Asian Military Review - September/October 2020 by Armada International & Asian Military Review

Volume 28/issue 5

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Contents september/October 2020 VOLUME 28 / ISSUE 5

The Australian Army National Advanced Surface to Air Missile System (NASAMS) will provide a Beyond Visual Range (BVR) Ground Based Air Defence (GBAD) capability against airborne threats such as aircraft, unmanned aerial vehicles and cruise missiles through Project LAND 19 Phase 7B. (Raytheon)

UNDERWATER FORCE MULTIPLIERS Dr Alix Valenti dives into how developments in underwater unmanned platforms may breach hostile A2/AD areas.

FERRETING AROUND FOR SECRETS

AIR DEFENCE REAWAKENS

Martin Streetly examines Chinese and Russian airborne ISR capabilities in Asia, and how nations such as Japan have ‘snoops’ of their own.

As air defence resurfaces on military requirements lists, Stephen W Miller discusses current capabilities.

42 24

SOF CHALLENGES AS GREAT POWER RIVALRY BUILDS

Andrew White examines the needs of Asian SOF just outside of peer-to-peer conflict.

38 30

COVID ADDS TO MALAYSIAN DEFENCE FUNDING PROBLEMS Finding funds for the Malaysian armed forces has never been straightforward, and that was before the pandemic struck. Dzirhan Mahadzir reports.

| september/october 2020 |

HUAWEI’S PERCEIVED THREAT EXPLAINED Much has been made of Huawei’s threat to national security structures. Tom Withington clears the static on what to consider.

34 42

ANALYSTS COLUMN Ben Ho compares the benefits and drawbacks of smaller Lightning carriers against their larger, ‘ready for anything’ brethren.

Index of Advertisers

AERONAUTICS 23 BELL FLIGHT

Editorial

CODAN 27 CUMMINS 13 D&S THAILAND

COVER 3

GENERAL ATOMICS

COVER 4

IDEX 29 EW EUROPE

FLIR SURVEILLANCE IAI

9 COVER2

LEONARDO 5 ROSOBORONEXPORT

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US TIGHTENS CHINA’S BELT

he United States Department of Commerce (Commerce) is adding its weight to the growing US campaign against the People’s Republic of China (PRC) for its island building strategy in the South China Sea (SCS).

On Wednesday 24 August, Commerce added 24 Chinese companies to its Entry List for the part they played in the construction and militarisation of artificial islands in the SCS. The Entry List is used by Commerce’s Bureau of Industry and Security (BIS) to “restrict the export, re-export, and transfer (in-country) of items subject to the Export Administration Regulations (EAR) to persons (individuals, organisations, companies)” that, in basic terms, work against the national security and foreign policy interests of the US. This means that US companies will be restricted from selling products and services to the 24 Chinese companies without a special license. There are currently around 300 Chinese companies on the Entry List.

Among the 24 listed companies are several subsidiaries of the China Communications Construction Company (CCCC) and others involved in construction and communications, including China Electronics Technology Group Corporation. This is another move by the US designed to ratchet up the pressure on the PRC over its ‘nine dash line’ claim to the majority of the SCS made through illegal island building. On 12 July 2016, a court of arbitration established by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) agreed unanimously that there was no historic evidence that the SCS belonged to China and therefore there was “no legal basis for China to claim historic rights” over the nine-dash line. China did not take part in the arbitration. US Secretary of State Michael Pompeo made one of the more forceful rebuttals of China’s SCS claims on 13 July when he stated that “America stands with our Southeast Asian allies and partners in protecting their sovereign rights to offshore resources, consistent with their rights and obligations under international law.” Resources are of course one of the main reasons behind China’s claims, not only in terms of fishing grounds, but also what lies under the sea bed. These moves are also being seen as an indirect attempt to put the brakes on China’s economic expansion. Many of the companies now on the Entry List are also players in China’s ‘Belt and Road’ Initiative, which aims to create international infrastructure development that will increase its commercial ties globally, but with a particular focus on nations within Asia Pacific, Africa and Central and Eastern Europe. However, with so much rhetoric from the Trump Administration in recent years about following an America First policy, with some emphasis on isolationism, there are numerous nations who are willing to take China’s financial incentives offered through the ‘Belt and Road’ programme ahead of siding with the US where the long term benefits are increasingly unclear. Andrew Drwiega, Editor-in-Chief

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Saab

power

Saab's AUV62 MR is a modular torpedo-shaped UUV designed for MCM missions that can be launched from a submarine via a standard torpedo tube or a MMP.

UNDERWATER FORCE MULTIPLIERS Submarine-launched unmanned platforms are looking to covertly

penetrate hostile A2/AD areas where their ‘mother ships’ fear to go.

n February 2020, Chinese government sources announced the recovery of the underwater drones China deployed in the Indian Ocean for the purpose of gathering oceanography data. Further east, while Chinese fishermen regularly report finding foreign underwater drones - ‘spies’ - in Chinese waters, China is rumoured to be working on the development of an underwater Great Wall; a seabed of sensors protecting key strategic points on its shores. Further north, Russia has been developing the Poseidon, a submarine-launched underwater nuclear-warhead delivery platform. Evidently, the race for underwater strategic and tactical superiority is on. As noted by Andrew Davies and James Mug, in a Strategic Insight from the Australian Strategic Policy Institute (ASPI), The next big grey thing - choosing Australia’s future frigate, “the enormousness of the ocean makes it one of the few remaining areas

by Dr Alix Valenti on Earth where big military platforms, such as ballistic missile submarines, can hide. Despite the development of new detection technologies, the ocean remains mostly opaque at depths of just a few dozen meters.” In such context, unmanned vehicles (UV) are key strategic capabilities for carrying out a number of missions without endangering valuable platforms. When launched from a submarine, they represent a great force multiplier.

Beyond Opacity The opacity of oceans and seas is the result of a wide variety of factors. Chiefly amongst those are the levels of salinity, the topography of sea and ocean beds, and the traffic encountered in those waters, whether military or civilian. All these characteristics vary greatly across the world’s oceans and seas, presenting significant challenges for noise propagation and recognition, and requiring in-depth knowledge of the areas

| Asian Military Review |

of operation in order to plan missions, assets and payloads accordingly. In such context, any strategic advantage will go to navies capable of using these challenging characteristics to their advantage. Guarding power projection assets, such as aircraft carriers and amphibious vessels, from adversary underwater assets may be difficult in these environments, yet such difficulties can be contrasted by acquiring the systems that can carry a number of missions autonomously, keeping key capabilities and crew out of harm’s way. Until recently submarines were the platforms of choice, using this ‘underwater fog of war’ to a navy’s advantage. Stealthy and built to undertake long range missions over sustained periods of time, they can gather significant volumes of data or deliver weapons while remaining undetected. However, the resurgence of Great Power competition over the past few years has brought about increasing concerns over the development of Anti-

sea power

Unmanned Tactics Unmanned - or autonomous - vehicles have been gaining significant traction in the military domain over the last decade because they can be used to carry out missions that would otherwise put human lives and key capabilities at risk. Until recently, in the underwater domain, this had been particularly evident in relation to mine hunting. Slowly fallen into oblivion after the end of World War II (WWII), mines have made a strong comeback in the past decade with the development of smart mines as part of A2/AD strategies. This has led an increasing number of nations choosing to pair Unmanned Underwater Vehicles (UUVs) with a mother ship to carry out Mine Counter Measure (MCM) missions. Although the vast majority of MCM systems are launched from surface ships, a number of countries, especially the US, are exploring the possibility of launching them from submarines as well. But the real, emerging, tactical

