CirVath International Journal of Tourism 11

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Les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme CirVath International Journal of Tourism

Publication juin 2019 Centre International de Recherche Vatel en Tourisme et HĂ´tellerie

Vatel 140, rue Vatel BP 7128 30913 Nîmes cedex — France

Les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme numÊro 11

Les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme numéro 11 CirVath International Journal of Tourism

Publication du

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LES CAHIERS INTERNATIONAUX DU TOURISME CIRVATH INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TOURISM

ÉTUDES EN LANGUE FRANÇAISE Dr Youssef EL AZYZY L’influence de la qualité expérientielle perçue dans les services touristiques sur le positionnement : application au secteur de l’hôtellerie de luxe à Marrakech Page 11 Dr Line LAFFOND De l’ingénierie didactique du cours de langue en classes hétérogènes : pour un itinéraire pédagogique disruptif Page 43 Dr Thành Tín NGUYỄN THỨC, Triết Minh VŨ Enseignement des langues de la spécialité « Tourisme » selon le projet « Free Walking Tours » Page 83 Dr Heriniaina Corinne RANDRIAMBOLONDRABARY Analyse SWOT de l’offre touristique de l’île au Trésor (Madagascar) Page 97

STUDIES IN ENGLISH Dr Hugues SÉRAPHIN Towards the Use of Resort Mini-Clubs as Experiential Tools. Speculative Impacts on Resorts, Destinations and Host Communities Page 115 Dr Thanya LUNCHAPRASITH Gastronomy traditions and the role of local markets: an insight from Thailand Page 139 -7© CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

Teddy S. MANANSALA, Dr Benigno Glenn R. RICAFORTE Development and Application of HACCP for Popular Philippine Streetvended Food Page 167 Dr Godofredo Cristobal UTANES, Gredia TOKAN The Perception of Technology Adoption among Middle Managers and Supervisors in Jakarta’s Luxury Hotels Page 199 Dr Marygrace AC-AC, Dr Ma. Corazon REYES Motivational Factors Affecting Silver Hair Tourists and their Buying Behavior: Guidelines for Tour Package Development Page 227 Junefel M. RAMOS, Dr Benigno Glenn R. RICAFORTE Acceptability of Selected Philippine Fermented and Distilled Beverages as base Ingredient for Cocktail Drink Recipes Page 251 Dr Godofredo Cristobal UTANES, Dr Bhandar MAMATA, Tuck Keong CHIA Developing a Technology Framework for Singapore’s Hospitality Industry Page 277 Jack Jude B. GARCIA, Geronio G. ULAYAO The State of E-commerce Practices and Usage of Metro Manila based Travel Agencies: an Exploratory Study Page 303

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LES CAHIERS INTERNATIONAUX DU TOURISME CIRVATH INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TOURISM

ÉTUDES EN LANGUE FRANÇAISE

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L’INFLUENCE DE LA QUALITÉ EXPÉRIENTIELLE PERÇUE DANS LES SERVICES TOURISTIQUES SUR LE POSITIONNEMENT, APPLICATION AU SECTEUR DE L’HÔTELLERIE DE LUXE À MARRAKECH

Dr Youssef EL AZYZY*

RÉSUMÉ Toutes les entreprises, quelles que soient leurs productions, sont concernées par la qualité des services, ne serait-ce que par l’accueil et le suivi de leurs clients.

Les clients ne s’attendent plus à de simples services, mais à une expérience exceptionnelle et inoubliable. Cette étude cherche à analyser et vérifier l’impact de la qualité perçue de l’expérience hôtelière dans les services sur le positionnement potentiel. Pour ce faire, nous avons mené une étude quantitative par le biais d’un questionnaire auprès de 300 touristes. Les résultats révèlent que les cinq facteurs de qualité sont effectivement, déterminants dans la création d’une expérience hôtelière. Ils montrent aussi que le degré d’importance de chacun dépend de l’avancement temporel de l’expérience (la phase) et possiblement de l’objet de la visite.

Mots clés : qualité expérientielle perçue, séjour du luxe, satisfaction, fidélité relationnelle, positionnement potentiel. * Docteur en Tourisme, Enseignant chercheur à l’Université Privée de Marrakech (VATEL International Business School: Hotel and Tourism Management). (y. elazyzy @upm.ac.ma/y. elazyzy@gmail.com)

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ABSTRACT All companies, whatever their production systems, are concerned by the quality of services, even if only with regard to the welcome and follow-up of their clients. Customers no longer expect simple services but an exceptional and unforgettable experience. This study aims to analyze and verify the impact of the perceived quality of hotel experience in services on potential positioning.

To reach this aim, we have conducted a quantitative study via a questionnaire survey of 300 tourists. The results have shown that the factors are really crucial to creating the hotel experience, especially with respect to luxury stay. They also show that the degree of importance of each factor depends on the temporal progress of the experience (the phase) and possibly the object of the visit.

Key words: perceived experiential quality, luxury stay, tourist experience, satisfaction, relational loyalty, potential positioning.

INTRODUCTION Dans une industrie du tourisme de plus en plus concurrentielle, afin d’attirer l’attention du consommateur-voyageur, toutes les entreprises, quelles que soient leurs productions, sont concernées par la qualité des services, ne serait-ce que par l’accueil et le suivi de leurs clients. Le consommateur contemporain devient plus volatil, et par conséquent de moins en moins fidèle. Face à ce constat, les entreprises tendent à concentrer leurs efforts sur le service à la clientèle et deviennent de plus en plus persuadées que la clé de la rentabilité et de la réussite à long terme passe impérativement par la satisfaction et la fidélisation des clients. Le cœur de notre problématique s’articule autour d’un cadre intégrateur expliquant le comportement de la qualité, satisfaction et fidélité dans le contexte particulier de l’expérience de consommation d’un service hôtelier. S’intégrant dans ce cadre conceptuel, notre recherche tente de mettre en évidence les dimensions de la qualité expérientielle dans son approche relationnelle (satisfaction, confiance, attachement et engagement) ainsi que la perception de la qualité dans son approche cognitiviste et expérientielle. Ce travail présente un apport théorique à savoir l’impact que peut causer la qualité expérientielle perçue sur la satisfaction et la fidélité des touristes. Ce sujet n’a pas été étudié auparavant.

Notre objectif est, en conséquence, de vérifier la validité de la théorie dans le but de pouvoir l’appliquer au champ particulier des services hôteliers et de la généraliser dans des recherches futures à une variété de champ d’application en marketing.

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le domaine du tourisme. C’est pourquoi les responsables du secteur touristique (les agences de voyages, les tour-opérateurs…) doivent insister sur l’expérience qui va être vécue par le touriste à travers la communication média et hors média.

Puis, les praticiens ont intérêt à offrir une excellente qualité expérientielle pour satisfaire le touriste et gagner leur fidélité. Il s’est avéré qu’un client satisfait peut recommander le produit ou le service de l’entreprise ou le racheter.

Ce travail est structuré en quatre parties. La première présente le cadre conceptuel de notre recherche. La seconde propose un modèle conceptuel sur les cinq dimensions de la qualité expérientielles déterminantes du positionnement ainsi que les hypothèses de la recherche qui en découlent. La troisième partie concerne le test de ces hypothèses et la méthodologie de la recherche. Nous présentons enfin les résultats de nos analyses et discutons de leurs implications théoriques et managériales. L’article se termine par une présentation des limites de la recherche et des voies de recherches futures.

Notre étude servira d’outil aux décideurs afin de leur permettre de développer des stratégies de positionnement de Marrakech comme destination touristique du luxe dans le but de corriger, d’améliorer la visibilité et la notoriété de cette destination par rapport à leurs concurrents. Celle-ci les aidera également à construire une offre de séjour qui répondra au mieux aux attentes et perceptions des touristes.

I. LA REVUE DE LITTÉRATURE Dans le contexte du tourisme, l’expérience vécue est très importante puisqu’elle peut engendrer la satisfaction ou l’insatisfaction du touriste. C’est pour cette raison, les responsables de ce secteur cherchent à améliorer la qualité des services offerts et cherchent surtout à développer une relation durable avec le touriste en augmentant son niveau de satisfaction afin de gagner sa fidélité. D’ailleurs, cette satisfaction a une influence sur l’intention de retour et l’intention de diffuser un bouche-à-oreille positif en recommandant cette destination (Badarneh et Som ; 2010). Dans ce sens, les chercheurs ont toujours vérifié la relation entre la qualité perçue et la satisfaction (Boyer et Nefzi, 2008 ; Sabadie, 2003).

Les responsables du secteur touristique tentent de diversifier leurs produits touristiques tout en offrant une meilleure qualité afin de satisfaire la clientèle. En effet, la qualité expérientielle perçue est une notion qui doit être étudiée étant donné qu’elle lie la qualité à l’expérience dans le contexte de tourisme. Ces deux concepts sont d’une grande importance en marketing et en l’occurrence dans le secteur touristique.

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1. La qualité expérientielle dans les services touristiques La qualité du service est devenue une priorité pour les dirigeants des entreprises afin d’assurer la satisfaction de leur clientèle. C’est un travail constant, permanent, récurrent, presque minute après minute, de bien faire et de vérifier que les choses sont bien faites. Par ailleurs, les entreprises pensent qu’il est plus profitable de garder et fidéliser les clients actuels que de conquérir de nouveaux clients. Dans son expérience, le client est lié à des supports visibles et invisibles développés dans ses émotions spécifiques qui se transforment en expériences (Langlois, 2003). La qualité du service a été traitée par de nombreux académiciens et praticiens (Parasuraman et alii, 1988 ; Sirieix et Dubois, 1999 ; Brady et Cronin, 2001 ; Park, 2008 ; Boyer et Nefzi, 2008).

Dans le secteur touristique, la qualité est un critère assez important que l’organisation cherche à développer pour maintenir un avantage concurrentiel et se différencier des autres prestataires. Parasuraman et alii (1988) indiquent que la qualité est une évaluation faite par le consommateur de l’excellence ou la supériorité du service. Quant à Grook (1986) propose la définition suivante : « la qualité d’un produit correspond au degré de conformité de l’ensemble de ses caractéristiques et attributs à l’ensemble des besoins et attentes de l’acheteur ».

Les recherches ont permis d’identifier deux dimensions de la qualité de service : la qualité technique et la qualité fonctionnelle et c’est Grônoos en 1984 qui a été le premier à mentionner ces deux dimensions. D’ailleurs, selon lui, l’image de l’entreprise peut influencer la perception du consommateur de la qualité de service. En fait, une image positive peut compenser une mauvaise expérience avec la qualité de service. Et dans ce cas, l’image devient une variable médiatrice entre la qualité perçue et la satisfaction (Boyer et Nefzi, 2008).

Les chercheurs notent l’existence de deux types de la qualité de service à savoir : la qualité de service attendue et la qualité de service perçue. Puis, la qualité de service est le résultat d’une comparaison entre la qualité attendue et la qualité perçue. En définitive, la qualité perçue du service est importante dans la stratégie des entreprises puisqu’elle permet de se différencier, créer de la valeur ajoutée et améliorer son image.

2. Les dimensions de la qualité expérientielle Langlois (2003) a mis en évidence les cinq dimensions expérientielles suivantes relatives à la qualité dans les services hôteliers. a) La fiabilité des services Aujourd’hui le challenge pour l’industrie hôtelière est de réduire le risque perçu que ce dernier soit psychologique, social, financier ou de sécurité. La diminution - 14 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

de risque crée un avantage comparatif et une stratégie gagnante qui produit une image de marque appréciée et augmente la valeur perçue de la marque. La fiabilité présentée dans les travaux de Parasuraman, Zeithaml et Berry (1985) se définit comme la capacité de réaliser le service correctement. Elle englobe des dimensions comme la fonctionnalité du service dans le sens où celui-ci doit être opérationnel par une maîtrise des variables clés de son processus de délivrance pour permettre de diminuer les risques d’écart de qualité (Téboul, 2002), la régularité, c’est-à-dire la constance spatio-temporelle de [« offre (Lhoste, 1992) à laquelle le consommateur doit pouvoir se fier, les risques psychologiques et sociaux (Lovelock et Wright, 2002) : Le tourisme correspond au besoin d’accomplissement personnel déterminé par Maslow et est perçu comme un signe de reconnaissance sociale (Amaré, 1994). La fiabilité compte également la variable de risque de sécurité dont la prise de considération est devenue un axe majeur dans la région de l’offre touristique (Callot, 2000) et enfin le risque financier, car une offre déficiente engendrerait une perte de temps et d’argent pour le consommateur. b) L’accessibilité dans les services L’accessibilité est la deuxième dimension de la qualité dans la grille de mesure de la qualité d’une expérience de service développée par M. Langlois, 2003, elle se reproduit dans cinq paramètres : l’accessibilité physique facilitant aux clients leurs choix de consommation puisqu’ils prennent en considération l’effort à fournir pour atteindre la destination, l’information directionnelle qui implique la facilité du client de se déplacer à l’intérieur du lieu de servuction. Elle plote sur la lisibilité, la clarté et le pragmatisme (Lapeyre et Napolitano, 1997), ainsi que la facilité de déplacement du client vers le lieu de servuction (Maurette, 1998).

La promptitude du service Parasuraman, Zeithaml et Berry (1985) s’explique par la valeur marchande attribuée au temps d’exécution du service, la gestion de l’attente : l’évaluation et la perception du temps d’attente (Taylor Shirley, 1994 et Allison B. & Ann Sloan Devlin, 2002) et enfin la gestion des exceptions : la capacité de réponse aux demandes exceptionnelles du client renforce la qualité du service et doit être anticipée. c) Le divertissement dans les services Il s’agit de la mise en œuvre de l’expérience afin qu’elle devienne mémorisable.

Cette dimension comporte : la gestion du thème et de la marque, le divertissement permanent : L’animation est un élément constitutif d’un service touristique (Tinard, 1994). La Programmation des événements, l’apparence et les costumes du personnel qui font partie intégrante du processus expérientiel, les recherches de Langlois, Chébat et Bourdeau (1991) mettent en évidence l’impact du - 15 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

personnel de contact sur l’image d’une offre de service. Les produits de mémorabilité qui enrichissent la construction de l’image de la destination (Boyer, 2002). d) L’environnement physique dans les services Comprend la cohérence du décor et du thème qui évoque la sensibilité des individus à leur environnement expérientiel (Paul et Greffeuille, 1999), le confort physique (Bitner Mary Jo, 1992) à ce niveau sont pris en compte, les facteurs qui constituent des stimuli environnementaux (ambiance, symboles, l’espace…), le confort musical et l’expérience gustative tel qu’appliqué dans le concept Planète Havas Voyages suivant le modèle des 3S ; spécialistes, services, 5sens (Guivarch, 2002) et finalement l’expérience olfactive : visant à rehausser l’image de la marque par le jeu d’association entre la marque et une odeur (Verlynde, 2002). e) L’environnement relationnel personnalisé Relié aux aspects relationnels et à la gestion des interactions entre la clientèle et le personnel il comprend : favoriser la motivation du client (Paquin et Turgeon, 1998), le leadership transactionnel c’est à dire la capacité à optimiser les relations avec le client (Langlois et Toqeuer, 1992). L’attention du personnel et les valeurs ajoutées (courtoisie, communication et personnalisation) et enfin, les actions de fidélisation qui deviennent un défi du moment où elles conduisent au rachat, à la réalisation d’économie de relation à un bouche-à-oreille positif et à l’amortissement des frais engagés pour les fidéliser (Téboul, 2002).

3. La relation existante entre le positionnement et les cinq dimensions de la qualité expérientielle Dans le cadre du processus décisionnel d’un consommateur, plusieurs éléments et variables peuvent rentrer en ligne de compte pour influencer son choix final en se penchant vers l’offre ou le service qui répond le plus à ses attentes. Parmi l’ensemble des variables susceptibles d’affecter le processus de décision, l’incertitude en situation de choix joue un rôle important. Cette incertitude a cependant des origines multiples. Conformément à Urbany, Dickson et Wilkie (1989), on peut distinguer l’incertitude externe, qui dépend des informations disponibles au regard des alternatives de choix, et l’incertitude interne qui dépend des connaissances dont dispose l’acheteur. Ces deux sources d’incertitude interagissent fréquemment lors de la réalisation d’une épreuve de choix.

La littérature sur la gestion de la marque dans le contexte des stratégies marketing remplace le terme produit par le terme marque et ce pour l’identification et pour retracer la fonction du nom et du logos (Keller, 1997). Les recherches empiriques sur la marque qui examine les noms, les slogans verbaux comme stimuli, - 16 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

diminuent l’opportunité d’identifier et de mesurer les aspects expérientiels de ces marques (Shocker, Srivastava et Ruekert, 1994).

Un outil stratégique qu’est le positionnement est spécifiquement crucial lors de cette phase, il se concentre sur le processus d’évaluation et de traitement d’informations qui impliquent des perceptions et des préférences permettant à cet effet de choisir une marque plutôt qu’une autre. Le positionnement comme la littérature l’avait précisé trouve son origine dans le fait que les clients ont une perception spécifique des services qui leur sont offerts, il permet donc de conférer à l’entreprise un avantage unique et durable. C’est une représentation (ou perception) simplifiée, réductrice, comparative et distinctive du produit.

Ratier (2003). Les causes de la qualité comme la satisfaction ou la fidélisation révèlent des similitudes et ont des implications managériales au niveau de la stratégie de positionnement de l’entreprise (Nguyen et Leblanc, 1994).

Notre étude est une occasion de s’interroger si le positionnement sur les facteurs de qualité précités permet d’atteindre les objectifs de satisfaction du client et empreigne dans son esprit une bonne perception de l’entreprise et de savoir aussi si ces facteurs de qualité sont utilisés pour différencier l’entreprise ou son offre par rapport à celle des concurrents. Et par conséquent, donner à la marque Marrakech le positionnement qui lui permettra de redorer son image auprès du consommateur/visiteur avec plus de visibilité sur le marché du tourisme.

Pour concrétiser ce qui a été expliqué ci-dessus, nous exposerons dans la partie qui suit notre cadre conceptuel adopté, les hypothèses qu’on cherche à confirmer ou infirmer ainsi que la méthodologie suivie pour atteindre nos objectifs de recherche.

4. Cadre conceptuel et hypothèses de la recherche Le besoin d’émotions devient de plus en plus présent lorsque nous analysons les nouvelles tendances du tourisme, que nous percevons souvent comme un nombre grandissant de systèmes de vécu. Ceux-ci sont caractérisés par une conception et une esthétique universelle, et en partie par la thématisation, les émotions et le vécu, la sécurité et le confort pratique, l’individualisation et la spontanéité, les centres touristiques et les combinaisons d’offres ainsi que l’exclusivité et les privilèges. En ce sens, ce sont des systèmes holistiques, car ils font appel à la capacité des clients à percevoir et à vivre une expérience comme un tout.

Nous avançons, à cet effet, avec réserve, que les facteurs de positionnement dans les services résident dans une ou des expériences vécues par les clients. Des expériences qui se produisent quand ils rencontrent, subissent ou vivent certaines choses. Ces expériences contiennent des valeurs sensorielles, émotionnelles,

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cognitives, comportementales et relationnelles en plus des valeurs fonctionnelles. Ces expériences contiennent donc, non seulement le contenu intrinsèque du service, mais aussi sa fiabilité, son accessibilité physique, le confort physique et émotif du client, l’animation offerte et la qualité relationnelle environnante.

Nous allons donc tenter de vérifier l’efficacité de ces variables et leur importance auprès des clients de différents hôtels de luxe dans le monde, quel que soit leur objectif de visite. Cela nous permettra de comparer l’impact de ces variables sur le positionnement perçu par chacun des segments de loisir ou d’affaire. Notre étude se limite à l’expérience durant les phases de séjour à l’hôtel, nous coupons les liens avec toute relation « avant » l’expérience et « après » l’expérience.

Il s’agira aussi de savoir si les facteurs de la qualité expérientielle ont une relation avec le positionnement perçu (la qualité perçue) par les clients et la satisfaction globale du consommateur. Ces deux notions sont bien différentes bien que leurs causes en soient proches. La satisfaction est un état psychologique alors que la qualité perçue est une attitude, et les deux notions sont fondées sur la comparaison entre les attentes et les perceptions (Olivier, 1981).

Nous serons tentés aussi de vérifier si les facteurs de qualité expérientielle ont une relation avec la fidélité, ceci nous permettra de déceler des liens éventuels qui seront en mesure de générer un positionnement durable. En résumé, il est sujet de vérifier empiriquement qu’elle est le chemin de persuasion le plus approprié à emprunter par les hôtels de luxe, ceci afin de parvenir à influencer les attitudes et à asseoir un positionnement en fonction des facteurs de qualité expérientielle les plus significatifs.

4.1 Les hypothèses de recherche Comme mentionnées plus haut, nos hypothèses se rapporteront aux cinq dimensions de la qualité expérientielle qui nous permettront de mesurer empiriquement leur impact sur le positionnement ainsi que la perception des consommateurs par rapport à la qualité expérientielle en prenant en considération ces mêmes dimensions qui jouent un rôle important dans le processus décisionnel du consommateur.

Notre 1ittérature nous a permis de ressortir les cinq hypothèses de recherche suivantes : H1 : La fiabilité perçue du service hôtelier est une dimension créatrice de valeur et déterminante du positionnement perçu et attendu par la clientèle d’affaire et de loisir lors de son expérience dans les hôtels à Marrakech.

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• H1a : La fiabilité perçue du service hôtelier est une dimension créatrice de valeur et déterminante du positionnement perçu et attendu par la clientèle d’affaire et de loisir lors de la phase d’accueil.

• H1b : La fiabilité perçue du service hôtelier est une dimension créatrice de valeur et déterminante du positionnement perçu et attendu par la clientèle d’affaire et de loisir lors de la phase du séjour.

• H1c : La fiabilité perçue du service hôtelier est une dimension créatrice de valeur et déterminante du positionnement perçu et attendu par la clientèle affaires et de loisir lors du départ.

H2 : L’accessibilité perçue du service hôtelier est une dimension créatrice de valeur et déterminante du positionnement perçu et attendu par la clientèle d’affaire et de loisir lors son expérience dans les hôtels du luxe à Marrakech.

• H2a : L’accessibilité perçue du service hôtelier est une dimension créatrice de valeur et déterminante du positionnement perçu et attendu par la clientèle affaires et de loisir lors de la phase d’accueil.

• H2b : L’accessibilité perçue du service hôtelier est une dimension créatrice de valeur et déterminante du positionnement perçu et attendu par la clientèle affaires et de loisir lors de la phase du séjour.

• H2c : L’accessibilité perçue du service hôtelier est une dimension créatrice de valeur et déterminante du positionnement perçu et attendu par la clientèle affaires et de loisir lors du départ.

H3 : Le divertissement perçu dans l’offre du service hôtelier est une dimension créatrice de valeur et déterminante du positionnement perçu et attendu par la clientèle d’affaire et de loisir lors son expérience dans les hôtels du luxe à Marrakech.

• H3a : Le divertissement perçu dans l’offre du service hôtelier est une dimension créatrice de valeur et déterminante du positionnement perçu et attendu par la clientèle affaires et de loisir lors de la phase d’accueil.

• H3b : Le divertissement perçu dans l’offre du service hôtelier est une dimension créatrice de valeur et déterminante du positionnement perçu et attendu par la clientèle affaires et de loisir lors de la phase du séjour.

• H3c : Le divertissement perçu dans l’offre du service hôtelier est une dimension créatrice de valeur et déterminante du positionnement perçu et attendu par la clientèle affaires et de loisir lors du départ.

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H4 : L’environnement physique perçu du service hôtelier est une dimension créatrice de valeur et déterminante du positionnement perçu et attendu par la clientèle d’affaire et de loisir lors son expérience dans les hôtels du luxe à Marrakech.

• H4a : L’environnement physique perçu du service hôtelier est une dimension créatrice de valeur et déterminante du positionnement perçu et attendu par la clientèle affaires et de loisir lors de la phase d’accueil.

• H4b : L’environnement physique perçu du service hôtelier est une dimension créatrice de valeur et déterminante du positionnement perçu et attendu par la clientèle affaires et de loisir lors de la phase du séjour.

• H4c : L’environnement physique perçu du service hôtelier est une dimension créatrice de valeur et déterminante du positionnement perçu et attendu par la clientèle affaires et de loisir lors du départ.

H5 : L’environnement relationnel personnalisé perçu du service hôtelier est une dimension créatrice de valeur et déterminante du positionnement perçu et attendu par la clientèle d’affaire et de loisir lors son expérience dans les hôtels du luxe à Marrakech.

• H5a : L’environnement relationnel personnalisé perçu du service hôtelier est une dimension créatrice de valeur et déterminante du positionnement perçu et attendu par la clientèle affaires et de loisir lors de la phase d’accueil.

• H5b : L’environnement relationnel personnalisé perçu du service hôtelier est une dimension créatrice de valeur et déterminante du positionnement perçu et attendu par la clientèle affaires et de loisir lors de la phase du séjour.

• H5c : L’environnement relationnel personnalisé perçu du service hôtelier est une dimension créatrice de valeur et déterminante du positionnement perçu et attendu par la clientèle affaires et de loisir lors du départ.

4.2 Le modèle conceptuel de la recherche Le modèle que nous proposons pour mesurer l’impact de la qualité expérientielle perçue dans les services hôteliers sur le positionnement est présenté ci-après :

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Environnement perceptuel de la Qualité

Le leadership de la marque

Comportement

H1 (a, b, c)

Fiabilité

Approche comportementale favorable : Fidélisation

H2 (a, b, c)

Accessibilité

Divertissement Environnement Physique et Sensoriel Environnement Relationnel Personnalisé de prise en charge

H3 (a, b, c)

Le Positionnement percu

H4 (a, b, c)

Approche comportementale défavorable : Fuite

H5 (a, b, c)

Figure 1. Le Modèle conceptuel de la recherche : les dimensions de la qualité expérientielles déterminantes du positionnement.

II. LA MÉTHODOLOGIE DE LA RECHERCHE 1. Identification et opérationnalisation du problème La problématique relevée dans cette étude se rapporte aux dimensions de qualité expérientielle dans un cadre des services, comme étant des facteurs de positionnement potentiels, ceux-ci allant être testés dans l’hôtellerie de luxe à Marrakech.

La problématique s’introduira à travers la présentation de la nécessité de la différenciation du médium de service comme fondement du positionnement. Le client, dans le cadre des services, joue un rôle important dans la production, ce qui pousse toute organisation à réorienter ses préoccupations vers une approche axée sur le client plutôt qu’une approche opérationnelle. Ainsi le positionnement sur les dimensions de la qualité expérientielle, est-il créateur de valeur, perçue positivement par les clients ? Dans les services, le fait de se positionner sur des - 21 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

éléments qui apparaissent périphériques, dans le cadre des produits, n’est-il pas un bon moyen de persuasion ?

L’analyse des résultats de cette étude permettra de démontrer le ou les facteurs de qualité expérientielle qui représentent le ou les meilleurs) moyen(s) de persuasion du point de vue des clients. Elle permettra aussi de recentrer les efforts des gestionnaires dans le secteur de l’hôtellerie en matière de communication et de gestion de la qualité, mais aussi, de positionner plus efficacement leur offre.

2. Le choix du secteur hôtelier du luxe à Marrakech Nous avons choisi de travailler sur le secteur hôtelier du luxe vu que c’est un secteur très important dans l’image de certaines destinations touristiques. Le magazine américain « Robb Report », spécialiste des produits et destinations de luxe, a classé en 2016 la ville de Marrakech dans son top 10 des 21 meilleures destinations de luxe les plus prisées au monde. Alors l’hôtellerie de luxe donne au pays une image d’excellence qui cultive son accueil à la marocaine, renforce son savoir-faire et valorise son patrimoine. La véritable clé du succès de l’hôtellerie de luxe se traduit par un service de qualité qui symbolise l’élégance et le raffinement. De plus, ce secteur attache une grande importance à l’hospitalité qui peut être tangible (chambre) ou intangible (sourire).

Aujourd’hui, nombreux sont les établissements de luxe à Marrakech qui arrivent, grâce à l’appel de designers et architectes, à rendre leur établissement unique grâce au décor. Mais cette personnalisation ne suffit plus, la vraie différence se fait grâce au personnel, à sa formation et à son habilité professionnelle.

Désormais, les attentes du client vont au-delà du service matériel. La dimension humaine est source de valeur ajoutée et devient l’élément à privilégier au sein des organisations, afin de se différencier au sein d’un marché hyper concurrentiel.

De nos jours, être au service du client prend une autre dimension. Il s’agit de dépasser l’aspect fonctionnel du métier pour faire vivre des émotions au client.

(PEREY, p.90) En plus de l’aspect émotionnel, le service doit préserver le fameux effet « waouh », que l’on rencontre en se rendant dans un établissement de luxe. Cela s’explique par un service dit « zéro défaut » qui ne tolère aucune approximation et dont l’unique but est de faire vivre au client un moment magique où tout est perfection.

Peu d’études ont porté sur la qualité expérientielle perçue dans les services hôteliers du luxe et les recherches concernant ce sujet sont rares. C’est la raison pour laquelle le choix de notre étude a été motivé par le souci de savoir l’impact de la qualité expérientielle du séjour hôtelier du luxe sur le positionnement, le cas de Marrakech comme destination touristique.

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3. Le processus d’échantillonnage Le choix de la méthode de collecte de données est orienté par le type de la recherche ainsi que par les ressources disponibles. L’enquête par questionnaire permettra de recenser les informations afin de valider les hypothèses de la recherche. Cette méthode de collecte de données très formalisée, favorise la collecte de données d’une façon systématique. Elle assure aussi la confidentialité des réponses, ce qui contribue à augmenter le taux de réponses. Les questionnaires ont été remplis et gérés auprès des étudiants de programme VATEL (Management Hôtelier International) cadre de l’Université Privée de Marrakech.

Ce choix repose sur le fait que les étudiants de ce programme régulièrement ont des stages d’alternance dans les hôtels partenaires.

Nous avons cependant, porté une très grande attention pour démêler les données collectées par rapport à la classification des hôtels visités. Les hôtels de luxe que nous cherchons à tester se distinguent par le prix, par la qualité supérieure des services offerts, cependant il est important de préciser qu’un hôtel cinq étoiles de luxe reste coté de la même façon, selon des normes universelles, quel que soit son emplacement sur la ville de Marrakech.

L’étude a été menée en novembre et décembre 2017 avec 320 questionnaires distribués, nous avons pu collecter 300 questionnaires adéquatement remplis.

20 de ces questionnaires n’ont pu être traités en raison d’une incompréhension de la catégorie d’hôtel visée. L’échantillon a été soldé, par conséquent, à 300 questionnaires pour respecter le quota minimum de validité. Le questionnaire (en anglais et en français) a été administré aux touristes étrangères qui ont séjourné au moins 3 jours dans des hôtels de luxe situés à la ville de Marrakech.

La sélection des touristes est faite par commodité. Nous avons opté pour la méthode d’échantillonnage par quotas. Les quotas ont été réalisés en se basant sur la nationalité des touristes. Nous avons tenté de respecter les quotas issus des statistiques publiées par l’Office National du Tourisme Marocain.

Dans notre échantillon, nous avons obtenu une répartition presque équilibrée de la population de 48,8 % de femmes et de 51,2 % d’hommes. Par ailleurs, nous avons constaté que la population interviewée dominée est plutôt jeune appartenant à l’intervalle [25-44 ans] avec un pourcentage de 49,6 %, suivie par le groupe d’âge [45-64] avec 23,5 % ensuite ceux qui appartiennent à la classe séniore [+64] avec 15,9 % et enfin les moins de 25 ans ne représentent qu’un faible pourcentage de 11 %. Quant au statut professionnel des répondants, la majorité des répondants ont un bon statut professionnel soit 42,8 % des responsables et des managers et 36,6 % des professionnels. Puis les retraités représentent 16,7 % de la population tandis que les étudiants présentent uniquement 3,9 % et ce faible pourcentage est expliqué par le fait que les étudiants - 23 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

n’ont pas de vacances durant cette période. Et enfin, la plupart des répondants sont de nationalités européennes (française, britannique, espagnole, allemande, italienne et portugaise) et représentent 74,2 % des répondants soit un nombre de 68 personnes suivi des Asiatiques (les pays de golf, les chinois et les japonais) avec 23,6 % et le reste est réparti sur d’autres différentes nationalités (surtout américaine et canadienne…).

4. Mesure des échelles (les variables de la recherche) Pour l’élaboration du questionnaire, l’échelle de Likert fut retenue. Cette échelle nous permettra de mesurer les degrés d’adéquation entre les attentes et la perception des clients. Elle prenait cependant, la forme suivante : Attribut X

Est nettement inférieur aux attentes

1

2

3

4

5

Dépasse largement les attentes

Les facteurs de qualité étaient mesurés par un énoncé sur une échelle de Likert à 5 points, où : • 1 = Le service était nettement inférieur à vos attentes, • 2 = Le service était inférieur à vos attentes, • 3 = Le service correspondait parfaitement à vos attentes, • 4 = Le service était au-delà de vos attentes, • 5 = Le service était mémorable.

Comme nous l’avons précisé plus haut, nous utiliserons la méthode de sondage pour recueillir les données nécessaires à notre étude. En effet, le questionnaire permettra, d’une part, la réalisation de la collecte de donnée d’une façon systématique, et d’autre part, d’assurer un certain niveau de confidentialité des réponses, ce qui contribue à augmenter le taux de réponse. Le questionnaire comprend trois grandes parties : la première partie vise à affiner le contexte de l’expérience, nous parlons ici de l’objet de la visite à l’hôtel (affaire ou tourisme), le type d’hôtel et le pays ainsi que d’autres questions se rapportant à la fréquence de visite par année que nous pouvons aussi considérer comme une mesure de fidélité. La deuxième partie mesure les attentes et les perceptions des clients de l’hôtel, cette dernière a été divisée en trois parties ; l’accueil, le séjour et le départ où l’on teste à chaque fois des items se rapportant à la qualité expérientielle du service que l’on a présenté dans les chapitres précédents (fiabilité, accessibilité, divertissement, environnement physique et environnement relationnel de prise en charge).

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Dans le cadre de la théorie, plusieurs études ont tenté de mesurer la qualité en évaluant séparément, et dans certains cas à des moments différents, les attentes du client avant l’utilisation du service et sa perception après l’utilisation de ce dernier, la qualité étant fonction de l’écart entre les attentes et les perceptions (Churchill et Surprenant, 1982, Parasuraman, Zeithaml et Berry, 1988). Cette façon de procéder fait face à un problème de changement de structure des facteurs en raison de l’évolution de la configuration cognitive des répondants (Carman, 1990). Afin de confronter ce problème, nous avons suivi dans cette étude la suggestion de Cannan, celle de mesurer l’écart entre les attentes et les perceptions à travers une seule et même question. La troisième et la dernière partie de ce questionnaire présentent les données sociales démographiques des répondants.

Le tableau suivant récapitule les facteurs de qualité dans les services comme échelles de mesure des différentes variables de la recherche.

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DIMENSION 1

Facteurs

DIMENSION 2

Facteurs

DIMENSION 3

Facteurs

DIMENSION 4

Facteurs

DIMENSION 5

Facteurs

FIABILITÉ 1 Fonctionnalité 2 Consistance 3 Risques psychologiques et sociaux 4 Risque de sécurité 5 Risques financiers ACCESSIBILITÉ 6 Accessibilité physique 7 Information directionnelle 8 Promptitude du service 4 Gestion de l’attente 10 Gestion des exceptions DIVERTISSEMENT 11 Thème et marque 12 Divertissement permanent 13 Programmation d’événements 14 Apparence et costumes du personnel 15 Produit de mémorabilité ENVIRONNEMENT PHYSIQUE 16 Cohérence du décor et du thème 17 Confort physique 18 Confort musical 19 Expérience gustative 20 Expérience olfactive ENVIRONNEMENT RELATIONNEL PERSONNALISÉ 21 Empathie du personnel 22 Leadership d’influence 23 Leadership transactionnel 24 L’attention du personnel 25 Action de fidélisation

Tableau 1. Le tableau récapitulatif des facteurs de qualité dans les services touristiques (source : De la destination produit à la destination médium —Les cinq enjeux de la gestion et du positionnement des destinations touristiques. Langlois, 2003).

III. RÉSULTATS : ANALYSE ET INTERPRÉTATION Après avoir mentionné la méthodologie de la recherche, nous allons présenter et interpréter ci-après les principaux résultats obtenus. L’analyse des résultats a été conduite à travers le logiciel SPSS. Deux catégories d’analyse ont été utilisées dans cette recherche. La première sera consacrée à une analyse factorielle globale de différentes échelles de mesure choisies. Ensuite dans la deuxième - 26 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

nous allons présenter et interpréter les résultats relatifs à notre étude empirique pour valider ou rejeter les hypothèses.

1. Analyse factorielle globale Nous avons procédé à une analyse factorielle dans le but de démêler la structure des facteurs de qualité que nous avons identifiée dans le cadre de notre revue de littérature. Dans cette dernière, nous rappelons qu’il était sujet de cinq déterminants principaux de la qualité dans les services ; la fiabilité, l’accessibilité, le divertissement, l’environnement physique et l’environnement relationnel de prise en charge. Ces déterminants sont considérés comme un ensemble et sont, à leur tour, divisés en sous-élément exactement comme l’exemple de la grille des facteurs de qualité dans les services touristiques développée par Langlois en 2003 et présentée dans la parte de la méthodologie de la recherche. Ces facteurs ont été mesurés par 31 énoncés lors de la phase d’accueil, 36 énoncés au niveau de la phase du séjour et 22 énoncés lors du départ. Mais pour répondre aux différentes questions soulevées par notre étude, nous avons effectué une analyse factorielle qui regroupe seulement les variables qui ont été validées tout au long de notre analyse multi variée. Quelle que soit la phase du séjour dans l’hôtel, cette analyse factorielle globale permettra de nous montrer dans un premier temps, un résumé des variables les plus pertinentes dans la recherche, leurs classifications pour vérifier l’exactitude des études antérieures, mais aussi, apporter certains conseils aux gestionnaires quant aux variables les plus déterminantes pour se positionner et pour différencier leur offre.

Nous avons, cependant, commencé par des tests de routine tels que le KMO et le test de sphéricité dont les résultats se sont présentés comme suit : Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy

,638

Bartlett’s Test of Approx. Chi-Square

670,080

Sphericity

df

349

Sig.

,000

Tableau 2. Le test de sphéricité de Bartlett’s ou KMO. Le test du KMO est de 0,638. Il est faible, mais acceptable et permet de poursuivre notre analyse factorielle. L’alpha observé est de 0,000. Il est inférieur à 0,05 donc, nous avons rejeté HO, en concluant que la matrice de corrélation n’est pas égale à une matrice identité dans la population. Cela signifie que les coefficients de corrélation entre les différentes paires de variables ne sont pas égaux à zéro dans la population.

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Les résultats de l’analyse factorielle globale se traduisent par une variance expliquée de 63 % à dix facteurs. Nous avons, cependant, essayé comme, le montre le tableau ci-dessous d’influencer les résultats en demandant une factorielle à 5 axes ou à 5 facteurs. Ceci nous a permis de capturer près de 40 % de la variance totale (39 722).

AXES 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

Initial Total 3,512 2,219 1,872 1,614 1,509 1,420 1,389 1,292 1,129 1,083 ,930 ,886 ,791 ,744 ,704 ,684 ,650 ,636 ,581 ,551 ,503 ,492 ,432 ,390 ,378 ,354 ,258

Eigenvalues % of Variance Cumulative % 13,006 13,006 8,217 21,223 6,934 28,158 5,976 34,134 5,588 39,722 5,261 44,982 5,143 50,126 4,783 54,909 4,181 59,090 4,009 63,099 3,443 66,542 3,281 69,823 2,930 72,754 2,757 75,511 2,609 78,119 2,532 80,651 2,407 83,059 2,354 85,412 2,153 87,566 2,039 89,605 1,861 91,466 1,821 93,287 1,600 94,887 1,443 96,330 1,402 97,731 1,313 99,044 ,956 100,000

Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings Total % of Variance Cumulative % 2,445 9,054 9,054 2,384 8,830 17,885 2,331 8,633 26,518 1,913 7,084 33,601 1,653 6,120 39,722

Tableau 3. Le total de la variance expliquée par les variables sur 5 axes factoriels.

La matrice de corrélation, après rotation, affiche des coefficients de corrélation assez élevés entre les variables et les facteurs respectifs. Les résultats de cette dernière sont très intéressants. Ils se présentent comme suit, et profiteront d’un commentaire détaillé, plus tard dans la partie de la discussion des résultats.

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Les axes factoriels

Les variables

La régularité du service Disponibilité des rangements Sécurité des objets personnels La fiabilité Qualité de l’entretien quotidien Fonctionnalité des équipements (séchoir, fer à repasser…)

Fonctionnalité des procédures de départ, Transparence de la facturation Facilité d’accès à la réception Gestion de l’attente à la réception L’accessibilité Signalisation intérieure Accompagnement à la chambre Facilité de se déplacer vers la chambre Programmation d’événements dans les bars et les restaurants Le Disponibilité des différents produits dans les boutiques Divertissement de l’hôtel Apparence et costumes du personnel Aménagement et ameublement Apparence et cohérence intérieures du décor L’environnement Physique Qualité de l’environnement sonore et sensoriel Diversité des menus Qualité et diversité des repas lors du départ Temps de réaction du personnel lors de modifications ou de problèmes Disponibilité du personnel Capacité du personnel à répondre à mes demandes personnelles L’environnement Capacité des employés à personnaliser le service Relationnel selon mes besoins de prise en charge Check-in rapide à la réception Éclairage de la chambre à mon arrivée L’attention du personnel La courtoisie du personnel à la réception Check-out rapide

Les coefficients de corrélation 0,790 0,770 0,712 0,751 0,571 0,649 0,731 0,619 0,591 0,708 0,762 0,721 0.789 0.715 0.770 0,520 0,539 0,592 0,764 0,349 0,759 0,792 0,694 0,668 0,579 0,683 0,682 0,721 0,564

Tableau 4. La matrice de corrélation après rotation Varimax.

Avant de conclure cette analyse, nous avons fait un tableau récapitulatif des variables les plus représentatives dans notre étude. Ce tableau présente la moyenne des réponses et les écarts types, des statistiques qui vont dans un sens, nous permettre de savoir les variables qui ont été mal évaluées ou plutôt évaluées comme étant inférieures ou égales aux attentes des clients et s’en servir pour améliorer et sensibiliser les gestionnaires, puisque ces variables peuvent elles aussi être considérées comme une base au positionnement perçu par les clients et permettre d’établir des construits solides de différenciation.

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Les variables pertinentes La régularité du service Facilité d’accès à la réception Gestion de l’attente à la réception Capacité des employés à personnaliser le service selon mes besoins Check-in rapide à la réception Signalisation intérieure Aménagement et ameublement Apparence et cohérence intérieures du décor Qualité de l’environnement sonore Accompagnement à la chambre Facilité de se déplacer vers la chambre Éclairage de la chambre à mon arrivée Programmation d’événements dans les bars et les restaurants Disponibilité des différents produits dans les boutiques de l’hôtel Temps de réaction du personnel lors de modifications ou de problèmes Apparence el costumes du personnel Disponibilité des rangements Disponibilité du personnel Sécurité des objets personnels Qualité de l’entretien quotidien Fonctionnalité des équipements (séchoir, fer à repasser…)

Diversité des menus L’attention du personnel La courtoisie du personnel à la réception Qualité et diversité des repas lors du départ Check-out rapide Fonctionnalité des procédures de départ Transparence de la facturation Capacité du personnel à répondre à mes demandes personnelles La moyenne des moyennes

Moyenne 2,64 3,22 2,90

Écart type 0,86 0,55 0,67

Médiane 2 3 3

N 300 300 300

2,79

0,9

3

299

3,11 2,94 3,09 3,08 2,40 2,80 3,11 2,78

0,63 0,74 0,68 0,56 0,61 0,83 0,63 0,9

3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3

300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300

2,68

0,76

2

298

3,04

0,59

3

289

2,89

0,79

3

300

2,86 2,47 3,45 3.26 3,47

0,71 0,75 0.72 0.77 0,7

3 2 3 3 4

298 300 299 298 300

2 72

0,76

3

295

2,70 3,53 3,11 2,74 3,02 2,82 2,58

0,89 0,65 0,73 0,7 0,62 0,78 0,56

3 4 3 3 3 3 3

291 300 292 276 300 288 300

2,93

0,64

3

292

2,904

Tableau 5. Les moyennes et les écarts types des variables les plus représentatives dans l’étude.

2. La discussion des résultats et la validation des hypothèses de la recherche Cette étude a permis d’identifier avec succès les variables les plus déterminantes et créatrices de valeur selon la perception des consommateurs des services - 30 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

hôteliers de luxe. La discussion est basée sur les résultats reliés à chaque facteur que nous avons obtenus à travers l’analyse factorielle que nous avons effectuée.

Nous allons donc, discuter ces résultats en exposant, indépendamment, chaque facteur et son hypothèse de recherche appropriée. a) La fiabilité H1A : La fiabilité perçue du service hôtelier est une dimension créatrice de valeur et déterminante du positionnement perçu et attendu par les clients lors de la phase d’accueil.

H1B : La fiabilité perçue du service hôtelier est une dimension créatrice de valeur et déterminante du positionnement perçu et attendu par la clientèle lors de la phase du séjour.

H1C : La fiabilité perçue du service hôtelier est une dimension créatrice de valeur et déterminante du positionnement perçu et attendu par la clientèle lors du départ.

Les résultats de ce facteur dans les trois phases du séjour démontrent que les clients évaluent moins la fiabilité du service lors de la phase d’accueil. Leur évaluation prend de plus en plus d’importance lors du séjour et du départ. En effet, durant la phase d’accueil les clients évaluent la régularité du service ; une des seules variables dans cette phase qui représente la fiabilité, mais non la moindre, puisque son coefficient de corrélation avec l’un des facteurs et les autres variables le composant est très élevé.

Durant la phase de séjour, la fiabilité est présente dans l’esprit des consommateurs. Ils évaluent ce facteur dans sa globalité. En effet, la fiabilité dans cette phase se définit non seulement par la consistance du service, mais aussi par la fonctionnalité de ce dernier ainsi que les risques pouvant y exister. Les clients prennent de plus en plus en considération la sécurité de leurs objets personnels durant la phase du séjour et aussi la transparence de la facturation lors du départ. À ce stade nous avons pu valider notre première hypothèse de recherche concernant la fiabilité, puisque nous avons, uniformément, accepté H1B et H1C (séjour et départ) et avec réserve H1A puisque dans cette phase le facteur n’est représenté que par une seule variable soit la régularité du service.

Un autre résultat permettant de répondre à nos différentes questions de recherche se rapporte aux différentes variables qui définissent le facteur de fiabilité, quelle que soit la phase du séjour dans laquelle le client se situe. La fiabilité dans un hôtel de luxe selon les résultats de notre matrice globale est dans un premier temps la régularité du service qui se rapporte à la constance de l’offre en termes - 31 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

de place et de temps. En effet, un client qui choisit son hôtel suite à des recommandations s’attend à une garantie quant à la régularité du service, il veut vivre le même type d’expérience.

La fiabilité se définit aussi par la fonctionnalité du service, puisque nous avons retrouvé des variables comme la qualité de l’entretien, la disponibilité des rangements et la fonctionnalité des équipements et des procédures. Toujours selon nos résultats, la fiabilité peut porter sur la notion de risque et ici nous parlons spécialement du risque financier et de sécurité (transparence de la facturation et la sécurité des objets personnels). b) L’accessibilité H2A : L’accessibilité perçue du service hôtelier est une dimension créatrice de valeur et déterminante du positionnement perçu et attendu par les clients lors de la phase d’accueil.

H2B : L’accessibilité perçue du service hôtelier est une dimension créatrice de valeur et déterminante du positionnement perçu et attendu par les clients lors de la phase du séjour.

H2C : L’accessibilité perçue du service hôtelier est une dimension créatrice de valeur et déterminante du positionnement perçu et attendu par les clients lors du départ.

L’accessibilité consiste à donner les possibilités de faire, elle doit être complétée et valorisée par une information de qualité qu’on appelle la signalisation.

L’accessibilité comme nous l’avions définit dans la revue de littérature, fait référence à la fois à l’accessibilité psychologique (positionnement), médiatique (visibilité), mais aussi physique qui se rapporte à la facilité d’utiliser le service (Langlois, 2003).

Lors de la phase d’accueil, l’accessibilité est représentée par un ensemble de variables qui relève de la facilité de se déplacer et d’accéder aux différents services de l’hôtel. Nous parlons plus particulièrement des variables : facilité de se déplacer vers la chambre et la facilité d’accès à la réception. Cependant, nous remarquons que la facilité d’accès à la réception est plus importante comme variable, dans l’esprit des clients que la facilité de se déplacer vers la chambre.

Ceci est certainement dû, à la présence d’une assistance et d’une personnalisation extrême du service d’accompagnement à la chambre dans cette catégorie d’hôtels.

Lors de la phase du séjour et du départ, nos hypothèses de recherche portant sur la pertinence de l’accessibilité, comme facteur et dimension créatrice de - 32 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

valeur, ont été rejetées, puisque nous ne retrouvons aucune variable qui représente l’accessibilité lors de ces phases. Ce qui est, sans doute, dû à une certaine appropriation et découverte des lieux dès l’arrivée du client à l’hôtel.

Des variables comme, le temps de réaction du personnel et le check-out rapide à la réception sont des variables qui font référence à la gestion de l’attente et des exceptions et font partie intégrante de l’accessibilité, selon la définition donnée par la grille de la qualité expérientielle développée par Langlois en 2003. Ces variables servent dans l’esprit du consommateur à évaluer le personnel et sont par conséquent plus corrélées, selon les résultats de notre étude, avec le facteur de l’environnement relationnel.

