levels of signature control and shock resistance to enable them to operate in minefields with reduced risk. Minesweepers can tow a sweeping system behind them that replicates the signatures of a large warship to encourage the mines to detonate on the false target.

Many of these types of ships are coming to the end of their service lives and instead of being replaced, packages of remote and autonomous systems are being procured that can be deployed at range from a wider variety of ships. This is part of an ongoing trend to remove people and crewed platforms out of the immediate danger areas around mines and minefields. It began

with the use of ROVs that were employed to eliminate the need for divers to locate and classify mines, and has now moved to the ships themselves.

The intension is for these autonomous systems to collaborate in the detection, classification and destruction of mines at speed, providing more data for the accurate identification of mines resulting in MCM operators gaining more flexibility in their responses. To achieve this there are number of MCM procurement programmes underway to test and deliver this capability.

France and the United Kingdom are undertaking a joint programme under the auspices of the 2010 Lancaster House agreement. Known as the Maritime Mine Countermeasures (MMCM) programme, it is being led by Anglo-French company Thales, which was awarded the MMCM contract in March 2015.

The UK element is being procured under

The Inspector 125 USV has an anti-roll system that means it can operate in conditions up to sea state 5 (SS5) and conduct the launch and recovery of drones in up to SS4 including the A18 AUV, the T18 towed sonar and the SEASCAN identification

and K-STER neutralisation UUVs as well as a towed minesweeping system.

the MCM and Hydrographic Capability (MHC) programme that will see the Royal Navy’s existing Sandown- and Hunt-class mine hunting and mine sweeping MCMVs retired over the next decade. Two Sandown-class ships, HMS Blythe and HMS Ramsey, were decommissioned in August 2021 and were earmarked to be handed over to the Ukrainian Navy. The remaining five vessels will be retired through to 2025. MHC will also replace the survey ships HMS Echo and HMS Enterprise, due to the provision of a ‘toolbox’ of autonomous systems that can provide a range of capability for both hunting and sweeping tasks.

The UK’s MHC will be delivered in phases following the completion of a preliminary assessment phase. MHC Block 1 will see what the UK Ministry of Defence (MoD) terms as an initial capability insertion/operational exploitation of systems that will be operational by 2025.

The French element of MMCM, known as the Système de Lutte Anti-Mines Futur (SLAM-F) project (future counter-mines system), will only focus on a mine-hunting capability.

Under MHC Block 1 and the initial phase of SLAM-F, Thales delivered a prototype demonstrator system to each country which will be followed by three sets of complete

mine hunting systems at a cost of $249.7 million (£184 million). These include: an USV from L3Harris; the Saab Double Eagle ROV in its Multi-Shot Mine Neutralisation System (MuMNS) configuration; with Thales delivering its Synthetic Aperture Mine Detection and Imaging System (SAMDIS) and four Portable Operations Centres (POCs). Initial deliveries of the first complete production standard MMCM capability sets are expected in mid-2023 in Q2 or Q3.

Matt Hunt, the maritime autonomous business lead at Thales told Armada that in order to move into the production phase “some serious and significant trials” had to be completed in the UK and France. He explained that about 140 mines of different types had to be found across four different scenarios and within each scenario there were half a dozen vignettes.

According to Hunt, the systems covered a maritime area comprising about 30,000 football pitches during the trials and achieved a probability of detection of mines “greater than 99 percent” with false alarms less than one percent. “We blew the old systems out of the water. We hunted at 8-10 knots compared to the previous 1-2kts with a greater probability of detection and classification and with less false alarm rates.

Only by completing those were we given the green light for production,” Hunt added. In April 2022 the French Navy took delivery of its first 12 metre-long USV from Thales, named Artemis. In December 2021

The Saab Double Eagle ROV in its Multi-Shot Mine Neutralisation System (MuMNS) configuration. MuMNS is designed to re-locate the mine, an operator will then identify it using the cameras and then attach a charge to the mine. A float attached to the charge rises to the surface. The MuMNS has up to three charges can be placed for detonation simultaneously or separately

The Double Eagle MuMNS ROV from Saab is installed on the rear of RNMB Apollo by engineers from the Maritime Autonomous Systems Trials Team (MASTT) in March 2022 as part of trials pulling a towed sonar in the Plymouth Sound.

the RN took delivery its USV known as Royal Navy Motor Boat (RNMB) Apollo. In July 2022, the RN’s Maritime Autonomous Systems Trials Team (MASTT) announced that a second USV for the RN named RNMB Abdiel was conducting pre-acceptance testing.