advantage of submarine-launched only allow them to work together as a UUVs resides in their ability to offer buoy field or deployable underwater a more extended and safer range for sonar array, it would also make them less power projection into chokepoints and vulnerable to individual countermeasures. contested space. Johan Strandlund, head Shaped like torpedoes, to facilitate of marketing and sales Underwater launching from the submarine’s torpedo Systems, Saab, told AMR that, “UUV tubes, UVs working as a part of a network operations from submarines not only give of ISR manned/unmanned systems the advantage of enhanced ISR (sensor carry out their programmed mission multiplying capability) with a higher autonomously from the mother ship. degree of covertness (both on a strategic How the data they collect is then shared and tactical level) but also a greater stand- and used may vary according to different off between the submarine and the area of CONOPS. It can be shared rapidly with operations.” a surface or air asset for immediate Key to overcoming A2/AD barriers is action in the context of early warning. the ability to gather the data necessary to Alternatively, it can be shared with build as complete a situational awareness other unmanned platforms - whether picture as possible. As noted in the June underwater, surface and/or air - to then 2020 report published by the Stockholm be retrieved by the submarine itself or International Peace Research Institute other manned platforms to plan for (SIPRI), Artificial Intelligence, Strategic future action. Stability, and Nuclear Risk, “machine The US Navy (USN) has been learning and autonomy hold major experimenting with this CONOPS promise for early warning and ISR.” for the past few years. According to These two technologies – supported the Congressional Research Service by a variety of navigation, sensor and report, Navy Large Unmanned Surface and communication payloads – enable Undersea Vehicles: Background and Issues the collection and processing of large for Congress, published in March 2020, volumes of data on-board, allowing UUVs the USN is pursuing such capabilities to not only identify by themselves signals, to meet emerging military challenges, objects and situations of interest for the “particularly from China.” The USN vision purpose of ISR, but also to safely navigate includes extra large platforms, which are autonomously over extended ranges and pier launched, as well as large, medium periods of time. These systems can either and small systems that can be surface or work in collaboration with other UUVs or submarine launched. may be used as single-system UVs. AeroVironment, specialised in small unmanned air systems (UAS) and loitering missiles, has been working with the USN Networked UVs to develop its Blackwing project. A small “Multiple small platforms distributed UAS delivering rapid-response ISR, a across a wide area could help provide company spokesperson told AMR in a broader sensor coverage and would not require more than limited relocation,” written statement, the Blackwing “can be deployed from an underwater submarine notes the RAND report. This would not

AeroVironment

Access/Area Denial (A2/AD) strategies and their threat to such costly capabilities. According to the document Advancing Autonomous Systems: An Analysis of Current and Future Technology for Unmanned Maritime Vehicles, published by the RAND Corporation in 2019, “the layers of sensors and overlapping weapon rings create multiple opportunities for adversaries to attack detectable platforms; in the most challenging A2/AD environments, targeted platforms are unlikely to survive, even with advanced kinetic interception capabilities.” The development of UVs these past few years is a direct response of submarines’ vulnerability to such A2/ AD tactics.

A small UAS delivering rapid-response ISR, AeroVironment’s Blackwing can be deployed from a submarine using underwater-to-air delivery canisters

| september/october 2020 |

sea

Captain Pete Small, USN

power

The USN has developed a UUV systems vision that encompasses a wide range of unmanned systems considerably extended the range and capabilities of its submarines.

using an underwater-to-air delivery canister.” It incorporates an advanced Electro-Optical and Infrared (EO/IR) sensor and provides operators with realtime video for information gathering and feature/object recognition. It can relay information to other UUVs via DDLJoint, interoperable, encrypted wideband. Conceptualised during the USN Submarine Over the Horizon Organic Capabilities project, “the Blackwing transitioned to USN submarines in 2016.” The role of the submarine in these case scenarios, however, remains limited. Technological advances have made significant strides in recent years to improve range and autonomy, but underwater communication remains challenging. Not only do ocean and sea characteristics considerably limit communication frequencies, but the necessity for a submarine to remain undetected also constrains communications with other platforms to a minimum. Unless the submarine is already at periscope depth, which

is unlikely to be the case in an A2/AD environment.

Single-System UUVs Submarine-launched UVs may also be used as single platforms to undertake ISR missions. In this scenario, Unmanned Underwater Vehicles (UUVs) are launched from the submarine to carry out specific ISR missions in complete autonomy and are subsequently recovered to allow data processing onboard. “Recovery is the main issue for submarine-launched UUVs,” Cyril Levy, Head of Unmanned Systems & Mine Warfare at Naval Group told AMR. “On a surface ship there will always be crewmembers assigned to assist with the recovery of a returning UV, but this is not possible on a submerged submarine.” A submarine, which is in movement most of the time, creates turbulences around its shell that make it particularly difficult for UUVs to fit back into the tube without endangering the submarine according to Levy.

| Asian Military Review |

As such, Naval Group has been working to develop a docking station that can be fitted onto a submarine and can safely host the UUV. The docking station is complete with an automatic charging system working with induction technologies and a special liquid that allows for long-term storage of the UUV, thus avoiding corrosion from seawater. The large volumes of data collected during the mission are transferred from the UUV to the submarine via the submarine’s secure Wi-Fi system, then transformed in the correct format to be processed and analysed via the submarine’s Combat Management System (CMS). Naval Group has also developed the D19, a torpedo-shaped UUV weighting approximately one tonne and between six and eight metres-long – depending on the number of batteries fitted to increase autonomy. “The engine of the system has also been designed to ensure stability at very low speed,” added Levy. Similarly, Saab Kockums’ latest submarine design, the A26, features a

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Multimission Portal (MMP). Initially developed for the delivery of Special Forces divers, the MMP design takes into consideration “the various needs for operating a UUV, both in terms of ensuring the necessary space and handling considerations inside the vessel, and the MMP itself to ensure safe and quiet operation in the confines of a submarine,” Benoit Passard, Kockums executive, told AMR. Additionally, all Saab’s Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROV) and UUVs can be launched from a submarine as long as there is space on-board. More specifically designed for these operations are the SUBROV, a small ROV for general underwater operations tethered to the submarine by a fibre optic cable, and the AUV62 MR, a modular torpedo-shaped UUV designed for MCM missions. “Both systems are launched and retrieved from a standard torpedo tube and the Swedish armed forces have been operating both systems for years,” Strandlund told AMR, although in the future the AUV62 MR will also be launched from the MMP.

Saab

power

Saab’s SUBROV is a small ROV for general underwater operations tethered to the submarine by a fibre optic cable, which can be launched via a standard torpedo tube

Untethered

Saab

UVs have been in development for quite some time across different branches of the armed forces around the world. Yet, in the naval domain, it is the increase in A2/AD strategies brought about by the resurgence of Great Power competition

Kockums’ A26 submarine design includes a MMP originally designed for special forces diver delivery that can also launch a UUV

| Asian Military Review |

that has triggered a race in the development of these force multipliers. Whether they are employed for MCM or ISR missions, UVs provide submarines with a significantly extended range to facilitate power projection in denied environments. However, despite great technological strides, a number of challenges remain. “One of the greatest issues for the future is the ability to continue developing the autonomy of these systems,” Levy told AMR. Autonomy not only in terms of being able to interact intelligently with the environment they operate in, through artificial intelligence, but also through high performance batteries that can continue extending their ranges. “Increased intelligence also means increased need for communications,” noted Levy, and if the industry succeeds in overcoming some of the constraints of communicating underwater, then these systems will have truly become untethered. AMR

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JMoD

power

Since 2014, the Shaanxi Y-9/GX-8 ‘ferret’ aircraft has been regularly intercepted by the JASDF while approaching Japan’s ADZ

FERRETING AROUND FOR SECRETS

Japan has experienced an increase in visits by Chinese and Russian ISR aircraft, but also has snoops of its own.

ith the COVID-19 pandemic gripping the world, it is easy to forget that there is a ‘parallel’ world in which pre-March 2020 concerns remain unresolved. For the Asia-Pacific region this means continuing tension with the People’s Republic of China (PRC) over its territorial and maritime claims in the South China Sea (SCS); on-going border tensions between India and Pakistan and India and the PRC, as well as continuing uncertainty about the short and long term intensions of North Korea’s ‘Dear Leader’ Kim Jong-un (and increasingly sister Kim Yo-jong). Combine these

by Martin Streetly considerations with the area’s geography and the economic and social effects of the pandemic itself and it is not hard to see that intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) capabilities are to the fore and that air- and space-borne systems provide the best option for monitoring events in this vast region. It is with a sampling of the area’s airborne systems that the remainder of this article concerns itself. One of the least known regional airborne ISR capabilities is that of the PRC. Here, the past 20 years has seen that country develop and deploy a range of ‘information gathering’ aircraft based on the Tupolev Tu-154 (possibly

| Asian Military Review |

designated as the Tu-154M/D Type 1) and the Shaanxi Y-8 and Y-9 (designs that have been developed from the Russian An-12 transport) airframes. In order, the Tu-154 is understood to have entered service during 1998 and has been fielded in at least two variants. In the first instance, aircraft B-4108 was equipped with a ventral array of blister and teardrop radomes and was almost certainly a signals intelligence (SIGINT) platform. For their part, six other aircraft of this type have been fitted with a large ‘canoe’ fairing beneath their forward fuselages and have been variously described as being radar reconnaissance and/or a SIGINT platforms. Despite