L’analyse factorielle effectuée a permis d’avoir des résultats pertinents qui confirment les résultats divulgués par les études antérieures. Nous savons à travers ces derniers que l’accessibilité physique dans un hôtel de luxe ne se définit pas différemment de l’accessibilité au sens large du terme. Par contre, dans ce contexte particulier de luxe, l’accessibilité se fait sentir par des éléments ou plutôt des actions plus personnalisées et hospitalières envers le client, et ce, dès son arrivée à l’hôtel pour lui assurer un confort physique et psychologique envers le lieu ; comme le fait de l’accompagner à sa chambre, la capacité de résoudre ses problèmes, de répondre à ses demandes ou encore de gérer son attente. c) Le divertissement H3A : Le divertissement perçu dans l’offre du service hôtelier est une dimension créatrice de valeur et déterminante du positionnement perçu et attendu par les clients lors de la phase d’accueil.

H3B : Le divertissement perçu dans l’offre du service hôtelier est une dimension créatrice de valeur et déterminante du positionnement perçu et attendu par les clients lors de la phase du séjour.

H3C : Le divertissement perçu dans l’offre du service hôtelier est une dimension créatrice de valeur et déterminante du positionnement perçu et attendu par les clients lors du départ.

Le divertissement est une variable très importante dans les destinations exotiques et se traduit par une grande thématisation des lieux, un divertissement permanent, une programmation constante d’événement à l’intérieur et à l’extérieur de l’hôtel, par la présence de produit de mémorabilité dans les magasins et les costumes du personnel…

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Les résultats de notre étude démontrent la pertinence de cette dimension et particulièrement dans une des phases du séjour et non pas dans toutes les étapes de l’expérience. En effet, le divertissement est présent à travers un ensemble de variables lors de la phase du séjour seulement. Ces variables sont de l’ordre de trois, mais ont des coefficients de corrélation très élevés entre elles et l’axe factoriel qu’elles composent.

Le Divertissement se définit, selon les résultats de notre étude, par la programmation d’événements, l’apparence et les costumes du personnel et par la disponibilité des produits de mémorabilité dans les boutiques. Ces variables sont tout autant, primordiaux pour définir cet axe factoriel selon les études antérieures et la grille de la qualité expérientielle de Langlois, 2003. En termes de différences, Langlois dans sa grille cite le divertissement permanent comme un élément qui définit le facteur par rapport aux services en général. Nous ne renions pas ce constat, mais précisant que, dans le cadre de de luxe, le divertissement et la thématisation se font par les lieux et les concepts plutôt que par les événements. d) L’environnement physique et sensoriel H4A : L’environnement physique sensoriel perçu du service hôtelier est une dimension créatrice de valeur et déterminante du positionnement perçu et attendu par la clientèle lors de la phase d’accueil.

H4B : L’environnement physique sensoriel perçu du service hôtelier est une dimension créatrice de valeur et déterminante du positionnement perçu et attendu par la clientèle lors de la phase du séjour.

H4C : L’environnement physique sensoriel perçu du service hôtelier est une dimension créatrice de valeur et déterminante du positionnement perçu et attendu par la clientèle lors du départ.

L’environnement physique est une des dimensions les plus créatrices de valeur.

C’est une dimension présente à travers plusieurs variables, et ce, dans la phase de l’accueil et du séjour. D’après plusieurs auteurs le lieu physique affecte les ventes, et la présente recherche démontre ce constat à travers plusieurs variables environnementales qui ont été étudiées et qui ont effectivement un impact sur la qualité affective du produit touristique dans sa globalité et plus précisément des hôtels de luxe.

Lors de la phase d’accueil, dans un esprit de familiarisation avec les lieux, l’attention des clients porte sur deux volets de l’environnement physique. Le premier est sensoriel et donc fait appel à des stimuli environnementaux tels que les sons, les lumières et les goûts. Le second volet, porte plutôt sur le confort physique des décors, des aménagements de l’hôtel. L’impact de ces deux volets se traduit par - 34 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

une influence directe sur l’attitude et les comportements des clients, tel que l’ont rapporté les participants à cette étude ou même par des impacts non directs cette fois, sur les comportements des employés dans un tel environnement.

L’environnement physique n’est pas présent lors de la phase du départ. Ceci ne veut certainement pas dire que l’on peut négliger la gestion de cette dimension lors de cette phase, mais plutôt, que l’évaluation de cette dernière se fait surtout lors des premières phases de l’expérience et donc le client se fait un point de vue sur cette dimension au début et non à la fin de son séjour. À ce stade, les résultats nous ont permis d’accepter les hypothèses H4A et H4B et de rejeter H4C, stipulant que cette dimension est créatrice de valeur lors de la phase du départ. Parmi les autres questions soulevées par notre recherche, nous devions valider si nos résultats concordent avec les études antérieures, mais aussi définir plus spécifiquement les facteurs. En s’appuyant sur les résultats de la matrice globale, l’environnement physique peut se définir plus spécifiquement comme l’aménagement et l’ameublement des lieux, les décors composant ces derniers, mais aussi, par la diversité et la qualité de l’expérience gustative. e) L’environnement relationnel de prise en charge H5A : L’environnement relationnel personnalisé de prise en charge perçue du service hôtelier est une dimension créatrice de valeur et déterminante du positionnement perçu et attendu par la clientèle lors de la phase d’accueil.

H5B : L’environnement relationnel personnalisé de prise en charge perçue du service hôtelier est une dimension créatrice de valeur et déterminante du positionnement perçu et attendu par la clientèle lors de la phase du séjour.

H5C : L’environnement relationnel personnalisé de prise en charge perçue du service hôtelier est une dimension créatrice de valeur et déterminante du positionnement perçu et attendu par la clientèle lors du départ.

L’hôtellerie de luxe est caractérisée par un besoin très fort d’individualisation de la relation client, traditionnellement satisfait par une relation de face-à-face directe. Ce secteur, marqué par un développement très important du portefeuille client et par une recherche croissante de la rentabilité, ne peut plus se satisfaire de ces seules méthodes. De nombreux hôtels de luxe multiplient aujourd’hui les initiatives et développent des actions d’acquisition, fidélisent leur client et adaptent les outils relationnels aux caractéristiques de leur marché.

Dans un hôtel de luxe l’employé doit en effet, connaître les besoins spécifiques, les goûts de son client et forger une relation soutenue avec ce dernier puisque cette relation est une partie intégrante de l’offre avec un impératif d’individualisation. L’environnement relationnel de prise en charge est selon les résultats - 35 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

de notre étude, une dimension créatrice de valeur et déterminante du positionnement perçu et ce, quelle que soit la phase du séjour dans laquelle le client se trouve. L’environnement relationnel personnalisé de prise en charge comporte tout de même une limite évidente : il ne peut se substituer aux fondements de la qualité dans sa globalité. Inutile, dans le luxe de se lancer dans un programme d’acquisition ou de fidélisation des clients si l’accueil au point de vente laisse à désirer. La maîtrise de la transaction est le préalable indispensable à celle de la relation.

Dans cette optique, les variables les plus corrélées avec cet axe lors de la phase d’accueil sont des variables classifiées selon la revue de littérature comme des variables relevant de l’accessibilité. Cependant, puisque les participants à cette étude n’ont pas eu, au préalable, une définition de chaque facteur, ils ont associé l’évaluation de ces variables à l’environnement relationnel sachant qu’elles se rapportent à des actions faites par les employés de contact. Lors de la phase du séjour, l’environnement relationnel a été évalué de façon très précise à travers la disponibilité et le temps de réaction du personnel, ce qui n’est pas le cas lors de la phase du départ, puisque les clients évaluent les attitudes et les comportements des employés à travers leur empathie, leur attention et leur courtoisie pour produire le service. Nous confirmons donc, notre hypothèse de recherche puisque c’est pendant toutes les phases de l’expérience que nous travaillons sur le relationnel, en commençant par le face à face traditionnel où l’on parle d’empathie et de leadership transactionnel dans la phase d’accueil pour arriver à la fidélisation et la personnalisation lors de la phase du séjour et du départ.

IV. CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMANDATIONS ET LIMITES Cette recherche a permis de s’aligner sur certaines études validées lors des recherches antérieures. Il serait nécessaire de noter que les cinq facteurs de qualité sont effectivement, déterminants dans la création d’une expérience hôtelière. Cependant, tel que le démontre les résultats obtenus, le degré d’importance de chacun dépend de l’avancement temporel de l’expérience (la phase) et possiblement de l’objet de la visite qui n’a, malheureusement pas était validé par notre étude.

Les résultats concordent parfaitement avec les recherches antérieures, Les cinq dimensions constituent une force de positionnement, stipulant que l’environnement physique par exemple est l’emballage du service et sert à véhiculer l’image et la qualité de ce dernier, tel que l’a précisé Langlois en 2003. Nous validons l’exactitude de cette précision et rajoutons qu’elles le seront, surtout si elles sont manipulées conjointement selon les phases de l’expérience.

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Selon les résultats, il est important de noter que le divertissement comme facteur fond dans celui de l’environnement physique, puisque nous ne parlons plus indépendamment de l’un sans parler de l’autre. En effet, comme moyen de divertissement persuasif les hôtels sont plus concentrés sur la thématisation des lieux et des actions. L’architecture de l’hôtel par exemple, doit sans cesse s’enrichir des ressources sémantiques pour répondre aux attentes des clients (Pierre Diener, 2001).

L’étude démontre aussi que l’environnement relationnel de prise en charge a beaucoup d’importance dans l’esprit des clients dans l’industrie hôtelière de luxe. Plusieurs auteurs ont démontré l’importance de ce facteur. Toute transaction est toujours fondée, au moins partiellement, sur une relation de confiance pour faire face à l’incertitude (Gilles Marion, 2001). Ce constat s’accentue d’une part, quand le client est dans un environnement de service où il participe à la production et où son attitude dépend des personnes et de l’environnement qui l’entoure. La relation s’élargit plus encore, dans le contexte du luxe puisque le client ne se limite pas à un face-à-face traditionnel. Il ressent un grand besoin d’individualisation puisqu’on est loin de répondre à un besoin fonctionnel. Partir dans un hôtel de luxe implique une valorisation personnelle et sociale. La symbolique attachée à l’achat d’un service de luxe recommande donc, une bonne connaissance du client, ses goûts et ses besoins spécifiques. La perspective relationnelle avec son esprit d’individualisation et de personnalisation va donc, selon nous, offrir de nouvelles diversités qui répondent mieux aux besoins des clients et qui permettront de créer un positionnement efficace et durable pour plusieurs hôtels de luxe.

Selon les résultats de notre étude, le besoin se situe au niveau de la gestion des émotions qui devient de plus en plus importante dans l’analyse de la qualité des produits hôteliers et plus particulièrement encore, quand on parle de luxe dans cette industrie. Ceci est dû à l’esthétique universelle, la thématisation, la sécurité et le confort ainsi que l’individualisation et la spontanéité qui sont tous des systèmes holistiques faisant appel à la capacité des clients à percevoir et à vivre une expérience comme un tout.

Cette étude détaille la perception des clients par rapport aux services dans un hôtel de luxe. Le fait, d’avoir une idée de la façon de percevoir les actions et les services qui composent l’expérience, permet aux gestionnaires d’avoir une meilleure compréhension des besoins du client. L’interprétation de ces besoins devra se traduire par un effort pour personnaliser l’expérience et permettre au client de vivre un séjour unique et authentique. Les organisations hôtelières peuvent développer, aussi des stratégies de positionnement différentes pour satisfaire plus efficacement les besoins de chaque segment spécifique du marché.

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Dans notre recherche, nous signalons quelques implications managériales.

Cependant, nous constatons que la qualité expérientielle perçue doit être prise en considération par les responsables du secteur hôtelier ainsi que l’État. Ces derniers doivent promouvoir la qualité expérientielle au sein de leurs établissements en assurant la fiabilité et la sécurité aux touristes et puis gagner leur confiance.

Afin de proposer une offre adéquate et une communication efficace tenant en compte des différentes facteurs et variables explicatives de notre modèle. Il s’agit ainsi de dépasser les stratégies actuelles adoptées par les hôteliers marocains et misant sur des bonnes politiques managériales visant à améliorer la qualité de leurs services ainsi qu’une orientation vers la mise en place d’installations physiques attrayantes et confortables. En conséquence, pour créer des relations de coopération de longue durée avec ses clients, l’établissement hôtelier doit démontrer sa différence et sa spécificité en ajustant sa politique marketing et en créant des programmes prenant en compte les dimensions plaisir, évasion, romantisme, convivialité, relations interpersonnelles, contrôle, assurance, etc.

Notre recherche présente toutefois un certain nombre de limites. La typologie proposée de la qualité perçue présente quelques limites, la distinction entre les concepts de qualité cognitive et qualité expérientielle reste discutable. En effet, ces concepts se chevauchent ou peuvent parfois créer une confusion dans les déclarations des consommateurs (Dano, Llosa et Orsingher, 2003). De plus, l’échantillon a été légèrement réduit à la méthode d’équation structurelle étant donné la difficulté d’accès aux hôtels de luxe et le type de touristes qui visitent ce lieu en raison de la sécurité. Ensuite, l’échantillon a été choisi par commodité à partir du critère de disponibilité des répondants. Cependant, cette méthode est acceptable, mais il existe un problème de validité externe. Après, les résultats s’appliquent à l’expérience vécue et ne peuvent, malheureusement, pas être extrapolés aux clients potentiels. De même, l’efficacité des facteurs de positionnement et leurs effets sur la fidélisation des clients n’ont pu être démontrés et peuvent justement constituer une belle avenue pour les recherches futures se rapportant au secteur de l’hôtellerie de luxe. À la lumière de ces limites, d’autres perspectives de recherche doivent être envisagées. En ce qui concerne les faits, certains mécanismes de médiation devraient être intégrés dans le modèle en question, afin de l’obtenir plus que jamais significatif et pertinent. En outre, les recherches futures doivent s’appuyer sur d’autres méthodes d’analyse de données, entre autres, les équations structurelles, afin de mettre en pratique les sous-dimensions citées dans notre recherche et leur interrelation. Aussi l’étude pourra s’élargir pour toucher différentes catégories d’hôtel permettant de faire une comparaison des dimensions les plus pertinentes dans la perception des consommateurs.

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DE L’INGÉNIERIE DIDACTIQUE DU COURS DE LANGUE EN CLASSES HÉTÉROGÈNES : POUR UN ITINÉRAIRE PÉDAGOGIQUE DISRUPTIF La peinture comme matériel universel d’apprentissage en cours de français langue étrangère (FLE)

Dr Line LAFFOND*

RÉSUMÉ Cette contribution illustre quelques pratiques personnalisées dans le cadre du cours de français langue étrangère auprès d’un public allophone. À l’heure actuelle, du fait de la mondialisation de la formation (e-learning, MOOC), les enjeux d’une formation « heureuse » amènent les enseignants à interroger les pratiques pédagogiques à mettre en place pour que tous participent à l’apprentissage en dépit de leurs différences de niveaux.

La politique d’inclusion des apprenants, quel que soit leur bagage linguistique, comporte une réorientation constante des objectifs et une actualisation des méthodes d’enseignement.

Dans ces « nouvelles » classes hétérogènes, les remises en question sont plurielles : contenus, tâches demandées, supports sélectionnés, modalités d’évaluation.

Des enjeux différents conduisent, le didacticien à repenser sa démarche pédagogique pour équilibrer le traitement collectif et individuel de la classe et gérer au mieux les différents rythmes d’apprentissage. * Docteure en Linguistique Générale — Professeure de Français Langue Étrangère Vatel Nîmes.

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Dans une visée inclusive de l’ensemble de nos apprenants originaires de différents pays du monde, mais aussi de notre public de langue maternelle française qui leur est associé aujourd’hui dans les classes dites Internationales il est, aujourd’hui, beaucoup plus productif d’adopter une pédagogie prenant appui sur l’exploitation de supports susceptibles de procurer à TOUS le plaisir d’apprendre, de savoir, de communiquer.

Fort du constat suivant : nos apprenants, dans ce profil de classe, n’ont pas les mêmes besoins pour être en mesure d’accomplir la même tâche, nous nous sommes donc intéressés à l’introduction de supports d’apprentissage plus singuliers auprès d’un public d’apprenants aux besoins hétérogènes, à savoir, les tableaux de peinture, toutes périodes et pays confondus, en lien direct avec l’univers de l’Hôtellerie-Restauration dans une triple perspective : apaiser, motiver, cultiver.

L’étudiant profane en peinture le restera peut-être, sauf si sa curiosité le pousse, une fois le cours terminé, à aller plus loin dans le domaine de l’Histoire de l’art ou de la découverte de la peinture et du peintre. Le choix de tels supports pédagogiques ne se veut pas d’érudition bien que développer sa culture quand son objectif professionnel est d’évoluer dans le monde de l’hôtellerie de luxe soit nécessité à nos yeux. La multiplication des événements culturels pour attirer et élargir la clientèle est susceptible de rendre nécessaire pour des stagiaires ou employés de l’hôtellerie et restauration de luxe, une formation culturelle. Ce choix pédagogique se veut davantage « passage » d’un monde pictural dont les thèmes appartiennent au domaine de l’hospitalité à celui dans lequel l’apprenant évoluera d’abord en tant que stagiaire puis en tant que professionnel.

Lire une peinture comme on lit un article de presse Partir du premier plaisir, si le tableau séduit, ou déplaisir, si l’œuvre rebute, éprouvé par l’apprenant face au tableau présenté, tel le visiteur d’une exposition, d’un musée pour lui permettre, dans un second temps, d’aller vers l’acquisition de mots, de phrases, d’expressions, de syntaxe suggérés par l’œuvre sélectionnée.

La peinture est un langage universel au même titre que la musique ou la gastronomie : sa place est, par conséquent, de choix dans le cadre d’un cours de langue en classe hétérogène. S’il est complexe de créer un milieu favorable à l’apprentissage en collectif lorsque le niveau des étudiants est difficile à cerner, avec un tel support pédagogique il est plus aisé de parvenir à une dynamique de groupe.

Exploiter en classe un tableau de peinture permet de contourner le problème de la complexité des situations orales avec des étudiants en difficultés diverses.

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Une image vaut mille mots, proverbe chinois, dix mille mots découvre-t-on dans un essai sur la télévision de Gabriel de Broglie.

Dès lors, ce support visuel participe à la compréhension immédiate, il est, pour l’enseignant et son public, un complément quasi magique à toute explication, un tremplin vers l’enrichissement lexical, grammatical et syntaxique de tout apprenant.

Valorisé par cette compréhension immédiate sans passer par la phase de traduction dans sa langue maternelle, l’apprenant accède plus aisément aux opérations langagières. La répétition des activités de déchiffrage, de compréhension, de reformulation vise à créer un cadre d’apprentissage structuré et ritualisé.

Cela s’intègre dans une pédagogie du « découvrir ensemble » qui consiste à co-construire les savoirs par et avec les étudiants.

C’est une telle pédagogie qui vise à pallier l’absence d’homogénéité de la classe.

La chambre à Arles de Van Gogh 1888, par ses lignes ses formes ses couleurs facilite la découverte de l’univers de la chambre. Par l’intermédiaire de ce tableau, l’apprenant intègre le lexique de la chambre d’hôtel, les missions à réaliser par la femme de chambre ou la gouvernante, pour mieux appréhender ensuite les transformations à opérer lors de la phase d’actualisation du document pour le rapprocher de son contexte professionnel, à l’instar d’un architecte d’intérieur qui en changera le mobilier, les objets, la décoration.

Qui plus est un pont culturel s’est établi directement grâce à la communication ingénieuse du musée de Chicago en 2016 : à la rétrospective Van Gogh a été associé un réel séjour « dans le tableau ».

Une chambre a été conçue à l’identique pour séduire une clientèle passionnée.

Les chaises, la serviette, le nécessaire de toilette, les tableaux… tous les éléments de la petite chambre reproduite par le peintre dans la ville d’Arles en 1888 ont été fidèlement reconstitués. Les effets de lumière, la verdure derrière la fenêtre et l’écaillement du parquet reflètent la peinture originale, ce qui donne véritablement envie de passer une nuit « dans le tableau ».

Communiquer et développer sa culture sont deux aspects interdépendants et une approche communicative pertinente n’a de sens qu’à condition d’être étroitement liée à un contenu culturel. À travers différents dossiers construits autour de peintures préalablement choisies pour leur universalité et leur intégration aisée dans le monde de l’hôtellerie - restauration, l’apprenant va découvrir les spécificités de la langue cible. Le support pictural favorise l’apport d’informations, de comparaisons, de mises

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en perspective et d’échanges tout en intensifiant l’intercompréhension entre les différentes langues maternelles et cultures en présence dans la classe.

Le choix des tableaux opéré montre qu’il est possible d’établir une approche cohérente de l’univers pictural en mettant en avant toute connexion possible avec l’univers professionnel envisagé.

Voici la liste des tableaux expérimentés dans le cadre de formations didactiques pour cours de français langue étrangère auprès de nos Vateliens et futurs Vateliens à Vatel Business School Nimes depuis plusieurs années. Chacun d’eux a été sélectionné en fonction de la pertinence du message qu’il fait passer et de son rapport direct avec le monde de l’hôtellerie restauration.

Ce sont eux qui illustreront l’ensemble de notre recherche, témoignage de nos pratiques de classe réussies dans le cadre d’un itinéraire pédagogique disruptif pour rendre nos étudiants acteurs de leur formation en langue cible.

Liste non exhaustive des tableaux sélectionnés exploités en cours de langue en classe de Bachelor ou de Master sur un effectif moyen de 12 à 28 étudiants par classe : • « La chambre de Van Gogh à Arles » de Vincent Van Gogh (1888), • « Un bar aux Folies Bergère » d’Édouard Manet (1880), • « Le déjeuner des canotiers » d’Auguste Renoir (1881), • « L’empire des Lumières » de René Magritte (1954), • « Les valeurs personnelles » de René Magritte (1952), • « Nighthawks » d’Edward Hopper (1942), • « Nature morte au pichet » de Pablo Picasso (1937), • « Nature morte aux pommes et aux oranges » de Paul Cézanne (1890), • « Noces de paysans » de Bruegel l’Ancien (1567), • « L’ombrelle » de Francisco de Goya (1777).

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Figure 1. Autoportrait Léonardo da Vinci, daté entre 1512 et 1515 - Bibliothèque royale Turin.

AVANT-PROPOS Comment ne pas choisir l’année où nous fêtons Léonard de Vinci, génie universel, aux multiples facettes professionnelles, dont les œuvres, La Cène, La Joconde, l’Homme de Vitruve par exemple ont tant de fois été copiées, parodiées, exploitées, pour rédiger un article illustrant les sources inépuisables de la peinture dans un contexte pédagogique interculturel. Sa curiosité insatiable et sa créativité, mises à l’honneur 500 ans après sa mort, en France comme en Italie, en Europe comme dans le monde entier, nous accompagnent dans notre démarche didactique.

La polysémie qui caractérise la langue, quels que soient ses signes vocaux, graphiques, gestuels, et la peinture offre à l’enseignant des exercices de décodage des plus prometteurs dans le cadre pédagogique : décodage culturel, historique, esthétique. Les attentes et les savoirs de chacun influencent la perception et les relations que nous sommes susceptibles d’entretenir avec ces formes de communication linguistiques ou picturales. Choisir un tableau de peinture comme support de cours c’est demander à ses étudiants de prendre conscience de la relation qu’ils - 47 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

vont établir avec cette œuvre pendant la durée de la séquence. Par la sélection qu’il a faite, l’enseignant est à l’origine des activités interprétatives qu’il va engager.

Peinture comme expression écrite ou orale partagent plusieurs similitudes : la représentation, la transmission et la coopération de celui qui reçoit les messages. À cela, il faut ajouter la notion d’interprétation. Or, c’est le choix opéré par l’enseignant et les pistes d’exploitation proposées qui limiteront l’activité interprétative afin de mieux respecter les objectifs pédagogiques.

APPRENDRE OU RÉAPPRENDRE À REGARDER COMME ON APPREND À LIRE Le regard croisé et interactif que l’enseignant provoque enrichit le potentiel des étudiants. Le support « reproduction de tableau » accroît leur attention, initie la mise en dialogue et pousse à l’argumentation. Le tableau mobilise un vaste éventail d’informations linguistiques, culturelles et rend visible des expériences dans lesquelles les étudiants s’impliquent en découvrant de nouvelles significations, en élargissant leur compréhension et en créant des ponts entre leur futur univers professionnel et l’image exploitée. Les peintures revivent ainsi dans le contexte social et culturel propre à l’apprenant qui, de fait, devient plus actif.

Dans une perspective didactique, le travail sur une thématique commune que partageraient le tableau reproduit et la pratique professionnelle de l’étudiant, consisterait à dégager un sens à l’un comme à l’autre, par un regard démultiplié qui les éclairerait réciproquement. Le tableau reproduit doit pouvoir conduire l’étudiant à accommoder son regard sur ce qui est représenté et sur la propre perception de ce à quoi il renvoie dans ses missions en Hôtellerie-Restauration.

Le tableau de peinture conduit l’étudiant à appréhender le lien entre théorie et pratique à condition de présenter des œuvres réalistes. Il renforce sa construction langagière en le poussant à effectuer des allers-retours permettant de repérer des analogies et des différences entre l’œuvre travaillée et le poste de travail potentiel.

La cohabitation des deux formes d’expression linguistique et picturale s’avère culturellement féconde, tant en ce qui concerne la maîtrise de la langue cible qu’en ce qui concerne l’échange interculturel entre les participants toujours invités par l’enseignant à exprimer leurs expériences subjectives et collectives associées à l’œuvre artistique.

LIBÉRER LA PAROLE L’apprentissage d’une langue est vécu non pas comme une accumulation de connaissances, mais comme « une culture créative » des moyens multiples d’acquisition des connaissances par le biais de processus participatifs divers. En - 48 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

outre, l’approche interdisciplinaire adoptée dans une tentative de relier les disciplines vise à assurer une certaine continuité dans les connaissances à enseigner : Langue, Peinture, Civilisation, Histoire, Hôtellerie Restauration…

Les deux procédures principales proposées sont : la prise de parole par l’utilisation combinée des mots et des images, la transformation et la transposition des données que provoque une mise en mots dans un contexte. Le développement linguistique, l’éveil des compétences artistiques, la participation émotionnelle de l’étudiant, mais aussi des conditions d’apprentissage favorisant l’interactivité culturelle sont les objectifs à atteindre.

C’est cette interaction culturelle de deux champs, langagier et pictural qui conduit le groupe classe à observer, décrire, commenter, articuler des associations et des émotions, à établir des ressemblances, imaginer, argumenter, c’est dans une séquence de travail collectif promouvoir la synergie des deux arts, langage et peinture, en retissant leurs liens, sans effacer leurs singularités propres.

DIFFÉRENCES DE NIVEAU OU DE CULTURE ?

QUAND LES DIFFICULTÉS DEVIENNENT DES OPPORTUNITÉS POUR UN APPRENTISSAGE DE L’HÉTÉROGÉNÉITÉ Si problème il y a au cœur du système éducatif aujourd’hui c’est bien celui de l’hétérogénéité du niveau scolaire de nos étudiants. Or cette hétérogénéité n’estelle pas présente à l’extérieur de nos établissements ? Voilà bien ce qui donne un vrai sens à notre métier d’enseignant quelle que soit la matière enseignée. Face à cela, deux armes absolues l’imagination et l’innovation. Différencier toute approche pédagogique en déstructurant sa classe, en modifiant le rythme, mais en restant fidèle aux exigences pédagogiques.

Le lecteur découvrira ici des séquences pragmatiques étayées par des résultats probants au sein de classes plurielles. Notre démarche implique de voir l’hétérogénéité de nos apprenants non comme un frein, mais comme une chance. Il est certain que cela nécessite une progression pédagogique définie au préalable et une organisation de classe inclusive tout en instaurant une évaluation différenciée.

Face à cette diversité, une pédagogie variée dans les limites du programme à suivre est à privilégier pour chaque niveau de classe. Libre à l’enseignant de rythmer son cours avec les bons tempos et d’organiser sa classe autrement dans le seul but de parvenir à intégrer chacun, de façon régulière, dans des moments de classe incluant le groupe dans sa totalité. Ceci implique un accompagnement en classe et hors classe.

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pratiques et nécessitent un fonctionnement autre. Pour ne pas limiter notre enseignement à ceux qui « comprennent » ou « ont compris » il faut laisser place pour ceux-là a une réelle autonomie.

La classe internationale présente, pour chacun, un cadre didactique des plus attractif qui favorise un enseignement en langues et culture intégré et développe une réelle aptitude à l’interculturalité.

Aux langues enseignées et pratiquées, nous avons choisi d’ajouter le langage universel de la peinture pour, de façon régulière, s’ appuyer sur un support compréhensible par tous, dès le premier coup d’œil, quel que soit le pays d’origine et le niveau de langue de l’étudiant. Il est certain que le choix du tableau est d’importance puisque nous ne sommes pas dupes, une image vaut dix mille mots et bien plus encore en fonction du pays d’origine, des valeurs et des symboles qui y sont associés.

PLACE À LA MÉTACOGNITION Afin d’obtenir des solutions « heureuses » et bénéfiques pour tous, sans marginaliser certains de nos étudiants, il faut impulser, en amont, une démarche réflexive où chaque participant va s’interroger sur ses propres stratégies d’apprentissage.

Dès le début de la première année, le changement du paradigme éducatif est à prendre en considération : nous ne sommes plus dans une simple transmission des données propres à chaque matière et à leurs simples mises en application.

L’heure est à la sélection, à la critique, à la reconstruction des informations.

C’est, aussi, parvenir à mettre de côté ses propres références et être capable de comprendre, d’accepter celles de l’autre.

Choisir le document pictural comme média pour l’enseignant en langue et communication, c’est ajouter une autre corde à son arc, celle du passeur culturel.

C’est impulser une démarche réflexive par laquelle, en fonction de son bagage linguistique, l’apprenant présentera un tableau, s’appropriera une histoire, développera un argumentaire, affirmera son sens critique, s’impliquera dans un travail de groupes où la prise de parole est plus aisée que de manière frontale face à l’ensemble de la classe.

LA DIVERSITÉ DE NOS ÉTUDIANTS EST UNE RICHESSE Le tableau de peinture dynamise l’activité de la classe et lui donne davantage de sens dans les travaux de groupes : on est aidé par ses pairs, on aide et on valorise ses compétences personnelles, on se sent concerné par l’autre, on prend des initiatives tant pour soi que pour les autres membres du groupe.

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Si l’enseignant garde le même objectif pédagogique pour tous, il différencie les supports, les méthodes, les rythmes. Cette rupture dans la façon de transmettre, en effet, tous les étudiants n’ont pas la même mission dans une séance, n’est pas évidente, dans un premier temps, où l’enseignant est préoccupé par le respect de son programme semestriel ou annuel. De plus, force est de constater que l’organisation de la coopération entre étudiants instaurant aide, entraide ou tutorat, implique, pour le professeur, un partage de pouvoir puisqu’il délègue à certains de ses étudiants la capacité d’encadrer, d’expliquer ou de soutenir.

Ses interventions, dans chaque groupe, sont orientées en fonction des besoins : grammaticaux, lexicaux, culturels, sociétaux. Les différents profils de ses étudiants impliquent nécessairement de sa part une pédagogie hétérogène.

C’est cet esprit altruiste généré au sein de sa classe qui conduit aux progrès individuels de chacun, quel que soit son profil.

LE RÉFÉRENTIEL DE L’ÉDUCATION PRIORITAIRE : PENSER L’HÉTÉROGÉNÉITÉ Constituer des classes hétérogènes est l’une des recommandations majeures induites par notre société. L’objectif est de concevoir un enseignement inclusif au sein de la classe pour favoriser échanges, coopérations et confrontations.

Apprendre de ses pairs et avec eux fait partie des dynamiques d’apprentissage que la classe hétérogène privilégie.

Cette mixité de compétences à laquelle se joint parfois une mixité sociale se retrouve plus tard dans l’univers professionnel où la collaboration est indissociable de la bonne marche de toute entreprise. Ainsi l’hétérogénéité devient source de réussite et non d’échec si l’on s’applique à mettre en place régulièrement des pratiques de classe à visée inclusive.

D’ailleurs, ne perçoit-on pas ce caractère disparate en maints points : l’âge de nos étudiants, leur lieu de naissance, leur langue maternelle, leur cellule familiale, leur implication, leur motivation et bien évidemment leurs compétences personnelles ou professionnelles en période de stage ou de semaine de pratique.

Qui plus est, l’hétérogénéité des enseignants n’est pas à marginaliser non plus.

Le parcours singulier de chacun engendre des démarches et des pratiques d’apprentissage plurielles voire fortement dissemblables. Et ce maître mot les accompagne bien évidemment aussi en observant leurs parents et/ou leurs manageurs ou tuteurs professionnels.

La distinction, dans les années 80 entre les visuels et les auditifs (A. de la Garanderie) puis celle entre les huit types d’intelligence d’Howard Gardner ont placé sur le devant de la scène des approches pédagogiques différenciées - 51 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

remises en question par le facteur « effectif de la classe ». L’interaction des deux hémisphères cérébraux, le droit et le gauche, leur sollicitation distincte en lien avec leurs fonctions spécifiques ont également été prises en considération.

PLUTÔT CERVEAU DROIT OU CERVEAU GAUCHE ?

Grande question face à plus d’une vingtaine de cerveaux à encadrer. En 1815, la phrénologie (du grec : φρήν, phrēn, « cerveau » et λόγος, logos, « connaissance » (Thomas Ignatius Forster) présentait une théorie selon laquelle les bosses du crâne d’un être humain reflétaient son caractère. La célèbre « bosse des maths » à la recherche des parents.

L’illustration suivante ajoute une réelle touche d’humour à nos missions pédagogiques.

Figure 2. Source Almanach 1905 Hachette.

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« La différenciation est la prise en compte par les acteurs du système éducatif des caractéristiques individuelles (besoins, intérêts et motivations ; acquis, non acquis et difficultés ; modes d’apprentissage (style, rythme, pouvoir de concentration, engagement…) ; potentialités à exploiter… de chaque élève en vue de permettre à chacun d’eux de maitriser les objectifs fondamentaux prescrits et de développer au mieux leurs potentialités, et de permettre au système éducatif d’être à la fois plus pertinent, efficace et équitable. » (Définition du comité d’organisation de la conférence de consensus du CNESCO, mars 2017) L’enseignant côtoie, dans l’espace « classe » des étudiants en situation de réussite et des étudiants en affrontement d’obstacles à dépasser ; le paradoxe est qu’il doit encadrer et former ces deux publics simultanément avec le sentiment, tantôt de ne pas assez aider les plus fragiles, tantôt de négliger les plus forts. Se pose alors la question éthique de ce qu’il doit transmettre en priorité : Un contenu propre à sa matière relevant d’une progression pédagogique prédéfinie ou la compréhension des différences, l’importance des complémentarités, la force de la coopération, l’« apprentissage du vivre ensemble » dans le cadre de sa matière.

C’est la compréhension de cela qui le contraint à repenser certains cours pour les rendre collectivement et immédiatement accessibles à tous.

Quatre principes : • sortir des sentiers battus de façon régulière pour surprendre son public via des ressources pédagogiques originales, • s’appuyer sur les différences de chacun pour repenser les relations entre étudiants et enseignant, ce qui nécessite de prévoir ces difficultés, de les anticiper, pour mieux les maîtriser et gérer sa séquence inclusive, • organiser l’agencement de sa classe pour l’inclusion de tous, • gérer le temps des activités en groupes pour ne pas délaisser les activités individuelles ou la partie théorique à initier.

La posture frontale de l’enseignant durant laquelle il se doit de révéler les enjeux pour susciter l’envie d’acquérir un savoir est toujours de mise voire privilégiée lors de certaines séances où il faut écouter celui qui détient le savoir à mémoriser ; mais celle, qu’offre le travail collectif, la posture latérale, induit la coprésence, la co-animation et la co-préparation de la classe dans sa totalité, enseignant compris. C’est cette posture latérale qui allie l’écoute et l’observation

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de chacun en exercice de groupes hétérogènes tout en multipliant les interactions orales dans une atmosphère de travail disruptive.

Il revient à l’enseignant en fonction des acquis de sa classe, d’alterner les phases de prise de parole magistrale, celles de travail individuel, de travail en binôme, et les tâches demandées en groupes hétérogènes.

De plus, le temps de l’appropriation personnelle hors classe dans un contexte familial, professionnel/ou social lui-même hétérogène est à prendre en considération.

L’apprentissage coopératif ne se prête pas à toutes les activités. C’est l’univers pictural que nous avons choisi pour illustrer au mieux notre démarche pédagogique en classes hétérogènes par le biais duquel l’entraide, la coopération entre tous et la valorisation de la progression linguistique de chacun s’intensifient.

DIVERSIFIER LES TÂCHES AU SERVICE DES COMPÉTENCES Il importe fort de rechercher, pour une approche langagière effective, des tableaux figuratifs présentant une ressemblance plus ou moins frappante avec le réel.

Portrait, paysage, scène de genre, nature morte, marine, tous les genres sont à explorer pour dynamiser nos pratiques de classe.

Les œuvres abstraites fort éloignées du réel ou conceptuelles, illustrant une démarche ou une réflexion de l’esprit ne se prêtent guère à une exploitation collective efficace.

Toutefois, dans le cadre d’une recherche individuelle complétant le travail de classe, de tels choix assumés par l’étudiant, s’ils sont bien argumentés sont recevables pour élargir toute réflexion et ne pas rejeter l’originalité d’un choix personnel.

La grande diversité des peintures qu’il est possible d’aborder en classe est un atout certain. En effet, les documents que l’enseignant choisit afin d’élaborer une progression logique et structurée permettent non seulement à l’apprenant d’aborder plusieurs thématiques, plusieurs types de peintures, mais aussi et surtout d’être capable de communiquer dans la langue cible selon les cinq compétences majeures définies par le Cadre Européen Commun de Référence pour les langues : La compréhension et l’expression de l’écrit, la compréhension et l’expression de l’oral et la compétence d’interaction.

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L’objectif visé est donc de mettre en place des tâches adaptées aux spécificités de chaque document dans le but de développer ces cinq compétences en gardant toujours le contexte professionnel propre à son établissement.

La compétence de l’écrit est loin d’être écartée même si ce type de démarche privilégie l’oral. Le français fait partie des épreuves que les étudiants passeront également à l’écrit. C’est pourquoi l’enseignement proposé se doit de développer les deux axes indissociables de cette compétence : la compréhension et l’expression.

Quel que soit le document de base, l’étudiant a besoin d’en comprendre l’information générale, le message explicite, mais aussi l’implicite du tableau pour le dépasser et se rapprocher du monde professionnel visé et développer ses connaissances culturelles tous domaines confondus.

PEINTURES ET EXPLOITATIONS EN CLASSES INTERNATIONALES HÉTÉROGÈNES : BALADES COMMUNICATIVES AUTOUR D’UN TABLEAU. MORCEAUX CHOISIS « Voir, percevoir, concevoir, penser sont interdépendants. Ce sont des termes inséparables. Il faut autant penser pour voir que voir pour penser. Percevoir permet de concevoir, et concevoir permet de percevoir. Penser permet de concevoir, et concevoir permet de penser. » Pour entrer dans le XXIe siècle Edgar Morin Pour une éducation du regard : Levier de performances et développeur de compétences.

Voir, percevoir, concevoir. Trois verbes successifs sont nécessaires pour apprécier à sa juste valeur le choix d’un support pictural. Leur interdépendance nourrit la démarche pédagogique.

Les fonctions du langage énoncées par Roman Jakobson servent évidemment de fil conducteur dans notre démarche linguistique et analytique : l’enseignant peut s’y référer régulièrement tant au niveau du tableau, qu’au niveau des prises de parole ou prises de notes des apprenants. Elles peuvent servir de garde-fou pour contrôler les pistes d’expression du tableau.

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Les fonctions du langage (Jakobson) : • fonction référentielle (ou dénotative) : le message est centré sur le référent, le sujet même du message. C’est la fonction principale du langage, • fonction expressive (ou émotive) : le message est centré sur l’émetteur, • fonction conative : le message est centré sur le destinataire. Il peut conduire à un certain comportement chez l’interlocuteur, • fonction métalinguistique : le message est centré sur le langage. Le langage sert à parler de lui-même à l’exemple d’une définition de dictionnaire, • fonction phatique : le message cherche à établir ou à maintenir le contact avec le destinataire, • fonction poétique : le message est centré sur lui-même, sur sa forme esthétique. Toutes ces fonctions peuvent intervenir en même temps dans la langue.

Le référent : ce dont parle le langage verbal, pictural.

L’émetteur : celui qui parle. Celui qui peint.

Le destinataire ou récepteur : celui qui reçoit le message. L’auditeur, le spectateur.

Le message : le message lui-même, ce qui est dit, peint par le destinateur au destinataire Le code : c’est l’instrument utilisé pour délivrer le message (la langue, la peinture, la musique).

Une œuvre picturale dont le thème touche à l’univers de l’Hôtellerie-Restauration-Tourisme est un réel levier de performance et développeur de compétences où toutes ces fonctions jouent entre elles selon les démarches opérationnelles ciblées.

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Figure 3. Édouard Manet, « Un bar aux Folies-Bergère » (1881-1882) — The Courtauld Institute of Art Londres.

Le thème représenté ici illustre non seulement les préoccupations des peintres impressionnistes, peindre des moments de vie propres à leur époque : bars, cafés, rues, intérieurs d’appartement, mais il incite les étudiants à établir un parallèle entre leurs postes de travail en périodes de pratique (en semaine d’alternance ou en semestre de stage) et l’univers évoqué par Manet.

Cette jeune fille Suzon, issue des milieux populaires, dont le peintre réalise le portrait est à rapprocher de la photo de notre étudiante en poste dans un salon de l’hôtel d’application Vatel Nîmes. Pour Manet, le grand miroir reflète l’activité du bar, ses lumières, la densité de la clientèle. Le client en face d’elle devrait davantage en obstruer la vue : magie et mystère du peintre dans une scène si réaliste. Le Paris nocturne y est célébré en arrière-plan. « Il existe à Paris un endroit bizarre, exquis, fort peu orthodoxe, moitié café, moitié théâtre, parisien au possible, fort recherché par les provinciaux et les étrangers… » écrit (Zola, 1882).

Le voir et le caché du tableau jouent entre eux pour obliger la classe à mieux observer, à rechercher les détails parlants.

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Que pourraient apercevoir nos étudiants sur la photo ci-dessous si un miroir était placé derrière cette jeune serveuse ? Le regard de Suzon bien plus triste que celui de notre stagiaire, la position de ses bras prenant appui sur la table notent une certaine fatigue, une lassitude due à l’effort fourni et au temps passé dans un anonymat évident.

Nos étudiants, lors d’un exercice de groupe, font, dans un premier temps, une étude comparative des deux serveuses : leurs vêtements, leurs accessoires, leur coiffure, les traits du visage, le regard, la posture.

Dans un second temps, la classe va imaginer les différents éléments que le reflet d’un miroir présenterait au XXIe siècle. Certains de nos étudiants ont déjà vécu une telle situation en pratique. Or, est-ce alors un exercice de création ou de recherche de moments vécus « choses vues » un peu à la manière de Victor Hugo.

Le travail comparatif va se prolonger avec l’observation de la table dressée et de ce qu’elle présente : bouteilles de champagne, alcool divers, coupe de fruits, vase et fleurs d’un côté, canapés, toasts, verrines, plateaux, seau à champagne, chandelier, bougie, verres de vin.

Ce jeu de va-et-vient entre la peinture de Manet et la photo de notre étudiante éduque le regard de nos étudiants. Apprendre à examiner une situation pour mieux en appréhender les informations et évaluer son apport tant linguistique, professionnel que social et culturel.

Figure 4. Photo Vatel Nîmes.

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La même expérience comparative est à appliquer avec la photo suivante où c’est le travail d’équipe, dans une situation identique, qui opère.

Avec de tels sourires, la lumière présente, le contenu des bouteilles, c’est la notion de temps et de durée que l’enseignant va définir : début de l’événement, durée, fin du travail, temps nécessaire à la mise en place, au rangement final.

Quelle heure peut-il être dans la représentation de Manet au vu du visage, du regard de Suzon ? À quel moment du banquet sommes-nous face à la photo « heureuse » de nos quatre étudiants de Vatel ?

L’enseignant analyse avec sa classe l’image de soi et du professionnalisme donné par la position du corps, le port de tête, le sourire. La notion de parité intervient également par le choix de la photo ainsi que celle d’interculturalité.

Figure 5. Photo Vatel Nîmes.

Les différents types de manifestations : banquet, buffet, cocktail, mais aussi séminaire colloque, congrès sont à définir en tenant compte de la capacité du lieu et du nombre de participants, du menu sélectionné et réservé à l’avance, de la façon dont les participants vont se déplacer ou s’installer, se servir ou être servis, des préparations culinaires présentées, des boissons sélectionnées.

Les inconvénients et les avantages de chacune de ces manifestations pour le service sont à énoncer dans le cadre de ces moments pédagogiques : pour le personnel, pour le client, pour la gestion du temps et des différentes missions.

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Les incontournables de toute séance : CÔTÉ ENSEIGNANT Mise en situation : – donner les objectifs du cours – Rappel des consignes de travail – Les outils autorisés Corps de la séquence : – écrire puis verbaliser les démarches dans leur progression – anticiper les problèmes, équilibrer les aides Clôture du cours : – répertorier les stratégies utilisées pour la réussite de la/les missions – vérifier les acquis – laisser une trace écrite pour la mémorisation – inviter à découvrir d’autres peintures illustrant ces acquis

CÔTÉ ÉTUDIANT – S’appuyer sur ses connaissances – S’entraider pour se motiver – Co-construire le parcours actif sélectionné – Identifier étape par étape le parcours de découverte – Verbaliser ce que l’on choisit de faire – Comparer les réponses et les découvertes – Établir un bilan : ce que j’ai fait pour apprendre et maîtriser quel point précis — identifier les nouvelles connaissances — croiser les réponses avec les autres – Se projeter dans le monde professionnel avec ces nouveaux acquis

Installer un groupe d’étudiants face à une reproduction de tableau, quel qu’il soit et demander d’en faire une analyse c’est l’échec assuré plus d’une fois sur deux, ou c’est une gestion du temps anarchique, si les objectifs visés par la démarche ne sont pas évoqués au départ et si le groupe n’est pas guidé, au préalable, par des orientations précises : • lire le tableau de droite à gauche, de haut en bas, • cacher une partie du tableau pour déceler les détails, • transformer le tableau de peinture en tableau de mots avant ou après son exploitation pour en affiner la lecture.

JOUER AVEC LE TABLEAU ET SE JOUER DU TABLEAU Présenter à la classe plusieurs tableaux. Demander à chaque sous-groupe d’en choisir un secrètement puis de définir oralement, face aux autres groupes, les sentiments ressentis face au tableau sélectionné. Le reste de la classe doit retrouver chaque œuvre choisie. L’objectif est d’engager une réflexion sur la subjectivité et le ressenti et présenter les lectures plurielles d’une même œuvre.

Par ce biais, on découvre parfois autrement celui qui prend la parole et ce qu’il éprouve.

Cet exercice est, de fait, un apprentissage de l’autre et de sa manière d’appréhender un message iconographique.

La classe, dans un second temps, est amenée à voir dans un tableau imposé les façons de le détourner pour s’en servir de déclencheur et établir un pont avec son domaine d’apprentissage.

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LE TABLEAU BAVARD Il faut accorder, aux étudiants les plus réactifs et réceptifs, un droit de parole spontanée pour entrer dans ce type d’exercice. Cependant, cela ne dispense pas de directives pour encadrer leur travail « en liberté ».

Consignes initiales :

1. Regardez attentivement une reproduction que l’on vient juste de vous

soumettre pendant 10 secondes puis réagissez à chaud : 2. Faites-en une rapide description en guise d’introduction : ce que vous voyez précisément, les informations que vous en avez : d’où elle vient, à quelle date l’œuvre a-t-elle était réalisée, quel est le nom du peintre.

3. Tout en parlant décrivez l’image, définissez deux grands axes dans votre esprit, relatifs à l’image ou dépassant sa réalité. Il faut voir large : derrière, devant, à droite, à gauche, à l’intérieur. L’image d’une maison individuelle pourra amener à un sentiment de tranquillité, de calme, d’isolement, d’angoisse, d’abandon.

4. Développez rapidement chacune des deux pistes envisagées en passant de l’une à l’autre par une phrase de transition claire et précise.

5. Concluez rapidement en vous focalisant à nouveau sur la peinture à l’origine de votre prise de parole en faisant une ouverture sur un autre axe auquel vous auriez pu penser en l’observant dans d’autres circonstances, à un autre moment de la journée devant un autre public, dans un autre pays, à une autre époque.

NE FERMEZ AUCUNE PORTE À VOTRE IMAGINATION.

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Figure 6. René Magritte, « L’empire des lumières » (1954) — Musée Magritte Museum Bruxelles. « Ma façon de peindre est banale.

Ce qui est intéressant, c’est ce qu’elle montre »

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Une atmosphère mystérieuse est ressentie face à la représentation d’une maison au bord de l’eau, éclairée par un réverbère au premier plan. Des nuages blancs se dispersent dans un ciel bleu dans la partie supérieure du tableau. Une première observation ne laisse rien apparaître d’anormal : le ciel, les nuages, une grande demeure, un arbre, un plan d’eau éclairé.

Mais, il suffit de partager la peinture en deux parties et de s’interroger sur le moment de la journée pour ressentir un moment d’hésitation : le ciel nous dit que nous sommes en fin de matinée, ou en début d’après-midi. Le plan d’eau éclairé, la rive, la façade de la maison, la végétation nous invitent à choisir un début ou une fin de soirée. Là réside le mystère voulu par le peintre surréaliste. Ici le lac ou la rivière ne reflète nullement le ciel, mais plutôt les détails terrestres.

L’étrangeté du tableau s’appuie sur ces contradictions.

Notre objectif, ici, est d’amener notre classe à justifier le choix d’une telle image pour illustrer une publicité présentant un hôtel de charme. Pour cela, il faut être évidemment attentif à ce que représente l’image et étudier, en particulier, les messages diffusés par chacun des détails observés et les sentiments ressentis.

La composition de cette peinture joue non seulement sur l’organisation de l’espace, mais aussi celle du temps. Ainsi les axes de sa lecture peuvent être dotés d’une signification symbolique : l’axe vertical (spatio-temporel) découpe l’image en deux parties : la nuit/le jour. Quant à l’axe horizontal, il sépare la terre et le ciel, distinguant une zone de matérialité et une zone de mystère.