The USVs are not just automated boats, they are sophisticated platforms fitted with high end equipment. This includes sense and avoid sensors to prevent collisions with other ships; seawater cooling, electricity and hydraulics to support payloads; the power to pull a towed body at 100-200m; and propulsion to allow the USV to keep station in a variety of sea states.

The USVs will pull a Towed Synthetic Aperture Multiviews (T-SAM) vehicle behind it that is fitted with the SAMDIS. Saab’s MuMNS system will be delivered from late-2022 following a $36.5 million (SEK300 million) order that the company announced was placed at the end of 2020. Each MuMNS has three mine neutraliser systems. Hunt said that the production variants will have 360 degree cameras, microphones and speakers on board to allow the system operators to see the environment and provide warnings to other near by craft.

The system has two configurations:

detection and classification; and localisation and neutralisation. Either two USVs can be used, one in each configuration, or just one that can be re-rolled by changing the modules on the back. For detection and classification, the operating officer is given an area of sea to clear. Using the mission management system with software that employs artificial intelligence to find the most efficient route with the assets available.

Hunt said that a route commonly followed looks much like mowing grass, going backwards and forwards in a linear fashion progressing through the space that needs to covered. But he explained that if speed is the most important factor “then you'll just maybe touch the edges” of the previously completed line, “but if you really want high probability of clearance, then you might overlay by 50 percent.” The system has up to 200m of length behind it knowing when and how to make turns.

The Thales SAMDIS is multi-aspect, so that during a sweep it can take picture of the targets at 30 degrees forward, 90 degrees to the side and 30 degrees to the rear. It repeats this from the other side on its return route, offering much more data to identify and classify an object than was previously available.

The USVs have servers on board that can

manage the huge amounts of data collected, estimated at about one Terabyte per mission each day. This can escalate into Petabytes across multiple days. The data is sent back to the POC in real-time for analysis where artificial intelligence (AI) software will put it through a threat library. “It is about operators making informed decisions supported by autonomy,” Hunt said. This is what enables the system to cover an area four times faster than using legacy MCM systems.

Once a mine is detected the USV will continue its route without stopping. The location data for the target will allow for a second USV with neutralisation equipment to engage, or for the same USV rerolled to return later to the site. The USV will autonomously deploy the Double Eagle MuMNS ROV, which can confirm the target with its camera sensors and place a charge on the mine – it can do this up to three times – all of which is controlled by the POC.

In the UK, MHC Block 1 also includes the delivery of five mine sweeping system from Atlas Elektronik UK that use an 11m-long USV called the Atlas Remote Combined Influence Minesweeping System (ARCIMS), named as RNMB Hussar by the RN. ARCIMS is fitted with acoustic, electronic, and magnetic payloads that can emit signals through a towed craft to trigger mines into thinking

As part of the Belgian-Dutch MCM toolbox the lightweight SEASCAN Mk2 ROV is used for inspections to identify any mines objects located by the mine hunting sensors. The ROV has a hovering capability to provide stability in turbulent water and uses a relocation sonar for target reacquisition and a tiltable camera for inspection and formal identification.

that a target ship is passing by.

The first four USVs, named RNMB Hussar, Halcyon, Harrier, and Hazard have been delivered with a fifth ordered by the MoD in January 2022. The final USV will be named Hydra and is expected to arrive by the end of 2022. These are known as the Combined Influence Sweeping (CIS). The sweeping systems are deployable by Royal Air Force Boeing C-17 and Airbus A400M transport aircraft. France is not receiving a CIS system under SLAM-F.