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AIR

Alex Beltyukov

power

Ilyushin’s Il-38 maritime patrol aircraft is used to monitor activities in the sea lanes off Japan

its age, the Chinese continue to utilise the Tu-154 for reconnaissance, with the Japanese Air Self-Defence Force (JASDF) having intercepted such a platform off the Japanese home islands as recently as January 2020. The most modern of the Shaanxibased systems is the one that is based on the company’s Y-9 airframe and which was first identified during October 2014. Externally, these new ‘special mission’ aircraft are characterised by an aft-facing fin-top radome; a possible satellite communications antenna fairing above its rear fuselage; six or seven blade aerials above its wing centre section and forward fuselage; a ventral radome beneath its forward fuselage; a prominent nose radome and pairs of lateral antenna ‘boxes’ arranged on either side of its forward and rear fuselage. Possibly bearing the local designation ‘GX-8’, a limited number of ‘ferret’ Y-9s are thought to have been supplied to the People’s Liberation Army’s Navy (PLAN) and have been intercepted by JASDF

fighters approaching Japan’s air defence zone (ADZ) from 2016 onwards, with the latest example being spotted as late as early June 2020. Visitors to Japan’s ADZ are not limited to manned aircraft - a Chinese unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) was intercepted over the East China Sea - or just those aircraft belonging to the PRC. A variety of Russian aircraft (including Tu-142 and Ilyushin Il-38 maritime patrol and Il20M and Tu-214R ‘ferret’ types) are fairly regular visitors to offshore Japan. For their own part (and aside from tactical reconnaissance assets), both the JASDF and the Japanese Maritime Self-Defence Force (JMSDF) operate small fleets of ‘snoopers’. In order, the JASDF operates a small force of YS-11EB derivatives of the twin-engined NAMC YS-11 airliner in the electronic reconnaissance role. Characterised by both dorsal and ventral antenna arrays, the JASDF’s quartet of YS-11EB are said to have been used to monitor Sino-Russian activity in the northwest Pacific and the Sea of Japan

| Asian Military Review |

and are said to have been used to collect data on North Korean missile tests. As of the period 2019-20, the now ageing YS-11EB remained in service. Looking the future, a prototype ‘ferret’ based on Japan’s Kawasaki C-2 transport aircraft made its maiden flight in February 2018 and may be a precursor to a ‘production’ YS-11EB replacement. For its part, the JMSDF operates an airborne maritime reconnaissance & SIGINT capability built around eight assorted Kawasaki EP-3 ‘ferret’ and Lockheed Martin OP-3C multi-sensor surveillance aircraft. In order, the EP-3’s baseline mission suite is logged as having comprised ‘low-’ (manufactured by NEC) and ‘high-band’ (manufactured by Mitsubishi) sub-systems, with a possible total frequency coverage of between 30MHz and 18/20GHz. Identified EP-3 usage includes regular monitoring of the Sea of Japan and the waters around the Japanese home island of Honshu’s western coastline together with ‘specials’ against targets such as North Korea’s

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the ‘Peace Krypton’ and ‘Peace Pioneer’ programmes. In reverse order, the ‘Peace Pioneer’ RC-800SIG capability is vested in four Hawker 800XP business jets that have been modified to accommodate an L3Harris combined communications- and electronic intelligence suite that covers a range of frequency ranges up to and including the Ka-band (26.5 to 40GHz). The same airframe also forms the basis of the RoK’s four ‘Peace Krypton’ RC800RA aircraft that are equipped with an X-band (8-12.5GHz) Lockheed Martin synthetic aperture radar (SAR) for ground surveillance. As of 2020, all eight of these aircraft were being reported as ‘being in service’, with (in July 2020) the ‘Peace Krypton’ aircraft being the subject of American approval for an estimated $250 million RC-800RA follow-on support and equipment upgrade programme which, if consummated, will have Lockheed Martin as its ‘principle contractor’ As noted earlier, pre COVID-19 the RoK was in the process of a substantial recapitalisation effort that would both improve its available ISR capability and

reduce reliance on its American ally. As part of this effort, the RoK has acquired a pair of Dassault Falcon 2000 business jets that have been modified to undertake both communications intelligence gathering and missile launch detection. Entering service during (it is thought) 2017/18, these Falcon 2000s are said to be discrete replacements for the ageing RC-800SIG aircraft. A similar lack of fanfare greeted the arrival of the RoK’s first Block 30 Northrop Grumman RQ-4B Global Hawk high-altitude, long endurance (HALE) UAV in late December 2019. Offering both EO/IR and radar imagery, the Global Hawk will provide South Korea with the ability to monitor its neighbours for extended periods of time and the type (together with its MQ-4C Triton maritime surveillance offspring) is becoming a major force in ISR provision in the Pacific region. In addition to the RoK, Australia is in the process of acquiring up to six MQ-4C platforms as a corner stone in its latest ISR plan while Japan is understood to have decided to procure three RQ-4s for delivery by September 2022. For its part

ROKAF

nuclear programme. The JMSDF’s second ‘surveillor’ (the OP-3C) is a perhaps even more exotic creature than the ‘ferreting’ EP-3. As far as can be ascertained, the service’s quartet of OP-3Cs are used to monitor ‘shipping of interest’ in the seas around Japan and are equipped with a mission suite that, over time, has included an electronic support (ES) system, at least one radar, the DB-110 electro-optic/infrared (EO/IR) imaging system and an IR ‘search & track’ sub-system. As with the JASDF’s YS-11EB fleet, the JMSDF’s EP-3 and OP-3C aircraft are becoming ‘long in the tooth’ and as of 2018, it was being suggested that there was a wish to obtain replacements for both types of aircraft. Mention of North Korea’s nuclear and missile programmes leads neatly to consideration of the Republic of Korea’s (RoK) recapitalisation of its ability to monitor its northern neighbour’s activities. Traditionally, the RoK has relied heavily on America to boost its airborne surveillance capability which is currently vested in tactical reconnaissance platforms and

The ‘Peace Paekdue’ RC-800RA is a radar-equipped Hawker 800XP business jet that is used by the RoK’s air force to monitor activity in North Korea.

| Asian Military Review |

Northrop Grumman/Alan Radecki Operated by the USN and on order for Australia, the MQ-4C Triton maritime surveillance UAV promises to be a ‘game changer’ in Asia-Pacific airborne ISR capabilities

(and as of May 2020), the United States Navy (USN) is reported to have deployed a pair of MQ-4Cs on Guam, while the United States Air Force (USAF) made its first RQ-4 rotation to Japan (specifically, Yokota Air Base) during late May 2020. As noted earlier, the RQ-4B is equipped for EO/IR and radar imaging while the MQ-4C is optimised for maritime operations. Retaining the RQ4’s airframe profile, the MQ-4C carries

a mission suite that includes the X-band AN/ZPY-3 multi-function active sensor (MFAS) radar, an AN/ZLQ-1 ES system (with specific emitter identification), an MTS-B EO/IR imager (with auto-track), an automatic identification system (AIS) application and a communications package that includes Link 16. Again, the MQ-4C is quoted as having a maximum range of 9,950 nautical miles (18,427km) and as being able to stay aloft for up to 30

AIR power

hours. In the specific Australian context, the combination of the updated Jindalee over-the-horizon radar, the MQ-4C, the Boeing P-8A maritime patrol aircraft and the E-7A airborne early warning platform should provide that country with an extremely capable surveillance capability for the mid- to late 21st century. Hopefully, the foregoing will have given the reader at least a feel for current airborne ISR in the Asia-Pacific region. At the time of writing (August 2020), there was no reason to suppose that any of the described programmes were being cancelled due to the effects of the COVID-19 virus. This said, there is no doubt that the pandemic has caused grievous damage to the populations of almost all the countries in the region (particularly those of China, India and Australia) and it is almost certain that the economic effects of what is effectively the 21st century’s ‘Black Death’ will only serve to increase both tensions and the need to ‘see’ what competitor nations are up to. AMR

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AIR DEFENCE REAWAKENS

There is renewed urgency to provide air defence systems that not only work in isolation, but can be networked for ground protection in depth. by Stephen W. Miller The Kongsberg/Raytheon NASAMS is a proven near to mid range missile system that has been adapted to a number of platforms including ground and light vehicles. Asian-Pacific users include the Indonesian Air Force and recently the Australian Army which will utilise the Hawkei vehicle.