Cet « Empire des Lumières » montre un univers, mais il signifie aussi une intention. Il faut, en effet, distinguer la dénotation des éléments de l’image de leur connotation. La dénotation est la signification « objective » : une façade de maison éclairée par un réverbère. La connotation est la signification « subjective » d’un élément, une signification supplémentaire qui y est associée. Il s’agit d’exprimer par le tableau un sentiment de sérénité, d’apaisement de calme, de mystère aussi. Dénotation et connotation sont les deux facettes à analyser pour accepter ou rejeter l’illustration présentée pour un hôtel de charme.

Comme le langage, l’image a plusieurs fonctions, notamment esthétique et émotionnelle : pour plaire, procurer une émotion esthétique, pour attirer, détourner parfois. Descriptive : pour représenter fidèlement le réel (photo ou peinture de l’hôtel. Narrative : pour raconter une histoire. Référentielle : pour témoigner.

Explicative : pour faire comprendre. Argumentative : pour persuader. L’exercice est de distinguer les différentes fonctions en présence pour accepter le choix d’une telle illustration pour un hôtel de charme. Un storytelling « vendeur » est élaboré.

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Piste d’exploration : Les cinq sens sont à l’honneur : • la vue : la pièce dont deux fenêtres sont éclairées, les volets clos, l’arbre centenaire, • l’odorat : les odeurs procurées par la végétation aux alentours ou le cake sorti du four, • l’ouïe : le chant des oiseaux, le clapotis de l’eau, le vent dans les feuilles, • le goût : celui du thé servi dans une tasse de porcelaine raffinée ou du verre de whisky vieilli en fût de chêne, • le toucher : celui des draps et des coussins qui parent le lit.

Ensuite, il faut rédiger un rédactionnel informatif, explicatif, mais aussi poétique pour affirmer la relation entre le texte et l’image et en appuyer le sens.

La classe doit, à ce stade, définir la notion de charme pour un hôtel : Une certaine forme d’ancienneté, d’authenticité, avec une belle architecture représentative d’une région, d’un quartier, en prise directe avec la nature ou un cadre historique. À l’intérieur, peut-être, des objets de famille, des meubles bien cirés, une âme donnée par une équipe qui exerce avec cœur son métier.

Un lieu chaleureux, confortable, privilégiant les beaux matériaux et les matières nobles. Peu de chambres pour offrir une réelle intimité aux clients dont chacune d’entre elles dispose, entre autres, d’une décoration singulière, d’un équipement invitant à la détente, et ainsi proposer une expérience sensorielle unique dans une ambiance chaleureuse afin de laisser au client le souvenir inoubliable d’un séjour rare.

Voilà ce que doit suggérer la peinture choisie pour illustrer le document publicitaire conçu pour promouvoir l’hôtel de charme en question.

C’est l’immersion dans le tableau de Magritte et les consignes de travail données par l’enseignant, la responsabilisation de certains étudiants pour tutorer son groupe qui mèneront à la réussite d’une telle démarche créative et communicative.

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Figure 7. René Magritte, « Les valeurs personnelles » (1952) — Collection Museum of Modern Art San Francisco SF MOMA. Ce tableau permet à l’enseignant, mais également à l’ensemble de la classe, d’apprendre à mieux se connaître. Présenté et exploité en début d’année apporte, il apporte un éclairage sur les différents profils qui composent la classe. Dans un premier temps, le repérage des différents éléments constituant le tableau et la justification de leur choix par le peintre sont à déterminer : le peigne pour le plaisir et l’importance qu’il accorde à son image. Le verre pour le moment festif qu’il peut évoquer. Le blaireau pour un rasage parfait. Le lit fait au carré pour un sommeil réparateur. Les tapis pour le confort et la chaleur.

Travaillé par groupe, cet exercice de justification des valeurs propres à Magritte, facilite la compréhension des notions de dénotation et connotation évoquées plus haut. La comparaison des différentes réponses par groupes donnera à l’exercice une force supplémentaire en observant les changements et les similitudes.

Chaque étudiant réalise son propre tableau illustrant ses propres valeurs personnelles.

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L’exercice, une fois réalisé, joue un rôle de rassemblement. En effet, certains membres de la classe sont toujours sensibles au fait de partager quelques valeurs avec d’autres au sein d’une même formation.

Pour quelques-uns présenter ses valeurs personnelles relève d’un vrai travail sur soi en donnant un échantillon des éléments qui ont une importance capitale dans leur vie.

Pour d’autres, ce sera l’occasion de montrer le besoin qu’ils ont de se protéger en proposant des valeurs plus banales montrant qu’ils ne sont pas à l’aise dans ce type d’exercice « intime ». Dans ce cas, il sera plus judicieux de leur demander de concevoir un tableau illustrant les valeurs personnelles propres à un métier précis : cuisinier, pâtissier, réceptionniste, femme de chambre… Ainsi, seront reliés objets et poste de travail.

On peut enrichir l’exercice en substituant au mot « valeurs » celui de « qualités » personnelles dans le titre du tableau. La liste des qualités indispensables pour réussir dans le secteur de l’Hôtellerie-Restauration est conséquente : La motivation, la générosité, le sens du service, l’autonomie et l’initiative, la curiosité.

La facilité à s’intégrer, le sens de la communication, la bonne présentation, l’image de soi, le respect de la hiérarchie.

Figure 8. Vincent Van Gogh, « La Chambre de Van Gogh à Arles » (1888) Fondation, Amsterdam (Pays-Bas).

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L’âge, la langue maternelle, le pays d’origine de l’apprenant ne mettent pas un frein à la lecture et l’appropriation des éléments composant ce tableau ni aux exercices qui en découlent. Si l’acquisition, le réemploi des prépositions de lieu semblent une évidence à sa première approche : nous sommes dans la chambre du peintre, sur son lit, deux oreillers, accrochés aux murs cinq tableaux, face au spectateur, une fenêtre, au-dessus de la table, un miroir, à droite, une chaise, à gauche de la porte, une serviette, derrière le lit, des vêtements, à côté du lit une chaise.

Ensuite, ce sont les missions et les compétences de la femme de chambre ou du valet de chambre qui construisent un pont entre l’œuvre et les tâches professionnelles associées.

Activités principales : • • • •

remise en état de la chambre à blanc et en recouche, réapprovisionnement de la chambre en produits d’accueil et en linge, contrôle de l’état des équipements, du linge, du mobilier, nettoyage de la chambre (sol, fenêtre, table).

Compétences principales : • • • •

autonomie dans son travail, rapidité, perfectionnisme, rigueur dans le respect des règles d’hygiène et de sécurité.

Dans une autre approche du tableau, c’est une véritable démarche de designer d’intérieur qui motive la classe, dans un travail par petits groupes (deux ou quatre participants) pour changer le mobilier et le confort de la chambre pour un client exigeant.

Fauteuil, rideaux, lit king size, éclairage, parquet, objets de décoration, vêtements.

La porte de gauche favorise, ici, l’accès à une salle de bain qui s’oppose au nécessaire de toilette succinct posé sur la table de la chambre du peintre.

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Un exercice comparatif entre « faire sa toilette hier », « faire sa toilette aujourd’hui » dans une chambre louée s’impose pour élargir le cadre limité du tableau.

Il en est de même avec la fenêtre. L’ouvrir permet à la classe d’imaginer la vue d’hier et d’aujourd’hui à Arles en Provence (champ de lavande, marché, passants… ou supermarché, trafic, commerces) de changer de saison voire de région ou de pays.

En fonction des connaissances de certains, il arrive parfois que soit évoquée l’histoire de l’oreille coupée de Van Gogh cachée sous l’oreiller. Place est faite alors à l’imagination les raisons d’un tel acte, tout en s’appuyant sur la réalité découverte : Le 23 décembre 1888, dans leur atelier d’Arles, Van Gogh a tenté de blesser Paul Gauguin, son ami peintre, avant de se couper le lobe de l’oreille avec une lame de rasoir., Van Gogh peindra un autoportrait, l’oreille blessée pansée par un bandage qui lui entourant son visage.

S’installer dans le sud de la France est un point commun avec les étudiants inscrits à Vatel Nîmes pour y retrouver la lumière, les couleurs de la Provence et pour s’y perfectionner. « Je suis en train de peindre avec l’entrain d’un Marseillais mangeant la bouillabaisse », confie-t-il à son frère Théo.

MARKETING DE NICHE Pour la promotion de son exposition célébrant le peintre, l’Art Institute of Chicago a recréé dans ses moindres détails « La chambre de Van Gogh à Arles » et l’a mise en location sur la plate-forme Airbnb pour dix dollars la nuit.

Cette démarche en événementiel accroît l’intérêt pour l’exploitation de tableaux en classe de F.L.E. la double promotion, musée et chambre est centrée sur des clients spécifiques amateurs d’art et d’originalité.

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DÉFINIR L’OBJECTIF DE TOUTE ACTIVITÉ En classe de français langue étrangère, dans une activité de modification des éléments d’un tableau de peinture, pour faire reconnaître et utiliser la forme passive « la carafe est remplacée par la bouteille », il est précisé explicitement que ce qui est important c’est l’acquisition de la tournure passive et son réemploi de façon systématique. L’étudiant ne doit pas être uniquement préoccupé par le changement d’objets pour ne pas passer à côté de l’apprentissage ciblé. Modifier le tableau n’est pas l’objectif majeur, ce n’est qu’un détour motivant pour parvenir à la maîtrise d’une construction verbale utilisée en semaine de pratique ou en stage ou mettre en évidence un détail culturel pertinent.

• • • • •

Le riz a été remplacé par des légumes poêlés, le beurre a été remplacé par de l’huile d’olive, le réceptionniste a été relayé par le stagiaire, les draps ont été changés par la femme de chambre, le dessert a été préparé par le chef pâtissier.

Reformuler l’objectif devient donc une priorité. Il en est de même pour les phases de feedbacks, essentielles à la réussite de chaque apprentissage visé et au repérage des difficultés ou des erreurs commises.

Figure 9. Auguste Renoir, « Le Déjeuner des canotiers » (réalisé entre 1880 et 1881) — The Phillips Collection Washington.

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LA MAGIE DE LA COMPOSITION DE RENOIR : DE LA MISE EN MOTS À LA PRISE DE PAROLE Il n’est guère difficile pour l’ensemble des étudiants de s’investir personnellement et professionnellement dans ce tableau de Renoir. La joie de vivre, la décontraction de tous, le plaisir des retrouvailles un dimanche peut-être dans une guinguette au bord de l’eau.

L’auberge située à Chatou-sur-Seine gérée par Alphonse Fournaise est bien connue des promeneurs en barque qui s’y arrêtent pour leur déjeuner.

Tous les personnages peints ici appartiennent à l’univers du peintre : future épouse, peintre, banquier, amis, canotiers. Cette scène vivante à la richesse chromatique impressionnante, par sa chaleur humaine donne à tous une envie d’immersion. Participer à la « Dolce Vita » à la française et le bonheur de retrouver ses amis lors d’un déjeuner en plein air après une semaine de travail.

Les couleurs accrochent le regard et confirment les messages donnés par le peintre ; Le blanc de la nappe et des tricots « marcel » ; Le noir des vêtements et chapeaux haut de forme, melon, du petit chien ; Le jaune des chapeaux de paille « canotiers » ; Les différents verts de la végétation en arrière-plan ; Le rouge des bouches et des fleurs ornant le chapeau ; La couleur orange de la tente protégeant les personnages ; Le rose de la peau de ces jeunes gens en évasion dominicale ; Puis toutes les touches multicolores de la nature « morte », mais tellement « animée » qu’offre la table dressée : verres, bouteilles, assiettes, fruits…

Dans le cadre de notre contexte professionnel, nous choisissons d’orienter notre exploration pédagogique vers le repas de toute l’équipe du restaurant avant l’arrivée de la clientèle pour y opposer décontraction du moment avant le rush du service et rigueur du travail lors du déjeuner de la clientèle.

Quel employé en restauration ne souhaiterait pas vivre un tel moment avant de commencer son service ou un jour de repos ! Un tel moment de convivialité illustrerait la notion de « team building » propice à resserrer les liens de l’équipe ou celle impulsée par les afterworks actuels qui favorisent la « finger food » en présentant à table des préparations à consommer directement avec les doigts sans l’usage de couverts, si ce n’est celui de piques (tapas espagnols, pintxos basques).

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Sensibiliser la classe à cette atmosphère « bon enfant » où tout est posé sur la table pour un service « à la bonne franquette » et mettre en parallèle la rigueur, l’organisation, le professionnalisme nécessaires au moment du service.

Le savoir-être, le savoir sourire, la capacité à écouter le client bien sûr, mais l’exploitation se prête au rappel des différents techniques de service en restauration : • service à l’assiette : Le dressage met en valeur le travail du cuisinier.

Il s’effectue en cuisine puis l’assiette est déposée par la droite, face au client, • service à l’assiette clochée : l’assiette est préparée en cuisine clochée puis sera découverte face au client pour maintenir la chaleur et procurer un effet de surprise au client, • service à l’anglaise où le maître d’hôtel vient servir à la gauche du client, à l’aide d’une fourchette et d’une cuillère, efficace pour les grandes tablées, • service à la française où le client se sert en fonction de son appétit et ses goûts personnels (Plat présenté à sa gauche), • service au guéridon ou à la russe : moment « spectacle » où le plat, présenté au client est découpé, flambé devant lui puis servi. Les plats sont servis en séquence afin de les garder chaud, • service plat sur table : le plat est déposé sur la table, les couverts de service face à lui afin qu’il se serve lui-même pour offrir un moment plus convivial. ÉTUDE COMPARATIVE ENTRE DEUX AMBIANCES DE REPAS : DE BRUEGHEL À RENOIR Le Repas de noces, La Noce paysanne par Brueghel l’Ancien, peintre flamand de la Renaissance, représente le partage et la convivialité.

La comparaison est orientée sur les points d’entrée suivants : • Le lieu, • La capacité, • Les participants, • La table et le couvert, • Le menu et les boissons associées, • La saison, • L’ambiance sonore (voix, bruits, musique, chansons).

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Figure 10. Pieter Brueghel l’Ancien, « Le Repas de noces » (réalisé entre 1566 et 1567) — Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienne.

L’association avec la photographie suivante favorise le travail de toute la mise en place d’une salle pour accueillir les convives et de la connaissance du lexique du matériel approprié : • les tables : ovales, rondes ou rectangulaires, • les chaises et fauteuils : empilables pour le rangement, habillés, • le linge : nappes, jupes, napperons, serviettes de table, molletons en fonction des dimensions des tables, • la vaisselle et ustensiles, • la verrerie : le verre dit « universel », le verre adapté à chaque type de vin, • le matériel divers : en fonction des besoins : plateaux, planches, chevalet, chariot, seaux, paniers, corbeilles, menus, cartes…

Figure 11. Photo Vatel Nîmes.

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Figure 12. Edward Hopper, “Nighthawks” (1942) —The Art Insitute of Chicago.

Ce célèbre tableau de Hopper présente un bar-restaurant où clients et serveur apparaissent dans une mise en scène hollywoodienne.

Leurs postures et expressions laissent imaginer leurs propos et leurs relations.

L’univers cinématographique pousserait à croire qu’il va se passer quelque chose dans ce bar : l’homme de dos est-il un détective observant le couple ?

Discutent-ils ensemble de la situation en cette période de seconde guerre mondiale que suggèrent les tenues vestimentaires représentées ?

Toutes les hypothèses d’exploitation pédagogique se dégagent de la démarche créative du peintre américain et des indices visuels présents. Le choix de cette séquence de travail se porte sur le serveur et les clients.

Le serveur : les avantages et les inconvénients du métier : • les rencontres, la communication, l’ambiance, la technique, les pourboires…

• les horaires, la tenue vestimentaire, la position debout, les odeurs, les gestes répétitifs, les dates des vacances…

Le serveur est un témoin : il voit et entend des choses étranges, incroyables, intéressantes, passionnantes. Il peut, suivant le lieu, interagir, sourire, rire. Sociable, il n’est pas qu’une oreille, il peut être de bons conseils. On peut ici imaginer le profil de celui qui est peint derrière le comptoir par Hopper.

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Les clients : Ils sont au nombre de trois ici.

Une femme, deux hommes. Qui sont-ils ? Un couple marié, des amants, la femme du peintre et un ami, deux employés ?

Un homme mystère et mystérieux, tournant le dos : un journaliste, un policier ?

Le serveur, rencontre différents types de clients avec qui il va interagir ou s’en abstenir.

Certains, comme le couple présent ici, peuvent être attentifs, coopératifs.

D’autres, à l’exemple de l’homme de dos, sont fermés, sur la défensive. « Le client est roi », répète-t-on généralement. Certes, mais lequel ?

Il revient à faire déceler à nos étudiants les différents types de clients et d’ajouter au tableau de Hopper d’autres consommateurs en imaginant un moment de la soirée moins tardif où la fréquentation du lieu serait à son comble.

Les étudiants sont amenés à profiler, par groupe, quelques types de clients en fonction de leurs rencontres professionnelles en période de pratique ou de leurs connaissances personnelles dans leur pays ou dans le pays cible : • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

le client pressé, le client indifférent, le client nonchalant, le client « sympa », le client curieux, le client connaisseur, le client guidé (Michelin, Gault-Millau, le petit Futé, le Routard), le client « je sais tout », le client créatif, le client hâbleur, le client méfiant, le client agressif, le client économe, le client généreux, le client paranoïaque.

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LE BAR-RESTAURANT EST UN VÉRITABLE THÉÂTRE OÙ LES ACTEURS NE FONT PAS DÉFAUT C’est un fait, il faut s’adapter aux clients. Et pour y parvenir, il importe au serveur professionnel de connaître le mode de fonctionnement de chacun. Le but est de définir l’approche efficace pour chaque type de clients. L’idéal est, de fait, d’acquérir progressivement une stratégie de communication adaptée.

Figure 12. Paul Cézanne, « Nature morte aux pommes et aux oranges » (1899) — Musée d’Orsay.

DU TABLEAU À LA TABLE Lors de son service en salle l’étudiant est parfois amené à décrire une recette pour répondre à la demande d’un client curieux. Il doit acquérir la maîtrise de l’énonciation rapide, mais précise d’une recette sans avoir besoin d’aller chercher le chef.

La tarte aux pommes Cézanne : Liste des ingrédients à donner (pour 6 personnes) : • 2 kilos de pommes Granny Smith ou Reinette, 150 g de sucre, • 125 g de beurre doux, 50 g de beurre salé, de la cannelle, • 1 pâte feuilletée pur beurre prête à cuire.

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Les étapes de la préparation à retrouver :

1. Faites fondre 50… Chemisez… de sucre. Saupoudrez… cannelle — Épluchez… et coupez… en 8 —.

2. Dans… faites fondre… 20 g de… et une pincée de cannelle, faites… les morceaux de…

3. Rangez régulièrement…

4. Saupoudrez la première rangée… de… et d’une pincée de cannelle.

Recommencez… des pommes — .

5. Cuisez… (thermostat 7, 210 °C) pendant… Laissez… 30 minutes.

6. Posez le disque de pâte sur… – Couvrez… Remettez à cuire 15 à 20

minutes pour… les pommes.

Quelle boisson se prépare avec les oranges de Cézanne ?

Les ustensiles de cuisine ou l’étude de l’impératif sont d’autres pistes d’apprentissage favorisées par ce genre de peinture.

Figure 13. Pablo Picasso, « Nature morte au pichet » (1938) — Collection particulière.

Ce tableau signé Pablo Picasso invite à la préparation d’une salade de fruits frais.

Aux étudiants de partir à la recherche de natures mortes suggérant des recettes adaptées à leur goût.

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L’ART ET LA MANIÈRE Entrer dans un tableau dans le cadre d’un cours de langue n’a rien de répétitif.

Les pistes sont plurielles en éclairant le contexte historique, culturel, sociétal.

Il revient maintenant au lecteur de jouer le jeu et d’imaginer les intentions du professeur en choisissant de mettre en parallèle cette peinture de Goya et la photo d’une jeune femme au bord de la piscine d’un complexe hôtelier.

Du XVIIIe au XXIe siècle.

Ombrelle, parasol, soleil, bronzage, mutation du corps et du vêtement, lieu de villégiature, société et hédonisme.

Place à l’imagination. Soyez sans inquiétude : nos étudiants n’en manquent pas.

Figure 14. Francisco de Goya, « L’ombrelle » (1777) — Musée du Prado Madrid.

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STIMULER LES COMPÉTENCES XXIe siècle : le Louvre, l’un des plus beaux musées du monde, se transforme en terrain de jeu : des joueurs sont prisonniers au milieu d’œuvres d’art de l’aile Richelieu. Pour s’en évader, il faut résoudre des énigmes cachées dans les détails des œuvres exposées. L’éducation du regard est au cœur de la mission.

L’univers pictural n’a pas fini de nous surprendre, de livrer ses secrets et de stimuler nos compétences.

Il participe encore et toujours à ce savoir regarder pour mieux comprendre, analyser et comparer L’inviter dans la classe de langue est une opportunité à saisir de façon rythmée. L’étudiant a grand besoin d’images situationnelles pour se figurer le contexte de communication.

Mais le temps est révolu où l’image était un simple support de cours, vite oublié, le prétexte à un échange, à l’introduction de structures linguistiques diverses. Le tableau de peinture est à vivre comme une mise en situation. Il devient un terrain de jeu atypique. Grâce à lui, l’étudiant sort de son univers « classe », devient co-acteur en se rapprochant de son univers professionnel.

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SCÉNARISER LA PEINTURE Chaque tableau possède son propre scénario et son ambiance dans lesquels l’étudiant se plonge et crée une logique narrative propre à l’Hôtellerie-Restauration.

La richesse des différents supports picturaux permet de garder ou de capter l’attention de nos étudiants, de mobiliser leurs acquis, de les vérifier ou de les développer. Dans ce type de séances, les étudiants évaluent autrement leur niveau sur tous les plans, tantôt à l’oral, tantôt à l’écrit. De plus, les meilleurs éléments de la classe, deviennent des auxiliaires pour l’enseignant et de véritables coaches pour ceux qui sont en difficulté.

Ces changements de supports, de perspectives, d’activités langagières, de rythmes leur donnent la sensation de ne pas s’ennuyer, d’élargir leur culture par leur propre implication Ils en oublient enfin leur smartphone à portée de main.

Il revient à l’enseignant d’offrir un véritable cours hétérogène où les pistes plurielles participent au dynamisme de la classe et impulsent une interactivité effective. « De l’habitude naît l’ennui » Diversifier c’est palier cette difficulté. Nos étudiants se distinguent les uns par rapport aux autres et ont tous des besoins différents. Nous nous devons de gérer cette hétérogénéité constante en proposant des tâches disruptives susceptibles de faire acquérir les outils dont ils ont besoin dans des expériences d’apprentissage cohérentes et motivantes permettant d’éveiller l’intérêt du plus grand nombre.

Compte tenu des directives exposées dans le Cadre Européen Commun de Références pour les langues, il convient de constater que notre intérêt doit se porter sur la capacité de l’étudiant à savoir évoluer dans le pays où il étudie grâce à une bonne connaissance de la langue d’usage sans pour autant négliger l’aspect culturel et civilisationnel inhérent à ce pays. Les nouveaux publics qui intègrent nos établissements nous entraînent à diversifier autant que possible les compétences communicationnelles de chacun. La diversification des activités langagières est le moteur d’une meilleure implication de l’étudiant en cours pour le conduire à manipuler la langue avec plus d’habileté.

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BIBLIOGRAPHIE BARTHES, R. (1982). La rhétorique de l’image, in L’obvie et l’obtus. Essais critiques III, Paris : Seuil.

BOURDIEU, P., DARBEL, A. (1966). L’amour de l’art, les musées d’art européens et leur public ; Éditions de Minuit.

BUCHS, C., DARNON, C., QUIAMZADE, A., MUGNY, G. et BUTERA, F., note de synthèse de la Revue française de pédagogie, avril-juin 2008 : « Conflits et apprentissage. Régulation des conflits sociocognitifs et apprentissage »).

DE BROGLIE, G. (1982). Une Image vaut dix mille mots : essai sur la télévision, Paris, Plon, 1982.

DE LA GARANDERIE, A. (2013). Réussir, ça s’apprend, Paris, Bayard Compact.

ECO, U. (1985) (1979). Lector in fabula. Paris : Grasset.

GALAND, B. « Hétérogénéité des élèves et apprentissages : quelle place pour les pratiques d’enseignement ? », Les Cahiers de recherche en éducation et formation, no 71, 2009.

GARDNER, H. (1996). Les Intelligences multiples. Pour changer l’école : la prise en compte des différentes formes d’intelligence. Paris : Retz.

JAKOBSON, R., Essais de linguistique générale (1 et 2), Paris, Éditions de Minuit, 1963 (t.1), 1973 (t.2) (rééd. 2003).

MORIN, E. (2004). Pour entrer dans le XXIe siècle, Seuil.

PUREN, C., L’exploitation didactique des documents authentiques en didactique des langue-cultures : trois grandes « logiques » différentes, 2014, version longue de Les documents, supports pour enseigner, no 508, revue Les Cahiers pédagogiques (Paris : CRAP-Cahiers pédagogiques), novembre 2013, pp. 19-20.

ZAKHARTCHOUK, M., (2015), Enseigner en classes hétérogènes, ESF éditeur.

Hétérogénéité des élèves et apprentissages : quelle place pour les pratiques d’enseignement ? », Les Cahiers de recherche en éducation et formation, no 71, 2009.

La coopération entre élèves : des recherches aux pratiques Dossier de veille de l’IFÉ • no 114 décembre 2016, 6/32.

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http://librairie.cahiers-pedagogiques.com/631-enseigner-en-classes-h%C3%A9 t%C3%A9rog%C3%A8nes.html http://www.courtauld.ac.uk/gallery/collections/paintings/imppostimp/manet/ foliesbergere/index.shtml (1881-1882) http://www.education.gouv.fr/cid23092/les-sections-internationales-au-lycee.html

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ENSEIGNEMENT DES LANGUES DE LA SPÉCIALITÉ « TOURISME » SELON LE PROJET « FREE WALKING TOURS »

Dr Thành Tín NGUYỄN THỨC,* Triết Minh VŨ**

RÉSUMÉ Dans le contexte de la résolution no 08 — NQ/TW publiée par le Politburo sur le développement du tourisme comme secteur économique clé du Vietnam, la nécessité de promouvoir le tourisme du pays auprès des étrangers ainsi que le besoin en ressources humaines de qualité travaillant dans le domaine sont devenus plus pressants que jamais. Le projet « Free Walking Tours » (FWT), s’il est largement appliqué dans les formations de langues étrangères, spécialité « Tourisme », présenteront des intérêts réels pour accroître la professionnalisation et contribuer au développement de l’industrie touristique du pays. Issu d’une pratique sociale de référence et construit sur un esprit non lucratif, le projet FWT place les étudiants au centre de l’apprentissage, sans nier le rôle de conseiller et d’organisateur des enseignants.

Mots clés : apprentissage par projet, enseignement et apprentissage des langues étrangères, tourisme, FWT, pratique sociale de référence. * (nguyenthuc.thanhtin@gmail.com) Docteur en Sciences du Langage/ Ph.D. Language Sciences —Master en Administration des Entreprises/ Master of Business Administration— Enseignantchercheur à l’École Vatel —HoChiMinh-ville/ Lecturer at Vatel School— Ho Chi Minh city ** (vutrietminh@gmail.com) Master en Didactique du Français Langue Étrangère/Master in Didactics of French as a Foreign Language— Enseignant-chercheur à l’École Vatel —HoChiMinhville/Lecturer at Vatel School— Ho Chi Minh city

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A STUDY ON TEACHING FOREIGN LANGUAGE FOR TOURISM VIA FREE WALKING TOURS PROJECT

ABSTRACT In the context of the Resolution No. 08-NQ/TW issued by the Politburo on the making of tourism a key economic sector of Vietnam, the need to promote Vietnam’s tourism to foreigners as well as the demand for high quality human resources working in the tourism industry have become more urgent than ever.

Free Walking Tours (FWT) learning programs, if widely applied in tourismoriented training programs will provide a practical benefit for enhancing professionalism in training and contribute to the development of the country’s tourism industry. Built on the not-for-profit spirit and derived from the notion of social reference, the FWT project places students at the center of the activity but does not negate the role of mentor and organisators of teachers.

Keywords: project-based learning, teaching and learning foreign languages, tourism, FWT, social practices of reference.

Free Walking Tours (désormais FWT) — visite à pied guidée gratuite est un nouveau mode de tourisme. L’initiative serait née en 2004 à Berlin* avant de devenir de nos jours, grâce aux médias sociaux, un phénomène de plus en plus popularisé sur les 5 continents. Selon un site dédié au tourisme**, FWT est pratiqué dans plus de 40 villes dans le monde, Amsterdam, Bruxelles, Budapest, Madrid, Paris, Prague, Rome, Venise, Saint-Pétersbourg, Varsovie… pour n’en citer que les plus connues. En réalité, cette pratique de visite sociale existe dans presque toutes les villes touristiques, sous forme des groupes de FWT spontanés des étudiants ou des associations avec toute une structure d’organisation ad hoc.

Au Vietnam par exemple, on peut trouver facilement les groupes de FWT à Hanoi, Mai Chau, Hué, Hoi An ou Hô Chi Minh-Ville… * www.freetoursnetwork.com ** www.priceoftravel.com

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Cette nouvelle tendance apparaît comme une opportunité pour les Vietnamiens en général et pour la jeunesse vietnamienne en particulier d’avoir des contacts avec les étrangers et de s’entraîner ainsi aux compétences communicatives en langues étrangères. De plus, FWT — avec toutes ses caractéristiques d’une pratique sociale de référence — peut générer un projet de pédagogie pour l’enseignement et l’apprentissage des langues vivantes, projet qui intéresse plus d’un établissement de formation de langues à la spécialité « Tourisme », afin d’augmenter son efficacité.

Comment faire de cette pratique sociale un projet de pédagogie ? Quelles en sont les étapes ? Quels acteurs y sont impliqués ? Il s’agit là d’autant de points dont l’article tente de discuter.

QU’EST-CE QUE C’EST FWT ?

Cette forme de visite est pratiquée dans les zones qui abritent des monuments historiques et culturels dans les villes ou dans les centres urbains. Elle peut durer une heure environ, voire plus d’une journée. Le touriste (ou le groupe de touristes) participant est accompagné à la marche par un guide touristique bénévole qui lui fait découvrir les curiosités du quartier, travail qui sera évalué à la fin de la visite par le premier.

FWT est une activité sociale non lucrative et un service gratuit, le touriste ne payant pas le service du guide. Néanmoins, il peut toujours, par générosité, verser une petite contribution à l’organisme ou association qui organise la visite guidée. Cette somme peut aussi aller à une organisation humanitaire ou à l’accompagnateur bénévole lui-même. Cependant, au Vietnam ainsi que dans plusieurs villes du monde, certaines agences de voyages associent FWT à leurs circuits, ce qui éloigne cette pratique sociale de son esprit initial.

Le phénomène de FWT est largement répandu dans le monde grâce à son aspect pratique, mais aussi parce qu’il répond au besoin des deux côtés, le touriste en mal d’exotisme et le guide bénévole en formation de langue étrangère. Le premier, s’il souhaite bénéficier gratuitement de ce service, contactera l’organisateur de FWT par courrier électronique ou via les médias sociaux, lui fournira les informations sur sa demande : choix de l’itinéraire de visite parmi les circuits préconçus, moment de la visite, point de départ, langue de communication… En fonction de ces données, l’organisme ou association lui proposera le guide bénévole. C’est avec lui que le touriste passera une séance de visite à pied suivant un parcours programmé. Pendant la visite, le guide présentera son exposé sur les monuments historiques et culturels et servira d’interprète entre le touriste et les habitants locaux lors d’éventuels échanges avec ces derniers. Le touriste - 85 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

comprendra donc la vie des autochtones, leurs mœurs et coutumes et s’enrichira ainsi d’expériences de voyage. Pour la ville-destination, c’est un moyen efficace pour promouvoir son image, ses hommes, ses qualités d’accueil, son hospitalité auprès des amis internationaux, tout en formant son peuple, surtout sa jeunesse à l’esprit de l’humanité, au sens du bénévolat et du service social. Quant au guide bénévole, le service qu’il fournit gratuitement est l’occasion d’avoir des contacts avec les gens de tous azimuts, de pratiquer une langue étrangère en contexte et d’être plus à l’aise, plus confiant en lui dans les communications.

Le guide, de même que les résidents locaux, pourront aussi, par les interactions positives entretenues avec des visiteurs étrangers, acquérir des connaissances et de s’enrichir de nouvelles expériences. Vu tous ces intérêts, FWT apparaît comme une pratique sociale de référence susceptible d’être transposée vers une approche innovante de langues étrangères qui placerait l’apprenant au centre du processus d’enseignement-apprentissage.

FWT EST UNE PRATIQUE SOCIALE DE RÉFÉRENCE POUR L’ENSEIGNEMENT-APPRENTISSAGE DES LANGUES ÉTRANGÈRES Le concept de « pratique sociale de référence » a été étudié dès 1986 par Martinand* qui insistait sur les trois aspects : « pratique » (ce sont des activités objectives de transformation d’un donné naturel ou humain), « sociale » (elles concernent l’ensemble d’un secteur social, et non des rôles individuels) et « de référence » (la relation avec les activités didactiques n’est pas d’identité, il y a seulement terme de comparaison). Pour l’auteur, la référence aux pratiques sociales est indispensable parce que ces dernières seront reproduites dans les activités scolaires.

La pratique sociale de référence joue un rôle important dans la proposition, l’évaluation et l’analyse du contenu enseigné. En effet, le contenu d’enseignement ne doit pas viser le seul objectif de transmettre les connaissances académiques. Il doit nécessairement s’appuyer sur la réalité, s’associer à la vie réelle et tendre à être l’image de cette dernière.

FWT, tel qu’il est décrit, est donc une pratique sociale de référence intéressante qui aiderait l’apprenant à s’entraîner aux pratiques professionnelles et aux langues vivantes, par le biais du tourisme, autrement dit, par le biais d’un besoin réel, qui est celui du touriste étranger de découvrir un pays, une région ou une ville. Ce besoin est réciproque de la part des jeunes locaux, des étudiants entre autres, qui souhaitent multiplier les contacts avec les étrangers. FWT est particulièrement bénéfique pour les étudiants en tourisme car, hormis les effets formateurs en * MARTINAND, 1986, p. 137.

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langues étrangères, il leur permet d’appliquer les savoirs théoriques à la réalité du terrain et de s’entraîner à différentes compétences (professionnelles, non verbales, humaines…) nécessaires à leur vie sociale et au travail. En effet, dans la peau d’un guide touristique, l’étudiant se donne la mission de transmettre au touriste les informations sur la géographie, l’histoire et les traits culturels, tout en suscitant chez ce dernier l’intérêt, la curiosité, l’amour pour la découverte.

Pour ce faire, le guide apprenti devrait s’être renseigné, par les livres, la presse et les médias, de tout ce contenu, puis mobiliser ses capacités langagières pour en faire une présentation pertinente, de manière à ce que le touriste saisisse les valeurs du peuple autochtone. Le guide lui-même devrait aussi faire preuve d’écoute, répondre aux questions posées par le touriste et de comprendre ses demandes. De son inconscience, il acquiert progressivement une compétence interculturelle, à force d’analyser, de comparer les comportements et les attitudes de l’Autre et de réajuster les siens. Enfin, l’étudiant en tourisme y trouvera la motivation dans l’apprentissage en se rendant utile avec les connaissances qu’il a apprises à l’école. C’est tout le sens de l’apprentissage qu’une pratique sociale de référence tend à donner au processus.

De par ces points positifs, FWT nécessite de l’intérêt des enseignants pour le transformer en projets de pédagogie avec des modalités appropriées, à destination des étudiants en langues étrangères et en tourisme.

PÉDAGOGIE DU PROJET ET APPROCHE ACTIONNELLE L’enseignement des langues étrangères a traversé plusieurs générations d’approches méthodologiques. Aujourd’hui, on privilégie dans les pays développés celles qui mettent l’apprenant au centre du processus d’apprentissage, dans le but de le rénover et de réduire les limites de l’approche traditionnelle qui mettait l’accent sur le rôle de l’enseignant. En didactiques des langues vivantes, on parle beaucoup ces derniers temps de la pédagogie du projet et de l’approche actionnelle.

Pédagogie du projet La pédagogie du projet a fait son apparition au début XXe siècle, à commencer par les modules à caractère pratique avant de se faire connaître dans d’autres matières. Selon l’OCDE (2014), cette approche est née des travaux des psychologues-pédagogues occidentaux : • Dewey (psychologue et philosophe américain) qui a initié les méthodes d’apprentissage actives, dont sa célèbre théorie « learning by doing » (apprendre par l’action) ;

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• Kilpatrick (pédagogue américain) qui, par son essai « The project Methode » (la Méthode de projet) a lancé l’idée de « project-based learning » (apprentissage par projet) ; • Decroly (psychologue et pédagogogue belge) qui, par ses théories pédagogiques et psychologiques de l’enfant, considère que les connaissances sont acquises quand l’enfant les découvre lui-même et arrive à les verbaliser ; • Freinet (pédagogue français) qui préconisait l’idée selon laquelle l’apprenant doit se rendre maître de son apprentissage via les expériences et le travail collaboratif utile ; • Piaget (psychologue suisse) qui a élaboré les fondements théoriques de la pédagogie du projet basés sur l’action.

La pédagogie du projet est une pédagogie active dans laquelle l’apprenant acquiert les compétences à travers l’accomplissement des tâches. Elle part du principe selon lequel c’est l’apprenant lui-même qui élabore ses connaissances.

Plusieurs facteurs, en lien étroit entre eux, concourent au succès du projet : apprenant, enseignant, contenu, moyen et moment de réalisation, environnement…

Comme elle est fondée sur la motivation de l’apprenant, cette pédagogie doit tenir compte de ses besoins, ses souhaits et se caractérise par son engagement à l’action. Réelle, cette motivation conduit alors l’apprenant à la réalisation d’un produit concret et utile, ce qui contribue au réalisme du projet et donne un sens à l’apprentissage. Au centre de son apprentissage, l’individu éprouve le besoin de s’informer et de s’équiper de compétences diverses. De nos jours, la pédagogie du projet est énormément facilitée par le progrès des technologies.

Cependant, la pédagogie du projet exige que l’enseignant en prévoie les étapes, de façon que l’apprenant, loin d’être un simple exécuteur des actions définies, participe aussi à la détermination, à la conception et à l’organisation du projet.

Par ailleurs, l’enseignant a intérêt à faire l’inventaire des actions à mettre en place, à les relier entre elles ainsi qu’à déterminer les compétences spécifiques et les « soft skills » nécessaires à la réalisation du projet. Dès lors, il doit en envisager l’évaluation pendant et à la fin du projet.

Approche actionnelle Le Cadre Européen Commun de Référence pour les Langues (CECRL) a changé le regard sur les compétences langagières. En séparant celles-ci des autres compétences communicatives et en introduisant le nouveau concept de « tâche », d’« acteur social », le Cadre propose de nouveaux dispositifs pour rénover la pratique enseignante-apprenante et l’évaluation des compétences en langues étrangères. En ce sens, l’apprenant est considéré comme un acteur - 88 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

social et l’apprentissage d’une langue étrangère est une adaptation de celui-ci à une situation de vie ou professionnelle. Selon cette approche, l’apprenant est amené à accomplir des tâches, non seulement langagières, relevant des domaines déterminés de la société. Cette perspective donne un nouveau souffle à l’apprentissage, basculant la pratique des compétences communicatives (compréhension orale — production orale — compréhension écrite – production écrite) vers la réalisation des actions dans lesquelles s’inscrit la communication verbale parmi d’autres.

Pour accomplir des tâches, l’apprenant doit mobiliser : • • • •

son savoir ; son savoir-faire ; son savoir-comporter ; son savoir-apprendre.

Il s’agit là d’un changement radical dans la conception de l’enseignement — apprentissage des langues étrangères. L’approche donne sens à l’apprentissage des langues qui n’est pas une fin en soi, mais qui est au service d’un travail, d’une action sociale. Elle augmente la chance d’associer la théorie et la réalité du terrain, l’école et la société. La langue étrangère ne se cantonne pas à l’exercice en classe, mais elle doit se pratiquer en société. Cette langue étrangère est donc plus vivante, plus authentique que celle limitée à l’école. Par ailleurs, la perspective actionnelle apporte d’autres intérêts à l’apprenant, en lui permettant de se frotter à la réalité de la vie, de se former à d’autres compétences, de s’armer d’expériences pour le travail…

Cependant, les tâches à réaliser par l’apprenant dans le cadre d’une approche actionnelle doivent répondre à un certain nombre de critères. Bento (2013) en a fait une synthèse pour que les tâches soient actionnelles : • les tâches ne doivent pas viser seulement les actions verbales (tâches langagières), mais aussi les actions non verbales (tâches extralangagières), qui aident l’apprenant à développer les stratégies cognitives dans des situations de plus en plus complexes. Ainsi, on doit tenir compte des compétences langagières et des compétences générales dans les dispositifs d’évaluation ; • les tâches doivent être conçues dans le sens large d’une résolution de problème qui incite l’apprenant à mobiliser ses savoirs et savoir-faire disponibles et à en acquérir de nouveaux ; • les tâches doivent relever d’une logique de conceptualisation, de réflexion sur la langue ; - 89 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

• les tâches doivent viser l’authenticité en réunissant les caractéristiques d’une pratique sociale : des situations authentiques de la vie, des objectifs clairement formulés, des modalités réalistes, de vraies ressources disponibles… pour parvenir à des résultats prédéfinis et mesurables.

MISE EN PLACE DU PROJET FWT AU SEIN DES ÉTABLISSEMENTS DE FORMATION Le projet FWT peut être développé au sein des établissements universitaires.

Il convient particulièrement aux départements ou filières de langue (anglais, français, russe, chinois, coréen, japonais…) avec une orientation tourisme, du fait de l’adaptabilité des modules (de langues et de connaissances spécifiques) à la pédagogie du projet. Plus concrètement, ce projet peut s’appliquer à un grand nombre de modules figurant dans les programmes de formation : • les modules de langue (théorie et pratique) dans lesquels l’apprenant mobilise toutes les compétences orales et écrites pour la lecture des documents, la correspondance ou la communication verbale avec les étrangers ; • les modules liés à la culture, la civilisation en raison des connaissances sur la culture vietnamienne et sur celle du pays d’origine des touristes ; • les modules de connaissances spécifiques du tourisme, comme élaboration et gestion de circuits, communication touristique, guidage, management de projet touristique…

Le projet FWT correspond parfaitement à la tendance à l’innovation qui oriente l’enseignement des langues étrangères vers l’approche actionnelle, alliant théorie et pratique. Les tâches conçues dans le projet FWT ne sont plus de simples actes de paroles, mais demandent aux apprenants de mobiliser leurs acquis (connaissances, compétences professionnelles) dans la conception des circuits, le management, la création des produits, le guidage… et ce dans une réalité professionnelle non simulée. En effet, tout le projet est axé autour d’une activité sociale dont sont clairement définis les modalités, objectifs et résultats attendus. Cela permet d’instaurer chez l’apprenant des mécanismes langagiers et de développer des connaissances spécifiques. Le participant au projet se voit doter d’une véritable motivation, celle de devoir créer un produit touristique, de mettre en place un service pour les touristes étrangers, car il sait très bien qu’il va contribuer directement à la conception d’un projet et à sa mise en place.

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LE RÔLE DES ACTEURS PRINCIPAUX DANS LE PROJET Bien que jouant un rôle central dans le projet, les étudiants travaillent en concertation avec l’enseignant (chef de projet) ainsi que d’autres étudiants pour pouvoir orchestrer toutes les tâches du projet : enquête, conception, communication, traitement de demandes, répartition de guides et évaluation… Chaque étudiant membre peut faire partie d’une ou de plusieurs équipes et s’occupe des tâches bien définies afin de bien mener le projet. C’est lui qui, outre son travail, doit aussi s’ingénier à résoudre les difficultés existantes. Dans son travail, il tâche aussi d’observer ses collègues, de leur faire parvenir des conseils et d’apprendre des commentaires des autres membres de l’équipe ainsi que des touristes clients.

Lors des séances de débriefing, les étudiants s’autoévaluent aussi en fonction des objectifs prédéterminés, de leur participation au projet, aux tâches collectives et de l’épanouissement personnel… Enfin, ils se livrent aussi des évaluations réciproques dans le cadre du projet en se basant sur la qualité du travail, sur l’attitude, sur le degré de collaboration et sur le niveau d’accomplissement…

L’enseignant joue un rôle aussi important pendant tout le projet. Il propose, guide, organise, conseille et vient en aide aux étudiants. Tout d’abord, il est celui qui définit les compétences et les objectifs à viser. Il construit ensuite le projet avec les étudiants, en prévoit les ressources nécessaires (temps, finance, contribution…), après quoi il distribue les missions aux étudiants selon leur fonction, leurs préférences en tenant compte des objectifs visés. Tout au long du projet, l’enseignant surveille, aide et corrige les étudiants et crée des conditions favorables à la mise en place du projet par ces derniers. Il doit les entretenir pour l’amélioration et le réajustement du projet si nécessaire. Finalement, à l’enseignant revient le rôle d’évaluateur des membres du projet.

Enfin, les touristes-clients — bénéficiaires extérieurs du projet — sont tout de même un facteur important. Fascinés par la découverte de la culture et des gens du pays, ils prennent contact avec les groupes FWT via email, page Facebook, site internet… pour conclure les services. À l’issue de la visite, ils font parvenir leur feedback sous forme de réponse à une enquête de satisfaction (sur place ou en ligne) sur les services FWT qu’ils viennent de consommer. Plusieurs critères d’évaluation y figurent : concept, communication, management et accompagnement. Il s’agit d’une évaluation objective dotée de valeur référentielle, indispensable pour une formation professionnalisante.

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LES ÉTAPES DE MISE EN PLACE Étape 1 : concevoir le projet L’enseignant se charge de déterminer les étapes du projet. Il détermine les préacquis et les savoirs à atteindre en fonction des modules du programme de formation, définit les savoir-faire, les « soft skills » et d’autres compétences nécessaires. L’enseignant anticipe également les conditions favorables à la mise en place du projet ainsi que les difficultés.

Comme le projet repose sur un grand nombre de modules du programme de formation, il est recommandé de former une équipe de pilotage regroupant plusieurs enseignants pour une coordination plus efficace. Étape 2 : élaborer le préprojet On forme l’équipe du préprojet, comprenant enseignants et étudiants. En concertation avec l’enseignant, les étudiants se fixent les objectifs, les modalités de travail, les tâches à réaliser, la durée du projet, le budget, les moyens, les résultats escomptés… Étape 3 : élaborer les unités FWT opérationnelles L’enseignant et les étudiants listent par la suite des tâches que doit accomplir chaque unité FWT : • unité conception : voyages de reconnaissance aux sites touristiques ou aux sites potentiels, conception de l’itinéraire, examen des paramètres du circuit, test du produit ; • unité communication : promotion auprès de touristes, communication des activités de l’équipe via différents canaux (site internet, facebook, blog…), réception de demandes des clients ; • unité tour-opérateur : traitement des demandes des clients, des requêtes spécifiques, réponse aux clients, répartition des guides, résolution de problèmes ; • unité accompagnement : service de guidages aux clients, résolution d’incidents.

L’enseignant et les étudiants co-déterminent les savoirs et savoir-faire exigés pour chaque unité. L’enseignant organise un concours d’admission sous forme d’un test de compétences linguistiques et d’entretien. Les résultats de ce concours permettent ensuite à l’enseignant de dispatcher les candidats dans les unités qui leur correspondent. Un étudiant peut appartenir à une ou plusieurs unités.

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Étape 4 : former les étudiants L’enseignant organise au début des séminaires thématiques pour former les étudiants aux connaissances et aux savoir-faire requis pour le projet.

L’équipe du projet pourrait aussi faire intervenir des professionnels ou experts dans le domaine dans le but d’enthousiasmer les étudiants et de leur faire connaître la réalité professionnelle. Étape 5 : mettre en place le projet FWT Les unités entrent en opération. Elles répartissent les tâches à leurs membres et déploient leurs actions. Étape 6 : recueillir les résultats et évaluer L’enseignant et les étudiants font le bilan temporaire du projet.

Chaque étudiant rédige un rapport personnel sur le projet, les résultats atteints, les expériences vécues… Chaque unité fait un exposé sur son travail devant l’enseignant et tous les autres membres du projet.

Les étudiants s’autoévaluent, le groupe évalue chaque membre du groupe, l’enseignant évalue les groupes et les membres. L’(auto) évaluation fait l’objet d’une grille d’évaluation avec les critères prédéterminés.

L’équipe du projet recueille et analyse les feedbacks de clients. Étape 7 : passer le relais Les étudiants membres du projet passent le relais aux futurs membres afin que le projet se pérennise. Les anciens membres sont mobilisés pour assister les nouveaux et leur apporter des conseils.

ATOUTS ET DÉFIS POUR UN PROJET PÉDAGOGIQUE AVEC FWT AU VIETNAM Selon les statistiques fournies par l’Administration nationale du tourisme (ANT) vietnamienne*, relevant du Ministère de la Culture, des Sports et du Tourisme, ces dernières années enregistrent une croissance régulière des arrivées touristiques internationales (ATI) au Vietnam, dont une partie non négligeable des touristes individuels. Plus précisément, l’année 2017 a compté 12 922 151 ATI, représentant une croissance de 29,1 % par rapport à l’année précédente. Voici le classement des ATI selon le pays d’origine : * http://vietnamtourism.gov.vn

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• • • • • •

Chine — Taiwan — Hongkong : 4 672 206 (36,16 %) ; Corée du Sud : 2 415 245 (18,69 %) ; US —Canada — Royaume-Uni —Australie : 1 406 334 (10,88 %) ; Japon : 798 119 (6,18 %) ; Russie : 574 164 (4,44 %) ; France — Belgique — Suisse : 317 636 (2,46 %).