Both France and the UK will make a decision about proceeding to MHC Block 2, which will procure the bulk of the systems, after successfully achieving an initial operating capability (IOC) in 2024. The RN wants its systems to enter service by the time the RN’s last six Hunt-class MCMVs leave service from 2029-31.

As a part of SLAM-F France has also received three A27-M AUVs from ECA as part of its demonstrator project and it will also replace its existing 10 Éridan-class (Tripartite) mine hunter vessels with between 4-6 new 2,800 ton mine warfare mother ships.

WIDER APPEAL

ECA has formed a joint venture with Naval Group to form the Belgium Naval & Robotics consortium, which is delivering 12 MCMVs to the Belgian and Netherlands navies

under the rMCM project from 2024-2030 as well as a MCM solution for a total of $2.1 billion. An agreement was signed between the two countries in November 2016 that will see Belgium lead the MCM and toolbox acquisition with the Netherlands leading on a future frigate project. The 12 vessels will replace both navies’ existing 11 Tripartite MCMVs and a Belgian support ship. Built by Kership (a joint venture between Naval Group and Piriou) the first new MCM mother ship will be delivered in 2024.

Meanwhile ECA is delivering the MCM toolbox that includes the Inspector 125-M and 125-S USVs, A-18M AUV and T-18M towed SAS as well as the Seascan Mk2 ROV and K-ster C mine neutraliser.

The 125-M is capable of carrying and deploying a variety of mine hunting payloads including towed sonar, AUVs and mine identification and destruction equipment. The 125-S is dedicated to the sweeping role using the MLM-3100 magnetic influence system from CTM and Patria's ACS-66 acoustic generator. The A18-M is fitted with the UMISAS synthetic aperture sonar; and Saab is providing its V-200 Skeldar UAS to watch for mines on the surface. All these systems are managed using ECA’s UMISOFT software.

ECA’s Giannoni said: “We see the potential for developing even further beyond

what is already being developed, which is unprecedented in the MCM domain –having an USV deploying and recovering an AUV by itself, and the AUV equipped with a SAS with a high level of performance able to adapt its own mission depending on what the sonar is seeing. We are not going to stop there.”

MORE USE OF DRONES

In the future he expects the increased use of drones of different types to extend the duration of operations; an enhancement in sensor performance and more autonomous decision-making and data processing at the edge to speed up missions; simulation systems that better represent the water column and environment to train operators and the systems in advance to prepare the autonomous capability to face what they find in a minefield; and that MCM missions will become a more integrated part of larger missions such as surveying, seabed warfare and rapid environmental assessment among others.

Elsewhere the US Navy is introducing its new Unmanned Influence Sweep System (UISS) onto its Littoral Combat Ships (LCS). The system uses a 12m-long MCM USV that deploys the Mk104 acoustic generator and magnetic cable for minesweeping. Textron Systems was awarded a contract in 2014 to provide the UISS, which achieved IOC in July 2022. The MCM USV also operates a mine hunting and neutralisation payload that will replace the USN’s existing MCM-1 Avenger-class MCMVs and Sikorsky MH-53 Sea Dragon MCM helicopters.

David Phillips, senior vice president of Land and Sea Systems at Textron Systems told Armada: “IOC for the UISS was a huge achievement. The Navy/industry team is wrapping-up efforts to complete operational testing of the Mine Hunt payload that is also part of the mine countermeasures mission package. Once complete, the Navy will have both unmanned mine sweeping and mine hunting capabilities that can be deployed on Littoral Combat Ships.”

Thales’ Hunt said that MCM technology investment for the future include eco-options, which are becoming more important for navies and delivering towards net-zero. This includes electric propulsion, hydrogen fuel cells, novel additive manufacturing techniques and use of 3D printing. To counter future threats MCM capabilities will go “further, deeper, faster and more stealthy,” Hunt concluded.

Trials of the UISS USV by the US Navy that will provide the service with a new sweep system that includes integration of the AQS-20C towed mine hunting sonar. IOC was achieved by completing a comprehensive testing phase with logistics support and a training programme for the MCM Mission Package