| Asian Military Review |

Hanwha

l and warfare

Tactical Air Defence

Raytheon

The Republic of Korea has dedicated considerable efforts toward providing a robust forward air defense capability much of it indigenously developed. Among these the Hanwha BiHo selfpropelled anti-air gun/missile stands out in addressing the range of low level aerial threats including drones, helicopters and missiles.

actical air defence has been widely neglected by many armies with notable exceptions. This is at least partly the result of the focus on counter-insurgency (COIN) but also is reflected by the many decades of air superiority achieved by western militaries in conflicts since World War II. It is not surprising then that Russia and the Peoples Republic of China (PRC), the nations against which this superiority might be directed, would be the ones paying the most attention to advancing air defence capabilities. Assuring the protection of manoeuvring forward combat units, supporting indirect fire assets, and logistics trains and sites is of critical importance when one is not assured of air cover. This has been complicated by the additional threats of unmanned aerial systems (UAS) and cruise missiles. Peter Wilson and John Parachini senior international defence researchers at the RAND Corporation in a 6 May 2000 article entitled Russian S-400 Surfaceto-Air Missile System: Is It Worth the Sticker Price? explained that “the capability of an individual system is not the central point. To be effective the systems need to be deployed within a larger integrated air and missile defence system.” This is equally true at the tactical level to cover a dynamic manoeuvring force and its supporting elements at fixed sites behind the front lines. The introduction of low level UAS systems, in particular, has expanded the need for this networking to cover other ground combat elements as well and requires a resiliency with a mutually supporting network established in depth.

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Considering the expansion of the air threat a number of militaries including those in the Asian Pacific region are considering establishing air defence capabilities. In doing so they might well look to the example of the Republic of Korea (ROK) which has not only built a well thought out air defence but has done so largely with a collection of locally developed and manufactured systems. The ROK Army has given particular attention to protecting its ground manoeuvre forces. With the most forward elements there is the BiHo K30 by Hanwha defence. A twin 30mm autocannon system on the K200, it includes a TPS-830K X-band surveillance radar and panoramic Electro Optical Targeting System (EOTS) with thermal, TV, and laser ranging. Shingung surface-to-air guided missiles (SAM) were added in 2015 extending effective range to 7,000 meters. It will be supplemented by a new Anti-Aircraft Gun Wheeled (AAGW) system which saw a full rate production contact award to Hanwha Defence in June 2020. AAWG utilises the – 8x8 wheeled combat vehicle chassis with twin 30mm auto-cannon coupled to an EOTS on the turret roof. With a 3,000m range it can engage low flying aircraft, helicopters, and unmanned drones. The foundation of a modern effective tactical air defence has been shown to best rely on a combination of guns and missiles. The ROK has achieved this by locally adapting the French Crotale SAM as the K-SAM Chunma or ‘Pegasus’. Again using the K200 tracked chassis it combines Samsung/Thales developed S-Band surveillance and Ku-Band tracking radar with day TV, infrared cameras and identification friend or foe (IFF) capable of all visibility, all weather tracking of up to 20 targets at 35 kilometres. The VT-1 high explosive focused fragmentation proximity detonating warhead missiles have an 11km effective range. Its exceptional missile manoeuvrability and Mach 3.5 speed as well as ECCM and chaff resistance make it a formidable system. The system provided for defence of supporting positions behind the forward lines and high value installations.

Mid-Range A layered defence in depth requires an overlapping tier of coverage typically provided by mid-range air defence missile systems. Two that have been selected in this role by the Pacific area air

land

China Military Review

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measures. A light vehicle mounted version with eight missiles, the Type 93, is also fielded. Type 81 or Tan-SAM is a locally developed truck mounted infrared heat seeking surface-to-air missile of local design although the upgraded SAM-1C has an active radar seeker and 14km range. Typically it is used in a battery of two launchers plus a 3D phase array search and tracking radar with an electro-optic/ thermal backup. It’s Type 11 mobile SAM is an improved model which some reports suggest may have increased 18km range. All these systems are mobile but require set-up and stationary firing making them more suited for site defence. The force does, however, field the Type 87, a tracked air defence system built around stabilised twin Oerlikon 35mm auto-cannon, search and tracking radar, and electro-optic sights which offers on-the-move aerial defence. With the new Japanese active defence policy and focus on recovering and holding outlying islands, the need for additional expeditionary air defence may well be come evident.

Manportable SAMs The PLA is moving to enhance its forward air defenses with both the expansion and improvement of its anti-aircraft artillery and the development and addition of mobile short/mid-range surface to air missile systems. The Yitan SHORAD mounts twin quad heat-seeking missiles with [6km] range on wheeled 6x6 armoured vehicle including a 3D X-Band radar and thermal sights.

defence community are the Kongsberg/ Raytheon National Advanced Surface to Air Missile System (NASAMS) and Rafael Advanced Defence Systems Surface to air Python and DERby (SPYDER). The former is already used by six European militaries and five other countries including reportedly Chile. Indonesia adopted the system in 2017 and Australia in March 2019 announced its intent to purchase. Eirik Lie, Kongsberg president stated in a 20 June 2020 release: “The continuous technical evolution of the system and the addition of users confirm that NASAMS is the most modern and advanced air defence system in the world..” The system is compatible with use on light vehicles like the HMMWV and Hawkei, tactical trucks or trailer mounting. It incorporates the Raytheon MPQ-64 Sentinel X-Band 3D radar that can detect, classify and track aerial targets at 40km distance. An improved MPQ-1F1 adds the capability to acquire, track, alert to and determine the azimuth of attack of enemy rockets, artillery, and mortar fires. The missile is derived from

the AIM-120 AMRAAM air-to-air missile. Its stationary firing places the NASAMS in the roles of protecting fixed targets or positioned behind forward lines. SPYDER is medium truck mounted firing both Python-5 and Derby missiles. The former is a Mach 4 ‘lock-on-afterlaunch’ electro-optic and infrared (EO/ IR) homing missile while the later uses ‘fire and forget’ active radar. These are coupled in a battery with a Elta EL/M2106 3D Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) surveillance or EL/M-208 multi-mission radar. India, Singapore, and Vietnam have fielded it with the Philippines Air Force (PAF) indicating in December 2018 that it had also adopted the system. Japan’s Ground Self Defence Force (JGSDF) has chosen to primarily rely on missiles for tactical air defence which a significant focus on heat seeking systems. Its Type 91 Kai MANPADS, locally developed by Toshiba, uses a dual infrared and ultraviolet seeker. It captures the target profile prior to launch to reduce distractions like flare counter

| Asian Military Review |

Man portable surface-to-air missiles, referred to as MANPADS, are widely fielded with versions like the US Raytheon FIM-92 Stinger, Russian KBM SA-14 Strela and SA-18 Igla, Chinese HN, QW series and Fei Nu-6 (FN-6) Flying Crossbow series, as well as South Korea’s indigenous Chiron and North Korea’s HT-16PGJ in many armies. These are all heat seeking ‘fire and forget’ systems. However, one quite different system, the Saab Bofors Dynamics RBS-70, has gained a number of adherents in the Asian-Pacific region including Thailand, Indonesia, Singapore and Australia. Uniquely among MANPADS, it is a tripod/pedestal mounted laser beam riding system. It has a very high intercept speed (Mach 2.0 in the latest BOLIDE model) with a target adaptable proximity fuse. Its 3,000 tungsten spheres and shaped charge warhead make it deadly for any air target. With a range of up to 8km meters and 6km altitude it is particularly suited for providing defence surrounding an asset. Its ‘Next Generation’ model included high-resolution thermal imaging, gunner cueing, and auto-tracking. The company has capitalised on the RBS-70 reputation by introducing the MSHORD (Mobile SHORAD). It provides light or combat vehicle mounted Giraffe 1X search radar with 75km range, command and control with tactical data links, and remote

l and

SAAB

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The SAAB Bofors Dynamics RBS-70 differentiates itself from other MANPADS by providing a system that recognizes the benefits of a stable firing platform and the advantages of positive control of the missile throughout the engagement. The latest BOLIDE model incorporates both a much faster Mach 2.0 flight and a significantly more lethal warhead. Here firing by the Australian Army.