Le nombre croissant des ATI offre une condition favorable au développement du tourisme vietnamien, mais aussi à la mise en œuvre des projets FWT dans les établissements de formation. Pourtant, le projet n’est pas sans connaître de défis, à savoir le décalage avec les programmes de formation et les horaires des étudiants. S’y ajoute que la plupart des étudiants n’ont pas de moyen pour accéder au certificat de guide touristique selon les dernières réglementations de l’ANT, d’où l’impossibilité d’exercer le métier de guide-accompagnateur auprès d’un touriste dans le périmètre du site touristique. Jusqu’à présent, les guidesaccompagnateurs dans le cadre du projet FWT ne peuvent faire des présentations sur les sites qu’à l’extérieur de ces derniers.

CONCLUSION Offrant une condition idéale et favorable à la pratique, le projet FWT pourrait profiter considérablement à la pédagogie du projet appliquée dans les départements et filières de langue à visée « tourisme ». Ce projet lie les aspects théorique et pratique, en rapprochant les établissements de formation du marché professionnel. C’est ainsi que l’étudiant aura l’opportunité de pratiquer la langue avec les natifs et de travailler ses savoir-faire acquis dans la matière. Un autre avantage de ce projet demeure dans la possibilité de régulariser son activité, le secteur du tourisme étant actif pendant toute l’année, ainsi que de la pérenniser dans le temps, puisqu’il est transférable aux futurs étudiants.

Enfin, le projet FWT pourrait jouer un grand rôle dans la promotion du secteur touristique du Vietnam, en valorisant l’image d’un peuple accueillant, dynamique, et celle des étudiants vietnamiens déterminés et sérieux.

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BIBLIOGRAPHIE BENTO, M. (2013). Regards théoriques sur la perspective actionnelle dans l’enseignement des langues en France, Éducation et didactique, consulté le 25/3/2018, http://educationdidactique.revues.org/1404.

DEVELAY, M. (1992). De l’apprentissage à l’enseignement, ESF, Paris.

MARTINAND, J.-L. (1986). Connaître et transformer la matière, Peter Lang, Paris, 155 pages.

OCDE (2014). La recherche et l’innovation dans l’enseignement. Environnements pédagogiques et pratiques novatrices, OCDE.

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ANALYSE SWOT DE L’OFFRE TOURISTIQUE À L’ÎLE AU TRÉSOR (MADAGASCAR)

Dr Heriniaina Corinne RANDRIAMBOLOLONDRABARY

RÉSUMÉ

L’Île au Trésor (Madagascar) possède une mégabiodiversité, de l’extraordinaire capital naturel et des ressources culturelles propices au tourisme. Le secteur tourisme est l’un des porteurs de devises et créateurs d’emplois pour favoriser la croissance économique. Ce travail propose une analyse SWOT de l’offre touristique à Madagascar.

Mots-clés : Tourisme, porteur de devises, créateur d’emplois, analyse SWOT, offre touristique.

ABSTRACT (Madagascar) the Treasure Island has a mega biodiversity, extraordinary natural resources and cultural resources conducive to tourism. Tourism sector is one of the motors and creators of jobs to promote economic growth. This work proposes a SWOT analysis of the tourist offer in Madagascar.

Keywords: Tourism, currency bearer, job creator, SWOT analysis, tourism offer.

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INTRODUCTION Île au Trésor (Madagascar) séduit par ses merveilles naturelles, sa biodiversité, son patrimoine culturel, le soleil, ses plages, l’accueil et la générosité de ses habitants… Autant d’atouts pour que Madagascar devienne l’une des destinations prisées des touristes étrangers et que l’économie puisse en tirer profit.

En effet, le tourisme figure parmi les plus importantes sources de recettes pour l’économie de la Grande Île. Plus concrètement, le secteur tourisme contribue directement au PIB national à hauteur de 5,4 correspondant à un impact de 14,9 %, ce qui explique cette étroite corrélation qu’on suppose souvent entre tourisme et développement. Dans ce sens, il met en jeu des investissements considérables en capitaux, génère des revenus substantiels et crée des emplois importants, ce qui permet d’affirmer qu’un des secteurs les plus importants en termes de croissance économique, d’apport de devises, d’investissements et de création d’emplois se révèle être le tourisme. Ainsi, le secteur touristique occupe une place importante dans l’économie malgache.

Malheureusement, la crise politique de 2009 a causé une diminution progressive du nombre de touristes avec un nombre d’arrivées qui n’a cessé de décroître de 2008 à 2013.

Néanmoins, la contribution économique de l’activité touristique au l’île au Trésor est certes importante. Il est de plus en plus considéré par les hauts responsables comme un secteur stratégique pour accompagner le développement économique. Afin d’accroître son attractivité et de renouveler son image, l’industrie touristique malgache va avoir à diversifier et à améliorer la qualité de son offre, à investir dans le capital humain et les infrastructures et à se préoccuper de l’environnement.

Ces aspects soulignent l’importance et la nécessaire combinaison des actions publiques et privées ainsi que des stratégies qu’ils poursuivent.

L’objectif principal de cet article est d’identifier les spécificités du secteur du tourisme à l’île au Trésor. L’analyse des forces et faiblesses, opportunités et menaces de ce secteur permettra par la suite de comprendre les orientations stratégiques menées actuellement.

I. LE TOURISME DE L’ÎLE AU TRÉSOR Le tourisme est considéré comme une activité ancienne qui a pris une véritable dimension planétaire. Devenu un phénomène universel, il constitue dorénavant un secteur économique vital dans de nombreux pays aussi bien industrialisés - 98 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

que ceux en développement (Mesplier, Bloc Duraffour [1992]). D’après (Shaw, Williams, 2002), le tourisme a permis l’augmentation de l’emploi et la diversification des loisirs.

Madagascar dispose d’une dotation impressionnante de beauté naturelle, de biodiversité, d’un patrimoine culturel… des potentialités touristiques exceptionnelles pour accueillir le tourisme comme source de croissance économique et de réduction de la pauvreté. Le secteur tourisme est classé comme étant une source non négligeable de devises. Dans cette perspective, le tourisme pourrait être un outil de développement efficace pour Madagascar parce qu’il peut constituer un catalyseur pour la croissance économique, notamment dans les zones rurales, et peut créer un nombre d’externalités positives pour réduire la pauvreté et protéger l’environnement. L’impact du tourisme est déterminant sur le développement du pays surtout en termes économiques notamment de rentrée de devises, de réduction de la pauvreté, de création d’emplois.

En allant plus loin, le tourisme est devenu un levier pour le développement durable en contribuant au développement économique du monde par le revenu qu’il procure et par sa contribution au produit intérieur brut (PIB). Il est l’un des secteurs les plus dynamiques de l’économie malgache. À l’île au Trésor (Madagascar), le tourisme occupe une place importante surtout sur le plan du tourisme international car le pays regorge de ressources impressionnantes eu égard de sa variété d’avantages naturels. À titre d’exemple, en matière de méga biodiversité, 80 % des espèces végétales y sont endémiques et le taux d’endémicité de la faune est tout aussi élevé sans omettre un capital balnéaire de classe internationale et un extraordinaire capital naturel aussi bien terrestre que marin.

Toutefois, la relance de la destination devrait cadrer avec une bonne image sur le marché mondial, mais aussi un environnement sain et propice servant le cadre de production étant donné que le secteur touristique doit faire face à la concurrence des autres destinations telles que l’île Maurice, Seychelles… qui cherchent le même objectif à savoir une meilleure visibilité, une grande attractivité et une compétitivité de leur produit.

La demande touristique à l’île au Trésor Le principal marché émetteur du pays est constitué par la France.

Les touristes à Madagascar se répartissent en quatre catégories : tourisme soleil plage, tourisme à intérêt spécial, tourisme national, tourisme d’affaires : • tourisme soleil plage : ce type de tourisme est principalement orienté vers les activités balnéaires (natations, bains de soleil…) avec pour but principal la détente dans une atmosphère de bord de mer ; - 99 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

• tourisme à intérêt spécial : les touristes du groupe tourisme à intérêt spécial visitent le pays pour se tourner vers la nature, la culture, les croisières ou le sport… Les touristes d’aujourd’hui ont surtout un intérêt particulier dans la faune et la flore de Madagascar. Pourtant, le pays offre de nombreuses autres possibilités qui ont le potentiel d’attirer d’autres groupes cibles ; • tourisme national : ce type de tourisme a un potentiel de croissance énorme. La création de villages de vacances famille avec ses effets positifs tels que l’approche sociale et la création d’emplois, aidera au développement de ce secteur ; • tourisme d’affaires : le tourisme d’affaires est lié principalement au développement économique de Madagascar et des marchés émetteurs.

Les principales destinations concurrentes de l’île au Trésor sont Seychelles, la plate Île Maurice ou la pourtant magnifique île de la Réunion.

Toutefois, le nombre de visiteurs accueillis à Madagascar reste modeste. De plus, la crise politique de 2009 a causé une diminution progressive du nombre de touristes avec un nombre d’arrivées de 375 000 en 2008, de 255 942 en 2012 et de 196 375 en 2013.

Cette crise politique a eu des impacts négatifs sur le secteur tourisme, mais les efforts entrepris par le Gouvernement, ajoutés à des événements mondiaux comme la progression des menaces terroristes, les catastrophes naturelles, ont su faire profiter à la reprise du secteur.

Ce modeste nombre de visiteurs souligne la nécessité, notamment pour Madagascar, d’améliorer l’offre en termes d’installation et de qualité, de s’aligner sur les prix pour une qualité équivalente, d’introduire de nouveaux produits plus attrayants, d’exploiter un réseau marketing plus étendu et d’être attentifs aux perceptions des touristes d’où la nécessité d’étudier les attitudes, les itinéraires et le degré de satisfaction aux services offerts, de collecter les données de base pour analyser le potentiel touristique des produits à développer et de comprendre les touristes en provenance des pays dont le potentiel est prometteur (France et pays francophones, Allemagne et pays germaniques, Grande-Bretagne, Italie, Australie, Amérique du Nord, Afrique du Sud, Asie, Japon, Pays arabes) et enfin de cerner les problèmes du tourisme malgache par rapport aux destinations concurrentes. De nombreux efforts sont accomplis dans ce sens actuellement.

L’offre touristique à Madagascar Le tourisme à Madagascar est une industrie en plein essor, mais dont les bases restent fragiles : le principal capital touristique de l’île est représenté par les - 100 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

ressources naturelles (méga biodiversité où 95 % des espèces animales et végétales sont endémiques, paysages, plages…).

Le tourisme classique, notamment balnéaire, constitue le gros du potentiel touristique malgache. La grande Île possède à son actif un littoral de 5 000 km. La côte ouest est un cadre favorable, avec sa mer relativement calme. L’île de Nosy Be (Nord-Ouest), Morondava (Ouest) et Ifaty (Sud-Ouest), sont autant de sites balnéaires réputés. Les activités sont centrées autour de la plongée marine, des sports nautiques.

Sur la côte est, le tourisme balnéaire rejoint celui dit de découverte. À Tolagnaro (Fort-Dauphin, à l’extrême sud-est), une visite des aires protégées à faune et flore endémique s’impose. Le long de la côte est, le canal de Pangalanes et les formations lacustres (au niveau de Brickaville) dominent l’attraction naturelle.

Ambila Lemaintso est un village touristique à double façade, maritime et fluviale.

Toamasina et Foulpointe constituent un havre de loisirs et de conforts pour des touristes exigeants. L’Île corallienne de Sainte-Marie avec ses baleines à bosse (saisonnières), son cimetière des pirates et ses sites écologiques se singularise par son insularité.

Tout au Nord de Madagascar, la ville d’Antsiranana (Diégo-Suarez) est à la fois un point de ralliement des amateurs d’exotisme et une base navale très animée.

Les principales destinations très prisées par les touristes sont : • Andasibe (Perinet) : réserve de faune et de flore très riche sur la RN2 entre la Capitale et Toamasina, accessible également par voie ferroviaire : lémuriens, camélidés, reptiles, orchidées et autres plantes rares peuvent facilement y être vus ; • Ranomafana : (parc national) belle réserve de faune et de flore. Une dizaine d’espèces de poissons d’eau douce, crevettes et écrevisses y vivent, à 445 km d’Antananarivo vers le Sud Est. Cette localité se distingue par sa piscine thermale qui a certaines vertus thérapeutiques considérables. Possibilité de sorties de nuit pour observer les espèces nocturnes. Un lieu de campement (camp site) est prévu pour les amateurs des nuits à la belle étoile ; • massif d’Isalo : deuxième parc national après Ranomafana. Nichée dans les entrailles du relief ruiniforme de l’Isalo, la piscine naturelle donne de la fraîcheur au voyageur lors d’un long trajet sur la RN7.

Les hautes terres centrales Pour la capitale Antananarivo, se référer au volet historique du présent site…

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La vocation de terre d’accueil de la Capitale et ses environs favorise le tourisme d’affaires. Les circuits de proximité vers les anciens palais royaux d’Ambohimanga, d’Ilafy, d’Antsahadinta, d’Ambohidratrimo, d’Antongona,… offrent de possibilités de visite à la journée. D’autre part, les lacs de Mantasoa et de l’Itasy, la station piscicole d’Ambatofotsy, la station thermale d’Antsirabé, le « Ranch » et les forêts tempérées d’Ambatolampy (Manjakatompo) ainsi que le parc national de Mantadia, Analamazaotra (Andasibe) constituent les lieux de villégiature par excellence.

La côte des Îles vierges Elle va de Vohémar (nord-est) au cap d’Ambre (extrême nord) jusqu’à Soalala (nord-ouest) en passant par Nosy Be et Mahajanga. La majorité des îles sont peu fréquentées : Nosy Tanikely — aquarium marin ; Nosy Komba — une réserve de lémuriens ; Nosy Iranja - île corallienne et granitique, refuge de tortues de mer ; l’archipel de Nosy Mitsio est doté de fonds marins exceptionnels.

Tous ces éléments permettent le développement d’un tourisme balnéaire avec des conditions climatiques favorables.

Nosy Be, île aux parfums, île volcanique couverte de nombreuses montagnes et de lacs naturels. On y cultive de l’ylang-ylang, de la canne à sucre, du café, de la vanille, du poivre… La mer y est plus ou moins calme, permettant la pratique de sports nautiques telle la planche à voile.

La côte du Capricorne Tsingy de Bemaraha à 70 km dans l’arrière-pays dans la région de Morondava.

Il s’agit d’une barrière corallienne qui s’étend sur 200 km2 le long de la côte centre-ouest, avec une faune et une flore très originale. C’est un site classé par l’UNESCO. La côte des Palissandres À l’est, de Vatomandry à Antalaha (capitale mondiale de la vanille), forêt luxuriante, primaire avec des bois précieux comme le palissandre, l’ébène… L’île Sainte-Marie (Nosy Boraha) est le plus grand pôle touristique de l’est.

La côte de la vanille De Mananara à Vohémar.

Caractérisée par des riches plantations de vanilles (cette variété parfumée d’orchidées), elle offre des potentiels touristiques considérables du fait de sa végétation luxuriante et de ses plages protégées.

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II. FORCES, FAIBLESSES, OPPORTUNITÉS

ET MENACES DU TOURISME MALGACHE

À Madagascar (Île au Trésor), les opportunités offertes par le secteur du tourisme sont loin d’être complètement exploitées ; un examen des forces, faiblesses, atouts et menaces du secteur est nécessaire à la compréhension des stratégies conduites par les autorités responsables et à la mise en valeur des possibilités économiques que recèle le tourisme.

Forces et faiblesses de l’industrie touristique Les points forts dont dispose le secteur tourisme à Madagascar pour améliorer sa qualité et promouvoir sa diversification comprennent des ressources naturelles et construites très variées : climat, plages, paysages, une faune et une flore endémiques, diversité d’activités et de sites, extraordinaire capital naturel. Le tourisme malgache peut offrir des produits à contenu émotionnel et culturel fort, dans le cadre de forfaits adaptés aux différents profits des touristes. L’image de Madagascar (île au Trésor) peut s’améliorer rapidement par une politique de communication plus efficace sur le marché émetteur.

Les points faibles à Madagascar concernent : la structure globale du secteur pourvu de moyens d’action réduits pour les opérateurs, le coût d’accès aux lignes aériennes internationales qui sont élevées à côté de vols internes coûteux et non fiables avec de fréquentes annulations ou reports, le manque d’entretien des routes, l’incapacité du secteur à accueillir et à transporter des groupes de touristes, une capacité d’accueil limitée et inégalement répartie sur le territoire, la méconnaissance de la destination sur les marchés internationaux, la rareté des nuitées dans la capitale et le défaut de mise en valeur des ressources naturelles et culturelles dans certaines régions. L’autre grande faiblesse concerne la qualité des produits offerts par certaines régions. À côté de la médiocrité des services essentiels offerts par certains hôtels et restaurants, l’industrie hôtelière sombre dans le cercle vicieux de l’économie sur les frais de fonctionnement et la qualité des services pour maintenir les tarifs bas, imposés par le système des forfaits des voyages organisés. Le niveau du service, ainsi que les standards d’hygiène sont très bas dans plusieurs établissements. Par conséquent, l’entretien est déficient et le service décevant, ce qui crée l’insatisfaction des clients et un faible taux de retour. Tant que le manque de synergie avec les autres secteurs liés au tourisme (transport, sécurité, santé, eau, énergie et télécommunication) ne sera pas amélioré, le problème persistera.

Enfin, la concurrence ne semble pas être surveillée. La faille réside principalement liée aux objectifs marketings, à la diversification des groupes cibles, au - 103 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

marketing de toutes les régions, aux offres touristiques et produits, aux stratégies de commercialisation, aux campagnes de sensibilisation et de communication de pays tels que la France, l’Allemagne, la Suisse, l’Italie, l’Asie (Japon), les pays arabes, l’Australie, l’Amérique du Nord, les marchés régionaux.

Opportunités et menaces Les offres touristiques peuvent être en adéquation avec l’attente des clients potentiels et permettent au passage de développer les parts de marché autour des clients européens et asiatiques.

De plus, le pays dispose de capitaux touristiques correspondant à toutes catégories de tourisme international, par conséquent il peut attirer une demande plus diversifiée avec la population jeune, intelligente, sans oublier une forte compétitivité des salaires.

En termes d’opportunités, Madagascar peut s’appuyer sur le marketing international pour augmenter ses réseaux, coordonner régionalement les structures organisationnelles et renforcer le rôle du gouvernement en tant que lien à cette coordination, favoriser le développement soutenable, accroître et accélérer la coopération entre le secteur public et le privé, saisir l’opportunité d’existence de bailleurs de fonds potentiels pour le renforcement de capacité de tous les acteurs.

Madagascar dispose de nombreux atouts pour valoriser son tourisme : réserves importantes en matière de tourisme balnéaire, événements culturels, tourisme lié aux traditions, richesses naturelles, parcs nationaux.

La menace la plus importante vient du fait que les différents acteurs du secteur ne sont pas tous mobilisés sur la nécessité voire l’urgence de l’amélioration de la sécurité et de la stabilité politique. De nouveaux partenariats sont à développer entre les secteurs publics et privés, afin de mettre à niveau les différents sites. Étant une destination connue qui a pu maintenir sa place sur le marché au cours des dernières années en tirant profit des revers rencontrés par les îles concurrentes, en tant que destination de masse, il est possible que Madagascar ne réussisse pas à renouveler son image sans résoudre le problème de qualité et sécurité.

Enfin, des menaces pèsent sur le secteur du tourisme. La première a trait à l’accroissement de la concurrence entre les îles voisines en matière d’attraction des visiteurs, la seconde concerne le développement du tourisme sexuel, et la dernière la difficulté du pays à mobiliser des capitaux et opérateurs extérieurs en face d’un contexte très concurrentiel.

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III. LES ENJEUX DU DÉVELOPPEMENT DE L’INDUSTRIE TOURISTIQUE

L’industrie du tourisme est parmi les secteurs d’activité pourvoyeurs de devise à Madagascar. Le plan de développement accorde une place essentielle à l’industrie touristique et à ses impacts sur la finance et le marché de l’emploi.

Le développement du tourisme constitue un levier de développement économique formidable dont il convient de saisir l’opportunité. Les objectifs visés à Madagascar s’articulent autour des axes suivants : le renforcement de la capacité concurrentielle via une amélioration de la qualité et une campagne de commercialisation efficace, de pair avec d’autres actions qui sont nécessaires et devraient constituer une priorité axée notamment vers le domaine social. Concernant la création d’emploi, il ne faudra sans doute rien attendre de l’État. En effet, le secteur privé est le seul qui peut apporter du dynamisme à l’économie et par conséquent ce sont les investissements privés qui sont les véritables créateurs d’emplois. Mais cela ne peut se faire sans l’État dont le rôle est de mettre en place les conditions nécessaires et optimales afin de donner une impulsion aux forces créatrices d’emploi.

Les autorités malgaches ciblent également la mise à niveau des entreprises du secteur, la promotion des ressources humaines, le contrôle des installations sanitaires et la consolidation du contrôle du secteur privé dans le domaine du tourisme.

Le tourisme durable Les objectifs d’amélioration de la qualité des services et de la diversification des produits touristiques sont renforcés par les objectifs qui visent l’insertion spatiale du secteur dans son environnement. L’ambition des Malgaches est de garantir un tourisme durable. Il s’agit d’identifier des orientations et des méthodes de croissance limitant les effets négatifs du développement du tourisme sur l’environnement social, culturel et naturel du pays. L’activité du tourisme figure parmi celles dont le bénéfice est perçu directement et immédiatement auprès de celui qui l’exerce. En tenant compte de ces réalités, des multiples réseaux d’activités liés à ce secteur, de l’impact sur la finance et le marché de l’emploi, le développement du tourisme constitue un levier de développement économique formidable.

L’inventaire des sites et attractions touristiques, des traditions et événements culturels dans les 22 régions converge vers la définition des circuits et des zones dédiées aux prestations touristiques, l’édition d’un guide touristique national sur le modèle des anciens guides Michelin, la définition des zones prioritaires de développement touristique selon des critères établis et la définition des plans d’aménagement touristiques correspondants. Le montage juridico-financier a - 105 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

fait intervenir des partenaires multiples tels les organismes internationaux, les pouvoirs publics malgaches et investisseurs étrangers, ce qui conduit vers une mise en place de mécanisme de financement à l’intention de micro, petites et moyennes entreprises à vocation touristique et artisanale en partenariat avec les institutions financières.

D’autre part, l’impact de la crise sur l’avenir du tourisme à Madagascar est d’ores et déjà perceptible. D’abord, les annulations des réservations suivies le plus souvent de changements de destination, se confirment à mesure que l’instabilité est perceptible.

Nous avons décrit à quel point l’activité touristique pèse dans l’économie de l’île au Trésor si bien que les premières conséquences sont déjà visibles, telles, l’augmentation du chômage et la baisse des rentrées en devises pour l’État. Les répercussions négatives sur les autres secteurs d’activités s’ensuivront dont il est encore difficile de mesurer la réalité de l’ampleur. Mais l’effort a été fait et beaucoup d’autres actions nécessaires devraient être une priorité, notamment dans le domaine social, sur le développement, la valorisation et la protection du patrimoine culturel comme « le palais de la Reine »…

La commercialisation de l’île au Trésor Le développement et le renouvellement du tourisme malgache nécessitent de nouvelles politiques de communication, de promotion et de commercialisation de leurs produits. L’État malgache cherche des méthodes de communication innovantes pour transformer l’image du pays et accroître son attractivité. La politique générale de promotion pourrait se concentrer sur différents types de tourisme : tourismes durables, tourisme à intérêt spécial, tourisme soleil et plage, tourisme national (population malgache), tourisme d’affaires, inventaire des sites et attractions touristiques, des traditions et événements culturels dans les 22 régions pour la définition de circuits et des zones dédiées aux prestations touristiques et les prestations de services divers toutefois de bonne qualité. Les centres d’information ne disposent pas toujours de toute l’information attendue.

De nouvelles méthodes pour communiquer selon les pays émetteurs de touristes, les produits ciblés, équilibre saisonnier, sensibilisation accrue pour la protection des ressources, l’âge, le sexe, sont à adopter. Une publicité cohérente pour l’île au Trésor, création d’une image positive continue et répétée est nécessaire sur une sphère plus large incluant les pays non francophones comme Japon et Royaume-Uni, Italie, Chine, Corée du Sud, Brésil, États-Unis. Un travail important reste à accomplir pour développer l’information touristique notamment sur Internet (par pays avec des stratégies marketing distinctes, par type de tourisme, localisation des sites, calendrier des différentes manifestations culturelles…). La moyenne des dépenses des visiteurs et non leur nombre, pourrait servir de critère - 106 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

pour l’allocation du budget de promotion à chaque marché. Le développement de bases de données permettrait de suivre l’évolution de différents marchés et d’améliorer l’efficacité des actions de promotion, de s’intéresser aux marchés lointains et de comprendre les raisons profondes de la si forte saisonnalité des activités touristiques.

Une meilleure analyse économique du secteur et des données sur les profils socio-économiques des touristes, leurs préférences, leur degré de satisfaction est nécessaire.

Le développement et mise en place d’un système d’information et d’une base de données fiable s’impose en vue de fournir des statistiques et données économiques. La conception de points de vente de produits artisanaux à mettre en place le long des circuits touristiques, en partenariat avec les communes rurales serait également à envisager.

Une formation professionnelle peu ou pas adaptée. Les formations dispensées dans les écoles de tourisme et hôtellerie ne répondent pas suffisamment aux besoins des professionnels, ni en qualité, ni en quantité. La capacité de l’Institut National du Tourisme et de l’Hôtellerie (INTH), la seule école rattachée au Ministère du Tourisme, doit être améliorée en liaison avec des intervenants de l’extérieur.

Les investissements Un ensemble de réformes est nécessaire pour favoriser l’expansion et la rentabilité du secteur tourisme à Madagascar. Quatre axes sont privilégiés : le Ministère de tutelle (Min. Tourisme), Office National du Tourisme Malgache (ONTM), la Coopération Internationale (Banque Mondiale) et le partenariat public-privé. En effet, l’augmentation de la capacité hôtelière est envisageable si elle concerne un réaménagement et diversification de l’offre touristique par le biais de la valorisation des sites touristiques clés et la promotion des destinations régionales pourrait s’appuyer sur un meilleur accès aux financements étrangers et au savoir-faire en termes de projets. L’objectif est d’obtenir un plus grand nombre d’investisseurs malgaches travaillant avec des partenaires financiers, des concepteurs, des sociétés de gestion hôtelière de réputation mondiale. La mise à niveau qualitative, essentielle à l’autonomisation du secteur, profiterait ainsi d’une implication plus importante d’experts internationaux. Enfin, une ouverture de la part des aménageurs et des hôteliers malgaches aux normes, aux innovations en matière de conception et aux mécanismes de financement utilisés à l’étranger est à encourager. À Madagascar, les incitations aux investissements destinés à la fois aux Malgaches et aux étrangers et les réserves foncières touristiques (RTF) ont été - 107 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

créées pour faciliter et accélérer l’accès des investisseurs aux biens fonciers sur lesquels leurs droits sont garantis par l’État. La structure des incitations à l’investissement favorise la construction des hôtels. Pour attirer les investisseurs étrangers, la mise en place d’une procédure considérée par ces derniers comme étant suffisamment transparente pour garantir les intérêts est nécessaire. La qualité des investissements étant la priorité, les incitations préférentielles pour les promoteurs nationaux ne semblent pas nécessaires. Le traitement préférentiel peut être alloué aux projets de plus petite taille dans la restauration et amélioration de la qualité des sites touristiques régionales grâce au projet Pôle Intégré de Croissance (PIC) du Gouvernement financé par la Banque Mondiale/IDA et lancé depuis 2005 PIC I à ce jour PIC II (Corridor). Le développement de partenariats dans ce secteur permettrait d’enrichir les pratiques malgaches, tout en ciblant l’exploitation de nouveaux segments de marché porteur.

Développement de partenariats public-privé Le Gouvernement considère le Tourisme parmi les filières porteuses et pourvoyeuses de devises. Pour atteindre les différents objectifs fixés au secteur, la coopération d’une série d’acteurs publics et privés est nécessaire. À Madagascar, pour renforcer la coopération actuelle et future entre les secteurs publics et privés, l’Office National du Tourisme de Madagascar (ONTM) ainsi que les Offices Régionaux du Tourisme (ORT) ont été créés afin de développer la meilleure stratégie de promotion de la destination de l’île au Trésor.

L’Office National du Tourisme est un organisme chargé de représenter le secteur privé auprès des administrations publiques et regroupe en son sein l’ensemble des métiers et des opérateurs du tourisme.

Les Offices Régionaux de Tourisme sont pour leur part affiliés à l’Office National. Les découpages peuvent coïncider avec les régions administratives, mais ce n’est point une règle : certains hauts lieux du tourisme comme Nosy Be ou Sainte-Marie ont leur propre office, d’autres peuvent se créer suivant les mêmes critères de promotion.

Le projet Pôle Intégré de Croissance (PIC I) du Gouvernement financé par la Banque Mondiale depuis 2005 pour une durée de 5 ans, identifie trois zones de développement prioritaires dont deux consacrées au tourisme : Nosy Be et FortDauphin. Elles bénéficieront d’investissements en matière d’infrastructures.

Ces deux sites font actuellement l’objet de plans d’aménagement et de développement touristique concerté. Le projet a obtenu un renouvellement PIC II (Corridor). Le PIC II vise l’augmentation des investissements touristiques, du nombre de touristes ainsi que la croissance du nombre d’emplois créés dans le secteur tourisme dans les régions Atsimo Andrefana et DIANA. - 108 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

La région Atsimo Andrefana inclut la ville de Tuléar et ses alentours (Parcs nationaux Lombitse-Vohibasia et Tsimanampetsotse). La région DIANA concerne la ville de Diégo et ses alentours (Ankarana, Nosy Hara, Montagne d’Ambre), • le Ministère du Tourisme — le ministère de l’Environnement ; • GOTO Madagascar ; • TOP (Association des tour-opérateurs professionnels) réceptifs de Madagascar ; • l’Economic Development Board of Madagascar (EDBM); • FHORM (Fédération des Hôteliers et Restauration de Madagascar) : avec les richesses naturelles que possède Madagascar, le tourisme constitue un secteur incontournable pour le développement économique. Pour une contribution parfaite, les hôteliers et les restaurateurs se sont groupés dans le FHORM (Fédération des Hôteliers et Restaurateurs de Madagascar).

La qualité étant la cible du développement du secteur, l’amélioration des ressources humaines en demeure la clé.

Pour que tout soit profitable, il est clair pour toutes les parties prenantes qu’il faut un partenariat plus efficace entre les secteurs publics et surtout la coopération internationale.

CONCLUSION La crise politique de 2009 a causé une diminution progressive du nombre de touristes. Le marché malgache a connu un manque à gagner important à un moment crucial. Madagascar possède pourtant une collection impressionnante de biodiversité, de beauté naturelle et de ressources culturelles propices au tourisme. Le Gouvernement devrait en conséquence persévérer dans l’amélioration de la qualité des offres touristiques de toutes les Régions en vue de rejoindre ses voisins d’Afrique et de La Réunion dans l’attraction des touristes d’Allemagne, d’Italie, du Japon et du Royaume-Uni, voire de pénétrer les marchés de Chine, Corée du Sud, Brésil et États-Unis tout en suivant de près les évolutions de la demande mondiale. Une des stratégies pour y parvenir serait la capitalisation des revenus tirés des destinations présentant déjà une certaine notoriété aussi bien nationale qu’internationale. Bien que la règle de comptabilité publique malgache interdise l’affectation directe des recettes publiques à des dépenses précises, l’introduction d’une proportion des recettes touristiques enregistrées dans ces destinations dans le budget de l’année à venir, destiné à promouvoir les autres destinations à fortes potentialités via des politiques bien pertinentes, - 109 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

permettrait d’équilibrer à long terme les potentiels touristiques de toutes les zones avec des cibles bien déterminées. Du point de vue sécurité, l’implication et la répartition optimale de toutes les forces de sécurité (Police nationale, Gendarmerie voire Forces armées) permettrait dans un premier temps d’instaurer un climat de sureté aussi bien pour les nationaux que les touristes, ce qui ouvre la voie à toutes perspectives de développement du secteur au même titre que les autres secteurs de production. En matière de visibilité de l’île, mises à part les différentes formes de communication déjà optées pour la promotion du tourisme à Madagascar sur le plan international, l’implication des nombreuses représentations diplomatiques qui devraient constituer un atout pour l’économie ferait profiter la destination touristique malgache surtout dans les pays ayant des traits touristiques semblables à Madagascar, ceci faisant figure d’alternative aux yeux des touristes de ces pays. Outre cela, le problème de coûts de la destination demeure un grand défi à relever aussi bien pour les touristes (cherté du frais de vol) que pour les hôteliers (cherté du coût de l’énergie). À cet effet, un équilibre entre recours aux compagnies de transport aérien étrangères et celle nationale (qu’il convient, malgré son coût d’exploitation exorbitant, de ne pas laisser couler) serait à trouver ; l’objectif étant d’appuyer progressivement la compagnie nationale pour pouvoir prendre le relai des compagnies étrangères et améliorer ainsi la visibilité de l’île. Du côté coût de l’énergie, la vulgarisation de l’énergie renouvelable capable de fournir une puissance assez élevée pour satisfaire les besoins d’hôtels luxueux dans certaines régions s’avère pouvoir contenir ce coût et soutenir le réinvestissement des propriétaires d’hôtels. Les diverses incitations des investisseurs étrangers par davantage de simplification des procédures d’installation, une réactivité des incitations fiscales face aux réalités des acteurs du tourisme, entre autres, sont nécessaires pour garantir un décollage rapide du tourisme. Par ailleurs, la qualité des offres touristiques envisagée à Madagascar nécessite une demande soutenue et l’entrée de nouveaux acteurs, ainsi que le développement de partenariats plus efficaces entre les secteurs publics et privés.

Le renouvellement en profondeur de l’image de la destination île au Trésor (Madagascar) peut favoriser la croissance économique.

L’image devient un facteur crucial dans le choix d’une destination.

Mais beaucoup reste à faire, comme des campagnes de promotion susceptibles de rétablir la confiance auprès des consommateurs et des milieux d’affaires et la certification des produits est nécessaire.

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BIBLIOGRAPHIE CAZES, G. (1992). Fondements pour une géographie du tourisme et loisirs, Paris, Bréal.

RAT, & T., PUCZKO, (1998). “Rural Tourism and sustainable development”, paper presented in the rural tourism, Management: sustainable options, International Conference, SAC Auchincruive, Scotland and September.

Note contextuelle sur le « Tourisme et Développement Rural » à Madagascar (2005).

Plan directeur du tourisme Madagascar (2010).

Terme de référence Projet PIC (2015).

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LES CAHIERS INTERNATIONAUX DU TOURISME CIRVATH INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TOURISM

STUDIES IN ENGLISH

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TOWARD THE USE OF RESORT MINI-CLUBS AS EXPERIENTIAL TOOLS. SPECULATIVE IMPACTS ON RESORTS, DESTINATIONS AND HOST COMMUNITIES

Dr Hugues SÉRAPHIN*

PURPOSE In this research paper, it is going to be argued that resort mini-clubs if managed in an innovative way, in other words, as experiential tools, they can contribute to the competitiveness of resorts and destinations by offering memorable, meaningful and transformative experiences to children, and positively impact on the host community. Broadly speaking, the study explores the topic of service scape in a tourism and hospitality context.

DESIGN/METHODOLOGY/APPROACH This research paper is going to be based on case studies in order to identify current practices in resort mini-clubs. Then, the paper is going to recommend new management strategies where mini-clubs would be used as experiential tools. * Senior Lecturer Event and Tourism Management Studies - The University of Winchester Business School (UK) - Hugues.Séraphin@winchester.ac.uk

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FINDINGS This paper which is based on qualitative data is likely to reveal that at the moment resort mini-clubs are not managed in such a way that they can represent a competitive advantage for resorts and destinations (including local communities), due to the fact they are used as mere entertainment tools. By having activities that can connect locals and visitors like cooking lesson delivered by local chefs, this paper is going to place resort mini-clubs within the tourism industry ecosystem as experiential tools for the benefits of customers (children and families); resorts; local communities (and destinations overall).

ORIGINALITY/VALUE The importance of children for the tourism industry could be summarised by this quote: ‘children are the tourists of the future’ (Cullingford, 1995: 126).

Despite the importance of children, the industry is still not directly targeting this market (Lugosi et al, 2016). This issue was already identified some 20 years ago

by Cullingford (1995), and after that by Gaines, Hubbard, White and O’Neill (2004), 15 years ago. In the same line of thought, there is absolutely no research on resort mini-clubs. This research paper is going to address the identified gaps.

Keywords: Children; Resort Mini-clubs; Experience; Host community; Competitive advantage.

1. INTRODUCTION A variety of research approaches have been used to determine the future of organisations and destinations. Recently, Séraphin (2018) used the history of Haiti as a country and a destination to determine its future. Understanding the history of an organisation is ‘crucial for the present and for the envisaged future’ (Pozzi, 2017: 1310). This thought is also shared by Ford and Peeper (2007) who argued that it is important to understand the history of a business and the people who led it to understand its present and future. Studying the history of an organisation is now considered as a genre (Pozzi, 2017) that Ladkin (1999) labelled as ‘life and work history analysis’. Other approaches to determine the future, include the five driving forces (political capital; visionary state; passion, identity and culture; affluence and exclusivity; fluid experience) developed by Yeoman and McMahon-Beatte (2016). This strategy has also been used in mega sport events.

Indeed, Hartman and Zandberg (2015) identified legacy; level of investments; community involvement; impact on culture, etc. as potential driving forces.

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Other driving forces are social media as a rating trend/practice adopted by travellers and travel agents; etc. (Hensens, 2015).

This research paper is to explore the view that educating children while on holidays can contribute to their perception of a destination and therefore be a powerful driving force that could influence the future of resorts, destinations if managed in an ambidextrous management way, and impact positively on local communities. Influencing the future is to be understood from the angle that resort mini-clubs can offer competitive sustainable strategy that will ensure the long term sustainable development of resort and destinations. This view is fed first, with the importance of children for the tourism industry summarised by the quote: ‘children are the tourists of the future’ (Cullingford, 1995: 126). Second, by the fact that resort mini clubs offer entertainment programmes for children; contribute to their personal development and holiday experience; and generate pleasant memories/souvenirs (Ozel, 2015; Radic, 2017). Third, because education of tourists (a subtle marketing strategy), plays an important and effective role in the perception of the destination (Séraphin, Butcher & Korstanje, 2016).

And finally because organic agents (acquired through personal experience are the most trusted source of information) contribute to the image of a destination (Gartner, 1993).

This research paper is of importance for many reasons. First, because it is filling a gap in literature as ‘the role of children has been under-researched and undervalued’ (Thornton, Shaw and Williams, 1997: 287), despite the fact the industry and academics recognise the value and impact of children on the purchase decision of families (Cullingford, 1995; Lugosi, Robinson, Golubovskaya & Foley, 2016; Nickerson & Jurowski, 2001; Poria & Timothy, 2014) and also despite the fact they have distinct needs and interests that need to be taken onto account (Dowse, Powell & Weed, 2018; Khoo-Latimore, Prayag & Cheah, 2015; Lasley & Harryman, 1997; Schanzel & Yeoman, 2015). As for research specific to Mini Club, they are quasi non-existent, apart from the research carried out by Gaines, Hubbard, Witte and O’Neill (2004). The second reason why the paper is of importance is because the concept of ambidextrous management is going to be use. At the moment, this management approach is under used in tourism research and under used in the industry (Séraphin, Smith & Stokes 2018). Ambidextrous management is about balancing exploitation of existing resources and competencies with a focus on the present, and exploring new opportunities, with a focus on the future (Filippini, Guttel & Nosella, 2012; Mihalache & Mihalache, 2016).

The third and final reason is based on the fact that the strategy suggested here can address some of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) originated during the Rio+20 Summit in 2012 as a new global framework to re-direct humanity towards a sustainable pathway (Gaia Education [Online]).

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In this vein, the research questions are as follow: (a) How to turn resort mini-clubs into experiential activities? (b) What is the potential of resort mini-clubs to educate children and parents and turn them into future clients? (c) What could be the potential impacts of resort mini-clubs at micro and macro level?

From a methodological point of view, this paper is going to be based on secondary research and more specifically on literature.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Children in the tourism industry Children are important customers for the hospitality, event and cruise sectors (Dowse, Powell & Weed, 2018; Lugosi, Robinson, Golubovskaya & Foley, 2016; Radic, 2017) because similarly to their parents they are consumers and active decision-makers. They are important also because meeting their needs can increase loyalty and positive word-of-mouth (Lugosi et al, 2016). Children are sometimes considered even more important than the parents because their satisfaction impact of the satisfaction of their parents and/or carers (Cullingford, 1995; Lugosi et al, 2016; Thornton, Shaw & Williams, 1997). The importance of children for the tourism industry could be summarised by this quote: ‘children are the tourists of the future’ (Cullingford, 1995: 126).

As children are very important for the tourism industry as a whole, so should be the way they are having fun (play, activities, etc.). For Poris (2005), fun is an important component in the life of children, it becomes therefore important for practitioners aiming to meet the needs of this target to understand what constitutes fun for children. In other words, it is important for the hospitality and tourism sector to provide fun to children if they want to satisfy them and their family. There is a relationship between customer satisfaction and family friendly service (Johanson, 2008 cited in Kazembe, Zimbabwe, Mwando, Nyarota & Muyambo, 2015). Despite the importance of children, the industry is still not directly targeting this market (Lugosi et al, 2016). This issue was already identified some 20 years ago by Cullingford (1995), and after that by Gaines, Hubbard, White and O’Neill (2004), 15 years ago.

2.2 Resort mini-clubs Resort mini-clubs could be defined as a child care service provided to family holidaying and staying in resorts. The resort mini-clubs offer children a wide - 118 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

range of activities according to their age so that they can meet their interests.

Offering mini-clubs are a service is part of the strategy of resorts to meet the needs of their customers. Resort mini-club is ‘a natural service extension that contributes to the ultimate success of the hotel or resort property’ (Makens, 1992 cited in Gaines, 2004: 86). play or playing is an integral part of the life of children (Poris, 2004). It is also a ‘dynamic and multifaceted phenomenon’ (Holst, 2017: 85). Play could be defined as ‘the whimsical pastime of children or as children work’ (Lewis, 2017: 10). With ‘social pretend play’ defined as: ‘play in which children begin to communicate their transformations and collectively transform objects, people and situations in order to create non-literal ‘as if’ situations’ (Whitebread & O’Sullivan, 2012: 198), children are developing their meta communication, in other words, their ability to adapt their behaviour to the frame (within or outside the play frame) in which they are. O’Sullivan (2012), also explained that ‘social pretend play’ also contributes to children’s knowledge about and understanding of their own mental processing (metacognition) and monitoring and control of emotion, social and motivation aspect (self-regulation). Play also contributes to the literacy development of children (Lewis, 2017). Equally important, the games children are playing are telling to some extent the narrative of who they are as individual, as when playing they are performing particular social positions; they are showing their ability to imagine, to understand rules and also developing some expertise (Willett, 2015). It is also important to mention the fact that play begins with children as young as 3-4 and peaks around 7-11 years of age and then declines dramatically by 13-14 years of age (Smith, 2010 cited in Lewis, 2017: 14). Because of the complexity of play and the role it plays in children development and learning, it can’t be ignored or considered lightly (Lewis, 2017). It is important for the business world to control children, because controlling them means selling well.

2.3 Image formation and education of tourists According to Gartner (2000), the destination image can be defined as ‘the attitude, perception, beliefs and ideas one hold about a particular geographic area formed by the cognitive image of a particular destination’ (Gartner, 2000: 295).

As for Cooper and Hall (2008: 223), they explained that ‘the destination image is a simplified version of reality and it affects both an individual’s perception of a destination and their choice of destination’. The image of the destination hold by visitors are based upon information acquired by: (1) induced agent or advertisement (2) organic agent or personal experience (3) and autonomous agent or media. In order to improve their image, destinations with negative images have for instance changed their Destination Marketing Organisation (DMO) logo, but also developed online education strategies like Visual Online Learning Materials (Séraphin, Butcher & Korstanje, 2016). Other strategies adopted by destinations - 119 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

include: the use of IT; dark tourism; involvement with the locals; visit to local attractions. All these strategies have one common points, namely the education of visitors (Séraphin et al, 2016). Indeed, the education of visitors contribute to challenging existing clichés and false perceptions and also promotes positive view and better knowledge of the true nature of a destination (Séraphin et al, 2016). Equally important, Séraphin et al (2016) argued that an effective strategy to improve the image of a destination that tourists hold of a destination, it is central that marketers engage visitors into an intellectual cooperation in order to turn them into active learners which in turn will lead to a cognitive, rational and affective approach of the destination.

The information in this section is not based on children but on adults. It could be argued that the principle would be the same whatever age tourists are. Children are like adults: active-decision makers and active participants or negotiator when it comes to the choice of holidays (Lugosi et al, 2016; Thornton, Shaw & Williams, 1997). Equally important, children are trying to ‘emulate the consumer habits of those older than them’ (Schanzel & Yeoman, 2015: 143).

2.4 The tourism industry and the future It is important for the tourism industry to be able to predict the future as it provides new avenues for DMOs (Thimm & Seepold, 2016). Family tourism as an emerging market is going to greatly influence the future of the tourism industry (Schanzel & Yeoman, 2015: 143). Children are going to play a very important role in this future as the ‘future of family tourism then lies in capturing the diverse needs of children and adults’ (Schanzel & Yeoman, 2015: 145), but also because one of the key priorities of families is to ensure that children have fun in a safe environment (Schanzel & Yeoman, 2015) and also because children play a central role in the choice of holidays of families (Dowse et al, 2018; Lugosi et al, 2016; Radic, 2016). New technologies are also going to play an important role in the future of the industry by giving consumers an opportunity to co-create the industry the way they want it (Hensens, 2015). Co-creation is important for the future and sustainability of the industry. The collaboration of a range of stakeholders is important for the long term sustainability of the industry (Hartman & Zandberg, 2015). Experiential activities like food tourism and/or events are also factors that are going to shape the future of the industry (Yeoman & McMahon-Beatte, 2016). There is a ‘need for more effectively incorporating events into a destination’s product mix by designing experiences that leverage event meanings in synergy with unique destination features, thereby enhancing their impact on tourists’ (Ziakas & Boukas, 2013: 94). Experiential perspective or providers also include design of a product; packaging; atmosphere; music; space; contexts (Golfetto et al, 2005 cited in Platania, Platania & Santisi, 2016).

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It is important to mention the fact that organisation geared toward the future are also organisations that are keen to gain competitive advantage (Lashley, 2015).

2.5 The literature review reveal that: • children as stakeholders of the tourism industry are major influencers of the future of the tourism industry, • resorts mini-clubs could be assimilated to experiential providers to children and according to the type of activities delivered to children they can be assimilated to educational tool and subsequently influence positively the perception children and their family have of a destination, • for children and resort mini-clubs to be effective tools in terms of shaping the future of the tourism industry they must provide activities that make children active participant by using technologies and/or experiential activities, • it is important for resorts and DMOs to listen, observe and understand children to provide products and services that will meet their needs and serve the interests of the resorts, destinations (and local populations), • resort mini-clubs offers an opportunity to resorts and DMOs to learn from the children and also influence them, • resort mini-clubs could offer competitive advantage for resorts. This could be done by providing the right activities to children.

At this stage, we can already answer the second research question of this paper by saying that mini-clubs have a strong educational potential that can potentially contribute to develop a cognitive, rational and affective link between resorts, destinations and children. The first research question has been partially answered as the research paper has already revealed that experiential activities have the potential to shape the future of tourism organisations. What needs to be determined is what type of activities in mini-clubs can achieve these objectives and the potential impacts. This is what the following sections of this paper are going to determine.

3. METHODOLOGY AND RESULTS 3.1 Overview The purpose of a methodology being to study the design and procedures used in a research project (Hammond & Wellington, 2013), in this section we are going to determine the conceptual protocol that will be used to determine what activities should be part of the portfolio of activities delivered by mini-clubs. So - 121 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

doing, the paper adopted an hypothetico-deductive approach that Hammond and Wellington (2013) define as an approach that is most associated with desk-based research relying on literature review. This approach also ‘involves generating and formulating quite specific hypotheses about phenomena generally on the basis of existing practical and theoretical knowledge’ (Hammond & Wellington, 2013: 41). The hypothesis of the paper is as follow: Activities following the Dale Robinson Anderson (DRA) model can help resorts, destinations and local communities to get competitive advantages. The strategy adopted in this paper is twofold: First step is to explain the DRA model. The second step is to identify activities that are compatible with the DRA model. This model was selected because it encapsulates the key results of the literature review in section (2.5), namely the importance for a management tool or approach to educate tourists; develop a connection with the destination; and finally persuade.

3.2 DRA model The DRA (Dale, Robinson and Anderson) model is the combination of two existing and complementary frameworks. On the one hand, the Dale and Robinson (2001) framework, and on the other hand, the framework developed by Anderson (2001, cited in Walters & Mair, 2012). The introduction of this paper pointed out the sense of combining these 2. To some extent, the DRA model could be assimilated to a model derivation, that is to say a model developed “for making predictions regarding the future value or the future state of a phenomenon of interest, such as brand sales, customer repurchase or promotional response propensity” (Banasiewicz, 2013: 310). Dale and Robinson’s model (2001) entitled “Three Domains Model of Tourism Education”, argues that in order for a tourism educational programme to meet the needs of the industry and stakeholders involved (namely learners, education institutions and employers), it needs to: (a) develop interdisciplinary skills for a broad understanding of the industry; (b) provide expertise in a specific area in terms of skills and (c) explore niche markets. As for Anderson (2001, cited in Walters & Mair, 2012), the art of convincing a target audience relies on three elements: (a) an “ethos” element, based on the credibility and trustworthiness of the source of the message; (b) a “pathos” element, linked with the emotional appeal of the message and finally, (c) a “logos” element, referring to the capacity of the message to inform. “Ethos, logos, and pathos are interconnected, influence each other, and all affect the effectiveness of persuasion” (Walters & Mair, 2012: 95). The figure below (figure 1) provides a visual representation of the model.

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• Interdisciplinary skills • E xpertise in a specific area • Niche market

Anderson (2001) • Credibility and trust (ethos) • Emotion (pathos) • Informative message (logos)

• Education • Persuasion

Dale and Robinson (2001)

DRA Model

Figure 1. The Dale Robinson Anderson Model (DRA Model) - Séraphin, Ambaye, Capatina & Dosquet (2018).

The DRA model was developed to test a VOLM aimed at educating the general public about a destination with a negative image. The DRA model revealed that the VOLM was very effective at educating potential visitors to that destination because the VOLM offers a highly interactive experience (Séraphin, Ambaye, Capatina & Dosquet, 2018).

3.3 Method • Stage 1: Collecting material for analysis Identifying activities currently delivered in mini-clubs from the websites of resorts and from the extremely limited number of academic papers on the topic.

• Stage 2: Classification The existing activities will be classified according to their ability to educate and persuade (overall purpose of the DRA model) 3.4 Collecting material for analysis and classification Data including in this table (table 1) were collected from the website of a variety of resort mini-clubs, namely: Looky Club (Look Voyages); Club Med miniclub; Sandals mini-clubs; and Pierre & Vacances mini-club. The table below is a merge of activities offered by mini-clubs, in other words, when some activities are delivered by all resort mini-clubs they are only mentioned once. The criteria of the DRA methods are also listed. This paper acknowledges the limit of this approach as classification is partly biased. That said, Hammond and Wellington (2013) argues the fact that being unbiased is impossible.

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In the table below, the symbol (X) means: NO, and the symbol (/) means: YES. Activities Skills & expertise Niche market Sports / X (swimming, foot, tennis, etc.)

Treasure hunt X X Face painting / X Disco X X Talent show / X Mini Olympic games X X Learning local language / / DJ competition / X Dancing & singing workshops / X Movie making / X Story telling X X handicraft / X Cooking workshop / X Sandcastle building / X

Ethos

Pathos

Logos

X

X

X

X X X X X / X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X X X X X X X

X X X X X / X X X X X X X

Table 1. DRA analysis of activities in mini-clubs - Source: The authors.

3.5 Results The above table (column ‘niche market’) reveals that from one resort miniclub to another the activities delivered to children are pretty much the same.

Resort mini-clubs therefore do not represent a competitive advantage for the destinations. Nowadays, there is a return to service personalisation as a strategy to gain competitive advantage (Lashley, 2015). For its survival and success, the sector needs to constantly adapt to the external factors that may impact businesses within the sector (i.e. the external business environment) and to adjust its internal business environment (i.e. internal resources and capabilities) accordingly (Jolliffe, 2006). Resort mini-clubs are clearly not following this trend. In order to gain and maintain a competitive advantage, the hospitality sector has to be able to forecast the future (Richard, 2017). Yeoman (2013), identified ten trends that will influence the future of festivals and events. Because events are a sub-sector of the tourism industry and, therefore, they are closely related (Getz, 2008), it could be assumed that the same trends, or at least some of them, will impact on tourism. These global trends are: (1), the new generation will look for more and more opportunities to celebrate; (2), because of nostalgia, vintage products or services will be very popular; (3), there will be a higher demand for more sophisticated leisure activities; (4), technology and, more specifically, mobile devices will have a growing importance; (5), leisure as a ‘show’ or rite of ‘display’ instead of an actual activity; (6), there will be a focus on more authentic experiences for future customers; (7), innovation and search quality will continue - 124 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

to have a key role; (8), life expectancy is longer and will impact on the future of the industry; (9), ethical consumption; and finally, (10), an increased interest of consumers in accumulation of social capital by connecting with others and developing networks. Table 1 also reveals that activities delivered in mini-clubs are not very good in terms of educating the children about the destination and the three dimension of persuasion (ethos, pathos and logos) are quasi inexistent in the activities delivered.

3.6 The empirical review reveal that: This study reveals that resort mini-clubs are managed exploitatively.

Ambidexterity is a concept that calls for a balance between exploration and exploitation. Indeed, organisations deeply anchored onto exploration suffer the costs of experimentation (R&D) with, sometimes, limited benefits. Organisations anchored onto exploitation, on the other hand, do not move forward and remain in a ‘status-quo’ in terms of performance. Organisations who manage to find a balance between exploitation and exploration are likely to be prosperous (Nieto-Rodriguez, 2014 [Online]). The same can be said about mastering a balance between adaptability (in other words the ability of the organisation to innovate to adapt changes in the market) and alignment (daily management of operations). This approach is about balancing exploitation of existing resources and competencies with a focus on the present, and exploring new opportunities, with a focus on the future (Filippini, Guttel & Nosella, 2012; Mihalache & Mihalache, 2016). Despite the challenges of achieving ambidexterity because exploitation and exploration innovation are contradictory activities, Mihalache and Mihalache (2016:144) explain that ‘organisational ambidexterity is a key driver of sustained performance in the tourism industry, since it enables firms to make the most of their current capabilities while at the same time developing new ones to attract new customers’.

The following section is going to provide an example of activity that could be delivered in resort mini-club which also have the potential to educate and persuade (DRA) and be beneficial to the resorts, destinations and locals.

4. RECOMMENDATIONS 4.1 Overview This section is going to focus arbitrary on cooking workshop. This activity has been identified in table 1 as one of the commonly provided activities in resort mini-clubs. This activity has also been identified as an activity that can contribute to develop some skills and expertise, but not in such a way that it could be - 125 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

used as persuasive tool. This activity is at the moment used exploitatively in mini-clubs, in other words to entertain children. This paper is going to suggest a way this activity could also be used exploitatively, in other words in such a way it could constitute a competitive advantage for mini-clubs, resorts and locals.

4.2 Gastronomy as a sustainable tool to educate tourists ‘Gastronomic tourism refers to that branch of the sector where persons make trips to destinations where the local food and beverages are the main motivating factors for travel’ (Skift, 2017). Many destinations like Jamaica, Israel, Cayman Island, Australia, etc are putting local chefs and local food at the centre of their marketing campaigns (Skift, 2017). In fine, the objective is to bring visitors closer to local and help them better understand life in the country. Research show that 80% of culinary travellers participate in non-restaurant, food-related activities (visiting winery, eating with local family or taking cooking classes with local chefs) while on vacation (Skift, 2017). Indeed, Choe, Kim and Cho (2017) and Therkelsen (2016) explain that local food contributes to: visitors’ experience of regional culture; give them a sense of the place, while increasing the earnings of local food producers and tourism business alike; increase social bonds locals/tourists. This vision is also shared by Hjalager and Johansen (2013) who highlighted a ‘new rural paradigm’ in Denmark where farmers are involved in small-scale food tourism orientated entrepreneurship. More importantly, Hjalager and Johansen (2013:417) explained that this strategy is benefiting ‘the wellbeing of both tourists and food producers’.

There are more than 70 definitions of ‘sustainable development’ (Sharpley, 2000). Destinations now consider sustainability as a competitive advantage to attract visitors, hence the growth of ecotourism, the fastest-growing tourism sector globally. Indeed, consumers are ready to pay more to spend their holidays in destinations considered as sustainable. That said, much of the tourism industry so far has failed to be sustainable hence the reason why Sharpley (2000: 1) claimed that ‘sustainable development cannot be transposed onto the specific context of tourism’. In this line of thoughts, Visser (2015) explains that sustainability can be achieved through: Deep reforms; technology innovation; and stakeholders’ engagement. Based on the above, gastronomy appears as a sustainable form of tourism as it involves a variety of stakeholders that are all benefiting for the activity. Apps have also been developed by some DMOs to promote destination’s cuisine and food culture (Choe et al, 2017). Gastronomy tourism also addresses many issues that Destination Marketing Organisations (DMOs) and locals have recently voiced (table 2).

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Current issues in tourism UNESCO World Heritage status at risk Tourists are affecting the quality of life of locals and particularly killing neighbourhoods Putting at risk the sustainability of the tourism industry of the destination Tourists are not respecting the cities, history, arts and inhabitants by defacing the surroundings, dumping thrash, buying counterfeit goods, sitting anywhere and spending very little money particularly day-trippers

Gastronomy tourism Gastronomy is an integral part of a destination culture. It preserves and promotes local heritage Gastronomy develops a strong connection between locals and visitors and maintaining alive local culture A variety of stakeholders are benefiting from gastronomy tourism Local chefs are teaching visitors how to cook local products. The money spent by these tourists is going to all the stakeholders in the value chain of gastronomy tourism

Table 2. Gastronomy tourism as a sustainable form of tourism - Source: The author.

Séraphin, Butcher and Korstanje (2016) explained that it is very important to educate tourists at pre-visit stage because they very often unfairly judge some destinations. Séraphin, Butcher and Korstanje (2016) also explained that a good pre-visit stage educational tool must be able to provide: (1) potential visitors experience of the destination before the physical travel (2) a better knowledge of the destination. As a result of these, potential tourists will be turned into active learners and will develop a cognitive, rational and affective approach of the destination. As for Pilato, Séraphin, Bellia and Caescu (2017), they explained that food and food events could be used an educational tool at pre-visit stage (particularly in the case of destination with a negative image). The results of the above academic research are complementary to Gordon’s (2017) view as he claimed that gastronomy has the potential to mitigate the negative impacts of mass tourism at visitation stage.

4.3 Street food: An experiential tool The street food phenomenon is linked to cultural, territorial, and ethnic aspects as the outcome of urbanization process (Goyal and Yadav, 2014). The study of Henderson (2000) on Singapore shows that street food is now more than a fashion but a necessity for some populations. For instance, in Bangkok, 20.000 street food vendors provide city residents with an estimated 40% of their overall food intake. Local street food offers to visitors the opportunity to understand the relationship between food and territory and between producers and final consumers (Sengel et al., 2015). Globally, local street food is a dynamic, fast growing and important key driver of socio-economic growth and it is not confined to any one region. That said, street food is considered as a touristic resource and authorities encourage the diversity of offers because it brings colour and life to - 127 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

the destination landscape (Ramli et al., 2016; Muhammad, Zahari, Shariff, & Abdullah, 2016).

Throughout the literature analysis, it was found that street food tourism as a new paradigm can be a viable option while thinking the process of sustainable tourism development in emerging destinations. It was clear that the exploitation of street food as a tourism resource could align with the economic, social and environment imperatives of sustainable development principles. From a tourist’s perspective, street food represents an attraction in its own right as tourists are more interested to experience authenticity than to resort to usual fast food that are available worldwide (Urry, 2002; Izis, 2010). It implies that street food can be a motivator to sustain the tourist flow. This point is also echoed in the work of Gowreesunkar, Van der Sterren and Séraphin (2015) pointing out that tourism is not only about travel, but also about the in-land experience, and more importantly, experiencing and consuming local food at the destination. Additionally, the study of Privitera (2015) and Henderson et al (2012) shows that through street food, a link is established with the place the tourists visit.

4.4 Application to mini-clubs Resort mini-clubs could be developed around particular themes like local gastronomy or offer a range of activities like local cuisines, music, languages, craft, etc. These activities are connecting children with local communities and culture.

Second, events (e.g. talent shows) could be organised for children to show their parents what they have learnt. Events are very important as they have the capacity to develop feelings of belongingness and national identity associated with particular places. More importantly, they have the potential to develop social capital, that is to say the inclusion of an individual in a range of networks, structures or groups that allow them to develop and gain this capital (Miller, McTavish, 2013; Bladen, Kennel, Emma & Wide, 2012; Foley, McGillivray, McPherson, 2012). Resort mini-clubs have the potential to develop real encounters between locals- and visitors. By real encounter we mean an encounter that contributes to the development of social capital defined as ‘collective action, cooperation, networks, relationships, shared norms and values, social interaction and trust’ (Moscardo, Konovalov, Murphy & McGehee, 2017: 2) between local residents and visitors. This is also an opportunity for local suppliers to convey a positive image of the destinations. Additionally, local suppliers/instructors, when running the workshops with children and taking part to the events, they could wear branded uniforms/cloths and or sponsor some workshops to promote their businesses (advertainment and edutainment). The model of management of resort min-clubs advocated in this paper could be summarised by figure 2, that gives an overview of the strategy with a focus on stakeholders.

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Local suppliers & entrepreneurs Resorts & Mini-clubs Parent & children

Figure 2. Mini clubs within the tourism eco-system - Source: The author.

4.5 Resort mini-clubs and the future Resort mini-clubs as the paper suggest it should be managed could be said to be geared toward the future of the tourism industry because: • mini-clubs offer an environment where experiential activities that educate children and their families can be delivered, • ‘children are the tourists of the future’ (Cullingford, 1995: 126), • the exploratory dimension that we are suggesting to add to the current exploratory management of mini-clubs is orientated toward the future, • the experiential activities like cooking sessions that are suggested to be part of the portfolio activities offered by mini-clubs are particular effective in terms of education and persuasions and positively impacts on all stakeholders highlighted in figure 2.

Moreover, the strategy of management of mini-clubs suggested in this paper is addressing some of the future trends highlighted by Yeoman (2013). Indeed, organising workshops offering the children opportunities to learn about local culture and communities and organising events to show case what they learned, not only offer authentic activities to children and visitors but also contribute to develop social capital between locals (suppliers and sponsors) and visitors (children and parents); and finally offer opportunities to celebrate to all stakeholders. More sophisticated activities involving new technologies can also be offered. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), could be added to the list of trend provided by Yeoman (2013).

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5. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS (SDGS) 5.1 Key facts on sustainability and SDGs (Gaia education [Online]) In 1972, the United Nations Conference on the Environment in Stockholm, stated that the resources of the earth was to be safeguarded for future generations. This declaration was followed by 1987 Brundland Commission which in turn stated that the present need to ensure its needs without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs. In 1992, the UN Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, a follow up of previous conferences was at the origin Agenda 21. The 1997 Earth Summit+5 in New York accelerated the implementation of Agenda 21. The UN World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg (2002); the UN Conference on Sustainable Development Rio+20 (2012); and the UN Sustainable Development Summit, New York (2015) are in line with previous conferences and summits. It is important to mention the fact that it is the 2015 summit that launched the 17 SDGs (figure 3). Their objectives are to address complex and interlinked social and environmental challenges.

Figure 3. SDGs (2015 to 2030) - Source: Gaia education (Online).

SDGs show how healthy biosphere (SDGs 6, 13, 14, 15) functions are the basis of healthy societies (SDGs 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 15, 16) and healthy economies (SDGs 8, 9, 10, 12).

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5.2 Resort mini-clubs and SDGs The activities suggested for mini-clubs are meeting some of the SDGs (table 3): SDGs SDG 1, 2, 8 SDG 4 SDG 9 SDG 12 SDG 17

Comments Imbedded mini-clubs within the tourism eco-system Deliver activities that are related to local culture Ambidextrous management of resort mini-clubs Local products used for workshops Imbedded mini-clubs within the tourism eco-system

Table 3. SDGs and resort mini-clubs - Source: The author.

The strategy suggested for the management of resort mini-clubs could contribute to address more or less 41% of the SDGs. Overall this approach could be said to be sustainable.

6. CONCLUSION 6.1 Key findings An ambidextrous management of resort mini-clubs, should lead current miniclubs managers to develop activities that are experiential and deeply imbedded in local culture and communities. This type of activities have the potential to educate children (and their parents) about destinations and develop a close connection between both parties for the long term benefits of the resorts, destinations and visitors (parents and children).

Beyond the topic of resort mini-clubs, this research paper is addressing the question of management innovation, service scape and sustainable tourism development. Ambidextrous management of tourism, hospitality and leisure units can contribute to give competitive advantage to units in those industries.

The use of ambidextrous management is very limited at the moment in the tourism, hospitality and leisure industries (Séraphin et al, 2018). Future research objective should consist in establishing an anatomy of Ambidextrous management in tourism as a management phenomenon by establishing a dictionary of themes. This could happen by ‘positioning the research object relative to the general literature to which the article pertains by analysing it significance, novelty, scope’ (Colquitt & George, 2011 cited in Seny Kan, Adegbite, El Omari & Abdellatif, 2016).

From an academic point of view this paper fills a gap in literature. From a practical point of view, this paper provides an avenue for practitioners in different sectors (tourism, hospitality and leisure) to give a new turn and boost to their - 131 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

business. The application of the Kidzania model to mini-club could also be viewed as an innovative approach for the future development of the industry.

6.2 Kidzania Kidzania is a hybrid concept that put together on one side day care centre and entertainment for 1 to 16 years old. On the other side, it offers a new marketing media for brands. This concept has been developed in partnership with national and international brands. Among these are Coca-Cola. At KidZania, children can for instance work at Coca-Cola bottling plant and learn the process of manufacturing their own bottle of Coca-Cola (Di Pietro, Edvarsson, Reynoso, Renzi, Toni, M. & Mugion 2018; Lonsway, 2016). In KidZania London, the partners are: British Airways; Golden Tours; In a nutshell, the concept empowers, inspires and educates children through real life role-play activities in a safe and conductive environment (Tagg & Wang, 2016), where ‘kids could play to be grownups in a wide space in which they had the tools for it’ (Lopez, 2006 cited in Castorena & Prado, 2013: 1). In addition, Castorena and Prado (2013: 4) added: ‘Kids are expected to acquire real life abilities and get familiar with the work environment. They learn and practice cooperation and interaction, build creativity, independence, decision-making and community-involvement’.

The KidZania concept is a win-win situation: ‘Marketing partners win because they can get their brand, products or services closer to kids and their families; children win because they have fun and educational place to play, learn and have a good tie and parents win because they see their kids having fun and also learning important life lessons’ (Lonsway, 2016: 246).

6.3 Future research Future research could look at ways to use the Kidzania model and apply it to resort mini-clubs. This could be part of an innovative service improvement that can have positive impacts at macro and micro levels, at no cost for service providers. In the long term, this approach could contribute to shaping the future of the tourism industry and enable better competitive advantages for resorts and destinations which implement such a strategy.

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GASTRONOMIC TRADITIONS AND THE ROLE OF LOCAL MARKETS: AN INSIGHT FROM THAILAND

Dr Thanya LUNCHAPRASITH*

ABSTRACT This paper intends to elucidate the role of local markets as gastronomic attractions by focusing on Thailand’s tourism context. In addition to performing an economic function, the local market acts as a mirror that reflects its society. Food products that are available on the site are either part of the traditions that are transmitted from one generation to another or creatively developed by the locals.

In the contemporary context, local markets are representatives of the disappearing past. The emerging counter-globalization has highlighted local markets as a living museum enabling tourists to discover the way of the locals. For many tourists, food in the local markets are perceived as presenting more of a genuine culture that specially cater for tourists. The consumption of food in the market helps visitors establish a unique bond with tourists.

Thailand is recognized as a popular destination for international tourists and has a well-established reputation of food and gastronomic culture. The discovery of authentic Thai gastronomy forms an important part of tourist visitation to Thailand, in addition to natural attractions and cultural heritage. Over the last few years, the Thai government put an effort in promoting food as a tourism attraction to develop new selling points of destinations. Local culinary knowhow is not only valued for aesthetical enjoyment, but also its ability to educate visitors. * Lecturer & International Student Coordinator, Silpakorn University International Collège

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Given a myriad of available food products, the local presence and the increasing popularity of local markets as tourism attractions, local markets have high potential to be promoted as gastronomic destinations. In addition to some local markets that increasingly become tourist attractions, there are markets that are intentionally developed as tourist attractions and those so-called old-fashioned markets, markets promoting themselves from traditional surroundings, and food products. Besides popularity amongst tourists, the latter type of the market acts as leisure space for locals in search of escaping daily routines. Also, festivals are a type of temporary space market that has increasingly become more common in Thailand.

This paper is a mixture of empirical research, drawing from field research in local markets that are known for their attractions, where venue observation is conducted alongside stakeholder interviews and non-empirical research dealing with the consultation of a variety of secondary literature. It is the intention of this to make explicit the relationship of local markets and tourism in Thailand by attempting to answer the following issues: factors advocating local markets to become a gastronomic attraction, characteristics of gastronomic experiences offered in the market, interpretation of gastronomic heritage in tourism experience, and potentials and limitations of local markets as an attraction.

This research paper offers analysis of a specific type of gastronomic attraction.

This will be in addition to the existing literature of tourism studies and, in particular, gastronomic tourism that increasingly becomes a popular attraction. The result of the study also provides practical insights into the promotion of touristic gastronomic experiences. keywords: culinary tourism, gastronomic tourism, local market, heritage interpretation.

INTRODUCTION A market originally exists for economic function, as defined by Hodder (Johnson and Wanmali, 2010) as ‘an authorized public gathering of buyers and sellers of commodities meeting at an approved place at regular intervals.’ Nevertheless, as a social space, a market is equipped with socio-cultural significance. Historical evidence shows that a market exchange enables the establishment of certain branches of knowledge, including currency, measurement, and the rope and pulley system. From the societal perspective, the market enables social bonds to be established among those who visit the market on a regular basis (see Piault, 1971; McGrath et al., 1993). In many studies, periodic markets have been used as a ground to explore the way of life and the socio-economic condition in - 140 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

society at a given period of time. Through exploring the market, it is possible to discern the social pattern (see Michaud and Turner, 2002; Eff and Jensen, 2007; Denizeri, 2012), as well as the problems and tensions occurring in society (Stillerman, 2006; Clark, 2010).

A market reflects the social transition that occurs in society. In particular, globalization leads to the expansion of the boundary of the marketplace across national borders and the emergence of non-physical markets, in other words ‘cyberspace’. As pinpointed by Fligstein and Dauter (2007), the today’s use of the term ‘market’ also covers the intangible exchange networks created by traders and buyers. To an extent, the transition from tradition and modernity is reflected in the change in the form of the market to fit the contemporary use. In some places, traditional markets were demolished and then replaced by modern forms of marketplaces (Reardon and Hopkins, 2006; Donofrio, 2014).

Nevertheless, many traditional-style periodic markets can withstand the influence of modernity. In many cases, traditional-style markets satiate nostalgic needs of people (Mele, Ng and Chim, 2015). To an extent, traditional-style markets represent a unique characteristic of a given location, as can be seen from the role of traditional periodic markets as iconic tourist attractions (Kandiyoti, 2006).

Today, traditional marketplaces have emerged as a popular form of social gathering space where experience is valued alongside commerce. The emergence of farmers’ markets in the western world reflects the role of traditional periodic markets as a new leisure space in contemporary time (McGrath et al., 1993).

The tourism industry has turned some local markets into attractions due to the presence of a local scene (Michaud and Turner, 2002; Hsieh and Chang, 2006; Huang, 2012). A number of local markets are internationally recognized attractions, to name but a few, Grand bazaar in Istanbul Turkey, Tonala in the Mexican City and Camden Lock Market in London. It is found that temporary markets are also used to address low number of tourists during the off-peak season (Brida, Disgena and Osti, 2012).

Food forms an important component in a tourist’s experience. Food can either function as a secondary element, in other words catering service or as the principle element at tourism destination (Quan and Wang, 2004). As can be seen, gastronomic characteristics can enhance uniqueness of attractions (Meler and Cerovic, 2003; Cohen and Avieli, 2004; Kivela and Crotts, 2005) and promotes the sense of place (Ignatov and Smith, 2006 ; de la Barre and Brouder, 2013).

Countries with well-reputed gastronomic traditions have a tendency to successfully promote gastronomic tourism amongst people (Fox, 2007; Karim and Chi, 2010).

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The interest of food and culture can be translated into special tourism types.

Long’s (2004) definition of culinary tourism is culture-oriented, where the exploration of gastronomic culture is the core part of a trip. Hall and Sharples (2003)’s categorization of food-driven tourism embraces different degrees of culinary interest, ranging from a high degree of motivation to discovering food and culture at the destination, to incidental participation of culinary activities while travelling. The appreciation of food and drink is integrated in other parts of tourism activities, including community-based tourism (Green and Dougherty, 2009), agricultural tourism (Wolf, 2004), ecotourism (Khaokhrueamuang, 2014), and rural tourism (Hall and Sharples, 2008).

Visiting local markets at the destination is common among gastronomic-enthusiast when they travel away from home, where they can discover gastronomic specialties of the destination (Boniface, 2003). Food products and service in the market represents the local eating culture. The consumption of food in the market is often regarded as authentic local experience (Oguntona and Tella, 1999; Winarno and Alain, 2013; Privitera and Nesci, 2015). The tourism potential of food markets are recognized by destinations, where efforts have been made to promote culinary tourism in periodic markets (Browlee, 2013). In addition, gastronomy is a featured activity in many festive markets, including Christmas Markets (see Casteran and Roederer, 2013).

Thailand is a reputed tourism destination, and the largest destination in southeast Asia (UNWTO, 2018). According to the most recent UNWTO’s statistics data (UNWTO, 2017), the country receives 35 million tourists, accounting for 11% of the total number of tourists visiting Thailand and earns USD 57 billion. The economic benefits that Thailand generate from tourism, now seen as the country’s largest industry, results in tourism being on the national agenda. Thailand has a variety of attractions, ranging from natural to cultural attractions. Thailand is internationally known for its food, popularized by American soldiers who travelled to Thailand during the Vietnam war.

The variety of Thai regional cultures and ethnic groups has resulted in the variation of Thai cuisine. Also, contact with foreigners is reflected in the characteristics of Thai culinary dishes, which have been influenced by Indian and Chinese cuisine and the usage of chili in many Thai dishes. Experiencing Thai food in Thailand has become an activity widely practiced by tourists. Based on a survey conducted by Kellogg/Sasin (Henkel et al., 2006), taste, the quality of ingredients, and affordability are factors attributing to the popularity of Thai food among foreigners. In 2018, Bangkok was awarded for having the best street food by CNN (Shea, 2018).

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Culinary tourism has increasingly become popular among international visitors in Thailand. According to a Tourism Economic Review in 2017 (Office of the Permanent Secretary Ministry of Tourism and Sports, 2016), experiencing Thai food is the most popular activities practiced by tourists visiting Thailand (87.6%). Thailand gained 14 billion USD* from selling food and drinks to tourists, accounting for 20% of the total tourism receipt (Suanpleng et al., 2016). Chinese, British and Russian tourists are top spenders when it comes to purchasing food and drink when touring in Thailand. Thailand offers a variety of culinary-related tourist activities, such as consumption of local food in the restaurant, cookery class, visits to food production sites, and also visits to local markets for learning gastronomic culture and exploring the locals’ favorite food shops. Moreover, the role of online media and food celebrities contributes to the popularity of culinary tourism in Thailand (Suanpleng, 2016).

Efforts have been made by the Thai government to promote Thai gastronomy.

This can be seen from its attempt to increase the international reputation of Thai culinary goods so as to boosting exportation of Thai ingredients. The campaign ‘Thai Kitchen to the World’ was launched by the Thai government to promote the exportation of Thai ingredients and processed Thai food overseas. The ‘Thai Select’ Campaign, launched by the Department of International Trade Commerce, is aimed at promoting Thai restaurants overseas in terms of authentic cuisine.

The government plays a very supportive role to integrate Thai gastronomy into the tourism experience. Besides organizing numerous culinary-related festivals all year round, the government highlighted the gastronomic experience in each destination, including the nomination of culinary specialties in each province.

The Tourism Authority of Thailand worked together with Michelin Guide to produce a Michelin Restaurant Guide in Bangkok in 2018, followed by a Michelin Restaurant Guide in Phuket and Phang-Nga in 2019. Moreover, in 2018 Bangkok hosted the 4th UNWTO, gathering academic and practitioners related to the field of gastronomic tourism, where they reviewed the situation of gastronomic tourism as well as to share best practices in engaging gastronomy in tourism. In 2018, TAT also operated the ‘Localicious Food Tourism Challenge’, a tourism contest encouraging the development of food trails across different corners of Thailand including Central, Northern, Northeastern, Eastern and Southern Regions.

It is the intention of this academic paper to explore the culinary tourism experience delivered in local markets, with the main focus on tradition-themed markets. The paper aims to address the following issues: factors advocating the local markets to become tourism attractions, characteristics of gastronomic experiences offered * Equivalent to 4560 billion Baht

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in the market, interpretation of gastronomic heritage in the tourism experience, and potentials and limitations of local markets as gastronomic attractions. Data is collected from both empirical and non-empirical research. The empirical data comes from the field of research in touristic traditional markets located in central Thailand. Conducted during 2012-2019, it comprises of venue observations, as well as informal interviews with involved stakeholders including visitors, vendors and management members. The non-empirical data comprise of secondary data obtained from the existing literature, both scholar sources (academic papers, and monograms) and non-scholar sources (news contents, magazines and data).

The contributions of this research paper are as follows. It marks an early academic attempt to explore the role of local markets in delivering gastronomic experiences from both the sociological and industrial perspectives. The gastronomic experience delivered in the market reflect the role and functions of traditional periodic markets in the contemporary era, which is mediated by tourism. It provides useful insights for practitioners in the tourism industry, in particular the usage of gastronomic resources in enhancing tourist experience in local markets and the promotion local gastronomic resources through local communal spaces.

This research paper is in line with Thailand’s tourism policy at the present, where efforts have been made to maintain the tourism potentials of the destination, in which conventional destinations like ‘sun sand and sea’ starts to fade from popularity (Office of the Permanent Secretary Ministry of Tourism and Sports, 2016).

According to the recent Thailand’s tourism development plan (2017-2021), devised by the Ministry of Tourism and Sports, the diversification of tourist activities, and the significance of national branding are among the elements that shape tourism industry in contemporary times.

Markets as tourism attractions in Thailand The characteristics of Thai local markets is a reflection of Thai way of life which dates from the past and still continues in the present time. In the traditional Thai society, periodic markets can be categorized according to the type of location.

Market can be entirely located on the ground. The other type of the market is floating markets, or periodic markets partly or entirely located on the water.

To be noted, a floating market denotes the strong relationship between people and water (Topengpat, 2000). Floating markets that exists today represents the significance of a waterway as the principal mean of transportation prior to urbanization that took places in late 20th century, where water transportation was then superseded by land transportation.

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Also, to be noted, the marketplace in Thailand reflects the multicultural characteristics of Thai society. This can be seen from historic markets and trade areas that are located in different ethnic communities. Many of the renowned trade areas in Bangkok indicates the presence of ethnic minority groups in the citySampeng and Yaowarat (Chinese), Pahurat (Indian), Samsen (Vietnamese), and Kudeejeen (Chino-Portuguese). Markets also reveal the characteristics of cultural exchange between indigenous people and outsiders. In particular, the production of Sukhothai-style terracotta, or Sangkalok originated from the central markets of the 13th century, Siamese pottery makers achieved new pottery techniques through combining pottery techniques they learned from Chinese traders and incorporating them with local knowhow.

Rapid modernization that took place in the 20th century threatened the existence of local marketplaces, as evidenced by the decline of many markets and trade communities in rural locations across the country. The Thai government’s first Economic Development Plan (1961-1966) by the National Economic Board resulted in rapid development of industrial activities and infrastructure across the country. Road construction shifted the means of transportation from water to ground.

At the same time, efforts have been made to safeguard the traditional form of periodic markets. As can be seen, there have been many local markets that emerged from mid-20th century as traditional-themed tourist attractions. They are a result of the regeneration of historic trade areas, the revival of trade history and the incorporation of traditional elements in modernized commercial spaces.

Damnoen Saduak Floating Market in Ratchaburi, was among the earliest periodic markets that were converted into tourist attractions. Developed in the 1960s from the local trade life that existed alongside canals between Damnoensaduak, this morning floating market was promoted by the Thai government as a cultural tourist destination, enabling international tourists to discover the traditional way of life alongside the river (see also Thongpanya, 2017). To visit the market, visitors are required to take a boat trip in the morning, where they can buy goods from on-boat traders and contemplate the local lives alongside the river.

In the late 20th and early 21st century, a large number of touristic traditional markets were established in rural communities across the country as alternative economic opportunities for local residents, who sell locally-produced goods and services. Many of these markets are open on the weekends (some of them open partially on the weekdays and fully on the weekends). Besides attended by tourists, many floating markets have become a leisure space for local residents.

Some of these traditional markets are revived from many run-down trade communities such as Samchuk Hundred-year Market, Suphanburi (which developed - 145 Š CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

from a degenerated Sino-Thai trade community in northern Suphanburi) and Amphawa Floating Market, Samut Songkhram (developed from the historic trade communities alongside Maekhlong River).

Other types of markets have been recently created on the basis of local history.

Examples are the floating markets in Talingchan District -including Talingchan Temple Floating Market, Talingchan Floating Market, Wat Saphan Floating Market, Wat Champa Floating Market, and Khlong Lad Mayom Floating Market- that were developed from farmer communities in suburban Bangkok.

Bang Nampheung Floating Market comes from the revival of Mon-Thai community in Prapadaeng district. To be noted, the economic achievement of some community-based markets have made traditional markets an effective business model to be adopted across the country. For example, Khlong Lad Mayom Floating Market was awarded ‘Best Community Tourism in Bangkok’ by the Tourism Authority of Thailand* in 2017.

There also exists touristic traditional markets that are operated by the private sector. This includes traditional themed markets that are built according to the owner’s intention to showcase local heritage. For example, Gong Khong Market in Ayuthaya was founded by a local entrepreneur who was inspired by the customs house that once existed during the Ayuthaya Period (1351-1767).

Other privately-operated traditional markets are in the form of tourist shopping complex mainly targeting tourists. The latter type of the market is open daily during a fixed period of time. The cultural elements incorporated in this market are those which are recognized at the mainstream level. This can be exemplified

by Ayuthaya’s Floating Market, a private touristic floating market showcasing its history and iconic cultural attractions. Another example is Pattaya’s Floating Market, whose theme is based on four regional cultures- north, northeast, central, and south.

The international tourists’ perception of floating markets is a unique cultural experience to Thailand and resulting in the incorporation of floating markets to enhance tourists shopping Experience in the department stores. ‘Sook Siam’ Zone for example, is located in ICONSIAM, an international tourist mega-shopping complex located on Chao Phraya River in Bangkok. This is a simulation of a floating market, divided into four sections according to Thai regions - North, Northeast, Centre and South. Visitors can explore Thailand’s regional cultures through goods and services sold and the regional-style décor of each section.

* Founded in 1979, Tourism Authority of Thailand (TAT) is a state enterprise responsible for the promotion and marketing of tourism in Thailand

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Figure 1. ‘Sook Siam’ zone in ICONSIAM shopping complex is designed in the form of traditional markets. It features traditional Thai items from different parts of the country (photo taken by the author).

Factors contributing to the popularity of traditional markets in the 21st century, especially floating markets, are rooted in the cultural awareness of local traditions, especially floating markets that date back to the 1980s. The localist movement among Thai academics led to the inception of ‘local wisdom’, a term denoting the suitability of local knowhow to address socio-economic problems in a given social context.

By the end of the 20th century, local wisdom has been promoted by the government as a viable economic tool to address economic recession, in particular ‘OTOP’ (One Tambon One Product) economic scheme, which encourages residents in each sub-district- ‘tambon’ across the country to develop local specialty products and services based on locally available resources. Moreover, the government also acknowledges ‘Thai identity’ as having the potential to generate unique tourism experiences. This can be seen from the promotion of new cultural tourism destinations, the incorporation of Thai traditional elements in the hospitality service and the usage of Thai tradition to diversify tourism experiences. Also, the growing significance of demanding nostalgia, motivated - 147 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

by the craving of good memories from the past resulting in the revived interest in old fashioned goods and old trademarks.

Touristic traditional markets can be described as the traditional-themed shopping attraction, where a variety of cultural related experiences are offered to tourists.

This include the sales of traditional goods (either food or non-food products) and services (massage, games, fortune telling, workshops on traditional skills) and the exposure of local scenery, which can be either genuine or simulated. Some traditional markets provide boat trips for visitors to get around the market or explore nearby communities). Some traditional markets operate an on-site museum to educate visitors about the community history, as exemplified by the community museum in Khlong Lad Mayom Floating Market, living museums in Samchuk Market (where old commercial buildings have been allocated some space to showcase its history) and a dessert museum in Amphawa Floating Market.

Visiting a traditional market is a popular tourist activity for both domestic and international visitors. for international tourists in Bangkok, visiting traditional markets enable them to discover the traditional way of life in the central region.

The international reputation of a floating market is representative of Thailand’s identity and has partially resulted in the incorporation of traditional trade life into themed shopping venues that are transformed into an attraction. For Thai visitors, traditional markets are a leisure space in their locality, which enables them to escape from their regular routine as well as connect themselves with culture and tradition.

Figure 2. Khlong Lad Mayom Floating Market offers boat trips to Wat Champa, community, where tour participants can buy desserts made by community residents who are descendant of courtesans in the 18th century (photo taken by the author).

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Gastronomy as the selling point of the markets The gastronomic products available in traditional markets are linked with Thai local food culture, in particular eating out habits. Before the 19th century, eating out was not common among Thai people, who principally ate at home (Plainoi, 2005). The demand of eating out first was first developed by Chinese migrants’ workers who rarely had time to cook. Many popular dishes consumed by Thai people today such as congee, soy milk, and stir-fried noodle dishes were first introduced by Chinese street food traders. Also, the increase of full-time office jobs also generated an increase in the demand of eating out. In today’s time, convenience and low budget are factors contributing to the popularity of eating out among the locals (Yasmeen, 2010).

Food forms an important part in gastronomic experiences in local markets and also the touristic traditional markets. Many traditional markets feature gastronomy as a highlighted experience. For visitors, culinary experience is the pricing reason that drives them to discover the attractions. In traditional markets, it is found that gastronomic experience is expressed in many forms, as classified in the table below.

Gastronomic Commodities Dining Experience

Educational Experience

Gastronomic festivals

- f ood items sold by on-site traders (many types of food items are available: raw ingredients, old-fashioned dishes, local specialty dishes, popular dishes eaten

by Thai people, international dishes) - franchise food stalls - d ining areas that feature the view of local scene or natural scenery - o n-site restaurants which feature either local or traditional scenery - cooking demonstrations done by food traders such as demonstration of culinary techniques to attract visitors - cookery workshops on Thai dishes that use locally available ingredients such as cookery workshops in Khlong Lad Mayom Floating Market, Bangkok - demonstrations of food production techniques, e.g. coconut sugar production in Amphawa Floating Market - culinary museum such as a dessert museum at Amphawachaipattananurak Project - Farm tours at nearby farm or fruit and vegetable orchards - integration of gastronomy in festivals such as New year’s Festival at Samchuk Hundred-Year Market, agricultural fairs in Bang Nampheung Floating Market, cultural and food festivals

Table 1. The expression of traditional experience in the traditional market.

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Figure 3. Amphawa Floating Market has coconut sugar cooking demonstration, organized by Chaipattana Foundation: Left- Stove used in the simmering coconut zap, Right- 100% coconut sugar products (photos taken by the author).

Factors influencing the representation of gastronomic experiences in traditional markets To an extent, the richness of local resources influences culinary products sold in the market. For one thing, traditional markets that are located in rural agricultural areas or in historic areas such as old community areas (trade areas) have better opportunities to convert local resources into a gastronomic experience.

Some traditional markets that are located in historic farming areas including Khlong Lad Mayom Floating Market, Talingchan Floating Market, Amphawa Floating Market, and Bang Namphueng Floating Market, benefit from the variety and quality of locally-grown fruits and vegetable corps in developing iconic gastronomic offerings. For example, the administration team of Khlong Lad Mayom Floating Market realized the potentials of locally-grown spices that can be used as gastronomic selling points. The location of Amphawa Floating Market, which is located near coconut farm is reflected in a variety of sweets that use coconut milk and coconut sugar. Bang Nampheung Floating Market is located in farming areas not far away from Bangkok, resulting in the abundance of farm products and food items made of locally available ingredients.

Those traditional markets that are located in historic quarters may incorporate local gastronomic culture into their gastronomic experience. For example, Samchuk Hundred-Year market highlighted its multicultural gastronomic experience, formulated by the blending between Chinese and Thai culture.

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Amphawa Floating Market, Samut Songkhram benefits from its location in an historic community by promoting dining experiences with local lives alongside the Maekhlong River, in addition to the sales of local food items. Gong Khong Market’s gastronomic offerings are promoted in relation to its location as an old trade area dating back to more than two hundred years ago, as seen from the variety of gastronomic items available on the site.

Figure 4. Khlong Lad Mayom Floating Market can benefit from its location in Bang Ramad District, which is an agricultural area in suburban Bangkok in developing gastronomic experiences (photo taken by the author).

Figure 5. Samchuk Hundred-Year Market’s culinary offerings is partially influenced by home cooked food of Chinese migrants who settled down in the community during the 18th century (photo taken by the author).

Figure 6. The décor in Gong Khong Market reflects the contemporary imagination of Thai society in the Ayuthaya period (photo taken by the author).

Figure 7. Food vending areas in Gong Khong Market simulate vending stalls that exist during the Ayuthaya Period of Thailand (1350-1767) (photo taken by the author).

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On the contrary, most traditional markets in touristic destination are less likely to benefit from local gastronomy due to their positioning of becoming themedcommercial centers, to name but a few ‘Pattaya Floating Market’ in Chonburi and ‘Sook Siam’ zone in ICONSIAM shopping complex. The markets aim to become one-stop attractions, where visitors can experience gastronomic experience from different parts of the country in simulated traditional settings. Food items are specialties across the country.

Figure 8. Pattaya Floating Market gathers traditional food items across the country for tourists, including Southern style milk tea, where a barista conducts mini performances before serving tea for customers (photo taken by the author).

The usage of tradition and development of gastronomic experiences in traditional markets Gastronomic knowledge in the traditional market is regarded as a process of the commodification of gastronomic heritage, in which either personal or communal gastronomic heritage is transformed into commodities for sale. Personal - 152 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

heritage can be described by the fact that traders implement recipes or techniques inherited from their family in producing food items. This also includes traders who combine nostalgia in the production and presentation of a gastronomic experience; traditional gastronomy reflects beautiful remnants of the past (see Bessière, 1998). A number of culinary items are developed from pieces of traders’ childhood memories. Communal heritage refers to gastronomic heritage that is shared among residents in the community. Community-based traditional markets have a variety of dishes that are generally consumed by local people in the region.

The commercial opportunities brought by traditions can stimulate traders’ interest in discovering old-fashioned gastronomy. Some traders acquire traditional culinary knowledge through self-learning, where others achieve culinary knowledge through practical experiences where they learn by observation as well as trial and error. Some traders intentionally carry out research on the history of Thai food to highlight the traditional quality of gastronomic offerings.

It is found that many culinary products are the result of blending tradition and modernity. This can be seen from traders who make an effort to bridge traditional cuisine with contemporary gastronomic preferences. The growth of health concerns has also resulted in the reduction of sugar in traditional sweets. Another characteristic of tradition-modernity-synergy is the combination between traditional know-how and locally grown ingredients in the production of contemporary-style food. This can be exemplified in Amphawa Floating Market with the ice-cream brand ‘Srimala’, which has a diverse range of flavors by using different local ingredients. To be noted, gastronomic innovations are likely to have been introduced by a younger generation of food traders, who attempt to adapt the more traditional elements in order to better suit a contemporary consuming culture.

Despite the emphasis on traditional and local quality in the characteristics of culinary products, gastronomic experiences also incorporate non-local and nontraditional elements, without trying to offend a visitors’ experience at traditional markets. That is, not all visitors are historical authenticity seeking, defined by strong motivation to experience culture. In most cases, visitors’ appreciation of culture is mainly based on their visual impression, evoked by local scenery and old-fashioned image. Some of them see traditional taste unattractive. As can be seen, international food that is found in the market, which reflects the significance of global food culture in the gastronomic food scene. At the same time, glocalization, described by the adaptation of global food culture to match local preferences, is made to suit the local needs can be seen among traders. Western dishes, when sold in traditional markets, are adapted by local traders to match with the local needs.

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Figure 9. Cheese-baked mussels sold in Khlong Lad Mayom Floating Market is adapted to suit Thai palate (photo taken by the author).

Heritage interpretation in gastronomic experiences The representation of gastronomic experiences provided in the market signifies the attempt of heritage interpretation, defined by strategies used to enhance the communication of the value of traditions to the public. Heritage interpretation is described as a strategy to engage visitors with the past in a meaningful way through the provision of education, entertainment and conservation (Herbert, 1989). It also enables local traders to acquire a more proper understanding of culture and tradition (Millar, 1989).

Figure 10. Some food stalls feature old-fashioned culinary methods when preparing food on site (photo taken at Gong Klhong Market, Ayutthaya by the author).

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Gastronomic experience in markets make the effort to connect past expressions in the form of personal and communal memories to people living in contemporary times. Traditional markets are hubs of a variety of old-fashioned food items, some of which are lesser common in contemporary times. The preponderance of gastronomic experiences provided in markets also encourage people to rediscover their own traditions. Heritage interpretation provides opportunities for traders to rediscover their own legacy and convert it into the present time.

The communication of heritage in gastronomic experiences can be delivered through a number of strategies, as summarized below.

Usage of Buzzwords in - the usage of keywords to highlight the traditional quality of experience: traditional, ancient, local, native, etc. the promotional - traditional-style decoration of food stalls and on-site restaurant message Gatekeepers - traders as the narrator of heritage - old-fashioned packaging including banana leaves as wrapping, coconut leaf packaging, etc.

Visuals - traditional costume worn by traders (according to the market rules) - old-fashioned food stall decoration - on site food preparation Demonstrations - demonstrations of culinary techniques made by traders - demonstrations of food production organized by the traditional markets - explanation which accompanies each culinary item Storytelling - museum showcasing local gastronomic knowledge Visitors’ active - cookery workshops that allows visitors to learn how to prepare for culinary engagement products or discover local ingredients

Table 2. Different heritage interpretation methods used in communicating traditional elements in gastronomic experiences.

Potentials and limitations of traditional markets as gastronomic attractions (SWOT analysis model) Strengths 1. Diversity of culinary experience One of the strengths of the traditional market as a culinary attraction is that it offers a variety of gastronomic-related activities offered to visitors. This includes but not limited to the purchase of food items sold by traders, dining experience with river view and local scenery, and culinary-related activities (for example, culinary workshops, culinary demonstration, visits to local fruit and vegetable orchards). Many traditional markets operate special events on a regular basis to attract visitors such as ‘Aroi Dee Tee Samchuk’ at Samchuk Hundred-Year Market- a New year free buffet event allowing visitors to enjoy free food

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prepared by local residents. Amphawa Floating Market’s King Buddha Loetla Nabhalai festival showcases traditional culinary skills that are widely practiced in the Amphawa community.

For the majority of tourists, gastronomy forms an important part of visiting traditional markets. The purchase of take-away food items and on-site dining are the two main purposes of their visits. The experience of old-fashioned gastronomy provided in the traditional market is regarded as the highlighted activity for a number of visitors. Based on informal conversations with some visitors in the market, it can be concluded that gastronomy enable visitors to discover local culture, enhance their historical education, evoke past memories (especially for older visitors), and reinforce their perception of place identity. In some cases, visitors view traditional elements as a quality marker of culinary products: the usage of old-fashioned recipes and original culinary techniques in food preparation are indication of superior food taste.

Nevertheless, the gastronomic scene in many traditional markets also include contemporary-style food and non-Thai cuisine. To be noted, many of the visitors’ report that they are more interested in the traditional scenery rather than the traditional quality of food items consumed. For lesser cultural enthusiasts, visiting the traditional market offers an opportunity to temporarily escape from their work life through appreciating natural scenery and sampling good food provided by the locals.

2. High quality gastronomic experience As a highly competitive shopping venue, traditional markets gather high quality food items sold by vendors. For many food traders, the quality of food products is a criterial that differentiate their food products from their counterparts. The quality of food is resulted from the usage of locally sourced ingredients and exclusive cooking methods. To be noted a number of food products sold receive accreditations from external bodies, including certificate from food celebrities.

Some food items are classified as 4 and 5 starred OTOP products, which indicate superior quality of local household products.

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Figure 11. ‘Kaikalok’-omelette rice ball first originated in Amphawa Floating Market (photo taken by the author).

Moreover, some gastronomic items sold in a traditional market became the market’s signature product of the market, for example ‘Kanomnomneuy’ custard filled bun in Ayutthaya Floating Market were very popular among visitors. The success of their products enabled them to extend their business by opening new branches. To give an example ‘Kaikalok’ omelette rice ball, which first originated in Amphawa Floating Market, has become a franchised food brand which can be found in local markets across the country.

Weaknesses 1. Visitors’ limitation to experience food Despite the significance of gastronomic experience provided at the traditional markets, it is found that visitors’ have limitation to experience food at the traditional market due to a number of factors. One of these is nationality. Thai visitors are more motivated to experience food items than foreigners, many of whom are reluctant to experience food due to their unfamiliarity with Thai food culture and doubts over the safety issues of culinary products. Many foreign tourists are more willing to sample food items rather than make an actual purchase.

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Moreover, food preference also impedes visitors’ gastronomic appreciation in the traditional market. This can be seen with some food items that are disliked by visitors because it does not meet their usual tastes. It should be noted that visitors from western countries have more limitation to experience Thai cuisine than those from the Far East, such as Chinese tourists, who have more of a similar food culture to Thailand. Western visitors focus on the local scenery, including the atmosphere, and natural surroundings of the community, rather than the gustatory experience. They are more committed to join visual experiences, such as boat tours, provided at the market in order to explore the lives of locals.

Age is also counted amongst the factors influencing visitors gastronomic experience at the market. Elderly visitors are more driven by nostalgia. They are more likely to enjoy old-fashioned food or food that reminds them of their childhood.

Younger visitors are found to appreciate both traditional and modern-style food, including popular food items and non-Thai culinary products or traditionalmodern fusion food.

2. Visitors’ limited engagement in culinary activities It is found that, besides the purchase and consumption of food and drink, tourists are rarely aware of the existence of other types of culinary related activities provided in the traditional market, including culinary workshops, culinary demonstrations, farm visits. This can be explained by a number of factors. For one thing tourists are not informed about these activities due to the lack of advertisement on culinary activities provided on the site. For another, some culinary activities are operated on a private basis; therefore, tourists need to contact the management team of the market if they wish to participate.