weapon station mounted RBS-70NG engagement. The Republic of China (Taiwan) Army has sought to develop indigenous air defence capabilities through its National Chung-Shan Institute of Science and Technology (NCSIST). One effort lead to the Antelope truck mounted Sky Sword 1 SAM missile with infrared heat seeking system. These can be linked with the CS/MPQ-78 3D pulse radar with 46km range for surveillance and direction. The system has become seriously dated and there are reports that NCSIST has been actively pursuing the adaption of the Sea Oryx naval point defence system (similar to the US Rolling Airframe Missile) to a truck mounting. The Peoples Liberation Army’s 2019 Defence White Paper also identified the need to improve its air defence. To a large degree, its tactical and short range air defence relies primarily on a mix of towed and self-propelled anti-aircraft gun systems. These include the Norinco PGZ95 with four 25mm auto-cannon and two QW-2 IR heat seeking missile directed

by electro-optic sights with a CLC-1 S-Band search radar. Another is the PGZ09 mounting two 35mm auto-cannon (a licensed Oerlikon GDF) with a forward mounted tracking radar and rear Doppler surveillance radar with a reported range of 20km. Both use a tracked chassis similar to that of self propelled artillery but others are based on wheeled light armoured carriers. In May 2019 the PLA debuted such a system on an 8x8 chassis mounting a single turret mounted 35mm auto-cannon with a roof mounted radar and likely electro-optic aiming. Chinese media reported the system was designed to “intercept air targets including drones and cruise missiles.” On the tactical mobile missile side there is the Hongqi HQ-7 (FM80/90 export), a reverse engineered version of the command guided French Crotale, the HQ-61 radar guided truck mounted SAM (based on the US AIM-7 Sparrow), the FLV/FLG/FL2000 and Yi Tian 6X6 WZ551 with QW-1A IR seeker missiles. The truck mounted Sky Dragon 12 GAS15 short range and Sky Dragon 50

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GAS2 medium range systems were both unveiled in September 2014 at a regional defence exhibition. Despite the recent new attention given to tactical and short range air defence it remains unclear if it is sufficient to address the degree to which the air threats to combat forces has rapidly increased. The US and Western armies, even while launching a number of accelerated development programmes, remain woefully ill prepared. Even Russian systems have experienced successful strikes such as on the UMP Pantsir in Syria. The Pantsir was self-acclaimed as the most advanced AD system, but attacks on it recognise that effective defence relies on more than just a single piece of equipment or weapon. Ruslan Pukhov, director of Russia’s Centre for Analysis of Strategies and Technologies explained in an a 19 September 2019 interview: “It is necessary to understand that the Pantsir-S1 SPAAGM is an element of point air defence and cannot act equally effectively as an air defence asset of individual units.” AMR

technology s p o t l i g h t

HUAWEI’S PERCEIVED THREAT EXPLAINED

“W

The UK has banished Huawei from its telecommunications networks. Was this the result of US pressure, or domestic concern over the reliance Britain placed on the firm for critical infrastructure? by Thomas Withington

e welcome the news that the United Kingdom plans to ban Huawei from future 5G networks and phase out untrusted equipment from existing networks,” said Mike Pompeo, US secretary of state on 14 July. Pompeo was welcoming the British Government’s decision taken that day to ban UK telecommunications firms from buying and using equipment provided the Chinese telecommunications giant Huawei. The ban also requires all Huawei equipment to be phased out of UK telecommunications by 2027. At first glance, the decision seemed to be the result of direct pressure from the administration of US President Donald Trump. The US government had concerns Huawei’s equipment could contain ‘back doors’ to enable Chinese intelligence operatives to spy on traffic moving through telecom networks. In 2018 the US defence funding bill which legislated defence spending for fiscal year 2019 contained a passage preventing the federal government from doing business with Huawei.

Backbone

Cell Phone Tower (Joe Ravi) – Huawei is now banned from the UK’s telecommunications infrastructure with US pressure and domestic concerns playing their part in the decision.

| Asian Military Review |

The UK’s involvement with Huawei gathered momentum back in 2004. British Telecom, the UK’s largest telecommunications provider, had begun work on its 21st Century Network (21CN). 21CN was to replace the UK’s System-X digital telephone exchange architecture. This had been used to for the country’s trunk telephone network since the early 1980s. System-X was noteworthy as it digitally moved telecommunications traffic around the network as opposed to the legacy electromechanical system it replaced. 21CN takes the digital approach of 21CN further by harnessing an IP (Internet Protocol) technology. Along with several other firms Huawei was supplying the 21CN’s Multi-Service Access Nodes (MSAN). MSANs send and receive traffic to and from homes and businesses. This traffic is sent across standard digital and, to a lesser extent analogue, telephone lines. The MSANs connect these homes and businesses to the wider trunk or ‘backbone’ network using a process called backhaul. Using the analogy of a road network, an MSAN is like a junction connecting several small village roads to a highway which links cities to one another. The MSANs

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will convert traffic to IP standards for transmission across the network. In January, the UK’s National Cyber Security Centre (NCSC), a government agency advising the public and private sector on how to avoid cyber security threats, published a summary of its findings concerning a security analysis of the UK telecoms sector. The document noted that the signalling networks connecting networks to one another have traditionally been built on the assumption that the traffic received from other networks can be trusted. Now that these networks use digital and IP standards the report warned “that assumption is no longer valid as … international networks can be exploited by attackers to conduct attacks.” Just as IP data received by a computer can potentially be malicious, so IP data received in a telecom network might be just as nefarious.

HCSEC The report cautioned against the UK

becoming reliant on any individual supplier. Such a course of action would make the country dependent on that firm for the operation of all, or a large part of a telecoms network. The report warned that “national dependence would reduce our ability to hold the supplier to an appropriate standard of behaviour and security.” Given Huawei’s involvement in UK telecoms to date, and casting an eye towards the future, the NSCS warned that “without government intervention (there is) a realistic likelihood that due to commercial factors the UK would become ‘nationally dependent’ on Huawei within three years.” It added that in 2018 and 2019, the NCSC’s Huawei Cyber Security Evaluation Centre (HCSEC), based at a Huawei facility in Oxfordshire, southern England overseen by the NCSC, raised concerns regarding the quality and security standards of the company’s engineering. While discounting that these shortcomings were the result of malicious intent, the report stated that they “increase

the risk to the UK regardless” warning that “the risk to the UK is determined by the type and quantity of the equipment supplied.” The HCSEC added that it considered the cyber security risk posed by Huawei equipment as “manageable.”

Five Eyes Did the UK pull the plug on Huawei solely because of US pressure? It is clear the NCSC already had concerns about the reliance of the UK telecoms sector on Huawei technology. Likewise the UK is a trusted member of the so-called ‘Five Eyes’ intelligence sharing club which also includes Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United States. Having her access to this club restricted, or cancelled altogether, would have grave implications for UK intelligence gathering. It is clear there were already concerns regarding Huawei’s equipment within the UK’s intelligence community, ironically US pressure provided the perfect opportunity to turn these concerns into action. AMR

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Australian Defence

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Australian SOF are considering options to procure a next-generation helicopter to support operations around the world in addition to mission sets in dense urban environments.

SOF CHALLENGES AS GREAT POWER RIVALRY BUILDS As Superpower competition expands in Asia, regional special forces are looking to re-equip to meet sub-threshold threats.

sia Pacific is home to more than 50 countries all of whom continue to attempt to protect sovereign territory and strategic seaways throughout the theatre. However, the Great Power Competition (GPC) has witnessed the emergence of several high capability adversaries who are threatening to upset the ‘status quo’ through military might. Examples include the People’s Republic of China (PRC), Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK) and Russian Federation- all of which have

by Andrew White strong interests across the entire strategic region. As described by Admiral Phil Davidson,Commander, United States Indo-Pacific Command at the Indo-Pacific Landpower Conference in Honolulu, Hawaii on 19 May, the PRC continues to conduct “increased military aggression, malign behaviour and pernicious activity throughout the Indo-Pacific”. Examples include the sinking of a Vietnamese vessel in April by a Chinese Coast Guard cutter; and increased military demonstrations of force near Taiwan. Considerations regarding the GPC in

| Asian Military Review |

the Indo-Pacific were also discussed by multiple state actors across the region at the Transregional Resistance Working Group (TRWG) in Monterey, California, which was conducted between 4-6 February. Organised by the US Special Operations Command- Pacific (SOCPAC), and entitled The Role of SOF and Great Power Competition – Comparative Dialogue of Russia and China event was designed to enhance resiliency to ‘revisionist states and renewed Great Power Competition’, providing SOF partners with the ability to discuss common challenges and best