3. Lack of unique selling points Gastronomic experiences are delivered in many traditional markets and despite forming a significant part of the visitor experience, are yet capable of pronouncing its uniqueness. For many visitors, food in the traditional markets are perceived as having similar characters, whilst very few of them can establish its selling proposition. Local gastronomic culture, expressed in the form of culinary goods and services available, lack effective storytelling strategies that validate the visitor’s perception of authenticity.

In community-based traditional markets, the nomination of culinary specialties is sometimes perceived as a biased action that prioritize certain culinary products over others. A number of community-based traditional markets refuse to assign its culinary specialties because they want to create equal trade opportunities for all local traders.

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Repetition is another issue that hinders the development of unique selling points.

The same products are sold by many traders. Successful food items are likely to be imitated by other traders in the same venue. They choose to sell commercially promising products rather than introducing gastronomic novelties whose revenue are likely to be less predictable. Some traders choose to sell gastronomic items that have been popular in other markets. For example, ’Kaikalok’ omelet rice ball from Amphawa Floating Market is also found in other traditional markets.

Moreover, many traditional markets choose to sell products that are known as specialties of the local area to secure their income Efforts have been made by certain traditional markets to promote a variety of culinary products. Food traders in the traditional markets such as Gong Khong Market, Ayutthaya Floating Market and Bang Nampheung Floating Market must have their products approved by an administrative team before selling it. Bang Nampheung Floating Market will allow more than three traders to sell identical products, with the exception of locally grown farming products where no limitation applies.

4. Concerns over Food Safety It is found that food safety is a factor preventing tourists’ from discovering food in the traditional markets. Many foreigners are reluctant to try food items whose safety is questionable. Mostly, they rely their culinary choices on their tour guide, who took them to specific venues where food is safe to eat. Some Thai visitors also choose not to buy food that does not look clean.

In fact, there have been efforts to regulate food hygiene in the traditional markets.

Many traditional markets carry out regular monitoring of the quality of food on a random basis. Some of them collaborate with local health authorities to deal with food safety. However, food hygiene problems still occur due to inconsistency in the monitoring process and the lack of law enforcement of food hygiene. In some traditional markets, action will be taken only after visitors complain.

Opportunities 1. Increased Interest in Gastronomy Whilst Travelling Gastronomic experience in the traditional market can benefit from the increased significance of food and drink in Thailand’s tourism (Sompong and Rampai, 2015). Tourists are interested in discovering food and drink when in Thailand.

From the suppliers’ point of view, there is an increase in the variety of gastronomic tourism activities in Thailand beyond food and drink consumption. This includes cooking master classes provided in hotels, foodie tours - where visitors are taken to famous food shops or sample food in local markets, and visits to fruit and vegetable farms.

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The potential of touristic traditional markets as gastronomic tourism destinations also corresponds with the Thai government’s tourism policy to focus on the role of Thai culture in offering unique experience for visitors, together with the Thai government’s attempts to promote Thailand as a gastronomic destination. As can be seen, the Thai government attempts to promote food items sold in the traditional market as part of an iconic tourism experience. The government has also produced a tour guide on traditional markets titled ’15 Ground Markets and 16 Floating Markets’, which features the role of gastronomic experiences on each side. Moreover, many popular food products from touristic traditional markets have been selected to showcase at government-run cultural fairs such as the Department of Export Promotion (DEP)’s OTOP trade fairs and Tourism Authority of Thailand (TAT)’s Thailand Tourism Festival, which gather a variety of products from different districts across the country.

2. Growing interest from Foreigners in Markets There has been an increase in the number of foreign visitors to traditional markets. European visitors tend to be interested in going to community-based traditional markets such as Khlong Lad Mayom Floating Market, Talingchan Floating Market, Bang Nampheung Floating Market, Samchuk Hundred-Year Market and Amphawa Floating Market. For many of them, exploring traditional markets is a unique opportunity for them to learn about local lives.

Also, a number of simulated floating markets, especially Pattaya Floating Market that is located in Pattaya district, Chonburi, host a large number of Chinese and Russian tourists, most of whom come to the market as part of a tour group.

These groups of people enjoy buying souvenirs as well as sampling gastronomic treats sold by local traders. It is found that many traders can speak the tourists’ language and have menus and price list written in either Chinese or Russian.

Pattaya Floating Market itself also produces some souvenirs, branded ‘Ocha’, for tourists.

3. Favorable Socio-Cultural Environment The gastronomic experience offered in the traditional markets proves to be compatible with the socio-cultural needs at that time. The market itself meets with the increased interest in discovering traditional culture in the modern times, and the shopping behavior of Thai people. Many traditional markets located in rural communities have become a budget lifestyle space for local residents, where they enjoy relaxation during the weekend as well as to buy food and non-food items at inexpensive prices.

Moreover, traditional markets respond to the nostalgic needs of visitors, especially elderly visitors (aged 60 and over). Traditional markets have become - 160 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

a leisure space where they can pursue relaxing activities including outdoor karaoke and traditional Thai music concerts. For them, the traditional market offers a more pleasant shopping experience than modernized department stores.

Threats 1. Managerial control The potential of traditional markets as gastronomic destinations can be impeded due to managerial issues. The ownership of the market land indicates the ability of the administrative unit to control the quality of culinary products. In those traditional markets where land is owned by different owners, especially those traditional markets that are developed from local community areas, it is more difficult to control the culinary experience in terms of the quality and hygiene of food items, as well as the tidiness of the market environment.

On the contrary, for those traditional markets whose entire land is owned by a management unit, it is easier to control because all traders rent vending spaces from the management unit. Besides paying the rent regularly, they need to comply with terms and conditions imposed by the administration. Some traditional markets put strict regulations on food hygiene and ensure that the environment is clean. Tenants therefore risk having their contract revoked if they violate these rules.

2. Tourism impacts on the market’s natural scenery and facilities Many traditional markets report a shortage of visitors’ facilities, including include car parking slots. To be noted, many traditional markets are not easily accessible by public transport due to their location outside of a city or town.

Most visitors arrive to the traditional market by private transport and therefore there is a high demand for parking slots at traditional markets.

Facility shortages is often common in traditional markets whose number of visitors exceed the carrying capacity. This often occurs in widely known traditional markets. Some visitors complained on inadequate toilets and seating areas. The local food items also cannot satisfy the tourists demand, resulting in the importation of ingredients and food items from outside.

In addition, tourists’ excessive use of the marketplace during the weekend and public holidays results in a degradation of the traditional markets condition, resulting in some unpleasant market environments. There are for example, problems of waste and water pollution alongside other common environmental issues at many popular floating markets. For a number of tourists, this can contribute to a negative perception of the market.

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CONCLUSION This research article aimed to discern the relationship between gastronomic tourism and touristic traditional markets through different perspectives, and by focusing on local markets in Thailand. The paper discusses the role of periodic markets from the past till the present, and where commercial areas have now been transformed into leisure space imbued with historical and cultural significance.

It also investigates the role and function of food as tourism and also examines the variety of culinary expressions offered at markets, including the sales of culinary commodities and services. Moreover, it looks into factors influencing the development and presentation of culinary experiences It is therefore concluded that the degree of proximity of markets to local communities influences the cultural characteristics of traditional markets. However, the absence of local cultural resources does not always deride the cultural salience of tourismified traditions, to be exemplified by floating markets which features culinary experiences from different regions across the country. The article discusses how tradition negotiates with modernity in the presentation of gastronomic experience, as well as heritage interpretation used in communicating the value of traditional gastronomy to visitors. The research also examines critically the potential of gastronomy in traditional markets by applying a situational analysis according to a SWOT model.

It can be implied from this academic article that traditional markets have the potential to become a viable gastronomic attraction, given the significance of food in visitors’ as a motivator to visit a market and the diversity of gastronomic related experiences offered to visitors. In addition, the market’s nostalgic character can potentially enhance the presentation of traditional gastronomy. That is, traditional markets are perceived as hubs of a variety of old-fashioned food items and learning centers where visitors can discover the value of traditional gastronomic knowhow as well as observe the local food scene.

The popularity of gastronomic activities amongst international tourists possibly heighten the signification of tourism in local markets. Gastronomic experiences can diversify the image of each traditional market, given unique culinary diversity in each locality and the positioning of touristic traditional markets.

Nevertheless, there is a need to address shortcomings of the traditional markets.

In particular, the arrival of international visitors results in the growing concern of food safety, since it is a significant issue that influences their engagement in gastronomic experience. Furthermore, it is important for traditional markets to promote the diversity of gastronomy experience in terms of diversity. Finally, it is recommended that the culinary experience (other than the purchase and consumption of food and drink) should be highlighted more.

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DEVELOPMENT AND APPLICATION OF HAZARD ANALYSIS CRITICAL CONTROL POINT (HACCP) FOR POPULAR PHILIPPINE STREET-VENDED FOODS

Teddy S. MANANSALA, Dr Benigno Glenn R. RICAFORTE*

Teddy S. Manansala, MSc, RND is an Assistant Professor and a Registered Nutritionist-Dietitian. He holds two Master’s degrees namely, Master of Science in Tourism and Hospitality Management major in Culinary Management from De La Salle-College of Saint Benilde (DLS-CSB) and Master of Environment and Natural Resources Management from the University of the Philippines (UP). He has been a recipient of full scholarships from UP, DLS-CSB, and the Department of Science and Technology (DOST). His research interest is on sustainable food systems. Currently, he is completing his academic work for a PhD in Environmental Management and Studies program as full scholar.

Benigno Glenn R. Ricaforte, PhD is presently an Associate Professor, and is the Chair of the Master of Science in Tourism and Hospitality Management Program. He is a microbiologist by profession. Dr Ricaforte is a former president of the Philippine Society for Microbiology, Inc. and formerly, one of the board members of Philippine Association of Researchers for Tourism and Hospitality, Inc. He has delivered more than 30 lectures in conferences and conventions, and is also a prolific writer. Dr Ricaforte has already published numerous research articles and books, and his latest publication is out in the Philippine market entitled “Understanding Science in our Times for Grade 2” --- proving his versatility in academic writing and research.

* De La Salle-College of Saint-Benilde/Vatel Manille

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ABSTRACT Studies have shown that street foods, which are popular in the Philippines can be vectors of food borne illnesses. As such, their safety remains a public health issue and there is a need for baseline data to establish standards in food safety measures of popular street-vended foods. The study aimed to (1) identify food safety hazards within the flow of food operation for calamari, chicken intestine, and ready-to-eat watermelon; (2) establish the critical control points (CCPs) within the flow of street-vended food operation; (3) determine the microbial quality of calamari, chicken intestine, ready-to-eat watermelon, and ice used to cool watermelon and (4) develop HACCP based framework plan. The study used both qualitative and quantitative approaches. Qualitative data were transcribed to themes and patterns obtained from face-to-face in-depth interviews using researcher’s survey questionnaire based on HACCP flow of food and direct observations. Quantitative data obtained from microbiological analyses conducted by a third party independent microbiological service laboratory were analyzed and compared to recognized food safety standards. Purposive sampling was employed for street food vendor participants based on their job duration, ability to communicate and willingness to participate in the study. Random samples of street food items and ice used were analyzed for microbial quality.

The results indicated the presence of potential food safety hazards, hence the application of critical control points in various stages in the flow of street food operation for chicken intestine, calamari, and ready-to-eat watermelon. Several deviations on food safety practices were observed among street food vendors.

Results from microbiological tests showed that all samples of ready-to-eat watermelon, chicken intestine and calamari have high levels of coliform and aerobic plate counts. Both ice block samples obtained from the supplier and the street food vendor had unacceptable coliform, fecal coliform, and heterotrophic plate counts based on microbiological standards set forth by Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water. Evidence from this study suggests that the microbiological quality of ready-to-eat watermelon, chicken intestine, calamari, and ice used to cool watermelon is a cause for concern. Application of HACCP as a food safety management tool in popular Philippine street-vended foods is important in addressing public health concern. General framework of HACCP plan may be used in the development of HACCP manual that is understandable by the general public. It may be considered by the local government units in the nationwide implementation of a national protocol in assessment, implementation, regulation, and monitoring of street food vending system in the country.

Other highly perishable street-vended foods and corresponding sauces may be considered in the future studies including other microbial quality and safety parameters.

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Keywords: street-vended foods, food borne illness, microbiological analysis, sanitation, hygiene, HACCP.

INTRODUCTION Food and water safety remains a global public health issue wherein the World Health Organization (WHO 2015) has estimated that one for every ten people in the world become ill due to foodborne diseases caused by pathogens. As such, street-vended foods (street foods) are one of the sources that are vulnerable to foodborne pathogens (Azanza, Gatchalian, & Ortega 2000; Barrion & Hurtada 2006; Vital, Dimasuay, Widmer, & Rivera 2014; Hilario 2015). Both cooked street foods (e.g., chicken intestine, calamari) and ready-to-eat fresh cut fruits (e.g., watermelon) have been linked to foodborne illnesses (Daniel et. al.

2014). The Philippine Department of Health (DOH 2012) has estimated about 70% of diarrheal diseases are attributed to foodborne and drinking water origins.

Several factors are attributed to Philippines state of public health concern with regards to street foods and drinking water. These include a general lack of factual knowledge about the epidemiological significance of many street-vended foods, poor knowledge of street vendors in basic food safety measures, and inadequate public awareness of hazards posed by certain foods. Hence, epidemiological studies suggest important parameters in the food chain and host pathogen interactions (WHO 2008; Rane 2011; Vital, Dimasuay, Widmer & Rivera 2014; Hilario 2015).

In view of the above, the United Nations General Assembly set forth 17 global goals or sustainable development goals (SDGs) for 2030 (United Nations 2019).

Through its United Nations Development Programme,169 lists of targets, facts, and figures for each of the 17 SDGs along with 232 approved indicators that will measure compliance were drafted. Primarily, this paper aimed to contribute particularly in SDGs 3, 6, and 12 which focus on good health and well-being, clean water and sanitation, and responsible consumption and production, respectively. Recent study may address the scarcity in baseline data necessary for the implementation of existing public health policies and laws such as those stipulated and mandated in Republic Act (RA) No. 10611 or otherwise known as Food Safety Act of 2013. According to WHO (2015), precise information on the burden of disease is needed to adequately inform policymakers on how best to allocate resources for appropriate foodborne disease control efforts.

Meanwhile, it is also aimed to contribute in the promotion of local culture and product through sustainable local gastronomy vis-à-vis sustainable development impacts for sustainable tourism.

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This study was designed to assess hazards in selected popular Philippine streetvended foods using HACCP as universally accepted food safety management system tool. Specifically, it aimed (1) to identify food safety hazards within the flow of food operation for selected popular Philippine street-vended foods particularly calamari, chicken intestine, and ready-to-eat watermelon; (2) to establish the CCPs within the flow of street-vended food operations; (3) to determine street-vended foods microbial quality through coliform counts, Escherichia coli detection, and aerobic plate count (APC); the ice used in cooling the ready-to-eat watermelon through coliform count and heterotrophic plate count (HPC); and (4) to subsequently develop a HACCP-based framework plan.

LITERATURE REVIEW This literature reviews discussed four main points. First is the concept of street food, its industry and implicated social and sanitation issues. Secondly, it established the associated microbial pathogens that contaminate street-vended foods including fresh produce. Thirdly, sanitary indices are elaborated. Lastly, it discussed the concept of HACCP as the food safety management system tool for determining the food safety hazards in various stages in the flow of food operation for selected street-vended foods within vicinity of the test campus. The last part described the conceptual framework of the study.

Street food industry and sanitation The Codex Alimentarius Commission (FAO 2010) defined street foods as “ready-to-eat foods prepared and/or sold by vendors and hawkers especially in streets and other similar public places.” There are many different kinds of street vendors, including those at fixed kiosks and mobile stands, those who sell from vehicles (carts, bicycles, trucks, etc.) or from plastic or cloths set out on the street, and street hawkers. They may be individuals, members of families, or even disguised workers of established businesses reaching out to new markets. Vending activity greatly varies according to gender, ethnicity, and age.

Municipal cooperation with the sector can provide employment to vendors while providing food and an attractive urban environment to local consumers and tourists (FAO 2007; FAO 2012).

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (2007) considered the sale of street foods as one of the “informal food sectors” or IFS. Accordingly, the IFS can contribute to food security by providing small quantities of affordable food products at convenient locations for poor consumers; providing employment and income to poor households; and bringing food to marginal urban districts - 170 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

furthest from the city center and the organized secondary markets. These activities exist in urban, peri-urban and rural areas, although their relative importance in food supply and distribution activities and in local employment varies, even from one municipal district to another. The informal food sector can be defined as including small producers, manufacturing enterprises, traders and service providers, involved in legal as well as unrecognized activities related to food.

In most large cities, IFS serve as an important source of nutrients and income for a large percentage of the population (FAO 2007). The most successful street and snack foods are likely to be those that are based on or reflect the traditional cuisine in a particular area. However, in many large cities in Asia, Africa and Latin America, there is an increasing willingness to ‘try something new’ and foods from other regions are being introduced and are proving to be popular (FAO 2012). In the Philippines, popular street-vended foods can be categorized as: meat-based (hotdog, siomai --- minced meat and shrimp wrapped in wanton, hamburger, barbeque, chicken feet and intestine, pork blood cake --- deep-fried coagulated pork blood); poultry and egg-based (fried chicken, kwek-kwek --battered hard-boiled quail eggs, tokneneng --- battered hard-boiled chicken egg); rice/noodle-based (rice-in-a-box, dried noodles, plain and fried rice); fish and seafood-based (calamari, fishball, squidball, kikiam, fish and chips); ready-toeat fresh-cut fruits like watermelon, papaya, pineapple; And others such as fires tofu, turon --- deep-fried sugar-coated, wrapped plantain, banana cue --- deep fried sugar-coated plantain, camote cue – deep-fried sugar-coated sweet potato, lumpia- spring roll, dynamite – wrapped chili pepper with cheese, corn, taho – curdled soya bean extract with heavy syrup, and ‘dirty’ ice cream – coconut milk -based ice cream. These items are all considered as time-temperature control for safety (TCS) foods, hence, food safety is critical.

Findings in several studies indicated the following three main factors which play a critical role in food poisoning incidence relating food handlers: knowledge, attitude, and practice (Azanza, Gatchalian, & Ortega 2000; Angelillo, Foresta, Scozzfava, & Pavia 2001; Patil, Cates, & Morales 2005; Hilario 2015).

Accordingly, poor knowledge and practice among local food handlers can significantly negate efforts made in the improvement and maintenance of food safety standards at previous stages of the food chain (Azanza, Gatchalian, & Ortega, 2000; Angelillo, Foresta, Scozzfava, & Pavia, 2001; Kennedy, Jackson, Cowan et al., 2005; Kennedy, Jackson, Blair, et al., 2005; Hilario, 2015). In the Philippines, Azanza et al. (2000) revealed the significant gap between knowledge and practice on food safety among street vendors which are attributed to the tendencies to compromise food safety for financial issues. Meanwhile, in study of Hilario (2015), findings indicated that generally, street food vendors were not aware of hygienic conditions and they lack training on food preparation and management.

Particularly, the researcher revealed the following: (1) vendors obtained food - 171 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

preparation skills through observation; (2) they prepare street foods just in the stall or working area; (3) the place is untidy, greasy and insects are seen; and (4) they store leftover foods at ambient temperature which is the temperature danger zone (TDZ) for all foodstuffs. TDZ is a range of temperatures between 5OC to 57OC wherein disease-causing microorganisms grow best, hence, potential biological hazards. Then, this street food is being sold to unsuspecting students who are most likely to contract foodborne illnesses due to Salmonella typhi, E. coli and Staphylococcus aureus bacteria.

Street-vended foods and contamination Various participants in the e-mail conference on the IFS organized by FAO and the University of Bologna in May 2006 observed that many health and safety concerns for producers and consumers have not been adequately addressed in the sector from production to consumption (WHO 2001). In unregulated urban agriculture, for example, urban waterways are often highly polluted, leading to contamination of produce (FAO and WHO 2004). Poor quality foods and resulting diseases can have negative consequences on commerce and tourism because consumers lose confidence in the quality of the goods sold. For the vendors, this can result in economic loss and even unemployment. These problems are especially difficult to manage in countries where informal activities are discouraged and thus hidden from the view of health inspectors. Risks of bacterial and chemical contaminations during food processing, transport and marketing may be poorly controlled in the IFS in some circumstances. Wholesale and retail markets often have inadequate infrastructure, including waste disposal and water supply. Storage is a problem since vendors in many countries do not have access to electricity and refrigeration. Moreover, improving market infrastructure is not sufficient to eliminate these risks. Since food is often processed at home, efforts must also be made to improve urban housing, including sanitation and access to water and electricity (FAO 2007).

Health and food safety concerns are important issues where street foods become important to urban consumers (FAO 1997; Tinker 2003). In a study of 7 African and Asian cities, however, Tinker (2003) found that food cooked and sold on the street or in markets is generally safe if consumed shortly after cooking. Food contamination comes largely from unclean hands and plates, as well as from dust. Studies in Latin America shows health risks under these conditions: food is prepared without access to clean water; minimal practices of hygiene and adequate food preparation are not respected; raw foods are not carefully selected; and environmental contamination is not taken into consideration. Vendors may also misuse food additives and even utilize substances with some colors and - 172 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

preservatives not approved for use in foods, thus further adding health risks. In East Asian countries with large IFS, consumers are well aware of food safety issues. Vendors must, thus, provide a hygienic environment if they wish to stay in business. This illustrates that education of consumers is an important element in creating a safe IFS (FAO 2007; FAO 2012).

Several studies have been conducted in the Philippines. Results from the study of Buted and Ylagan (2014) on food sanitation practices of street foods in Batangas City, showed that the street vendors are practicing a clean working area as part of their sanitation practices. Dealino-Tanquezon (2015) found that street vendors of Intramuros, Manila did not apply what they have learned in their previous food safety and sanitation seminars and trainings. Hence, the risks of food-borne illness is increased. Meanwhile, the team of Canini (2013) evaluated the street food vending in Ozamiz City. Their study revealed that the samples of buko juice (young coconut juice), fruit salad, burger bun with spaghetti, and pansit (noodles) with pork had unacceptable levels of S. aureus and E. coli. The microbial quality of the chicken proventriculus (proven) at different stages of preparation and results indicated the risk of contamination of coliform, Staphylococcus and Salmonella. Researchers emphasized that although deep-fat frying destroyed majority of these microorganisms, storage at ambient temperature has caused microbial growth in chicken proven. The presence of these pathogenic microbes in cooked proven and their subsequent growth during storage are the critical control points. Moreover, microbial contamination of proven can be reduced through practice of personal hygiene, employing standard cooking temperature (77-85°C) and time (10-15 min) and cooking as ordered. The team of Mondala (2012) of the Food and Nutrition Research Institute–Department of Science and Technology (FNRI-DOST) in Taguig City, Philippines conducted a study on upgrading the street food vending system in the said locale. Their study had 2 phases. Phase I was the establishment of a street food vending center which include provision of the physical structure, development of information, education, communication materials for use in the training, and conduct of a two-level training; and Phase II, was compliance monitoring, subject to the completion and passage of an ordinance on street food vending to serve as guide for regulating street food activities. Results showed that the improvement of the street food livelihood system was highly dependent on the street food task force e.g. the continuous conduct of training of street food vendors, the site-identification and operationalization of the vending center and the implementation of the ordinance on street food vending, all rely on the political will and commitment of the local officials.

Fresh produce which is raw agricultural product naturally harbors a wide variety of microorganisms including those of pathogenic types. This is precisely - 173 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

because they are generally grown outdoors where several factors in the food chain such as animals, insects, and humans are carrier of contaminants. Produce can become contaminated with microbial pathogens by a wide variety of mechanisms. Contamination can and has occurred during production or harvest and processing at the retail, food service, and/or in the home kitchen. Contamination at any point in the chain can be worsened by improper handling and storage of the product prior to consumption (Rane 2011; Vital, Dimasuay, Widmer, & Rivera, 2014).

Sanitary indices The quality of raw materials used in the preparation of street foods is very important as their contamination can persist through preparation and/or cooking. Water is a critical raw material in many street-vended operations. Contaminated water can create a public health risk when it is used for drinking, washing of foods, incorporated in the food as an ingredient and used in the processing of food or used for washing equipment, utensils and hands. It is a well-known vehicle for enteric pathogens such as E. coli, Salmonella spp. and Campylobacter spp. amongst others. Besides water, other raw materials are also important to the safety of the street-vended foods because of the biological, chemical and physical hazards that they might introduce. In order to keep prices down, some vendors purchase cheap or adulterated ingredients containing unpermitted chemical additives from unauthorized suppliers which may further increase the risks associated with the prepared food. Raw meat, poultry and vegetables are commonly contaminated with large numbers of bacteria, including potential foodborne pathogens such as Bacillus cereus, Clostridium perfringens, Clostridium jejuni, E. coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella and S. aureus (Rane, 2011).

Indicators of fecal pollution An ideal indicator of fecal contamination is one that is exclusively fecal in origin, unable to grow outside the intestine of humans or animals, and emulates the persistence of pathogens with respect to environmental and water treatment processes. Indicator organisms also need to be easy to identify, isolate and enumerate and their presence should be restricted to when pathogens also occur, and in greater abundance than that of the pathogens. Escherichia coli is considered to meet most of the above criteria at least within temperate regions of the world.

Members of the coliform group have been practically defined by their method of cultural and physiological detection. Coliforms characteristically ferment lactose at 37° C to produce acid and gas. This fermentation step requires the - 174 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

possession of the enzyme β-D-galactosidase to cleave lactose, producing glucose and galactose. Coliforms assumed to be of fecal origin are capable of growth, acid and gas production from lactose fermentation at 44OC. Escherichia coli presence is confirmed from fecal coliform cultures by production of indole from tryptophan, an inability to utilize citrate and possession of β-D-glucuronidase.

Escherichia coli has been universally recommended as a suitable indicator for temperate freshwaters. The drawbacks of E. coli as a fecal indicator include reports of the indicator in waters free from fecal contamination and their poor persistence in the aquatic environment (Gardner & Bird, 2002).

Aerobic Plate Count (APC) or Heterotrophic Plate Count (HPC) is a variety of simple culture-based tests that are intended to recover a wide range of microorganisms from water . Heterotrophs are broadly defined as microorganisms that require organic carbon for growth. They include bacteria, yeasts and molds.

Although standardized methods have been formalized, HPC test methods involve a wide variety of test conditions that lead to a wide range of quantitative and qualitative results. Temperatures employed range from around 20° C to 40° C, incubation times from a few hours to seven days or a few weeks, and nutrient conditions from low to high. The test itself does not specify the organisms that are detected. Only a small proportion of the metabolically active microorganisms present in a water sample may grow and be detected under any given set of HPC test conditions, and the population recovered will differ significantly according to the method used. The actual organisms recovered in HPC testing can also vary widely between locations, between seasons and between consecutive samples at a single location. Microorganisms recovered through HPC tests generally include those that are part of the natural (typically non-hazardous) microbiota of water; in some instances, they may also include organisms derived from diverse pollutant sources (Bartram et al., 2003).

Hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) HACCP is the most widely used risk-based tool for developing food safety management system programs. Its principles require the user to identify potential hazards relating to a specific product or process, to determine the risk of these hazards impacting on consumers and where critical to put in place monitoring and control procedures. Developing an effective HACCP plan requires a clear understanding of the principles and specific steps involved in a HACCP study (FAO 2003). The system can be applied to control any stage in the food system, and is designed to provide enough feedback to direct corrective activities.

Codex Alimentarius Commission (FAO 2003) recommends a HACCP-based approach as a means to enhance food safety. One of the advantages of this - 175 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

food safety management system is its capability of accommodating change like advances in equipment design, processing procedures or technological developments. HACCP can also be applied throughout the food chain from primary production to final product consumption. Its implementation can provide other significant benefits such as enhancing food safety measures. Moreover, the application of HACCP systems can aid inspection by regulatory authorities and promote international trade by increasing confidence in food safety. The successful application of HACCP requires the full commitment and involvement of management and the work force. It also requires a multidisciplinary approach – which should include, whenever appropriate, expertise in the following fields: agronomy, veterinary health, production, microbiology, medicine, public health, food technology, environmental health, chemistry and engineering.

The seven principles involved in developing and operating a HACCP program (FAO 2003) are the following: (1) assess the hazard, list the steps in the process where significant hazard can occur, and describe the prevention measures; (2) determine critical control points (CCPs) in the process; (3) establish critical limits for each CCP; (4) establish procedures to monitor each CCP; (5) establish corrective actions to be taken when monitoring indicates a deviation from the CCP limits; (6) establish record keeping for the HACCP system; and (7) establish procedures to verify that the HACCP system is working correctly.

Typically, different CCPs and associated food safety hazards are identified from the HACCP flow of food during operation (Figure 1) in a food service setting.

Monitoring of CCPs is done best by using indicators that can be measured easily.

This focus on measurable indicators provides a more cost-effective approach to control than product sampling and testing, which is more expensive and may not provide timely results. This is especially important for foodborne microbial pathogens, because their incidence is low and costs of testing are high (Unnevehr & Jehnsen, 1999).

Figure 1. HACCP Flow of Foods.

The conceptual framework of the study is shown in Figure 2. Different CCPs and associated food safety hazards in various stages within the flow of food operation of selected popular Philippine street-vended foods were determined using the developed questionnaires and on-site observations anchored on HACCP flow of food. Qualitative data were transcribed to themes and patterns, sanitary indices used in microbial testing were coliform counts, E. coli detection, aerobic plate count, and heterotrophic plate count. Gathered data from qualitative and quantitative methods were the basis of the HACCP- based framework plan.

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Figure 2. Conceptual Framework.

METHODOLOGY Research design This study employed a mixed method. According to Greene (2007), mixed methods research allows for the ‘opportunity to compensate for inherent method weaknesses, capitalize on inherent method strengths, and offset inevitable method biases.’ While mixed methods research combines both qualitative and quantitative methods in ways that draw on the strengths of both traditions of inquiry, it is a clear step away from the boundaries and practices of those traditions, especially those linked to quantitative methods. There are three identified typical uses of a mixed methods study which include testing the agreement of findings obtained from different measuring instruments, clarifying and building on the results of one method with another method, and demonstrating how the results from one method can impact subsequent methods or inferences drawn from the results (Caracelli & Greene 1997).

For the qualitative part of this study, a descriptive survey design was used to identify food safety hazards and establish the CCPs within the flow of street-vended food operations of calamari, chicken intestine, and ready-to-eat watermelon within the vicinity of the test campus using HACCP as food safety management system. Meanwhile, the quantitative part include results from microbiological tests of calamari, chicken intestine, ready-to-eat watermelon, and the ice used to cool the watermelon.

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Participants and samples In this study, a street vendor is anyone selling ready-to-eat foods and drinks in the streets and public places within the vicinity of the test campus. Purposive sampling was employed where vendors tend to congregate based on proximity to the test campus, open air market, and establishments in the area. Two participants were purposively selected: one is selling calamari and chicken intestine, and the second vendor is selling ready-to-eat watermelon. Food items that they sell are considered as TCS foods or food items that are highly perishable and represent the category of seafood-based, chicken-based products, and fresh produce, respectively. Sampling population was limited to only seven total street vendors visible within the test campus vicinity who were selling uniquely different food items such as piaya (pastry-based snack food with sweet filling), fish balls, kikiam, siomai-rice, burger, beverages, calamari, chicken intestine, and ready-to-eat fresh-cut fruits such as watermelon and pineapple.

Food samples were obtained from respective vendor with two samples each for the street-vended foods. One sample was held for more three to four hours while the other sample was newly cooked (as ordered) for both the calamari and chicken intestine. On the other hand, for ready-to-eat watermelon, one sample was already held on top of the ice block for than 3 hours while the other sample was freshly sliced as ordered. With regards to the ice block used for cooling the ready-to-eat watermelon, researcher obtained a portion from the block where watermelon was held for more than three hours while the other ice sample was obtained directly from the vendor’s ice supplier.

Instrument and data collection Face-to-face in-depth interviews were conducted using the researcher’s developed survey questionnaire based on HACCP flow of food and direct observations in street vendor’s actual food handling/operations. Participants’ consent were sought to ensure strict anonymity and confidentiality of responses that they have shared including the random samples of selected street-vended food products, sample from ice block that was used to cool the watermelon, and several photographs as part of the documentation.

Due to limitation in microbiological testing laboratory facility, the microbiological tests were done by a third party independent microbiological service laboratory at the Natural Sciences Research Institute (NSRI), University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines.

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Microbiological analyses Calamari and Chicken Intestine A. Coliform count The samples were each weighed and suspended in an appropriate amount of 0.1% peptone water as diluent to prepare a 1:10 dilution. Each of the 1:10 dilution was serially diluted to 10-3. One ml aliquots of the dilutions were pour-plated in duplicates using Violet Red Bile Agar (VRBA). The plates were incubated 35° C for 18-24 hours. Purple-red colonies with a diameter of 0.5 mm or larger and surrounded by precipitate bile acids were counted under a Quebec colony counter. The 10-1 dilutions were transferred to Fluorucult Brilliant Broth (FBB) to detect the presence of E. coli in the samples. The gassing tubes on FBB were examined under the UV light chamber to detect fluorescence. In the absence of fluorescence, indole test was no longer tested. The presence of gas (Gas), fluorescence (F), and indole (I) indicate the presence of E. coli.

The number of coliforms per gram was determined by counting suspect coliform colonies multiplied by dilution factor. Confirmation of the suspect of the colonies on Brilliant Green Bile Broth (BGLB) as no longer done due to the presence of other bacteria on the plates. Computation of coliform count was based on Hitchins et al (1998). The countable plates contain 25-250 colonies per plate.

B. Aerobic plate count or heterotrophic plate count One-ml portions from each dilution were pour-plated in duplicates using Plate Count Agar. The plates were incubated at room temperature for 24-48 hours and colonies were observed under a Quebec colony counter. Computation of APC was based on Maturin and Peeler (1998). The countable plates contain 25-250 colonies per plate.

Ice Samples Procedures were based on Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater (1998).

Data analysis procedure Obtained qualitative data were transcribed to themes and patterns by adapting flow charts from HACCP for Food Services – Recipe Manual and Guide (McSwane, Rue, & Linton, 2005) and HACCP Reference Book (McSwane, Rue, & Linton, 2005). Street vendors’ actual food flow were compared with the HACCP Flow of Food to determine any deviations.

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Results obtained from microbiological tests were compared to recognized food safety acceptable limits and/or standards. Subsequently, results from both the qualitative and quantitative methods were consolidated to come up with a HACCP-based framework plan for the selected popular Philippine street-vended foods.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Demographic profile of participants Vendor A was a 27-year old male, high school graduate who sells calamari and chicken intestine in the test campus vicinity. Meanwhile, Vendor B was a 32-year old male, high school undergraduate who sells ready-to-eat fresh-cut fruits such as watermelon and pineapple. Both of the street vendors have been vending for more than a year and their disclosed average daily sales was between Php 1,000 to 3,000 (exchange rate: 1 USD=Php 50.00).

Food safety hazards identification and establishing critical control points (CCPs) In the food flow of both calamari and chicken intestine (Figures 3 and 4), similar CCPs were identified at five stages such as in Preparation, Holding/Service, Cooling, Storage, and Reheating. The Codex guidelines define a critical control point (CCP) as ‘a step at which control can be applied and is essential to prevent or eliminate a food safety hazard or reduce it to an acceptable level.’ If a hazard has been identified at a step where control is necessary for safety/and if no control measure exists at that step or at any other, then the product or process should be modified at that step, or at an earlier or later stage, to include a control measure (FAO 2003). Respective CCPs for calamari and chicken intestine only differ in temperature control at CCP-1 and in terms of duration time of reheating in CCP-5. This is due to the nature of the food items such that calamari is easily cooked while the chicken intestine requires longer time of cooking in order allow heat penetrate and kill pathogenic microorganisms. Should there be deviations in the different CCPs, customers may contract potential food safety hazards (Table 1), hence, potential foodborne illness. Under Codex, a hazard could be any ‘biological, chemical, or physical agent in, or condition of, food with the potential to cause an adverse health effect’ (FAO 2003; FAO 2010).

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Squida

Physical hair, dead skin, fingernail, dust, wood splinter

Hazards Chemical particulate, cleaning agent, possibly formaldehyde

Calamaria (battered or breaded squid)

metal inclusion, hair, dead skin, fingernail, dust, wood splinter

allergens, additives, particulate, cleaning agent,

Chicken Intestineb

fecal, hair, dead skin, fingernail, dust, wood splinter

allergens, additives, Salmonella, particulate, Staphylococcus aureus, cleaning agent E. coli

Ready-to-eat Watermelonc

hair, dead skin, fingernail, fecal, dust, wood splinter, rusted metal chip from ice pick

particulate, cleaning agent

Street Foods

Biological Vibrios, Campylobacter, Parasites (Berryteuthis magister, Dosidicus gigas, Illex spp., Loligo spp., Nototodarus spp., Ommastrephes spp., Rossia macrosoma, Sepiola rondeleti, Sepioteuthis spp., Todarodes sagittatus) Staphylococcus aureus toxin, E. coli

Listeria monocytogenes, Bacillus cereus, E. coli

Table 1. Potential food safety hazards.

a FSANZ (2001); Rane (2011); USFDA (2011) b Gilbert et al. (2000); FSANZ (2001); Rane (2011) c FSANZ (2001); WAFMP (2005); Rane (2011)

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Figure 3. Flow chart for calamari (adapted from McSwane, Rue, & Linton 2005).

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Figure 4. Flow chart for chicken intestine (adapted from McSwane, Rue, & Linton 2005).

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The CCP wherein street food vendor had deviation include CCP-2 (Holding/ Service) because of the lack of equipment to keep the food items hot while left standing in the container. Food items that are left at temperature danger zone (5° C to 57° C) are susceptible to the growth of pathogenic microorganisms (biological hazard). Also, both items are uncovered and hence, exposed to environmental physical and chemical hazards. Interestingly, CCP-3 and CCP-4 are already bypassed because street food vendor claimed that leftover items were just for personal consumption and/or discarded.

The flow of food in ready-to-eat watermelon (Figure 5) differs from the first two TCS foods. Primarily because it is a fresh produce that does not require heating and reheating processes. Only three CCPs were identified in ready-to-eat watermelon which include preparation, holding/service, and storage. Deviations were observed in CCP-1 and CCP-2 wherein street food vendor doesn’t have any hand gloves to prevent bare hand contact with the sliced watermelons. Visibly unclean and unwashed hands, untrimmed nails, no proper clothing, hairnet, and source of clean water for hand washing were noticeable for this vendor. Sliced watermelons were directly place on top of ice block though covered on a push cart. The push cart container was visibly untidy as crevices contain stained particulates due to improper cleaning of the container. There was no reported food surface contact sanitizing agent that the vendor used. Accordingly, when holding of sliced fruits that requires no further processing before consumption at ambient temperatures during retail makes the produce at optimum temperatures for proliferation/invasion by mesophilic pathogens (Muinde & Kuria 2005).

Since pathogens are transferable through cross contamination – such as from one food to another, either by direct contact or by food handlers, contact surfaces or the air, street-vended raw and unprocessed food items should be effectively separated, either physically or by time, from ready-to-eat foods, with effective intermediate cleaning and where appropriate disinfection methods. Food handlers as the main agent in the flow of foods are required to be properly groomed, well-trimmed nails, and wear clean protective clothing including footwear and wash their hands properly before, during, and after handling raw ingredients.

Furthermore, food surface contacts, utensils, equipment, fixtures and fittings should be thoroughly cleaned and where necessary disinfected after raw food, particularly TCS foods (in this case, calamari, chicken intestine, and sliced fresh watermelon), have been handled or processed. These are the hygiene and sanitation standards set forth by Codex Alimentarius Commission (FAO 2003; FAO 2010). Apparently, the said standards were poorly observed by the street food vendors. Hence, application of corrective actions, measures and monitoring system are necessary.

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Figure 5. Flow Chart for Watermelon (adapted from McSwane, Rue, & Linton 2005).

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Under the HACCP system, any deviation in the acceptable CCP limits (McSwane, Rue, & Linton 2005) requires corresponding corrective action/s and that close monitoring system should always be in place coupled with an established record keeping and verification system to determine if the HACCP program is working and successful. These are the 4th to 7th principles of HACCP program and would require interagency and interdisciplinary efforts at establishing standard procedures and acceptable CCP limits applicable to Philippine street food vending industry and pertinent local laws/ordinances.

Microbial quality of selected street-vended foods and ice Aerobic plate count (APC or the total viable count or standard plate count or heterotrophic plate count , is one of the most common tests applied to indicate the microbiological quality of food. The significance of APCs, however, varies markedly according to the type of food product and the processing it has received. When APV testing is applied on a regular basis it can be a useful means of observing trends by comparing APC results over time (FSANZ 2001). It is shown in Table 2 that aerobic plate count for ready-to-eat watermelon held for more than three hours has marginal value of 2.3 x 104 CFU/g which means that it is within limits of acceptable microbiological quality but may indicate possible cross contamination in food handling or environmental sources. During peeling and slicing, the surface of the fresh fruit produce is exposed to air and that potential contamination with bacteria, yeasts and molds occurred. The protective epidermal barrier of watermelon has been ruptured, hence, increases nutrient availability and provides large surface areas that may facilitate microbial growth and consequently decreases its shelf-life (Del Nobile et al, 2007; Conte et al, 2009; Muriel-Galet et al, 2013). Likewise, the mechanical damage caused to cells during the process may increase the rate of tissue senescence which in turn reduces its resistance to microbial spoilage (Badosa et al, 2008). Note that the microbial quality of ready-to-eat watermelon has reached its borderline within more than three to four hours of holding on top of ice block. Further exposure to environmental hazards and inadequate cooling equipment may further hasten and aggravate the microbial quality of fresh-cut watermelon and consequently its food safety.

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Samples

Coliform Count (CFU/g)

Presence/ Absence of E. coli

Aerobic Plate Count (CFU/g)

Microbial Quality

Implication

Watermelon (sliced upon order)

<250

E. coli absent

5.0 x 102

Satisfactory1

Within the acceptable limits but vulnerable to contract foodborne illness

Watermelon (3-4 hours held)

1.1 x 104

E. coli absent

2.3 x 104

Marginal1

Highly vulnerable to contract foodborne illness

Chicken intestine (cooked upon order)

<250

E. coli absent

<10

Satisfactory2

Within the acceptable limits but vulnerable to contract foodborne illness

Chicken intestine (3-4 hours held)

3.8 x 103

E. coli absent

5.9 x 104

Marginal2

Calamari (cooked upon order)

<250

E. coli absent

2.6 x 103

Satisfactory2

Calamari (3-4 hours held)

<250

E. coli absent

2.5 x 105

Unsatisfactory2

Highly vulnerable to contract foodborne illness Within the acceptable limits but vulnerable to contract foodborne illness Potential foodborne illness

Table 2. Coliform count, E. coli detection, and aerobic plate count.

Meanwhile, for chicken intestine and calamari that were held for more than three to four hours have obtained values of 5.9 x 104 and 2.5 x 105 CFU/g, respectively.

The former is within the borderline of acceptable microbial quality while the latter was deemed unsatisfactory. Obtained results are consistent to the findings of Barrion and Hurtada (2006) wherein the risk of contamination of pathogenic foodborne microbes such as coliform, Staphylococcus and Salmonella is evident at different stages of preparation. Though deep fat frying of chicken intestine and calamari destroyed majority of pathogenic microorganisms, withholding the cooked items and subsequent storage at ambient temperatures has caused microbial growth and hence, considered as the critical control points. The risk of microbial contamination can be reduced through practice of good personal hygiene, proper holding, time and temperature, employing standard cooking temperature (77–85°C) and time (10-15 mins), and cooking chicken intestine and calamari only upon ordering. Temperature abuse on these street-vended foods compromised their safety.

1 FSANZ, 2001 (all in CFU/g): <106 satisfactory; <107 marginal; >107 unsatisfactory 2 FSANZ, 2001 (all in CFU/g): <104 satisfactory; <105 marginal; >105 unsatisfactory

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High coliform counts for all the samples tested imply that effective control measures should be implemented to improve the microbiological quality of street-vended foods and prevent potential outbreak in the campus vicinity.

E. coli were not detected for all the tested street-vended food items. However, the presence of E. coli in ready-to-eat foods is undesirable because it indicates poor hygienic conditions which have led to contamination or inadequate heat treatment.

Ideally, E. coli should not be detected and as such a level of <3 per gram (the limit of the most probable number test) has been given as the satisfactory criteria for this organism. Levels exceeding 100 per gram are unacceptable and indicate a level of contamination which may have introduced pathogens or that pathogens, if present in the food prior to processing, may have survived (FSANZ 2001).

Coliform bacteria belong to the family Enterobacteriaceae. The presence of coliforms is not necessarily indicative of fecal contamination of the water (WHO 2006).

Coliform bacteria also originate in the environment and can form biofilms on surfaces of equipment. Therefore, coliforms may indicate a problem with the quality of the water source or indicate possible contamination during the handling of ice or poor hygiene of equipment. The public health significance of coliforms in ice needs to be treated with caution in the absence of bacteria like E.coli and enterococci that are considered an index of fecal pollution (FSAI 2007).

The term ‘fecal coliform’ has been used in water microbiology to denote coliform organisms which grow at 44 or 44.5 °C and ferment lactose to produce acid and gas. In practice, some organisms with these characteristics may not be of fecal origin and the term ‘thermotolerant coliform’ is, therefore, more correct and is becoming more commonly used. Nevertheless, the presence of thermotolerant coliforms nearly always indicates fecal contamination. Usually, more than 95 percent of thermotolerant coliforms isolated from water are the gut organism, E. coli, the presence of which is definitive proof of fecal contamination. As a result, it is often unnecessary to undertake further confirmatory test specific for the presence of E. coli (Bartram and Ballance 1996).

The microbiological quality of ice depends on a number of factors including the microbiological quality of the water used in its preparation and the hygienic practices undertaken during its preparation and storage. This study detected high levels of coliform, fecal coliform, and heterotrophic plate counts (HPC) on the ice block samples obtained from both the supplier and the street food vendor (Table 3). Ice block sample from the latter is significantly higher than the former with values of 2.6 MPN/100 ml, 2.6 MPN/100 ml, and 5.6 x 102 CFU/ ml for total coliform, fecal coliform, and HPC, respectively. Contamination of ice may arise from the environment (e.g. air, equipment), improper handling and - 188 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

cross-contamination during storage. At the supplier’s point of source, contamination can be attributed to ice machines, the equipment which comes in contact with the ice and the training of staff (FSAI 2007).

Ice Sample Sources Supplier Street vendor PSNDW standard

a

Parameters Total Coliform Bacteria 1.1 MPNb/100 ml 2.6 MPNb/100ml < 1.1 MPN/100ml

Fecal Coliform Bacteria 1.1 MPN/100 ml 2.6 MPN/ 100ml < 1.1 MPN/100ml

Heterotrophic Plate Count 1.6 x 102 CFUC/ml 5.6 x 102 CFUC/ml < 500 CFU/ml

Interpretation Not potable Not potable Standard

Table 3. Total and fecal coliform counts and heterotrophic plate count of ice samples.

MThere are different sources of microbial invasion of sliced produce. Pathogens may invade the interior surfaces of the produce during washing, peeling, slicing, trimming, packaging, handling and marketing (Barro et al, 2007). A potential source of contamination is the ice used to cool the fresh-cut ready-to-eat watermelon as samples obtained from supplier and street food vendor failed potability test. It was evident that high chance of cross contamination may occur as the street food vendor directly placed the fresh-cut watermelon on surface of the ice block, held at ambient temperature, and stored in visibly unclean pushcart container. As shown in Table 3, water quality must comply with the microbiological standards specified by Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water.

Mensah et al (2002) noted that poorly processed street-vended produce have been identified as an important cause of diseases in developing countries. Bacteria such as Salmonella spp., Shigella spp., Campylobacter spp., and E. coli can contaminate sliced fruits and ready-to-eat foods through contact with sewage and contaminated water (Blostein 1991; Beuchat 1995; Gayler, Mccready, Reardon, & McKiernan 1995; Oranusi & Olorunfemi 2011).

Abrupt increases in APC levels might sometimes concurrently be associated with fecal contamination. Hence, tests for E. coli or other fecal-specific indicators and other information are essential (Batram 2003). Some studies have compared exposure to bacteria from water and from food and have shown that many more bacteria are taken up from food (Wadhwa, Kahled, & Edberg 2002). Meanwhile, preparation and subsequent holding and storage of ice are considered as the critical control points. There is high risk of cross contamination as freshly cut ready-to-eat watermelon gets contact with ice surface. Subsequent holding for a Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water b Most probable number c Colony-forming units

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more than three hours on top of ice block with poor cooling storage further aggravate the microbial quality of the ready-to-eat watermelon. Bacteria causing gastroenteritis can contaminate the sliced produce thus exposing the consumer to higher risk of food-borne disease (Jolaoso et al, 2010).

HACCP-Based Framework Plan World Health Organization (1996) recommended that authorities undertake Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) studies to identify and integrate critical control measures into strategies for improving the safety of street foods (FAO 2003). Hence, results and recommendations from this study are vital in writing future HACCP plan for Philippine street food vending system.

This study has outlined a general HACCP-based framework plan for popular Philippine street-vended foods with developed prototype kiosk for street vendors use (Figure 6). Whereas, several components have been considered in writing the HACCP-based framework plan for chicken intestine, calamari, and readyto-eat watermelon. These include: identifying potentially hazardous foods in the flow of food, identifying CCPs, establishing critical limits, monitoring actions, taking corrective action, record-keeping, and verification.

Potentially hazardous foods are those that are capable of supporting the growth of disease-causing microorganisms or the production of toxins. These are usually foods that are considered perishable. For each potentially hazardous menu item, CCPs were identified in the flow of food. CCP is a step in the preparation process where a food safety hazard can be controlled. Subsequent steps in the preparation process will not eliminate the hazard if it is not controlled at this point. A critical limit was established in each CCP. As such, a critical Limit is a measurable standard or limit that must be met to control the food safety hazard at a CCP. The process on ensuring that critical limits are achieved were described such as measuring an internal temperature, visually assessing food, or observing practices. All monitoring results are to be recorded using sample log forms. In case of deviations, suggested corrective actions were identified. Finally, procedure on verification if HACCP system works has been described.

The general HACCP-based framework plan of this study was anchored on the essential safety requirements for street-vended foods by Codex Alimentarius Commission, Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme (WHO, 1996).

Succeeding discussions on ‘Things to Consider in Future HACCP Plan’ were based on the said standards that the WHO has allowed to be freely reproduced and translated, in part or in whole, as for academic discussion purposes only.

Furthermore, section 9 of RA 10611 recognized adoption of Codex standards, hence, the use of aforementioned standards on street-vended foods.

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Figure 6. Developed prototype kiosk (for intellectual property application).

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CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION HACCP food safety management system may be applied to street food safety management. This study found that CCPs in the flow of selected street-vended foods particularly chicken intestine and calamari are at stages of cooking, holding/service, cooling, storage, and reheating. Meanwhile, for ready-to-eat watermelon, identified CCPs were at preparation, holdings/service, and storage.

Acceptable CCP limits may vary depending on microbial content and physicochemical characteristics of street food items. Through identification of CCPs and associated food safety hazards, this provides baseline data needed in establishing procedures to corrective action and monitoring system thereby prevent potential foodborne illnesses associated with the consumption of contaminated street-vended foods. Setting of standard CCP limits, monitoring procedures, establishing corrective actions and record-keeping, and system verification – all of these require interagency and interdisciplinary efforts with consideration to existing local food laws and regulations.

High levels of coliforms and aerobic plate counts were found in samples tested with those higher among street food items that were held for more than three hours. Meanwhile, the ice samples used to cool fresh-cut ready-to-eat watermelon were deemed not potable as obtained results showed higher values of coliform, fecal coliform, and heterotrophic plate counts than the microbiological standards specified by Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water. There were potential cross contaminations in the different stages in the flow of food for the selected street-vended food items. Results imply that effective control measures should be implemented to improve the microbiological quality of street-vended foods. This recent study confirmed and established the previous research of Barrion and Hurtada (2006) that the risk of microbial contamination may be reduced through practice of good personal hygiene, proper holding time and temperature, employing standard cooking temperature of 77-85°C, time of about 10–15 minutes, and cooking the street-vended food items only upon order by the customer.

Future studies may consider the addition of pathogen-specific microbiological parameters to determine degree of public health and safety risks. Other highly perishable street-vended foods and corresponding sauces may be considered.

Researchers developed general HACCP-based framework plan along with the prototype kiosk may be used for the development of a HACCP manual for popular Philippine street-vended foods and be considered by the local government units in the nationwide implementation of a universal protocol in assessment, implementation, regulation, and monitoring of street-food vending system in the Philippines.

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THE PERCEPTION OF TECHNOLOGY ADOPTION AMONG MIDDLE MANAGERS AND SUPERVISORS IN JAKARTA’S LUXURY HOTELS Dr Godofredo Cristobal UTANES,* Gredia TOKAN**

ABSTRACT As the world continues to observe fast technological advancement, businesses simplify production, speed-up operational methods, and improve consumption habits. Systems evolve in an unprecedented pace. Big data and artificial intelligence are becoming more popular in industry as they are used in many aspects of corporate, manufacturing and human processes (Marr, 2016). This paper recognises these conditions at the present era especially in Jakarta’s hospitality industry. As there is a scarcity of literature in Indonesia that elucidate on the state of technology adoption in the hotel business in the country, this study hoped to contribute to this segment of the body of knowledge. The point-of-view is from that of hotel middle managers and supervisors.

This research is a descriptive-normative study where the researchers aimed to investigate how luxury hotels in Jakarta respond to technology adoption to achieve business goals; what the technology types are already existing in Jakarta’s luxury hotels; and how innovative systems can help improve hotels’ competitive advantage. The researchers used the mix of quantitative and qualitative methods in collecting data and interpreting them. Primary data were collected using a survey questionnaire that both utilised closed-ended questions and open-ended questions. * DBA, Senior Lecturer, Vatel Singapore ** MBA in International Hotel Management Graduate, Vatel Singapore

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This questionnaire was an adaptation of a previous study conducted about Singapore hotels’ acceptance of technology used in business (Utanes, Albrightson, & Pakalapati, 2017). In the study where the survey instrument was based on, Utanes et al. argued that there was a notable difference in the number of technology types existing at that time in Singapore’s hotel industry versus the number of technologies perceived needed. This suggested that there was a general awareness among Singapore hotel middle managers, supervisors, and staff of the lacking technologies for adoption in the accommodation business. It was because of these findings and others why this present study used a revised version of Utanes et al.’s survey questionnaire. Among others, while having similar research objectives, the latter study has more open-ended questions. The current researchers added a few questions to further investigate into the status of technology adoption in Jakarta.

To interpret the data, the researchers used the centre of location measurement, mean, explored the general tendencies of the respondents along pre-determined variables. The data were also subjected to correlation statistics recognising that the survey questionnaires had closed-ended questions answerable by definitive responses. The Spearman’s rho correlation was used to treat the non-parametric data. The findings were then compared with information and constructs gathered from literature that discussed levels of automation other countries had assimilated.

The findings and results of this present study provided a clear picture, although partial, of the Indonesian luxury hotel industry in relation to the state of the current technologies in the field. It is hoped that outcomes of the research would encourage the hotel managements in Indonesia, hotel associations, and the government authorities to take a sharper look into how technology acceptance and assimilation in Indonesian hotels could be hastened or improved in a more intentional and orchestrated manner. It goes without stating that this study’s findings could influence the enhancement of productivity, efficiency, and effectiveness in hotel organisations in this part of Asia.

Keywords: Descriptive-normative, housekeeping, front desk, F&B, Jakarta, technology acceptance, technology adoption, hospitality, hotel, service sector.

INTRODUCTION Globalization spurs economic growth and the upward trends in world tourism and hospitality. Countries like Indonesia continue to enjoy rising income generated from accommodation, food and beverage (F&B), and travel-tour businesses supplying job opportunities to a large labour market. Indonesia’s government saw the rise in tourist arrivals landing Rank 5 in the world’s largest. The - 200 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

increase in domestic air travels by three times accounted for 97 million visitors achieved from the Year 2015 to the Year 2017, as reported by the CAPA Centre for Aviation. The main airport, Soekarno-Hatta, and Halim airport serviced 73 million passengers in 2018 (Dahrul, 2019).

Sustainability in business, such as the hospitality and travel industry, requires adapting to the dynamics of travel and purchasing behaviours. Moreover, hospitality firms must keep up with major innovations and global trends especially in the technological development side. Responsiveness to technological advancements will allow hospitality practitioners to develop effective strategies and service quality required by their customer-guests.

The latest trends in technology within the hospitality industry are crucial to the success of today’s hospitality business owners and managers. Thus, this study’s researchers examined how technology and its practical business applications are influencing the hotels’ operations, especially in Jakarta, Indonesia’s capital city. Many researches were conducted and published that explored the applications and impact of technological advancements in the hotel industry of many countries and their cities. However, not much is known about Jakarta hotels’ state of technology adoption.

Jakarta’s hotel growth has been very fast especially in the luxury and midscale hotel categories. Competition is also getting fiercer. Hotels need to find ways to strengthen value propositions and enhance management efficiencies and effectiveness. The researchers wondered how current Jakarta hotels and those in the pipeline, i.e., those under construction or about to open, would handle this challenge through technology acceptance. This research explored how innovative technological devices and systems could assist Jakarta hotels in enhancing competitive advantages and customer experience. It also attempted to unravel what kind of applications and technology types those hotels, specifically Jakarta’s luxury hotels, used as well as their responsiveness to advanced technologies.

The researchers further aimed to determine the possible reasons for the reluctance to adopt technology. Recommendations were crafted to encourage Jakarta hotels to measure up to the same level of advancement as other big cities in the world.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Indonesia’s hotelier community had started showing signs of awareness regarding technology advancement applied in their hotel properties since 2014 as expressed during the Hotel Management and Technology Indonesia Conference during that year. Then recently in 2017, the Hotel Management Indonesia Summit took technology as their discussion theme. They touched on some of the - 201 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

recent concerns and opportunities arising in this era such as the future hospitality and customer demand trends, the importance of online presence as well as how technology had changed and will change the ‘game’ in hotel operations (Hotel Management Indonesia Summit, 2018).

International brands such as AccorHotels already offer online check-in that allows guests to receive special messages pre-arrival, have their room key prepared in advance and includes fast check-out too (AccorHotels.com, 2018). The local chains are also trying to catch-up with technology to keep up with competition from the international brands. Indonesia’s leading hotel management company, Archipelago International, had partnered with RateGain to manage its online rates and inventory distribution (Bhandari, 2017). At the onset, there seems to be still an ample number of hotels in Jakarta that are not yet using advanced technology in their operations. This was what this study wanted to examine and validate.

Compared to neighbouring countries, Indonesia’s hospitality business’ embracing more technology devices and systems is assumed to be relatively slower. Many Singapore hotels, for instance, are already using small robots to deliver amenities or food to the room. There are also various automated machines, not only in big and luxury as well as in small hotels (Utanes, Albrightson, & Pakalapati, 2017).

In terms of innovation, W Singapore Sentosa Cove uses underwater speakers in their outdoor pools. Singapore has also already welcomed the handy phone (smart phone rental services) since 2013. As the Internet has allowed people to explore and discover things, it is not surprising that guests demand the same thing in Jakarta in particular. This goes without saying that Jakarta hotels need to do what is necessary to avoid being overcome by competition, let alone lose customers and profits.

Based on many studies and common knowledge, there are several known reasons why hotels have not yet adopted more advanced technology innovations into their establishments. Presumably, some of them are lack of capital, fear of human replacement by technology, anxiety over the unfamiliar and abrupt systems changes and many more. Yet the reasons may not be the same for the hoteliers in Jakarta.

This research was conducted to evaluate the acceptance of advanced technology in Jakarta, Indonesia, and to evaluate the factors, albeit reasons for the reluctance of luxury hotels to adapt. It further investigated the impact of technology advancement to enhance hotels’ competitive advantage and customer service experience. The researchers also sought to discover various improvements which can be made by technology companies to motivate hotels to accept technological changes for the better.

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RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND RESEARCH OBJECTIVES In acknowledgement of the concerns stated earlier, the researchers formulated the following research questions:

1. How do luxury hotels in Jakarta respond to advanced technology

intended to enhance customer satisfaction and streamline hotel operations?

2. What are the varieties of advance technology applications and types in luxury hotels of Jakarta?

3. How can technology advancement help enhance hotels’ competitive advantage and customer service?

From these questions, the following research objectives were derived, namely:

1. Determine the responsiveness of Jakarta luxury hotels to advanced

technology as a tool to enhance customer satisfaction and streamline hotel operations.

2. Identify the technology applications and types already being used in the luxury hotels in Jakarta.

3. Provide recommendations regarding technology adoption to help enhance Jakarta’s luxury hotels’ competitive advantage and customer service.

LITERATURE REVIEW Today’s hospitality industry has generally responded considerably well to the changes in technology. The innovative technologies have revolutionized the way the hospitality industry works in both the front-of-house and back-of-house making guests’ experience more satisfying (Bilgihan & Nejad, 2015). However, the main issue is for hospitality practitioners to maintain a set of sensible expectations of the devices or system’s users requiring them to formulate inclusive solutions to the needs of all stakeholders (Law, Leung, & Buhalis, 2007). The numerous inventions in advanced technology are popular within the hospitality industry due to the perceived benefits and demands. Yet there are hesitations for hospitality owners and managers to fully subscribe to them.

Although traditionally, the hospitality industry is heavily dependent on human interaction, evolution is inevitable. Service and information delivery processes deployed through Technology-Based Self-Service (TBSS) allow customers to navigate and deliver positive outcomes (Petrovits, 2014). Self-service kiosks used in hotels are designed to perform a wide range of functions like checking-in a guest and provide valuable information (Kasavana, 2008).

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Another area on technology advancement that the researchers would like to highlight is called the Internet of Things (IoT). This specific type of technology opens opportunities for accurate, fast, personalized and integrated services as hotels are able to use data of guest behaviors and preferences (Kansakar, Munir & Shabani, 2018). In their publications, General Electric Co. (GE) stated that IoT is categorized as the third wave of innovation after the Internet Revolution and Industrial Revolution (Evans & Annunziata, 2012). The applications of IoT can be implemented not only for smart-room or smart-hotel technology but also can be seen as a predictive maintenance system. Integrating IoT technologies in the hospitality businesses would bring great potential for increasing revenue and decreasing expenses in its management while increasing guest satisfaction at the same time (DePinto, 2017). IoT is somehow inseparable from big data generated by various devices applied. Big data is also crucial for analytics in the hotel industry, for example, in revenue management. The analysis uses both streams of internal and external data which contains information varying from the weather, local events, competitors’ performance and customers’ historical purchasing behavior to formulate decisions (Bradbury, 2017).

Robotics also has been adopted in hospitality to catch up with the other industry advancements. Tourism and hospitality companies are making use of robots to distribute information and perform simple tasks (e.g. cleaning, delivering, and serving) (Ivanov & Webster, 2017a). Robots are used as alternatives due to several reasons. If it is compared with humans, it is easier to train, economical to maintain, work independently, easily repairable and refuelled as well as do not get weary with repetitive tasks (Qureshi & Sajjad, 2017).

The business rule lays out that a business strategy must cohere with the functional strategies of a hotel (Okumus, 2003). Therefore, hoteliers should justify it by considering how the decisions of technology investments will support the hotel overall business strategy and specifically to support its competitive strategies (Bilgihan, Okumus, Nusair, & Kwun, 2011).

For hospitality and tourism businesses, technology plays a big role in raising customers’ awareness, promoting and delivering the promised of service offered by the establishments (Law, Leung & Buhalis, 2007). Those technology innovations assist service establishment to boost operational efficiency which also impacts on the increased value for the customers (Sorescu et al., 2011). It is also believed that it aids hospitality businesses to meet their customer demands in a timely manner while also providing accurate data; therefore, technology distribution in this industry has been growing exponentially (Connolly & Lee, 2006; Singh & Kasavana, 2005). These systems will leave such little room for miscommunication and confusion when interpreting guests’ requests faster than any hotel staff/personnel (Kansakar, Munir & Shabani, 2018). A system could - 204 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

perform the required task hundreds of times without complaining and without forgetting as programmed, unlike humans who can get bored and also have rights to be treated a certain way (Ivanov & Webster, 2017b). Furthermore, they also suggest that advanced technology systems can serve several customers at the same time, which is uncommon for human employee service.

Another research shows that the adoption of technology can strengthen a business’ competitive advantage (Eraqi, 2006). Creative use of technology could increase the value of services offered by a particular hotel or brand and it also means hotels could differentiate themselves from their competitors (Lee, Barker, & Kandampully, 2003). Within a fierce business environment which usually reflects a high competition level, technology makes a crucial factor for durable competitive advantage and also acts as a powerful defensive mechanism (Jaremen, 2016). Adopting the right technology could also help attract and satisfy the target market. It is also found out that business travellers would expect hospitality companies to provide the convenience of online check-in while leisure travellers would likely expect in-room entertainment amenities (Bilgihan et al., 2011).

A report on Jakarta’s hospitality business situation mentioned that the city’s hotels are heavily dependent on business from corporate and government clientele as it is the financial hub and capital city of Indonesia (Walters, 2018). The report also mentioned that Jakarta welcomed 2.6 million international visitors (+6% from last year). The ratio of international to domestic guests in Jakarta’s hotel is 1:4.4 persons (HVS, 2018). This shows that Jakarta hotels are still depending heavily on domestic guests.

BadanPusatStatistik’s (Central Bureau of Statistics Republic of Indonesia’s) official report in 2016 stated that there are 29 hotels with 10,957 rooms of luxury or 5-star hotels. There are some other publications made by big companies such as HVS, Colliers and Jones Lang LaSalle (JLL) that cover statistics on hotels in Jakarta. However, there is no number of hotels that was stated but only number of rooms. Colliers’ Q1 2018 Jakarta Hotel report concluded that at the end of 2017 there were +12,000 room supplies of luxury hotel rooms in the city. This was compared to the BPS statistics report which was +1000 added rooms. There were 4 new hotels in the pipeline with 837 rooms, i.e., expected to open by the end of 2018 (Salanto, 2018). JLL reported that the demand was forecasted to rise due to the Asian Games 2018, the regional election in 2018 and the presidential election, then upcoming in early 2019 (Walters, 2018).

Therefore, to answer the challenge of the future competitive environment domestically and globally, this study theorized that Jakarta’s luxury hotels needed to be ready to embrace more advanced technology. This research aimed to reveal how the hotels responded to advanced technologies and devices as tools to boost business and service performance.

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RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY The first tool in the collection of data for this research started with a literature review derived from secondary sources such as academic journals, conference reports, research reports, university dissertations, textbooks and articles (online and offline). The review touched on both technology adoption in the hospitality industry and the Jakarta luxury hotel environment in general. The researchers explored various advanced technology adoptions in hotels, customer demands and expectation of technology in hotels, benefits as well as challenges and disadvantages of technology adoptions in hotels and other factors influencing hotels’ hesitations to use advanced technology. Then the researchers conducted a survey among luxury hotels in Jakarta to generate primary data.

This research used the mixed research methods. The qualitative method was used for gathering through the open-ended questionnaire as well as the secondary data collected. The quantitative method was utilized in treating collected data from the survey of the hotel respondents, to explain the survey results.

The quantitative research findings were presented in tables to ensure the results are easier to understand and analyze. By analyzing these research findings, the researchers formulated recommendations to improve the hotel services through advanced technology utilization into daily hotel operations.

Sampling design At the time of this study, there were a total of 232 rated hotels in Jakarta, 29 of which belonged to the luxury class (BadanPusatStatistik, 2018). This research considered 11 (40%) out of these luxury hotels due to the non-willingness of the other hotels to participate in the study. However, this sample size represented those that were located in the central business district of the capital.

The direct respondents from the sample were mainly at the supervisory level (36%), assistant managers, chiefs, executives (27%), and managers (27%). Only 1 respondent came from the rank and file.

Survey Questionnaire The main research instrument used in this study was a survey questionnaire.

This questionnaire was adopted from a previous research entitled, “Singapore Hotels’ Use of Technology for Productivity, Customer Service and Branding: A Descriptive Study” (Utanes, Albrightson, & Pakalapati, 2017). The questions about currently used technologies and suggested technologies were divided into - 206 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

three departments. Other information secured included the number of personnel in the Singapore hotels. However, the researchers created several other questions to achieve the goal of this present research such as the reasons of respondents for hesitation to accept and the respondents’ willingness to accept advanced technologies.

The types of questions formulated in the questionnaires were closed-ended and open-ended questions. The close-ended ones were those very closely used by the 2017 researchers. This present study’s researchers added open-ended questions to further investigate the respondents’ opinions and insights on adopting advanced technology in the hotel. The survey has four sections which touched on the various current technology applications and the responses pertaining to technological advancement. There was a total of 21 questions. See the Appendix for the questionnaire details.

Data Interpretation In the interpretation of the data that resulted from the survey, the researchers used the arithmetic mean and median to avoid any possibilities of outliers and the outcome of the size of the samples. The mean is the most commonly used statistic for many researches; however, it was deemed that the median needed to be considered due to the ordinal type of data in this study. It was observed that there were no significant differences in these two measures of central tendency as far as this study is concerned (Laerd Statistics, 2018).

The Spearman’s Rank-Order Correlation (Spearman Rho) was used to explore the relationships among the variables considered in this study. This was used in place of the Pearson correlation because the data in this study did not satisfy parametric assumptions. The nonparametric data were derived from a sample size too small for the central limit theorem to lead to the normality of averages.

Moreover, the data were from an unknown distribution and are in the form of ordinal scale (Kruskal-Wallis Test, 2015; Laerd Statistics, 2018; Cardone, 2019).

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION The Jakarta luxury hotels’ main target market was dominated by the business segment (73%). The other hotels focused on both business and leisure segments (18%) and tour groups/MICE (9%). These findings support the previous statement that Jakarta was more of a business destination.

The sample hotel properties varied in size. The number of rooms ranged from 125 rooms and to 619 rooms. The average was 276 rooms with a median of 227 - 207 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

rooms. The staff number ranged from 90 to 600 personnel. The average was 265 staff members, and the median was 250. The researchers also sought the ratio of total staff to the number of rooms to further analyse the hotels’ manning situation. The least ratio is 0.5:1 (staff to room) and the greatest is 5.2:1 with a median of 0.93:1. Compared to the hospitality industry standards, these hotels are considered acceptable among full-service hotels. Most Asian hotels offer the best types of services and are supported by low average of labour costs (Vallen & Vallen, 2013).

After exploring the overall hotels’ demographics, the next part of the paper discusses the survey results from each of the three chosen departments of housekeeping, front office and food & beverage (F&B) service. In each department, the researchers also explored the personnel compliment by department, the current technology adopted and staff’s suggested technologies, among others.

Housekeeping Department The hotels’ housekeeping staff number in this research varied from 14 to 400 personnel. The average was 90 staff and the median was 78. Staff-to-room ratio was 0.33:1 minimum and the maximum was 0.65:1 with a median of 0.25:1.

These ratios were above the minimum requirement of 0.12:1 to have a good housekeeping operation (Kurniawati, 2014). This means that these luxury hotels in Jakarta had an ample manpower compliment. The technology types are reported in Table 1.

Technology Types Motorized maid’s trolley Smart-room system Self-cleaning toilet Prepacked linen Automated vacuum cleaner Robotics Automated bed linen remover Cloud-based PMS (e.g., HotSOS) Smart energy management system Walkie Talkie Total

Frequency 2 3 0 2 0 0 0 8 4 9 28

Relative Frequency 7.1% 10.7% 0.0% 7.1% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 28.6% 14.3% 32.2% 100.0%

Table 1. Current technology types in the Housekeeping Department.

Table 1 shows that most Jakarta luxury hotels used a walkie-talkie (32.0% of total) and cloud-based property management systems (PMS’s) like HotSOS (28.6%), a popular system which is a product of a company called Amadeus

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Hospitality. Four out of the 10 listed technology types in the survey were not yet used in these hotels. The research also found out that there were 4 hotelrespondents whose supervisors and mostly middle managers indicated that they have technology types that relate to their hotels’ “green” initiative like the smart energy management system. This constituted 14.3% of the total number of technology types mentioned in the survey.

Suggested Technology Types Smart energy system Automatic minibar/fridge checker Robot Cloud-based PMS Automatic room updating system Automatic room damage checker Total

Frequency 3 2 3 1 1 1 11

Relative Frequency 27.3% 18.1% 27.3% 9.1% 9.1% 9.1% 100.0%

Table 2. Suggested technologies to adopt in the Housekeeping Department.

A good number of respondents suggested that their hotel should be using robots in their housekeeping department (27.3% of total). The same proportion of the total technology types was also true for smart energy system (27.3%). A couple of them also suggested that automatic minibar/fridge checkers would be useful (18.1%). All the respondents were expecting more automation to be used in their hotels. They perceived that these technology types would be beneficial to them especially for their daily operations.

Front Office Department Referring to the front office staff number, the data in Table 3 taken from the survey, shows that it varies from 5 to 50 staff members. The average was 18 and the median was 16. The least staff-to-room ratio was 0.03:1.00 and the maximum was 0.11:1.00 with a median of 0.70:1.00. Compared to the hospitality industry standards which is 0.90:1:00 (Kurniawati, 2014), this median was therefore lower. This result led the researchers to believe that these luxury hotels were mostly understaffed and needed more support from management in the performance of staff’s daily tasks and operations duties, as far as the front office department is concerned.

In terms of the current technology adoption in these hotels, below is the list of frequencies and relative frequencies. Of the technology types, the most popular appeared to be the usual non-cloud PMS (22.4% of total). See Table 3.

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Technology Types Self-check-in kiosk Electronic form and bills Usual PMS Cloud-based PMS Express check-out Revenue management system Loyalty membership app integration Total

Frequency 2 9 11 5 5 7 10 49

Relative Frequency 4.1% 18.4% 22.4% 10.2% 10.2% 14.3% 20.4% 100.0%

Table 3. Current technology types in the Front Office Department.

The second technology type that existed already during the query was the loyalty membership app integration (20.4% of total) and electronic forms and bills (18.4%). Jakarta luxury hotels had not yet shifted to the latest version of the PMS but some of them tried to maintain both versions. The least used technology type was the self-check-in kiosk (4.1%). The research also revealed that most of the hotels displayed their green initiative by using the electronic forms and bills.

This reduced the usage of paper in their daily operations.

Suggested Technology Types Mobile PMS on tablet or iPad Online check-in and check-out Express check-out Keyless door Self-check-in kiosk Total

Frequency 5 1 2 3 1 12

Relative Frequency 41.7% 8.3% 16.7% 25.0% 8.3% 100.0%

Table 4. Suggested technologies to adopt in the Front Office Department.

According to the respondents’ suggestions, there was a need for mobile PMS – tablet and iPad (41.7% of total). Other desired technology types were keyless door (25.0%) and express check-out systems (16.7%). Those types may also help address guests’ needs of personalization and accommodate the current fast-paced lifestyle trend. Deloitte published a report stating that to satisfy today’s travellers, hotels will need to use guest profile particulars and customers’ historical data, to customize and automate individual travel experiences (Jennings et al., 2016).

This certainly can apply also to Jakarta’s hotels as these suggested technology types point to personalised service and improved customer satisfaction.

Food and Beverage Department There were 16 staff in Jakarta’s luxury hotels at the minimum. One-hundred (100) was the highest number of F&B personnel which is relatively a huge number.

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The average is 53 and the median is 48. Each of these hotels had varied need of manpower because they had differing number and sizes of covers in their inhouse F&B outlets and function halls. Below is the list and relative frequencies of current technology adoption in the Jakarta luxury hotels’ F&B departments.

Technology Types Table for ordering Automated kitchen stock ordering Usual POS Cloud-based POS Self-ordering kiosk or machine Robotics Total

Frequency 0 0 10 2 0 0 12

Relative Frequency 4.1% 18.4% 22.4% 10.2% 10.2% 14.3% 100.0%

Table 5. Current technology types in the F&B Department.

Table 5 shows the current technology types existing in the Jakarta luxury hotels’ F&B departments. It can be gleaned that most of these inhouse hotel F&B outlets were using the common or usual POS (point-of-sale) system (22.4% of total), that is, not yet cloud-based which was the more advanced type adopted in a few hotels as far as the managers and supervisors presumed they were. Two of these luxury hotels already had the latter.

Among the three hotel departments included in this study, the F&B department had the least number of technology types being adopted. Thus, there could be plenty of room still in the aspect of technology adoption.

Suggested Technology Types Ordering tablet or iPad Cloud-based POS (No answer) Total

Frequency 5 2 4 11

Relative Frequency 45.5% 18.2% 36.3% 100.0%

Table 6. Suggested technology types to adopt in the F&B Department.

In comparison to the other departments, the suggested technology types in the F&B departments inside the subject luxury hotels were also the least in number.

The respondents suggested the need for tablets or iPads for order-taking and for cloud-based POS as well (45.5% and 18.2%, respectively). The respondents were expecting technologies that would allow the staff to be more productive by cutting down service time and provide better service. This argument is consistent with a research conducted by Cornell University’s School of Hotel Administration that innovative technology can improve service-time perception which would relate to increasing customer satisfaction and retention (Dixon et al., 2009).

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Expected benefits from adopting technology The questionnaire also asked the respondents if they think that all current technology options in each of their hotel properties were enough to help the staff to perform efficiently. The results show 73% agreed and 27% did not agree.

However, this research tried to explore the other variables in regard to the expectations in advancing the use of technology in these hotel properties, as shown in Table 7.

Expected Benefits Enhanced guest stay experience Increased hotel revenues Increased efficiencies in service delivery Reduced labour cost Improved hotel branding Higher energy savings Total

Frequency 11 8 5 3 5 8 40

Relative Frequency 27.5% 20.0% 12.5% 7.5% 12.5% 20.0% 100.0%

Table 7. Expected benefits from adopting technology.

Table 7 shows that the most expected benefit is to enhance guest experience (27.5% of total). This finding is predictable as the aim of every hotel is to always satisfy its customers and consequently significantly connect to repeat guest usage or establishing more guest loyalty. A research proved that as the loyalty level increases dramatically when satisfaction level successfully reaches a high point and when satisfaction declined to a certain low point, loyalty dropped too (Oliva, Oliver & MacMillan 1992). The second most sought-after benefits were to increase revenue (20.0%) and to save energy (20.0%). As a business, these hotels were just like any establishment that aimed to gain better sales revenue.

In terms of energy saving, the result was also consistent with previous findings of the hotels’ concern for environmental preservation or the so-called “green living”.

However, among the list, the least chosen benefit was to reduce the cost of labour (only 7.5% of total). The researchers consider this to have a connection to the last question which asked if the respondent believed that the technology would replace humans in the hospitality industry in the future. The answer was dominated by 64% disagree and 36% agree. Thus, it is evident that the hotel would not significantly replace humans and reduce labour cost by adopting new technology.

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Possible causes of reluctance in adopting technology As mentioned before, this research sought to determine the reasons that caused hesitations as well as supporting reasons for adopting new technology in Jakarta’s luxury hotels. Both questions were enquired via the open-ended questions the researchers included in the survey questionnaire. See Appendix, Questions 17 to 21.

Possible Causes Costs and budget constraints Need to familiarize, for more training time, and new work adjustments Lack of human touch Guests’ adaptation (No answer) Total

Frequency 7

Relative Frequency 38.9%

7

38.9%

1 1 2 18

5.6% 5.6% 11.0% 100.0%

Table 8. Possible causes of reluctance in adopting technology.

According to the extracted data from the respondents’ responses, the biggest factor of their hesitations towards the new technology adoption related to costs (38.9% of total). Adopting new or more technology may mean that they needed to invest more capital and increase maintenance expenses. The data also allowed the researchers to unravel other issues like the added effort to familiarize with new systems, additional training, and new adjustments for the staff (high 38.9% of total as well). Some of the added technology types still need the human operator with the human touch and emotions, all important in the serviceoriented industry. Some or many of the staff were reluctant to changes with new technologies that might not be welcomed by guests in most probability, as the respondents expressed.

On the taking-away of the human touch when using technology in this people industry with high customer expectations, the feeling of emotional warmth is vital. Thus, hoteliers, particularly the supervisors and middle managers, were hesitant to embrace more technology types. Hospitality ties with the warmth of its provider, thus this notion could have been a factor for reluctance.

Respondents’ suggestions To end the questionnaire, the researchers gave space for the respondents to give comments and suggestions on productivity, efficiency, and use of technology in their high-end hotels. The open-ended questions allowed the respondents to speak their minds. Only two respondents did not give any answer or comment in this part of the survey.

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It was revealed that respondents were also concerned about the use of technology in relation to losing the human touch and hospitality in their hotel properties. They would like their hotel to adopt technologies that would continue to ensure the face-to-face interaction to still predominate service delivery. The respondents also wished that if the hotel would invest in technology it should boost performance and efficiencies. Technology is also supposed to enhance employee quality and not to eliminate it entirely. See Table 9.

Comments and Suggestions (Verbatim) 1. T echnology is great and helps people in many ways, but it can never replace human interaction and the emotions that go with it 2. T he human factor and technology should integrate 3. Technology enhances employee and service quality 4. W hat is needed is technology that is easy to apply 5. T o adopt technology, it must help the staff to improve hotel performance rather than make jobs more difficult to do 6. U se technology in the hotel’s different departments to save time and energy 7. T echnology must be easy and should not remove the warm sense of welcome in staff and hospitality itself 8. T he purpose of technology should be to enable the staff to deliver better service and cut unnecessary tasks

Table 9. Summary of comments and suggestions related to adopting technology.

Correlation analysis Correlation analysis was applied between the variables representing the 19 closed-ended questions in the survey. This was done to explore and express the strength of relationships. The Spearman’s rank correlation was used instead of its parametric counterpart (Pearson correlation). This is because the data were non-parametric as discussed in the earlier part of this paper. The correlation coefficient ranges from -1.00 to +1.00, and each positive and negative coefficient have opposing interpretations. The latter indicates inverse relationships.

Table 10 is the partial list of the most significant Spearman correlations.

The strongest correlation of 0.958 was found between the number of rooms and number of staffs. The correlation coefficients ranging from 0.803 to 0.862 also reveals this. The more rooms a hotel had, the more staff it needed to accommodate the needs of its guest and to operate very well. The similar high result was shown between the number of rooms and the three departments (housekeeping, front office and food & beverage department) staff counts. These results were to be expected. Another one on the top 5 correlation coefficients was the relationship between the number of housekeeping staff and the number of technology types in the room and housekeeping department with rho equal to 0.427. This - 214 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

value is considered to be a moderate correlation. This particular result indicates that the more staff they have, the more technology they adopt, i.e., in a moderate sense. Then, this ties it with the previous result, those with higher staff number are the bigger establishments; thus, they may need more technology to support the operations and administration departments.

In accordance with the above analysis, the relation between the number of rooms with the total number of technology options used and the number of suggested technology to be used is showing another closely moderate correlation of 0.297. There is a possible connection that bigger size hotels may require more technology.

Another interesting finding can be found in the higher values of 0.391 from the main target market and the number of technology types used in the room and housekeeping department analysis. It is revealed that the target market may influence the technology adoption in the accommodation. Apparently, the hotels that the business market would appreciate more technology and the hotels may use the technology to boost performance to comply with the demands of business travellers. There is also another connection between the main target market connection and the likelihood of satisfaction to current technology support for the staff, although from a slight to moderate degree (rho = 0.365).

Variable A

Variable B

Number of rooms Number of rooms

Number of staff Number of housekeeping staff Number of technology types in the housekeeping department Number of technology types in the front office department

Number of rooms Number of rooms Main target market Main target market Main target market Main target market Main target market Number of housekeeping staff Number of housekeeping staff Number of front office staff

Number of technology types in the housekeeping department Number of technology types in the front office department Number of technology types in the F&B department Total number of technology types in those departments Total number of suggested technology types Number of technology types in the housekeeping department Number of suggested technology types in the housekeeping department Number of technology types in the front office department

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Spearman Correlation Coefficient 0.958 0.862 0.862 0.803 0.391 0.237 -0.105 0.285 0.097 0.427 0.329 0.248

Number of front office staff Number of F&B staff Number of F&B staff Total number of technology types used in the departments Total number of suggested technology types Main target market

Number of suggested technology types in the front office department Number of technology types in the F&B department Number of suggested technology types in the F&B department

-0.293

Likelihood of agreeing to support technology adoption Likelihood of agreeing to support technology adoption Likelihood of agreeing to support technology adoption

-0.035

0.009 -0.651

-0.283 0.365

Table 10. Spearman correlation coefficients partial summary.

The negative correlation of -0.651 was found between the number of food & beverage staff and the number of technology types in the same department. This indicates an inverse relationship between these two variables. The more F&B staff, the less technology types there were. A similar situation occurs for the number of front office staff and the number of technology types with a correlation coefficient of -0.293. It may be assumed that technology might not be needed in this department if the number of staff members could do the tasks.

This is good to further investigate though beyond the boundaries of this study.

Similarities and differences between Jakarta’s luxury hotels and Singapore hotels As this present study was patterned after the one conducted in Singapore hotels in 2017, it is logical to compare the results of this research and the latter (Utanes, Albrightson, & Pakalapati, 2017). This is to see if there are significant similarities and differences that could serve as basis for certain possible improvements especially applicable to Jakarta hotels. Table 11 summarises those similarities and differences.

Variables

Jakarta

Type of hotels

Luxury category

Number of rooms

Housekeeping staff headcount

125 to 619 rooms (227 median), 276 (mean) 90 to 600 (250 median), 265 (mean) 71.5% (STR, 2018) 14 to 400 (78 median), 90 (mean)

Singapore* From economy to luxury categories 100 to 200 (median), 152 (mean) 51 to 100 (median), 105 (mean) 90% (median), 85% (mean) 1 to 20 (median), 31 (mean)

Number of existing housekeeping technology types

2.5 (mean)

2 (median), 2 (mean)

Total hotel headcount Expected occupancy rate

* Utanes, Albrightson & Pakalapati, 2017

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Variables Number of desired housekeeping technology types Front desk managers & staff range Number of existing front desk technology types Number of desired front desk technology types

Jakarta

Singapore*

1.0 (mean)

1.0 (median), 2.6 (mean)

5 to 50 (16 median), 18 (mean)

1 to 20 (median), 20 (mean)

4.4 (mean)

1 (median), 1.5 (mean)

1.1 (mean)

1 (median), 1.8 (mean)

F&B staff headcount range

16 to 100 (48 median), 53 (mean)

1 to 20 (median), 12.2 (mean)

Number of existing F&B technology types Number of needed F&B technology types

1.1 (mean)

1 (median), 1.4 (mean)

1.0 (mean)

1 (median), 1.3 (mean)

Total-hotel-staff-to-room ratio Housekeeping-staff-to-room ratio Front-desk-staff-to-room ratio

Highest correlations (Spearman’s Rho)

Inverse correlations (Spearman’s Rho)

0.5:1.0 to 5.2:1.0 1:20 (median = 0.9:1.0) 0.3:1.0 to 0.7:1.0 1:10 median, (median = 0.3:1.0) 1:5 mean 0.03:1.00 to 0.11:1.00 Not indicated (median = 0.7:1.0) 0.958, room number 0.895, staff positions and staff number and staff designations 0.862, room number 0.620, hotel staff headcount and housekeeping staff and housekeeping staff number headcount 0.862, room number 0.607, number and housekeeping technology of managers and hotel type number headcount 0.803, room number 0.570, F&B staff and front desk technology headcount and number type number of F&B outlets 0.427, housekeeping staff 0.512, number number and housekeeping of hotel rooms and number technology type number of managers 0.391, main target market 0.502, front desk staff and housekeeping technology headcount and housekeeping type number staff headcount Likelihood of agreeing to support technology -0.283 adoption -0.651, F&B staff number -0.408, number and suggested F&B of F&B outlets technology type number and hotel location -0.293, front desk staff -0.363, number number and suggested front of rooms desk technology type number and hotel location -0.283, total number of -0.316, number suggested technology types of managers and likelihood of agreeing to and hotel location support technology adoption

Table 11. Comparison of Jakarta luxury hotels and Singapore hotels. * Utanes, Albrightson & Pakalapati, 2017

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It could be gleaned from Table 11 that Jakarta luxury hotels tended to have more rooms than Singapore hotels (mean of 265 rooms versus 105 rooms) while the occupancy rates averaged around 15 percentage points lower than Singapore hotels (70% versus 85%). It is also noteworthy that the staff-to-room ratios in the overall and in the various hotel departments in Jakarta luxury hotels were way more labour-intensive than in Singapore hotels. One possible explanation is that based on the researchers’ experience and knowledge, manpower supply in most service industries in Jakarta was abundant to the point of excess (Seow, 2019).

In Singapore, primarily due to the generally aging society and labour crunch the distant opposite is true. Ironically, occupancy rates in Singapore are sustained at traditionally higher levels.

Both hotel groups in Jakarta and Singapore had the highest correlations involving the total room numbers as well as staff headcounts. However, there was no correlation coefficient that had the same pair of variables. This goes to show that the variable predictors in the many different hotel characteristics were almost completely diverse and had distant significant differences. The inverse correlations between number of personnel and number of technology types were similar between the two hotel locations. This indicates that the more staff number there were, the less technology types were needed or existed.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS The fierce competition drove the Jakarta luxury hotels to step up their service qualities and other competitive advantages. In the other parts of the world, hotels were adopting advanced technology. The research findings showed that the technological innovations such as the smartphone, TBBS, IoT, big data and robotics were some of the chosen technologies outside Jakarta. The research also revealed a total of 19 types of technologies used in the 3 departments which not only included new technology types but some still used older or simpler types such as Walkie-Talkie. Compared to other cities outside Indonesia, like Singapore, the Jakarta luxury hotels adopted fewer technology types. However, the number of technology types either desired or suggested by supervisors and middle managers in Jakarta’s luxury hotels was close to those numbers in other cities and countries. This therefore implies that the same phenomenon existed in cities around the region inclusive of Jakarta as well. Nevertheless, the opportunity lies in the further adoption of technologies in this city and elsewhere.

In terms of the sought-after benefits and possible challenges of the advanced technology acceptance, the survey had collected other valuable insights as regard the characteristics related to technology adoption by Jakarta’s luxury hotels.

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mostly in support of each other. The benefits of adopting such technologies were to acquire competitive advantages by boosting performance and giving extra value to the establishment, increase guest satisfaction, provide accurate and fast data analysis as well as encourage good promotion. As any other investments, technologies are also expected to help increase revenue. An interesting finding in this study was that many of the responding hotels were keen to utilize technology to save energy. All of those positive outcomes also became the factors that created the willingness to adopt new technology.

Cost was the biggest factor of subject hotel supervisors’ and middle managers’ hesitation towards adopting new technology. Other reasons were more capital requirements, increased maintenance expenses, added effort to familiarize with new systems, additional training, and new adjustments for the staff. Lastly but not the least, these personnel were reluctant for adoption partly because they were not in favour of lost or diminished human touch in dealing with guests that advanced technologies would be impossible to provide.

The hoteliers at the supervisory and managerial levels also shared their suggestions related to improving productivity, efficiency and use of technology in their hotels. Most of these respondents suggested that the type of technology must ensure collaboration of human resource and automation, enhance employee’s quality to improve operation performance. The technology that needed to be adopted should not negatively affect the warmth and personal touch expected of hospitality service providers like in these luxury hotels.

RESEARCH LIMITATIONS This research aimed to reveal Jakarta’s luxury hotels’ responses to the wind of technological advancement and the level of its adoption has attained its objectives. However, the researchers had met some research limitations during the conduct and completion of this research paper. The first limitation was due to the lack of prior research studies of this topic in Jakarta or Indonesia. Therefore, the researchers did not have any historical or any other supporting data for deeper topic discussion.

Secondly, the sample size of the survey was not as big as what had been expected by the researchers. Despite of numerous survey invitations sent, there were only 11 respondents who had been willing to participate. A bigger sample size could provide more insights into and further enhance the quality of the findings. The third limitation was due to the respondents’ positions within the hotels. As the respondents were mainly working in the front office, executive floor desk and housekeeping, their insights on the food & beverage operation might had been quite limited.

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RECOMMENDATIONS AND FURTHER STUDIES The researchers would encourage local technology developers to create more affordable and reliable technology for the hospitality industry so that the Jakarta’s luxury hotels especially could have more options and access to the needed advancement. Local developers and technology providers should create tailored technology that would suit the Indonesian market more appropriately.

Education institutions, industry associations, analytics and consulting companies as well as government organizations should look at producing more in-depth and perhaps syndicated reports pertaining to technology developments particularly applicable to the hospitality industry in Jakarta, the whole of Indonesia, and those of other countries. These could serve as good benchmarks for Jakarta’s or even the other Indonesian cities’ hotels of which technology types could be needed immediately than the others. These bases could also signal timings and even could be used for costs comparison. Further studies could be undertaken about the right technology frameworks suitable to Indonesia’s hospitality industry.

Such models could assist hotel decision makers to prioritize on technology types. Lastly, a spin-off study could be undertaken that could aim to explore the expediency of adopting advanced technologies in the hotel business in Indonesia from the point of view of the hotel guests. Such further study could strengthen the claims discussed in this paper.

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QURESHI, M.O. & SAJJAD, R. (2017). A Study of Integration of Robots in the Hospitality Sector and Its Emulation in the Pharmaceutical Sector (online).

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APPENDIX Questionnaire on use of technology in Jakarta’s luxury hotels We respectfully request that you answer this questionnaire as sincerely as you can and please answer all questions. Rest assured your responses will be dealt with utmost confidentiality to the dissertation research only. Thank you.

1. Name of hotel__________________________________________________ 2. Your position in the hotel_ ________________________________________ 3. Main target customer of the hotel___________________________________ (business, leisure, MICE, etc.)

4. How many rooms and suites do you have?____________________________ 5. What is the total hotel headcount?_ _________________________________ 6. What is the total housekeeping team do you have?_ ____________________ 7. What kind of technology do you use in your guest rooms and housekeeping department? (please tick-off as many as you have in housekeeping) Motorized maids trolleys Self-cleaning toilets Automated vacuum cleaners Automated bed linen removals Energy management system

Smart-room system Pre-packed linens Robotics Cloud-based PMS (e.g. HOTSOS) Walkie Talkie

Others, please specify:

Others, please specify:

8. What technologies do you think would be useful in the guest rooms and housekeeping department of your hotel?_ ____________________________ 9. How many front desk team members do you have?_____________________ 10. What kind of technology do you use in your front-office department? (please tick-off as many as you can in the front-office department) Self-check-in kiosk PMS Cloud-based PMS

Electronic form & bills Express check-out

Revenue Management System

Smartphone loyalty app integration

Others, please specify:

Others, please specify:

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11. What technologies do you think would be useful in the front office of your hotel?________________________________________________________ 12. How many food and beverage team members do you have in the hotel restaurants?___________________________________________________ 13. What kind of technology do you use in the food and beverage department? (please tick-off as many as you have in the F&B department) Tablet for ordering Cloud-based POS Usual POS (e.g. Micros)

Kitchen automated stock ordering Self-ordering kiosk Robotics

Others, please specify:

Others, please specify:

14. What technologies do you think would be useful in your food and beverage department of your hotel?________________________________________ 15. Do you think all current technology adoptions in your hotel are enough to perform efficiently?_____________________________________________ 16. If your hotel would adopt a new technology for the guest room, please choose benefits you will expect from it? (May choose multiple answer) Enhance guest stay experience Increase efficiencies in delivering services Promote hotel facilities and branding

Increase revenues in the hotel Reduce cost of labor Save energy

17. Please state if there is other benefit you would be expecting_____________ 18. Please state what kind of considerations that made you hesitant in adopting new technology? (Minimum 2 considerations) ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 19. Please state what kind of considerations that made you willing to adopt new technology? (Minimum 2 considerations) ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ 20. Would you agree that technology would replace human in hospitality in the future? (Y/N)__________________________________________________ 21. Do you have any suggestions related to further improving productivity, efficiency, and use of technology in your hotel generally? ____________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________ - 226 Š CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS AFFECTING SILVER HAIR TOURISTS AND THEIR BUYING BEHAVIOR: GUIDELINES FOR TOUR PACKAGE DEVELOPMENT

Dr Marygrace A. AC-AC, Dr Ma. Corazon REYES

Dr Marygrace A. Ac-Ac is an Associate Professor at De La Salle-College of Saint Benilde. She graduated from La Consolación College Manila (BS Tourism, Magna Cum Laude), San Sebastian Recoletos College (Master of Business Administration) and Colegio de San Juan de Letrán (Doctor in Business Administration). Her 14 years in the academe as educator and administrator is complemented by skills-based training and tourism industry practice both locally and internationally. She was the former Business Development Director of Hospitality Institute of America-Philippines (HIAP) and Business Development Manager of Zip Travel Philippines. She has been the Corporate Communications Director of San Sebastian College-Recoletos and served as the Tourism Area Chairperson of the same institution. Prior to her career in the academe, she gained her professional and corporate experience in the hospitality industry both in the U.S. and in the Philippines. Over the years, Dr Ac-Ac has attended seminars as speaker and participant to build her capacity as tourism professional and as academician. She is a Certified Guest Service Professional (CGSP) of the American Hotel and Lodging Association (AHLA). Currently she is an active member of various Tourism and Hospitality professional associations and Board Member of the Philippine Association of Researchers for Tourism and Hospitality (PARTH).

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Dr Ma. Corazon Reyes is an Associate Professor of De La Salle-College of Saint Benilde. She has been in the academe for more than 25 years; her exposure being aligned with Tourism and Hospitality Management. Through this span of time, she spent 20 years as a Program Chair then Dean in another Educational Institution where her leadership inspired more individuals to join the Tourism industry. Prior to her career in the academe, she gained corporate experience from a five-star hotel after graduating from her degree in Bachelor of Science in Hotel & Restaurant Management. A few years into professional work, she launched her teaching stint and at the same time pursued her Master of Business Administration, and then went on to finish her Ph.D. major in Business Management, during which she found motivation to research and publish manuals and books for Tourism and Hospitality Management. All this got her hooked to teaching and started her journey in the academe. She is active in professional associations and is a PAASCU accreditor for Tourism & Hospitality Management program of the various educational institutions within Philippines.

She has served the Commission of Higher Education (CHED) as part of the Curriculum Revision committee for Tourism and Hospitality Management program for two consecutive years and currently, she is a Certified Guest Service Professional (CGSP) of the American Hotel and Lodging Association (AHLA).

ABSTRACT The number of silver hair tourists or senior tourists who are actively travelling both domestically and internationally is growing exponentially, thereby, providing opportunities for travel and tour operators to prepare specialized tour package for them. Most of the silver hair tourists are retired and have few family obligations; thus, they are capable of spending for travel and tourism and have more time for leisure and other recreational activities. As observed, silver hair tourists travel because they want to enjoy their retirement, to maximize relaxation opportunities, and/or to keep themselves busy with a myriad of activities.

The United Nations World Travel Organization (UNWTO) projected that international travel would double between 2010 and 2020, growing about 4% per year (UNWTO, 2017). The ballooning population of 65+ people is contributing to these figures. According to statistics, 10,000 boomers turn 65 every single day, and it is projected that the world’s population of 65+ people will grow from 600 million (2015 figure) to more than one billion by 2030. Further, the 65+ demographic is described as the fastest growing in the United States and the wealthiest in the developed world. As of this writing, for example, 17% of population in Europe, 10% of population in North America, and 7% of population in Asia are now 65+.

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The research was anchored on travel motivational factors and buying behavior and preferences of travellers who belong to the third age. Motivation is a behavior that influences an individual to act on his/her desire as well as in meeting his/her needs and wants. Buying behavior is an attitude of an individual in terms of choosing its preferences, interest, intentions, and purpose and will end up in making a final decision. In this study, motivational factors affecting the silver hair tourists choice of package tours, including their specific needs and wants that may influence their buying behavior and preferences were analyzed.

This study utilized the descriptive method approach. A survey using self-made, content-validated questionnaire and semi-structured interviews were conducted to determine the views of the respondents pertaining their travel experiences in terms of attractions, accessibility, accommodation, and ancillary services. To enrich the data gathered from the respondents, interviews with selected travel agencies regarding their recent experiences with silver hair tourists were also conducted.