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In the first week of August, Australian Defence published a Request for Proposals (RfP) for the programme with industry bids expected to be evaluated by the end of 2020, according to an official statement. “Australian industry have unique capabilities to offer the Australian Defence Force (ADF) and the broader global military light helicopter market in the design and manufacture of aviation systems. Small Australian companies are already competing on the world stage, providing innovative solutions to special mission aircraft. The opportunity to harness these skills and grow them through collaboration on the special operations helicopter will benefit the ADF and local defence industry,” a statement by defence minister Linda Reynolds read. The solicitation dates back to September 2018 when the Australian Defence Force demanded a Special Operations Rotary Wing Capability capable of supporting operations in dense urban environments. Additional requirements call for its ability to be

deployed from C-17A Globemaster IIIs in support of expeditionary operations. Over the course of the last decade, Australian SOF operating in Afghanistan relied upon rotary wing assets provided by the US Army. Air frames available included Sikorsky Black Hawk helicopters. The $1.4-2.2 billion (AUD2-3 billion) programme is due to begin deliveries in 2023. Industry participants include Babcock Australia and Hawker Pacific with the Bell 429 in addition to Airbus Helicopters and 20 local companies which comprise Team Nightjar for the H145M helicopter. Similar tactical airlift capabilities are being sought elsewhere in the region with Indonesia’s National Armed Forces (TNI) currently considering a potential FMS of eight Bell/Boeing MV-22B Block C Osprey tiltrotor air frames from the US State Department. A decision has yet to be made by the TNI, although alternative platforms are also being considered including Boeing’s CH-47F and the Bell 412 EPI.

DVIDS

practices in order to meet shared security challenges. SOF leadership from the event was drawn from across the entire region, with participants attending from Japan, New Zealand, Mongolia, Taiwan, South Korea, Canada and the US. Responding to increasing levels in aggression throughout the region, Asia Pacific special operations forces (SOF) commands continue to urgently seek capability injections in order to keep pace with an increasing variety of threats. SOF materiel upgrades across the Indo-Pacific continue to be led by the ‘Five Eyes’ nations Australia and New Zealand in particular with the remainder of the region benefiting from Foreign Military Sales (FMS) of SOF-specific equipment from the US State Department. In Australia, the Special Operations Command is moving forward with the Land 2097 Phase 3 programme which plans to equip the organisation with a next-generation Light Special Forces helicopter will be used to transport small teams in addition to ISR missions.

Indian SOF are set to benefit from a small arms injection with solutions including SCAR-L and HK416 carbines.

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USSOCPAC's Commander Maj. Gen. Jonathan Braga briefs the TRWG in Monterey, California, aimed at enhancing interoperability and cooperation across Asia Pacific in relation to the Great Power Competition.

One of the main tasks of the selected air frame will be the tactical insertion, extraction and resupply of TNI SOF which include the Army Special Forces Command (KOPASSUS); Navy Special Warfare Command (KOPASKA); and Air Force Special Operations Command (PASKHAS). In Thailand, SOF are also awaiting delivery of an undisclosed number of Boeing AH-6i Light Attack Reconnaissance Helicopters, also known as ‘Little Birda’. Due to replace legacy Bell AH-1F Cobra attack helicopters, the Little Birds will provide a close air support (armaments are expected to include APKWS and M134 Miniguns) capability to Thai SOF units in addition to a tactical airlift capability which is particularly useful during counter-terrorism and hostage rescue operations in the urban environment. A September 2019 announcement by the US State Department confirmed

the sale although air frames have yet to be delivered to the Royal Thai Air Force (RTAF). Air frames will be made available to the Royal Thai Army’s Special Warfare Command, and Naval Special Warfare Command.

India’s steady progress Comprising one of the largest SOF components in the Indo-Pacific is India which, despite countless delays in multiple SOF procurement efforts, is witnessing steady progress in terms of materiel upgrades. Remaining in the airborne environment, India’s newly established Armed Forces Special Operations Division (AFSOD) is considering the procurement of a special mission aircraft alongside the country’s Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO). Capable of supporting ISTAR missions, any selected special mission aircraft must be capable of operating at

| Asian Military Review |

high altitudes and carrying multi-sensor payloads including Electro-Optical and Infrared (EO/IR) cameras in addition to Synthetic Aperture Radar and Ground Moving Target Indicator systems. The DRDO has been considering the purchase since February 2020 following failed attempts by the Indian MoD to purchase Raytheon Sentinel special mission aircraft back in 2017. Elsewhere, Indian SOF are in the process of receiving an uplift in small arms following a projected evaluation process which saw multiple procurement efforts cancelled and restarted over the past few years. In the last week of June 2020, Indian SOF selected FNH USA’s 7.562mm x 51mm Special Operations Combat Assault Rifle (SCAR) Heavy weapon system. AFSOD is also considering the 5.56mm x 45mm SCAR Light variant in addition to Heckler & Koch’s HK416 of the same calibre. The 5.56mm selection will satisfy

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DVIDS

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Indonesian SOF continues to consider upgrading sub-surface capabilities including plans for a Combat Swimmer Vehicle.

Indian SOF’s longstanding Close Quarter Battle (CQB) weapon system, while the larger SCAR Heavy will be employed as a designated marksman/sniper system. Both selections will comprise FMS from the US State Department. Additional procurements aimed at enhancing the lethality of small unit teams operating at the tactical edge include the purchase of FNH USA 7.62mm x 51mm MK48 Light Machine Guns; .50-cal Barrett Firearms’ M107 anti-materiel rifle; in addition to associated ammunition. Weapons will furnish a variety of SOF units including the Indian Army’s Para-SF units; Indian Navy’s Marine Commandos (MARCOS); and Indian Air Force’s Garud special mission unit. Beyond small arms, the AFSOD’s wish list for SOF-specific equipment also includes high altitude and low altitude parachute systems, defence sources confirmed to Asian Military Review.

Maritime In the maritime environment, Indonesian SOF are set to benefit from a nextgeneration swimmer delivery vehicle

which would allow KOPASKA operators to clandestinely insert into an area of operation. In the final week of March 2020, representatives from the TNI and KOPASKA discussed the latest requirements regarding the Combat Swimmer Vehicle (CSV). Specific requirements include the ability for the sub-surface platform to carry a small unit team up to five kilometres in range at speeds up to five knots. Any new design or off-the-shelf product must be capable of remaining submerged for up to 90 minutes. However, defence sources were unable to confirm to AMR whether KOPASKA is seeking a capability which could be deployed from larger, strategic submarines. Options also remain open for either a wet- or dry-vehicle, the latter of which would be capable of keeping combat divers dry during an insertion to reduce levels of fatigue ahead of any follow-on actions. Indonesian KOPASSUS units are also considering additional special operations vehicles (SOV) in the ground environment, following the procurement of 18 P6 All

| Asian Military Review |

Terrain Assault Vehicles (ATAVs) in 2017. Examples include the 4x4 Pindad Maung SOV which, similar to the ATAV is designed to support offensive action and special reconnaissance missions on land. Featuring a similar open-top design to the ATAV (for maximum situation awareness), the ‘Maung’ has a maximum operating range of 500km with ability to carry up to six personnel with equipment. The SOV can also be armed with a variety of systems including 5.56mm, 7.62mm and 0.50-cal machine guns in addition to anti-tank munitions.

Conclusion In order to engage confidently with high capability adversaries from the PRC, DPRK and Russian Federation, Asian Pacific SOF units must be equipped with materiel capable of being operated in sub-threshold situations below the level of full, armed conflict. Expect ongoing procurement efforts across the region as partner forces continue to ramp up capabilities to match opponents across the GPC. AMR

Regional

Dzirhan Mahadzir

M i l i t a r i e s

Delivery of 257 AV8 AFVs will be completed by the end of this year. Shown here is the IFV-25 variant using a Sharpshooter turret with 25mm gun. However the future of the production line in Malaysia is open to question with no follow on order from the Malaysian Army and no export orders yet.

COVID ADDS TO MALAYSIAN DEFENCE FUNDING PROBLEMS Malaysian defence acquisition, not rapid at the best of times, has been hit hard by frequent changes in government and by the worsening economy caused by COVID-19.

by Dzirhan Mahadzir

he current COVID-19 situation is likely to result in Malaysia having to limit its defence procurement plans. The impact of the virus is not only expected to cause the economy to contract but will lead to government prioritising funding towards mitigating the impact towards Malaysia’s populace. The effect on defence will only be seen when the 2021 Defence Budget is unveiled in November together with the 12th Malaysia Plan (2021-2025) in early 2021. It also remains to be seen if the current Perikatan Nasional government which ousted the Pakatan Harapan government in March this year is able to remain in office until the next General Election in 2023. The outlook is not positive for defence procurement despite the Perikatan Nasional government giving its approval for the Royal Malaysian Air Force (RMAF) to

acquire one ground based radar system, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and Maritime Patrol Aircraft (MPA) in 2021. However this may now be stalled. Due to COVID-19, the Malaysian government initiated the ‘Ops Benteng’ border control operation to prevent illegal entry into Malaysia by land or sea. The operation was initiated due to fears that migrants and refugees illegally entering Malaysia could bring in additional COVID-19 infection clusters. Ops Benteng is a multi-agency operation involving the Malaysian Armed Forces, Royal Malaysian Police, Malaysian Maritime Enforcement Agency (MMEA) and the Immigration Department. The government has released funding to the Armed Forces for small scale procurements of all terrain vehicles, 4x4 transports, rigid hull inflatable boats and fast interceptor craft, in addition

| Asian Military Review |

to leasing two helicopters for the Royal Malaysian Navy (RMN).

The Defence White Paper In December 2019, the Pakatan Harapan government issued the country’s first Defence White Paper (DWP) although it was largely underwhelming and failed to address the critical question of how the Malaysian Armed Forces should be structured and what was the exact fiscal and timeframe roadmap to achieve the capability requirements as stated in the DWP. It did not appear to acknowledge some of the challenges facing defence and the armed forces such as the cost of manpower, where in the 2020 Defence Budget, salaries and allowances accounted for around $1.76 billion (MYR 7.4 billion) out of the total defence budget of $3.7 billion (MYR 15.57 billion). Nor was there any mention of how to overcome the delays behind the Maharaja Lela class Littoral Combat Ship (LCS) programme. Instead it mentioned that LCS would be a key asset for the RMN though the first ship is now delayed to 2023. The DWP did stress on the need to develop the indigenous defence industry but the exact specifics were said to be still under discussion, particularly in regard to what would be focused upon and how the government’s mechanism of collaboration with the defence industry would be restructured. The current Perikatan Nasional government has stated that the Ministry of Defence (MoD) is studying supplementary papers and policies based on the outlines of the DWP.

Malaysian Army Of the three services, the Malaysian Army is probably the least affected by the financial situation given that a number of its programmes are either ongoing or near completion. Deliveries of the 257 AV8 Gempita armoured fighting vehicles (AFVs) is expected to be completed this year, although the continuation of Malaysian manufacturer DEFTECH’s production line is uncertain as it has yet to secure any export order or follow on order from the Malaysian Army. Prior to the COVID-19 and the collapse of the Pakatan Harapan government, there had been talk that the Army would initiate a 6x6 AFV acquisition programme to replace the 4x4 Condor armoured personnel carriers (APCs) in service but this is now very unlikely due to the economic situation. Delivery of the six

Dzirhan Mahadzir The Littoral Mission Ship KD Keris on its arrival in Malaysia in January this year. A total of four ships were contracted for, but the recent coronavirus is likely to affect the timeframe for the return of the second ship from China and the construction and delivery of the remaining two ships to be built in Wuhan.

MD Helicopters MD-530G ordered by Malaysia, of which a first batch of three was to be delivered early this year, has been delayed due to the pandemic in the United States. Speaking in Parliament on 3 August, Defence Minister Ismail Sabri stated that three helicopters had been completed while another three were not fully completed and that Malaysia had planned to dispatch a Malaysian Armed Forces team earlier this year to the United States to conduct pre-delivery inspections , but travel restrictions had prevented this. The MOD rescheduled the team’s departure to the end of August but the Defence Minister said he was uncertain if this could be carried out due to the ongoing high infection rate in the US. He also disclosed that the contract for the helicopters ended in November 2021. The Army is also expected to receive 18 Nexter LG1 105mm howitzers which will equip the artillery battery assigned to the 10th Parachute Brigade. A larger requirement to replace the aging 105mm Model 56 Pack Howitzers in service exists though no funding has been allocated yet.

Royal Malaysian Navy The RMN’s chief problem is the troubled Maharaja Lela class Littoral Combat ships under construction by Boustead Naval Shipyards. Based on the Naval Group’s Gowind corvette design, the six ship class are 3,100 tons and will incorporate stealth characteristics. They are armed with a single BAE Mk3 57mm gun in a stealth copula, two MSI Seahawk 30mm guns, two launchers for Kongsberg Naval Strike Missile anti-ship missile (each with four missiles), a 16 cell SYLVER Vertical Launch System for the MBDA Mica surface to air missile and two J+S Marine triple torpedo launchers. However despite the launch of the first ship in 2017, the contract for the Mica SAM has yet

to be signed and the scheduled date of delivery has now been pushed back from a projected date in 2019 to 2023. Then Defence Minister Mohamad Sabu stated in Parliament on 29 October 2019 that the programme required an additional $333 million (MYR 1.4 billion) over the original contract ceiling of $2.17 billion (MYR 9.1 billon) owing to delays in construction, though he did not state what caused the delays. He stressed that the government was committed to the program and could not cancel it as it has already paid out $1.42 billion (MYR 6 billion) for the ships. He added then that the government was discussing on the additional allocation. However on 3 August 2020, Defence Minister Ismail Sabri stated in Parliament that the government would not allocate further funding for the programme and that as of 31 July, 2020, was at 56 percent completion compared to the original target schedule of 86 percent, making it also 31 months behind schedule. The Defence Minister stated that three possible options were now being considered. Firstly, to assign France’s Naval Group as the Relief Contractor and using the remaining balance of the contract ceiling to enable completion of at least two ships. The ceiling for the LCS program is Malaysian $2.179 billion (MYR 9.1 billon). The second option was to have Boustead Naval Shipyards continue with the remaining balance to complete at least two ships. The final option was to terminate the contract with Boustead and the MOD would then initiate efforts to salvage the programme. The future of the RMN’s 15 to 5 Transformation Plan also now remains unclear. The Plan, introduced in 2016, sought to streamline the RMN fleet to five classes of ships from the present 15 classes. The five ship classes comprised: submarine, LCS, Kedah class next

| september/october 2020 |

Regional

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generation patrol vessels (to which 12 additional and more heavily armed ships would be procured to add to the six in service), the Littoral Mission Ship and the Multi-Role Support Ship (MRSS). The 15 to 5 plan now faces difficulties in meeting these goals. The six LCS were to be followed by six more LCS. However, Malaysia already faces enough difficulties getting the current LCSs completed and this assumes no problems arising during sea trials and early operational use. With Boustead Naval Shipyards also being the shipbuilder of the Kedah class and now tied up with the construction of the LCS which is delayed, it would seem unlikely that the 12 additional and more heavily armed Kedah class will be contracted anytime soon. Meantime the 68m Keris class Littoral Mission Ship faces its own issues. The Pakatan Harapan government was contractually bound by the previous Barisan Nasional’s government’s contract for four such ships from China with two to be built there and another two by Boustead Naval Shipyards. But the Pakatan Harapan government did renegotiate and modified the contract to have the remaining two to be also built in China. The first Littoral Mission Ship, KD Keris arrived home to RMN Kota Kinabalu on 17 January following its commissioning on 6 January in China where the ship had been constructed. However, the outbreak of the Coronavirus now makes it uncertain as to when the second ship, KD Sundang, will return to Malaysia. Originally scheduled to return in April 2020, the ship’s crew had been in China training on the vessel prior to a formal handover, but had returned to Malaysia owing to the Chinese New Year holiday period. With the outbreak of the virus the ship’s crew has yet to return to China to complete their training and formally take control of the ship and the handover and delivery, as disclosed by Boustead in its annual report released in June 2020. The delivery and handover of the second ship has now been rescheduled to October 2020. Boustead also stated in the report that the COVID-19 pandemic is expected to result in up to a four month delay in the construction of the remaining two LMS, which are also being built in China, and were originally scheduled to be completed in mid 2021. An additional 14 LMS were projected under the plan but as yet nothing had been committed. The Keris class design would be used and the additional ships contracted from

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M i l i t a r i e s

The RMAF is looking towards adding ten more F/A-18s to the 8 it already has in service. The ten aircraft are likely to be the ones belonging to the Kuwait Air Force

China. Meantime the three ship MRSS requirement continues to be unfunded. The only positive note for the RMN is that it received the first six of 12 US donated Boeing Insitu ScanEagle UAVs in May with another six to be delivered in September. The ScanEagles will be operated by the RMN out of the Kota Kinabalu naval base by 601 Squadron RMN, formed specifically for the purpose of operating UAVs. An initial batch of personnel completed training in the US last year, but as of the time of writing the RMN has yet to begin usage of the ScanEagles, due to the service wanting to wait until US contracted personnel are able to enter Malaysia to assist with the initial stage of operations. Malaysia has been closed to entry by foreign nationals save for special exemptions.

Royal Malaysian Air Force The appointment of General Ackbal Samad as Royal Malaysian Air Force (RMAF) Chief on 3 January makes him the fifth RMAF Chief who will have to grapple with the much delayed Multi-Role Combat Aircraft (MRCA) requirement of the RMAF, which was to replace the now deactivated MiG-29 fleet and has been in existence since 2009. The prospect of an MRCA replacement continues to remain remote. Malaysia’s Defence White Paper did not mention the need to replace the MiG-29s but instead only spoke that a new fighter would replace the Boeing F/A-18 Hornets and Su-30MKMs in the timeframe of the 14th (2026-2030) and 15th Malaysia Plan (2031-2035), while priority would be given for the Light Combat Aircraft programme though it

put no timeframe on that and there has been no direct fiscal allocation for such though there is a possibility that an LCA programme could be funded under the 13th Malaysia Plan (2021-2025). The DWP did state that the RMAF was looking to acquire an additional 10 F/A-18 to augment the current eight aircraft in service. These are likely to be the Kuwait Air Force F/A-18s which are expected to be phased out as it transitions to the Boeing FA-18E/F Superhornet. Plans to overhaul the RMAF’s F/A-18 aircraft in batches of two in Australia have been delayed due pandemic concerns. The first batch had been scheduled to fly to Australia in mid-April this year but have been postponed indefinitely. The RAAF is already assisting in supporting Malaysia’s F/A-18 fleet by donating stocks of surplus F/A-18 parts as the RAAF withdraws its own F/A-18 fleet from service. The parts provision agreement was signed in 2018. The RMAF will phase out its Sikorsky S-61A Nuri fleet owing to its age according to RMAF Chief General Ackbal Samad during a January 2020 media conference. He waid the RMAF was assessing the options for replacement though the initial stage would be likely a lease of helicopters to conduct transport missions until funding was available for procuring a capability. The decision leaves the 12 Airbus H225M as the RMAF’s sole operational mission helicopters. General Ackbal announced on 1 June 2020 that under Phase1 of the RMAF CAP 55 Development Plan (the RMAF’s Development plan covering up to 2055) which begins officially on 1 January 2021 and ends in 2031, the

| Asian Military Review |

RMAF has received approval to carry out acquisition programmes for a single fixed stationed, ground based air defence radar, unmanned air vehicles and a maritime patrol squadron. Initial approval for these acquisitions had been given by the Barisan Nasional government and subsequently re-approved by the Pakatan Harapan government prior to its collapse in March 2020. It appears that the current Perikatan Nasional government has also givenits approval for the acquisitions to begin in 2021 though another government change may cause the programme implementation dates to slip further. On the positive side, the US has provided funding for the RMAF to convert three of its seven RMAF Airbus (CASA) CN-235 transports into Maritime Surveillance Aircrafts. The conversion work will be carried out by manufacturer PT Dirgantara (PTDI) in Indonesia while the mission systems integrators will be US companies Science and Engineering Services International and Integrated Surveillance and Defence. The conversion will be done one aircraft at a time and is expected to take between six and eight months. However the COVID-19 has again delayed conversion of the first aircraft given the travel restrictions for Malaysian and US citizens who would have to be in Indonesia for the conversion work. In 2022 Malaysia will also receive a single Lockheed Martin TPS-77 mobile radar system provided by the US as part of the Section 333 Building Partner Capacity provision of the 2017 National Defense Authorisation Act.

Conclusion The likelihood is that defence spending will remain very limited owing to the economic and fiscal situation in Malaysia though the current government seems to have taken an optimistic view that some programmes can be carried out by authorising the UAV and MPA acquisitions to begin in 2021, though it remains to be seen whether the authorisation merely means gathering Requests for Information (RFIs) and Requests for Proposal (RFPs) rather than an actual procurement tender. It is also uncertain whether the current government will be able to continue into office until the next election but ultimately the fact remains that the impact of COVID-19 on the country’s economic recovery will mean funding for defence will be on a lower priority. AMR

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ASSESSING THE US NAVY’S ‘LIGHTNING CARRIER’ CONCEPT By Ben Ho

n recent years, there has been much debate over the future of the United States Navy’s aircraft carrier force. Voracious have been the critics over the cost and vulnerability of America’s nuclear-powered large-deck carriers (CVNs) in the face of modern anti-access/area-denial (A2/AD) systems such as China’s much-vaunted anti-ship ballistic missiles. Pundits maintain that concentrating significant combat power in a single 90,000-odd ton supercarrier makes it too too big and expensive to fail. The concept of ‘distributed’ operations is the zeitgeist of present-day American naval discourse. Various commentators aver that the US Navy should focus on smaller (read cheaper and more numerous) flat-tops to hedge against the A2/AD threat. To this end, the idea of the ‘Lightning carrier’ was birthed. Simply put, this is about Wasp- and America-class amphibiousassault ships deploying a full complement of some 20 F-35B Lightning short take-off and vertical landing (STOVL) fighters to function as a small-deck/light carrier. So let’s make a comparison between the ‘Lightning carrier’ and its larger brethren of the Nimitz- and Ford-classes. The starkest difference between the two types of carriers is their fighter complements. A supercarrier typically deploys with over 40 F/A-18E/F Super Hornets (and in the future F-35Cs), which is twice that of the smaller carrier. With such a small aircraft contingent, the commander of a task force centred on a Lightning carrier would be in a dilemma during wartime: compromise on defence and the vulnerability of his ships increases;

allocate more assets to defence and fewer will be deployed for the carrier’s raison d’etre – power projection. What is more, the F-35B, being a STOVL type, is simply not as capable as its conventional takeoff and landing brethren in terms of performance. Lockheed-Martin attributes the F-35B with a combat radius of around 450 nautical miles (nm), while the corresponding figure for the F-35C is 600nm. In addition, the B variant’s internal weapons bay can only accommodate bombs of up to 1,000 pounds (453kg) as opposed to 2000 pounds (over 900kg) of its A and C cousins. That the supercarrier carries a fixedwing airborne early warning (AEW) asset is a trait not enjoyed by its smaller counterpart, and this could be decisive in a conflict. During the Falklands War, the lack of such a platform contributed to heavy naval losses suffered by the British task force, whose air cover was provided by two light carriers. Owing to their small size, the duo carried only 20-odd Hawker Siddeley Harrier STOVL fighters and helicopters each. Some commentators even maintained that had the task force consisted of a supercarrier, the war might have been concluded earlier. And even though the small-deck carrier can embark helicopters fitted with AEW capabilities, they cannot match fixed-wing aircraft in such crucial attributes as range and endurance. In fact, the sole US Navy shipborne helicopter – the Sikorsky Seahawk – currently does not have AEW capabilities. A task force based around the Lightning carrier would therefore severely lack long-range aerial-surveillance coverage, rendering it much more vulnerable to

| Asian Military Review |

enemy attack. This is why the idea of an AEW Boeing EV-22 Osprey has merit. All in all, the lack of an AEW platform and the limited performance of aircraft deployed on the small-deck carrier make the latter more vulnerable to anti-access threats compared to the supercarrier. As such, Lightning carriers arguably cannot do the job as well as their larger counterparts, especially in demanding circumstances. To conclude, the Lightning carrier is inferior in several aspects when compared to the CVN. Nevertheless, the former is still likely to play an increasing role in protecting US interests going forward. An overworked CVN force means that there are simply not enough large-deck flat-tops to go around. The fighter-toting amphibs of the Gator Navy could mitigate this situation by standing in for their larger counterparts in more permissive environments where the A2/AD challenge is limited, and where the tempo and intensity of operations required are lower. Most recently, USS America carried out a show-of-force mission in the South China Sea in April. The America (albeit with only a handful of F-35Bs) was standing in for the largedeck USS Theodore Roosevelt which had been sidelined by a COVID-19 outbreak. Similar deployments might be the order of the day as the US faces an increasingly competitive strategic environment and as its CVN force struggles to cope with this reality. In this light, that the F-35Bcapable USS Bonhomme Richard could be written off as total loss following its recent extensive fire damage does not augur well for the US Navy in the longer term. AMR

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