At the end, the study proposed guidelines in developing package tours for silver hair tourists which aimed to help the travel industry in understanding the behaviours of the silver hair tourists. This is also intended to help the tourism and hospitality management students to learn about this new tourism market and understand the tourism products and services that can be offered to silver hair tourists.

Keywords: Motivation, buying behavior, Silver hair tourists, Tour package, Push and pull model.

INTRODUCTION The 2015 United Nations World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO)’s Barometer reported that 2014 was another record year for the tourism sector. The report cited that the number of international tourists (overnight visitors) in the year 2014 reached 1.1 billion, a staggering 51 million more than in 2013 (UNWTO, 2015).

With senior citizens (55 years old and over) representing around 25% of the European population, the European Union feels that the contribution of senior citizens to the European tourism industry is significant and thus, should not be taken for granted. Instead, it should be reinforced to face the challenge of seasonality, stimulating economic growth and jobs in Europe.

The European Commission acknowledges the importance of fostering transnational tourism activities by developing tourism off-season for seniors in Europe, a population group which includes individuals with both purchasing power and leisure time. But although senior tourists represent a significant economic - 229 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

market potential, older tourists are a very heterogeneous group and their demand and criteria for choice are far from being obvious. The seniors’ population group have varying needs and expectations in relation to age, health conditions, social and familiar constraints (e.g., care duties) and economic status. Nevertheless, some common patterns and preferences may be observed, especially concerning the age range 55-75. Among which are as follows: • older people would rather travel with a partner, with relatives or family members, as well as in groups with known people; • senior tourists prefer to travel with a budget of up to 100 € a day, to take 4-7 nights breaks, and also to extend the length up to 13 nights, when possible; • growing older increases the will to be autonomous in planning and managing travels, opting less frequently for all-inclusive packages, preferring to organise holidays individually; • the preferred touristic themes are nature and culture, whose accessibility and security are rated as very important; • also when older and retired, summer and spring remain the most picked up seasons for travelling.

Kumar (2017) has described that the world’s population is showing an ageing tendency, both in developed and developing countries. This is the reality that tourism stakeholders need to take advantage of as this a big potential market for travel and tourism. These seniors, commonly categorized as people above 50 years of age, have the strength, potential and mental attitude to go to and explore different places.

Seniors tourism is predicted to be a major force in the 21st century as populations continue to age. Senior tourists, sometimes called silver hair tourists are described in literature to have sufficient disposable income, have lots of free time, travel in any season, be willing to expand their time spent at the destination, and avoid catastrophe-struck regions. Because of other segment dominance, this category of tourists requires more communication, viable customized travel plans, personal care – more importantly medical and health services.

Therefore, based on the previous study conducted by various organizations regarding capability of the silver hair tourists to travel, the researchers are interested to answer the following questions: (1) What are the motivational factors influencing the silver hair tourists’ travel preferences in terms of attraction, accommodation, accessibility ancillary services? (2) What are the buying behaviors of silver hair tourists in terms of interest in travel, preferences in travel, intentions and purpose of travel? (3) How do silver hair tourists determine appropriate package tours including specific needs and wants? (4) As a final - 230 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

output, what guidelines can be proposed in developing a tour package for the silver hair tourists?

Significance of the Study The results of this study are deemed to contribute to the following specific sectors, (a) Travel Agencies and (b) Tour Operators as this study can be used as a basis for creating appropriate tour package guidelines specifically for the senior market; and as a reference for creating leisure and recreational activities suited for senior hair tourists.

The study is beneficial for the Tourism and Hospitality Management Students as this provides them the opportunity to learn about this new tourism market and understand the tourism products and services that can be offered to the silver hair tourists.

Scope and Delimitation The study was focused on motivational factors that affect the buying behavior and decisions of silver hair tourists of specific nationalities, namely, Americans, Europeans, and Asians. Likewise, selected travel agencies were interviewed to get their recent experiences in dealing with silver hair tourists specifically in terms of their travel preferences and other needs and wants.

LITERATURE REVIEW Since the year 2000, the number of travel and tourism studies that focuses on senior tourists market has been enjoying a considerable attention. According to Caber and Albayrak (2014), most of these studies attempted to explore the different aspects of the senior market by studying the “factors such as travel motivations, travel satisfaction, travel constraints, perceived health status and the associations of those factors with segmentation of senior tourists, their travel choices and travel purchase decisions.”

Travel Motivations of Senior Tourists One of the first studies that identified the travel motivations of senior tourists was conducted by Guinn in 1980. The study examined the leisure motivations of retired recreational tourists and identified rest and relaxation, association with friends and family, physical exercise, learning experience, and self-fulfillment as the five types of travel motivations (Vigolo, 2017). It was followed by the - 231 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

study of Mannel and Iso-Ahola in 1987 (as cited in Le Serre and Chevalier, 2012), who found out that escaping and seeking are the two main dimensions of travel motivations. The authors explained that “some people would be motivated to travel for escapism, whereas some others would be seeking personal or interpersonal rewards. Based on this typology, they suggested that older people would be motivated to travel in order to seek, rather than to escape” (Mannel and Iso-Ahola, 1987; as cited in Le Serre, 2012).

Since then, the travel motivations of senior tourists had become one of the most popular topics in the travel and tourism literature. As a result, new senior travel motives profiles were propose/identified (Le Serre and Chevalier, 2012). Still, it is a considerably popular topic today because while some studies argued that travel motivations remain stable over time, recent literature has supported that motivations travel continue to evolve and change over time (Vigolo, 2017).

Because of the number of studies on travel motivations of senior tourists available, Vigolo summarized in her 2017 book “Older Tourist Behavior and Marketing Tools” the main types of travel motivations of older tourists. These are reflected in table 1 below.

Author(s) (Year) 1980’s-1990’s 2000-2009 2010-2016 Escapism/ Guinn (1980) Shoemaker (2000) Musa and Sim (2010) Relaxation Shoemaker (1989) Norman et al. (2001) Le Serre and Chevalier (2012) Huang and Tsai (2003) Ward (2014) Cleaver Sellick (2004) Lee and Tideswell (2005) Boksherger and Laesser (2008) Sangpikul (2008b) Seeking/ Mannell and Lee and Tideswell (2005) Chen and Shoemaker (2014) Exploration Iso-Ahola (1987) Boksherger and Laesser Ward (2014) (2008) Social Guinn (1980) Huang and Tsai (2003) Musa and Sim (2010) Interaction Shoemaker (1989) Cleaver Sellick (2004) Le Serre and Chevalier (2012) Cleaver et al.

Lee and Tideswell (2005) Ward (2014) (1999) Tiago et al. (2016) Lu et al. (2016) Health/ Homeman et al. (2002) Freire (2013) Wellbeing Kim et al. (2003) Kurtulmușoğlu and Esiyok (2016) Learning/ Guinn (1980) Norman et al. (2001) Lu et al. (2016) Education Education Cleaver Sellick (2004) Cleaver et al.

(1999) Self-esteem Cleaver et al.

Cleaver Sellick (2004) Musa and Sim (2010) Jang and Wu (2006) Le Serre and Chevalier (2012) (1999) Sangpikul (2008b) Lu et al. (2016) Nostalgia Cleaver Sellick (2004) Tung and Ritchie (2011) Cleaver et al.

(1999) Travel Motivation

Table 1. Vigolo (2017, page 70).

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While there are numerous studies that identified travel motivations of senior tourists, Vojvodic (2015) cited that there is a need for more cross-cultural studies in examining different travel motivations and on factors that influence travel motivations of silver hair tourists. Moreover, studies that compare between age groups, e.g., differences between the senior market segments and the younger market segments, should also be explored (Vojvodic, 2015).

Travel Motivations of Senior Tourists by Region In 1995, Harssel and Theobald (as cited in Vojvodic, 2015) conducted a study on the US senior travel market and found out that the most important travel motives were escape from daily routines, stimulation of their senses, and a chance for social interaction. Meanwhile, Ward (2014; as also cited in Vojvodic, 2015) analysed the Irish senior tourism market and identified four distinctive segments, namely, enthusiastic travellers, cultural explorers, escapists, and spiritual travellers.

Prayag (2012; as cited in Vojvodic, 2015) analysed the push and pull framework to understand the motives of senior travellers of Nice, France and their future behavioural intentions. According to Prayag (2012), the most important push factors are rest and relaxation, spending time with family, and being together as a family. On the other hand, the most important pull factors are weather and climate, beaches and water sports, and beautiful scenery and attractions.

In 2008, Sangpikul (as cited in Vojvodic, 2015) investigated the travel motivations of US senior travelers to Thailand. The study revealed two distinct segments: “cultural and historical seekers” and “holiday and leisure seekers.” In the same year, Sangpikul (as cited in Vojvodic, 2015) examined travel motivations of Japanese senior travellers to Thailand, and found out that “novelty and knowledge-seeking” is the most important push factor while “cultural and historical attractions” is the most important pull factor. He added that psychological well-being and education influenced Japanese senior travellers’ motivations to travel. In addition, Ryu et al. (2014; as cited also in Vojvodic, 2015) also examined older Japanese individuals’ motivations for travel. They emphasized that extraordinary opportunities to meet new people and to form and develop new relationships as important travel motivations for Japanese senior travellers.

The authors further explained that creating new relationships through tourism allowed the Japanese travellers to escape from the existing relationships as well as from different social norms, hierarchies, and prohibitions.

In 2013, Le Serre et al. (as cited in Vojvodic, 2015) compared the French and Chinese senior travel market. The authors reported that the Chinese senior - 233 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

travellers may be described by a past-oriented motivation, which is mainly linked to nostalgia and patriotism. In addition, based on the findings of a crosscultural studies, Chinese senior travellers were found to differ significantly from their American counterparts.

Models of Travel Motivation The following are some models of travel motivations found in existing travel and tourism literature: 1. The Push and Pull Model The push and pull model was developed by Dann (1977; as cited in Kassean and Gasita, 2013) to describe the forces that drive an individual to travel. The push forces are related to the desire of the tourist to travel while the pull forces are associated with the qualities of the destination which tend to attract the tourist.

According to Dann (1977, as cited in Smith, Costello, and Muenchen, 2008), push factors are the factors that influence a person to travel to any destination while pull factors are the factors that attract a tourist to a particular destination.

Smith, Costello, and Muenchen (2008) further explained that push motivations involve relaxation, family togetherness, knowledge, prestige, and/or socialization, whereas pull motivations may be representative of culture (e.g., education and novelty). Dann (1977) proposed that chronologically, push factors precede pull factors in the travel decision-making process. Thus, the need to take a vacation precedes the decision-making process of where to go.

2. Social Psychological Model of Tourism Motivation More commonly known as the seeking-escaping theory, the Social Psychological Model of Tourism Motivation was developed in 1982 by Iso-Ahola (Hsu, Cai, and Wong, 2007). This model has influenced numerous studies since its development, but have only been tested in Norman and Carlson (1999) and Wolfe and Hsu (2004). The model is dichotomous by motivation (seeking and escaping) and by social orientation (personal or interpersonal), and explains that after a person recognizes one or both motivations, he or she will make choices based on social orientation (e.g., to go alone or with others). One of the weaknesses of this model is that the seeking and removing concepts (or escaping as in Iso-Ahola’s model) emphasize more on the ‘‘what’’ than ‘‘why’’ of actions. Another weakness of this, particularly in the context of senior tourism, is the absence of the biological dimension of motivation as could be found in most traditional theories of motivation in psychological and social fields (Hsu, Cai, and Wong, 2007).

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3. Leisure Motivation Scale The Leisure Motivation Scale was developed by Beard and Ragheb in 1983.

According to the proponents of this model, motivators can be classified into four categories, namely, intellectual, social, complete mastery, and stimulus avoidance (Kassean and Gassita, 2013).

The proponents explained that these different categories help to identify the different reasons why people engage in leisure activities. The intellectual component may be used to assess the extent to which individuals are motivated to engage in leisure activities involving mental deeds such as learning, discovery, thought or imagery. The social component may be used to review the degree to which individuals engage in leisure activities for social reasons. Furthermore, the social component includes two basic needs: the need for friendship and interpersonal relationships, and the need for the esteem of others. The complete mastery component is mainly of physical nature and may be used to assess the extent to which individuals engage in leisure activities in order to achieve master, challenge and competition (Beard and Ragheb, 1983; as cited in Kassean and Gassita, 2013).

The stimulus avoidance component may be used to assess the desire to escape and get away from over stimulating life situations. It can also be the need for some individuals to avoid social contact, to seek solitude and calm conditions whilst for others it can be looking for rest and relaxation. The proponents further explained that these different categories may act independently or as an amalgam of such motivators operating as driving forces for the individual to travel (Kassean and Gassita, 2013).

4. Subbotsky’s Two Dimensional Model A more recent modification of traditional motivation theories is the two-dimensional model by Subbotsky (1995). One dimension is concerned with pragmatic motives based on biological needs, largely independent of social and cultural factors. The other dimension consists of non-pragmatic motives, such as those based on self-esteem, empathy, and moral values. Subbotsky’s model is distinct in that it allows a considerable overlap between the two: non-pragmatic motives can be developed from the activities pursued in the satisfaction of biological needs (Hsu, Cai, and Wong, 2007).

5. Model of Senior Tourism Motivations Proposed by Hsu, Cai, and Wong in 2007, the Model of Senior tourism Motivations was founded on the theories of motivation and was based on the findings of a qualitative study among Chinese seniors. The model consists of - 235 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

two main components: (1) external conditions, which include societal progress, personal finance, time, and health, of which personal finance and time are mediated through family support and responsibility; and (2) internal desires, which include improving well-being, escaping routines, socializing, seeking knowledge, pride and patriotism, personal reward, and nostalgia. The first four factors are influenced by the life continuity concept, whereas seeking knowledge and pride and patriotism are affected by the respect concept (see figure 1).

Figure 1. A model of senior tourism motivations (Hsu, Cai, and Wong, 2007).

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This model puts forward eight propositions, as enumerated below:

1. Chinese seniors’ motivation for leisure travel grows with the societal

progress, with significant cohort effects; 2. the Chinese seniors’ motivation for leisure travel is subject to personal financial conditions, which is in turn affected by their family support and responsibility; 3. the Chinese seniors’ motivation for leisure travel is subject to the availability of time, which is in turn affected by their family support and responsibility; 4. the Chinese seniors’ motivation for leisure travel is subject to the perception of their health conditions and availability of health care; 5. Chinese seniors travel for the improvement of both physical and mental wellbeing, to escape from daily routines, and to socialize, with the ultimate pursuit of life continuity; 6. Chinese seniors travel to learn, with the ultimate pursuit of life continuity and respect, and to discover the country’s changes with a high sense of pride and patriotism; 7. Chinese seniors travel to reward their past hardships; 8. Chinese seniors travel for nostalgic reminiscence.

While the proponents of this model (Hsu, Cai, and Wong) admit that it is focused on China, they argue that the multi-faceted approach can be applied to other developing countries or regions that have experienced dramatic changes in a social and cultural context. Therefore, it is highly encouraged to conduct comparative studies among nations with similar recent developments to unearth a new understanding of the roles social and cultural environments play in forming the motivations and behaviors of individuals who experienced the various stages of the progression. Thus, this model of tourism motivation is the main framework to which this present study is anchored on.

Silver Hair Tourists Preferences Aside from travel motivations, this study also looked into senior travellers’ buying behavior and preferences. Thus. the following is a brief review of literature that focused on these factors.

According to Vojvodic (2015), ageing influences travel-related behaviour changes. This was in support to Kazeminia, del Chiappa, and Jafari (2015) who reported that “ageing is associated with senior travellers’ preferences for ‘safe’ options such as package tours.” This is probably the reason why senior travellers, - 237 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

as compared to non-senior travellers, seem to prefer package travel and are more likely to use travel agents for making travel arrangements (Vojvodic, 2015).

Lindqvist and Bjork (2000, as cited in Vojvodic, 2015), found out that perceived safety is an important factor in seniors’ decision-making. They added added that the perceived importance of this factor increases with ageing. Similarly, in describing a profile of older adult ecotourists in Australia, Lawton (2002, as also cited in Vojvodic, 2015) placed a great emphasis on a higher level of comfort and less risk.

Wang et al. (2013) studied the Taiwanese and Chinese senior tourists’ perceptions of service features on outbound group package tours. The authors reported that Taiwanese seniors consider five important factors (i.e., tour leader and tour guide, restaurant, hotel, coach, and scenic spot) while Chinese seniors name three important factors (i.e., pre-tour briefing, restaurant, and optional tour). When it comes to the main types of information sources the senior travellers use when making decisions about tourist and travel destinations, Prideaux et al (2001) and Patterson (2007), both cited in Vojvodic (2015), found out the importance of word-of-mouth sources and personal experiences for senior tourists.

In their 2014 study, Meltem and Tahir found out that “value for money” and “availability of organised entertainment in the hotel” were important elements for senior British tourists, while food service attributes, namely, “small food portions” and “special dietary menus” were more important for Dutch senior tourists. Similarly, Chen et al. (2014, as cited in Vojvodic, 2015) investigated whether senior-friendly facilities in a hotel affected the satisfaction levels of senior tourists. The results of their study indicated that a room with facilities could significantly increase senior travellers’ satisfaction with respect to cleanliness, comfort, illumination, overall satisfaction, and room recommendation.

In 2007, Moller et al. (2007, as cited in Vojvodic, 2015) examined the changing travel behaviour of Austria’s ageing population. They observed that seniors did not change their travel behaviour considerably when entering retirement status. This was supported by Lohmann and Danielsson’s 2001 study (as cited in Vojvodic, 2015) which reported that travel behaviour of seniors did not change significantly because of retirement. As a consequence, Chen and Shoemaker (2014, as cited in Vojvodic, 2015) suggested that although marketing programmes targeting senior travel market need to be updated, they do not need to be radically changed over time.

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METHODOLOGY Research Design This study adopted qualitative and quantitative research techniques to provide balanced data and a more empirical analysis. Survey questionnaires were used to gather responses from American, European, and Asian silver hair tourists.

The data were tabulated and interpreted through descriptive statistics. Structured interviews were also taken advantage of to gather relevant information from travel agencies and tour operators.

Participants and Sampling Method Respondents were chosen based on their nationality, age, civil status, and travel frequency. However, the researchers also consider the travel frequency of the senior hair tourists regardless if they travel domestic or international. The respondents were chosen purposively, based on the following criteria: must be at least 55 years old, and a resident of Asia, Europe, or North America. Ten respondents from each region were selected for this study.

The travel agencies and tour operators were also purposively chosen based on the following criteria: must have an office in Metro Manila, must be offering both inbound and outbound travel services, and must own the agency.

Instrumentation A self-made survey-questionnaire was used as an instrument for this research.

The first part of the questionnaire aimed to determine the motivational factors of silver hair tourists in travelling. This is anchored on the 4 A’s (Sectors) of Tourism. The second part aimed to identify the buying behaviour of the respondents based on the interest, preferences, intentions, and purpose to travel.

The questionnaire went through the process of content validity of three experts and pilot testing among 5 respondents only.

The questionnaires were distributed to and answered by the respondents through different means such as Facebook, e-mail, and manually (i.e., distributed on a specific time and venue). A set of guide questions was also prepared for the faceto-face and Viber/Skype interview with the travel agencies and tour operators.

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Data Collection and Analysis All survey questionnaires were collected based on specific timeline while all interviews were transcribed and fully documented. To ensure that data are collected on time, the survey was administered online and paper-based while the interviews with travel agencies and tour operators were scheduled on the convenience of the interviewees.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The following discussion presents the findings and interpretation of findings: Table 2 presents the motivational factors that influence the travel behaviour of silver hair tourists in terms of attractions. As can be seen in the table, the silver hair tourists agree on several motivational factors influencing their travel behaviour pertaining to preferred attractions. The table also shows that silver hair tourists mostly prefer a place surrounded by nature and scenery as evident in the highest mean of 3.46. It is also notable that a place that is not familiar to people received the lowest mean of 2.57.

Indicators

Mean

SD

Verbal Interpretation

A place that is not crowded 3.10 .803 Agree and that away from the city A place where people can relax 3.43 .728 Agree with less activity A place surrounded by nature 3.46 .637 Agree and scenery A place that will not require 3.10 .712 Agree extreme activity A place that is not familiar 2.57 .774 Agree to people Total 3.13 Agree 1.00-1.49: Strongly Disagree/1.50-2.49: Disagree/2.50-3.49: Agree/3.50-4.00: Strongly Agree

Table 2. Attractions as motivational factor to travelling behavior of the silver hair tourist.

A place surrounded with nature and good scenery may possibly give a very relaxing feeling to silver hair tourists and this will not stress them since the place is expected to be quiet, not crowded, and has good weather and temperature.

Seeing the natural beauty of the surroundings may also change the mood of the silver hair tourists because this will create a relaxing feeling in a stress-free environment. However, it should be noted that most of the silver hair tourists prefer familiar places rather than discovering the non-familiar places possibly - 240 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

because they do not want to explore and exert so much time and effort that will strain them and eventually may cause a disappointment on their travel.

The study of C. Hsu in 2006 reported that the silver hair tourists viewed that leisure travel is a luxury for the rich and powerful. Thus, in congruence to the result of the interview, senior market looks for a destination with interesting sites pertaining to nature and scenery and culture (Travel Agent No. 3).

Table 3 presents the motivational factors that influence the travel behaviour of silver hair tourists in terms of accommodation. The table shows that the respondents strongly agree that they prefer an accommodation with recreational facilities as evident in the average mean of 3.59. They also strongly agree they chose their hotel based on its popularity and reviews, as evident in the average mean of 3.53. While the lowest mean on preferred accommodation by the respondents is to try budget hotels with limited facilities with an average mean of 2.59.

Indicators

Mean

SD

Verbal Interpretation

Highly recommended hotel based on its popularity 3.53 .629 Strongly Agree and reviews A hotel with recreational 3.59 .682 Strongly Agree facilities Complete facilities just like home 3.31 .806 Agree Willing to try budget hotels with 2.59 .780 Agree limited facilities Willing to try Airbnb or homestay 3.17 .759 Agree Total 3.24 Agree 1.00-1.49: Strongly Disagree/1.50-2.49: Disagree/2.50-3.49: Agree/3.50-4.00: Strongly Agree

Table 3. Accommodation as motivational factor to travelling behavior of the silver hair tourist?

There may be several reasons why the silver hair tourists prefer a hotel with recreational facilities. One of which is because they want to keep themselves busy while inside the hotel, or this could be their means to release their stress, way of bonding with other friends and relatives, a way of relaxation, etc. These recreational facilities could be a swimming pool, gym, sauna, spa, indoor sports facilities, etc. In addition, it only shows that silver hair tourists are capable to spend and capable to travel since their basis on choosing a hotel is based on its popularity and reviews on the internet. Furthermore, the silver hair tourists would still be willing to try budget hotels with limited facilities if in case they have no other choice at all.

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Travel Agents No. 1, 2, 3 and 4 agreed that the senior market tends to look at the accommodations which has value for money. Price point is still a consideration but since most EU travelers would save up for their vacation for the year, they can afford to pay even if the price is quite expensive. This observation is true and reinforced by the presentation made by Dr Van Der Steina during the 3rd Annual Conference about Aged Tourism in 2014, where he mentioned that senior tourists prefer accommodation in 4-5 star hotels and which are popular among friends and relatives whom they trust the recommendations.

Table 4 presents the motivational factors that influence the travel behaviour of silver hair tourists in terms of accessibility. The table shows that silver hair tourists strongly agree to choose a place that is easy to reach, as evident in the highest mean of 3.55, and that requires less travel time, as evident in the second highest mean of 3.43. It has been noted that the senior hair tourists prefer to travel by sea as their last option as evident in the lowest mean of 2.59. This explains that silver hair tourists prefer easy accessibility with less travel time because they are avoiding stress while on travel as well as difficulty in transferring from one place to another. Likewise, they like less travel time so they will not encounter common hitches in traveling such as the feeling of dizziness, headache, stomach pains, and other medical issues.

Verbal Interpretation Less Travel time 3.43 .626 Agree Easy to reach the place 3.55 .632 Strongly Agree Traveling by air 3.23 .568 Agree Traveling by sea or Cruising 2.59 .712 Agree Land travel 3.04 .637 Agree Total 3.17 Agree 1.00-1.49: Strongly Disagree/1.50-2.49: Disagree/2.50-3.49: Agree/3.50-4.00: Strongly Agree Indicators

Mean

SD

Table 4. Accessibility as motivational factor to travelling behavior of the silver hair tourist.

Moreover, traveling by sea is their last option for the possible reason that cruising is quite expensive for other silver hair tourists, it will require a specific schedule of cruising which may not suit their free time and some difficulties that may encounter while cruising related to their medical conditions.

Concerning the conditions of the silver hair tourists in choosing a transportation depends on distance, reasons for travel, and destination. The importance of a private car in the area must be a priority. Bus transportation most especially in European countries, are most popular for older persons (Van Der Steina, 2014).

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Table 5 presents the motivational factors that influence the travel behaviour of silver hair tourists in terms of ancillary services. Among the ancillary services in listed in table 5, the silver hair tourists prefer to have banks and Automated Teller Machines (ATM) in the area, with the highest mean of 3.79. This is closely followed by the availability of various restaurants in the area, with an average mean of 3.69. However, the results also show that silver hair tourists do not prefer casino within the area, as evident in the mean score of 2.48. This explains that the respondents are capable to spend and it would be very easy for them to spend while on travel because of the availability of banks and ATMs. Indicators

Mean

SD

Verbal Interpretation

There should be entertainment 2.48 .986 Disagree and casino within the area There should be available 3.79 .412 Strongly Agree banks and ATMs There should be various restaurants and coffee shops 3.63 .490 Strongly Agree in the area There should be an available 3.37 .490 Agree hospital in the area There should be bar 2.90 .759 Agree establishments within the area Total 3.43 Agree 1.00-1.49: Strongly Disagree/1.50-2.49: Disagree/2.50-3.49: Agree/3.50-4.00: Strongly Agree

Table 5. Ancillary services as motivational factor to travelling behavior of the silver hair tourist.

Furthermore, they are willing to try various restaurants and coffee shops in the area as their way of spending leisure time. It is also noticeable that majority of the silver hair tourists do not prefer casino establishments in the area maybe because it may only create stress on their end, it may affect their health, or they are not fully interested in gaming. As observed, most silver hair tourists are wise spenders and they are after with value of their money that will satisfy them as tourists.

It appears that though ATMs, coffee shops, and restaurants are the priority of the silver hair tourists, health and wellness takes part in considering a destination.

According to the response of Travel Agent No. 3, they look for a tourism product such as health and wellness and not so much of active activities, therefore hospital, gym, and spa must be available in the area.

Table 6 presents the summary of motivational factors to travelling among silver hair tourists. Based on the table, the respondents all agree that these four tourism sectors could influence the traveling behaviour of silver hair tourists.

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As a summary of the four A’s of the Tourism Sectors, it is shown in table 6 that the highest among the Tourism Sectors is Ancillary Services with a weighted mean of 3.43, followed by Accommodation with a weighted mean of 3.24, Accessibility with a weighted mean of 3.17 while the lowest preferred sector is the Attraction with an average weighted mean of 3.13. Since the priority of the respondents is ancillary services, it simply shows that they want to ensure the availability of banks, restaurants, hospitals and other establishments that will provide their basic needs while on travel.

Variables Attraction Accommodation Accessibility Ancillary Services Total

Weighted Mean 3.13 3.24 3.17 3.43 3.24

Verbal Interpretation Agree Agree Agree Agree Agree

Rank 4 2 3 1

1.00-1.49: Strongly Disagree/1.50-2.49: Disagree/2.50-3.49: Agree/3.50-4.00: Strongly Agree

Table 6. Summary of the motivational factors to travelling behavior of the silver hair tourist based on respondents perception.

Secondly, accommodation is the second priority of silver hair tourists probably because they want to ensure that they will have comfortable lodging and recreational facilities that will make them feel relaxed and stress-free. They also rely on the hotel reviews on the internet as their basis on choosing the right accommodation since they are willing to spend. Moreover, the respondents prefer to go to places that can easily be reached with less travel time. This only shows that they are avoiding stress and other difficulties in travel.

Lastly, the silver hair tourists prefer to visit natural attractions to experience good scenery that will relax them and feel the beauty of nature. As stated by Table 7 presents interests in travel as factor influencing silver hair tourists’ buying behavior. The table shows that the buying behavior of the silver hair tourists in terms of travel interest is visiting heritage and historical places with a highest weighted mean of 3.67 while it is also very evident that silver hair tourists are not interested to go to places related to religion with the lowest mean of 2.41.

Based on these results, we can say that the silver hair tourists are more interested in visiting heritage sites such as museums, historical landmarks, old buildings including old churches. In addition, the silver hair tourists may visit old churches as part of their tour itinerary however, this is just to give respect to their respective religion, but they are not into practicing the rituals commonly done by the religious people.

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Indicators

Mean

SD

Verbal Interpretation

Traveling to places that have not been visited, 3.10 .995 Agree not seen or experienced Visiting heritage and historical 3.67 .479 Strongly Agree places Something that is related 2.41 .694 Disagree to religion Relaxing in a white sand beach 3.00 .743 Agree Traveling to do 3.04 .881 Agree recreational activities Total 3.04 Agree 1.00-1.49: Strongly Disagree/1.50-2.49: Disagree/2.50-3.49: Agree/3.50-4.00: Strongly Agree

Table 7. Interests in travel as influential factor to the buying behavior of the silver hair tourist.

Table 8 presents preferences in travel as factor influencing silver hair tourists’ buying behavior. The table shows that in terms of preferences in travel, silver hair tourists prefer to visit places within their budget, which is evident in the highest mean of 3.37. The lowest mean of the buying behavior is 2.61 where the respondents will visit places regardless of the price.

Based on these results, we can say that silver hair tourists mostly belong to generation X where they are described as very practical and they only spend based on their budget. Majority of generation X is pre-retirees and still working.

They usually allocate budget for travel based on their income level. While baby boomers may be capable to spend because some of them are considered fully retired and enjoying its retirement benefits.

Indicators Visiting places regardless of how much Visiting places if within the budget only Traveling using a package tour Traveling by myself and as an independent traveler Traveling with a group of silver hair tourists Total

Mean

SD

Verbal Interpretation

2.61

.916

Agree

3.37

.688

Agree

3.00

.784

Agree

3.22

.641

Agree

2.67

.784

Agree

3.17

Agree

1.00-1.49: Strongly Disagree/1.50-2.49: Disagree/2.50-3.49: Agree/3.50-4.00: Strongly Agree

Table 8. Preferences in travel as influential factor to the buying behavior of the silver hair tourist.

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Table 9 presents intentions and purposes of travel as factor influencing silver hair tourists’ buying behavior. In table 9, the respondents strongly agree that there are two factors that influence their buying behavior. These are discovering and learning other’s culture and traditions with the highest mean of 3.89 and exploring and be educated about the place or country, with an average mean of 3.59.

Indicators Spending quality time with loved ones Enjoying my retirement benefits Visiting unfamiliar places or country Exploring and be educated about the place and country Discovering and learning others’ culture and traditions Total

Mean

SD

Verbal Interpretation

3.45

.686

Agree

3.26

.594

Agree

3.30

.912

Agree

3.59

.501

Strongly Agree

3.89

.320

Strongly Agree

3.50

Strongly Agree

1.00-1.49: Strongly Disagree/1.50-2.49: Disagree/2.50-3.49: Agree/3.50-4.00: Strongly Agree

Table 9. Intentions and purpose of travel as influential factors to the buying behavior of the silver hair tourist.

The silver hair tourists consider learning other’s culture as a factor that influences their buying behavior since majority of them are well educated and professionals. In fact, some of the silver hair tourists are still working and they have a high interest in knowing others’ culture when they travel which can be used to build connections or network.

Table 10 presents the summary of the silver hair tourists’ perceptions of the factors that influence their buying behaviors. As a summary, the buying behavior of the silver hair tourists is based on their intentions and purpose with the highest weighted mean of 3.50 where the majority of the silver hair tourist would want to discover places, be educated and learn other’s culture and traditions. This is followed by Preferences in travel with a weighted mean of 3.17 where the silver hair tourists would want to travel within their budget only. While the lowest weighted mean of 3.044 is the interest in travel where the majority of silver hair tourists would want to visit heritage and historical places. However, it has been noted that silver hair tourists are not interested in traveling because of religious purposes.

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Variables Interest in Travel Preferences in Travel Intentions and Purpose Grand Mean

Weighted Mean 3.044 3.17 3.50 3.24

Verbal Interpretation Agree Agree Strongly Agree Agree

Rank 3 2 1

1.00-1.49: Strongly Disagree/1.50-2.49: Disagree/2.50-3.49: Agree/3.50-4.00: Strongly Agree

Table 10. Summary of the respondents perception of the factors influential to the buying behavior of the silver hair tourists.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS As the population of the silver hair tourists is increasing, the possibilities, challenges, needs and demands of this market segment must be given attention in the changing demands of the tourism industry. Numerous studies have attempted to explain the thriving demand of this market. This study found out that a destination with nature, relaxing and serene scenery appeal among the silver hair tourists. They look for accommodations which are highly recommended (wordof-mouth), has good reviews and gained popularity which has value for their money. The choice of transportation depends on the distance of the destinations if it is easy to reach (accessible) and availability of private cars for rent in the area is highly recommended.

This study determined that the senior emerging market tends to visit destinations with services such as health and wellness, however, the presence of financial institutions such as banks, atm machines, as well as the restaurants and coffee shops where they can rest, spend time to talk with each other as form of their bonding will give them fulfillment and memories. The findings revealed that all the sectors of tourism influence the travel behavior of the silver hair tourists.

The general statement of the respondents interviewed supported the result of the study that ancillary services, such as banks, hospitals, health and wellness establishments, existence of restaurants and presence of convenience have to be considered a priority as this will provide their basic needs. The silver hair tourists, therefore, preferred a one-stop-shop destination everything that they need is already provided if not must be accessible.

The findings suggest that among the interests of silver hair tourists are visiting heritage and historical places, and destinations with attractions related to culture and nature. Furthermore, the findings have discordance with the stated results of TOURage project report (2014), which stated that that senior tourists are interested in visiting destinations that is related to religion. This got the lowest mean as an influential factor in buying behavior of the silver hair tourists.

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To sum up the preferences and intentions or purpose to travel, the silver hair tourists prefer to visit a place that fits their budget, where they can learn something new and discover/learn more culture and traditions. It is important to emphasize that enjoying their retirement benefits got the least mean mainly because some silver hair tourists are not yet retired from work.

GUIDELINES FOR TOUR PACKAGE DEVELOPMENT To be able to capture the silver hair tourists and in light of the results and conclusions presented the following guidelines for Tour Package Development is recommended:

1. choose a destination with natural attraction, picturesque scenery, a

very relaxing ambiance, and educational highlighting the culture and tradition; 2. create an itinerary that includes visitation of heritage sites, historical places, churches, witnessing cultural activities and festivals. Avoid an itinerary that would require the silver hair tourists doing different religious rituals; 3. choose a destination that is familiar to the silver hair tourists and ensuring the convenience in travel including its travel time. Avoid too many connecting flights that will require a long period of travel with several transfers; 4. provide transportation vehicle such as private cars for rent for added comfort; 5. provide an activity that is educational and letting silver hair explore and learn other’s culture; 6. provide an accommodation that is reasonable in price with the availability of recreational facilities such as gym, sauna, and spa; 7. offer a destination where there are tourism ancillary services such as banks, ATMs, restaurants, cafes, and hospitals must be considered; 8. prepare a travel cost that is reasonable and within the budget of the silver hair tourists. Remember that the silver hair tourist segment is a combination of pre-retiree and fully retired individuals; 9. develop products and offer them during low and off-season in order to reduce seasonality and stimulate economic growth for the tourism industry.

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EUROPEAN UNION (Regional Development Fund) & INTERREG IVC, (2014). TOURage, Good Practices for Senior Tourism.

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LITTRELL, M.A., PAIGE, R.C., & SONG, K., (2004). Senior travellers: Tourism activities and shopping behaviours. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 10(4), 348-362. Retrieved from https://search.proquest.com/docview/19579065 9?accountid=190479 MELTEM, C. & TAHIR, A., (2014). Does the importance of hotel attributes differ for senior tourists: A comparison of three markets. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 26(4): pp. 610-628. https://doi. org/10.1108/IJCHM-02-2013-0103 NIELSEN, K., (2014). Approaches to seniors’ tourist behaviour. Tourism Review, 69(2): 111-121. doi: 10.1108/TR-05-2013-0021 PENNINGTON-GRAY, L., BELAND, R. & SKLAR, S., (2002). “Examining the Influences of Senior Discount Usage in the Hospitality Industry,” International Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Administration, 3(4), pp. 77-93.

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Available at http://media.unwto.org/press-release/2015-01-27/over-11-billiontourists-travelled-abroad-2014 UTAMA, R. & BAGUS, G., (2012). Motivation and Satisfaction of Senior Tourists for Travellers. Research Gate, doi:10.13140/2.1.1475.2008 VIGOLO, V., (2017). Older Tourist Behavior and Marketing Tools. Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing.

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ACCEPTABILITY OF SELECTED PHILIPPINE FERMENTED AND DISTILLED BEVERAGES AS BASE INGREDIENT FOR COCKTAIL DRINK RECIPES

Junefel M. RAMOS, Dr Benigno Glenn R. RICAFORTE*

Ms. Junefel M. Ramos, MSc was given a chance to be a part-time faculty member at De La Salle-College of Saint Benilde after her stint for a decade in beverage department on-board a luxury cruise ship. With these vast professional experiences, she decided to pursue her post-graduate degree in tourism and hospitality management. In Benilde, she passionately shared her knowledge, skills, techniques and experiences on how to effectively manage the bar, to appreciate wine and to impart food synergy to the future hoteliers.

Benigno Glenn R. Ricaforte, PhD is presently an Associate Professor, and is the Chair of the Master of Science in Tourism and Hospitality Management Program. He is a microbiologist by profession. Dr Ricaforte is a former president of the Philippine Society for Microbiology, Inc. and formerly, one of the board members of Philippine Association of Researchers for Tourism and Hospitality, Inc. He has delivered more than 30 lectures in conferences and conventions, and is also a prolific writer. Dr Ricaforte has already published numerous research articles and books, and his latest publication is out in the Philippine market entitled “Understanding Science in our Times for Grade 2” --- proving his versatility in academic writing and research. * De La Salle-College of Saint-Benilde/Vatel Manille

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ABSTRACT The Philippine fermented and distilled beverages like basi (from sugarcane), tapuy (from rice), and lambanog (from coconut sap) have been part of the Filipino historical and cultural heritage. In order to keep the economic and cultural viability of these notable native alcoholic beverages, the feasibility of creating a cocktail made from basi, tapuy, and lambanog as base ingredient has been designed and determined its acceptability using affective tests with a ninepoint hedonic scale. A total of 35 qualified panelists participated in the study. The acceptance rating of all cocktails ranged from 6.18 to 7.87 and was described as “like slightly” to “like moderately”. Non-parametric tests using Mann-Whitney U showed that no significant differences existed among the acceptance ratings between group of professional bartenders and hospitality management students except for Cailocandia, a basi-based cocktail drink. The use of Spearman Correlation and Internal Preference Mapping was able to identify flavor and balance as the most important attribute of the cocktails made. The result of the study revealed that Philippine fermented and distilled beverages like tapuy, basi and lambanog are feasible as base ingredient for cocktail drink recipes.

Keywords: basi, tapuy, lambanog, cocktail drinks, affective tests, Philippine native alcoholic beverages.

INTRODUCTION Almost every country produces native alcoholic beverages that become a trademark and touches culture, history and even part of person’s daily life (Egea et al.

2016; Francks 2009; Gayta’n 2011; Mitchell & Terry 2011). In a diverse country like the Philippines, it produces not just one, but numerous native alcoholic beverages; basi (sugar cane wine), tapuy (rice wine), and lambanog (coconut vodka) to name a few (Sanchez 2008). These beverage product categories have untapped potential in creating cocktail recipes. Mainstreaming these authentic beverages as a cocktail recipe ingredient could be a simple approach to educate consumers, enhance its value addition, and create public awareness.

Basi, tapuy and lambanog are usually produced in a traditional and informal way where recipes and procedures were passed on one from one generation to another and were commonly occurred on a small scale as an artisanal activity (Sanchez 2008; Velasco 2013). Gradually, local government agencies were finding ways to promote and improve the production of native alcoholic beverage through the Philippine Department of Trade and Industry (DTI), Philippine Rice Research Institute (PhilRice) and Department of Science and Technology (DOST). Conceivably, one way of preserving the culture and tradition is to - 252 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

embrace the uniqueness of basi, tapuy and lambanog and put into use as an innovative cocktail recipe. There is undoubtedly a huge potential and great perspective to utilize these Philippine fermented and distilled beverages.

The results of the study can be used by government and non-government organizations to maximize the viability and potential of the country’s fermented and distilled beverages. Local communities will benefit from the study because the demand for the local product will increase, thus, creating income generating activities. Industry practitioners will benefit from the study by utilizing alternative base ingredients for cocktail drinks recipe. It is hoped that the findings of this research study could help in cultural preservation by creating awareness and educating the consumers that these traditional alcoholic beverages can be an avenue of innovation by means of crafting these beverages into cocktail drink recipes. This could also be a good opportunity to show what the Cordillera, Ilocos, and Southern Tagalog regions in the Philippines have to offer. The study can also be used as a baseline by other researchers with a keen interest in the authentic native drinks who wish to explore more about these beverages products.

As limitation, acceptance test does not describe the perceived qualities of the product or the technical description of the product, but only the likeability of the product. Due to the lack of relevant academic literature on the local drink as a recipe for cocktail, this study relied primarily on literature relating the specific name of the native drink. The study of the native local drink in relation to cocktail recipes can be considered a baseline-research as there is a significant lack of previous researches and associated theories.

Specifically, the study sought to answer the following research questions:

1. what is the acceptability rating of tapuy, basi and lambanog based-

cocktail as assessed by professional bartenders and hospitality management students?

2. which attributes determine the drivers of liking and disliking of the tapuy, basi and lambanog cocktail recipe?

3. is there a significant difference in the acceptability rating between professional bartenders and hospitality management students?

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE & CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK The literature presents deeper understanding on Philippine fermented and distilled beverages like basi, tapuy and lambanog and focuses on the origin, characteristics, process, and history of these drinks. Considerations in creating cocktail drinks were also discussed as guidelines in developing a recipe made with the - 253 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

Philippine traditional alcoholic beverages. Similarly, the use of affective tests in relation to cocktail drink recipes was reported in the literature. The hypotheses and conceptual framework used in the study were also presented.

Philippines Authentic Native Beverages Aside from history, culture, fine beaches and ecological beauty, Philippines is also rich in agricultural products. The top three crops produced in the country, according to the report of Philippine Statistics Authority (2016) are; sugarcane (22,926.4 ’000 MT) where basi is produced from, rice (18,149.8 ’000 MT) where tapuy is made from, and coconut (14,735.2 ’000 MT) where lambanog is distilled from. The Philippines has a distinctive tradition of fermenting, brewing, distilling and drinking of native alcoholic beverages, which are produced in different parts of the country. Drinking local alcoholic beverages is often a communal activity, shared by men and women. Basi, tapuy and lambanog are typically consumed to welcome guests, to perform rites, to end of the day drink, to celebrate special occasions like weddings, fiestas, birthdays, and even to honor dead kinfolks --- a truly pride of the country which is worth preserving (Aldovino & Rodas 2010; Sanchez 2008).

Basi Basi, the indigenous drink of Ilocos also known as bassi, basy, or bashi originated among the people of Northern Luzon, Philippines is an alcoholic beverage made from fermented sugar cane juice and has a turbid, sweet-sour, and bitter taste (Sanchez 2008). Natives named this drink after the place called Banshee Island (presently known as Batanes Islands). Basi is one of the oldest traditional alcoholic beverages in the northern part of Luzon. When properly prepared, the finished basi is a clear beverage, of a brownish or amber color, possessing a pleasing aroma and having an alcohol content varying from 8 to 14% that can be aged or stored for a period of 1 to 10 years (Sanchez 2008). The use of barks, leaves and fruits of Macharanga grandifolia (samac) in the process which also serves as preservatives gives the basi a unique taste, aroma, and color; however, others use barks of Syzygium cumini (black plum), Ceriops tagal (yellow mangrove) and leaves of Psidium guajava (guava). Sanchez (2008) emphasized that the characteristics of this authentic native drink differ according to the production methods. There are also two kinds of basi ̶ the sweet type, basing babae (female basi) and the bitter type, basing lalaki (male basi) which is slightly higher in alcohol content. La Union, Ilocos Region and Pangasinan in the Philippines have their own method of processing basi.

According to Antonio and Ancheta (2014), the well-loved drink of Ilocanos has been part of Philippine history known as the Basi Revolt in 1807. People of - 254 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

Piddig, Ilocos Norte, Philippines rose against the Spanish authorities who wanted to control the manufacture and sale of basi. Consequently, this authentic native drink was even introduced by the late Philippine President Ramon Magsaysay during state functions to foreign dignitaries in the mid-1950s.

Basi making has always been a family enterprise and is one of the major sources of income of many families in Northern Luzon, Philippines. Some even plant sugar cane on their own farm to ensure constant supply of raw material, but not all sugarcane varieties are suitable for basi production. Basi made by different families differ in quality because each family has its own way of making it.

Basi-producing family keeps its technique a secret and were handed down only within the family from one generation to the other (Sanchez 2008).

Tapuy Tapuy of Cordillera, Philippines or rice wine is a traditional alcoholic beverage derived from the fermentation of polished rice. The production of tapuy is a source of income for farmer families in this area and is commonly manufactured at home-scale. Similar products are produced in other parts of the country as well as in different part of Asia where rice production thrives. Though each of the producing countries like China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Korea and others countries vary in quality (Mishra, Balamurugan, Hati & Paul 2015). As described by Delica-Gotis (2013) tapuy is known for its acidic, but sweet alcoholic flavor and a pleasant aroma. Similarly, Narvadez (2013) described it as a clear, full-bodied wine with luxurious alcoholic flavor, moderate sweetness and lingering finish with 14% alcohol content. However, unlike other wines that can be aged or stored longer, most home-scale manufactured tapuy often consumed only a month after fermentation. Thus, as suggested by Sanchez (2008) pasteurization is needed to make the shelf life longer making the product more stable.

Consequently, government agencies like DOST and PhilRice made some effort to continuously improve tapuy production.

Lambanog Lambanog, the pride of Southern Tagalog, Philippines is a distilled beverage made from fermented sap of palm. It is a neutral spirit with 40% to 45% alcohol by volume or 80° to 90° (proof) similar to vodka, and has a longer shelf life than the fermented alcoholic beverages (Velasco, 2013). Compare to other coconut vodka, lambanog has a distinct flavor and aroma of coconut and the distillation process is parallel to those of cognac or brandy where only the heart or middle part of distillate is being collected (Sanchez 2008). What makes this spirit or liquor even more exceptional is the traditional method of sap collection, being labor intensive. As described in the study conducted by Aldovino & Rodas (2010), no mechanical equipment is being used in collecting the sap thus, the - 255 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

expertise of the person that has to climb up to the coconut tree and able to transfer through the use of bamboo poles from one tree to another is simply amazing.

Though the production of lambanog started as early as 1908, it remains as a small-scale industry (Velasco 2013). Inevitably, lambanog production creates a livelihood for people who live in the area and celebration would not be complete without this particular liquor or spirit. It is once tagged as a drink of the masses, and considered as an integral part of their society and culture. Consequently, lambanog drinking bridges people together in Southern Tagalog, Philippines.

To date, no scientific studies have been done on physical, chemical, sensory, and microbial aspects of these traditional alcoholic beverages once bottled was opened and stored for future use thus, quality of these beverages cannot be guaranteed; similarly, shelf life and stability of the product must be considered.

Characterization of a Cocktail Recipe A recipe answers how and what questions. A creation how the item was made and what it is made of. It is a combination of ingredients and procedure. Basically, it produces the same results when it is replicated. Some recipes are created intentionally and unintentionally and more often than not it is a process of trial and error (Borghini 2015). Wharton (2010) depicts recipe in another level; for him a recipe is a creation with a passion. Hence, a recipe can be considered as a talent, skills, and the idea of a person wants to share of. Yet, not all recipes are affluently accepted by everyone, some needs to be tried-and-tested and others must come from an expert. Each and every recipe tends to have a story behind it and perceived as something special and precious. People usually use whatever is bountiful in the area and most of the ingredients used in a recipe are sourced locally. Thus, the recipe also reflects the culture, heritage, and regional identity.

In creating a cocktail recipe, there are some elements that need to be considered, these are the taste, presentation, balance, and flavor combination. According to some cocktail gurus, a cocktail must consist of the following: the base spirit that gives flavor to the drink (single or combination of liquor, wines, liqueurs and other spirits), the modifier that binds it together (juice, milk or cream, water and carbonated beverages), and the flavoring or special agents, whether a dash or a drop of syrup, juice, almond extracts or bitters (Broom 2010; Cross 2003). A drink garnish is also important as it serves as embellishment to the drink making it more enticing, enhancing its presentation. Thus, a cocktail is a minor work of art, which should be pleasing to the eye as well as to the palate. Each ingredient and method of preparation gives a character to the finished product hence a careful selection of the finest ingredients is indispensable.

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Nowadays, cocktail drinks are big contributors in the beverage industry. By 2016 alone, about 2.4 million liters of ready to drink cocktails were being sold through retail outlets as well as in food and beverage establishments (Euromonitor International 2017). The creation of these types of drink help liquor brands generates more sales and no bar possibly operates without the selection of cocktail drinks in their menu as observed by the researcher. This lead to the question on when and where really did cocktail drink originated from? Unfortunately, there is so much debate going on about the origin of a cocktail, plenty of theories float around; superstition, and hearsay; some say cocktails originated first in Europe and some say it was in America (Curtis 2010). However, the first appearance of the word cocktail was in 1803 in a newspaper edition of The Farmer’s Cabinet similarly it was also mentioned in 1806 in a Hudson, New York newspaper Balance and Columbian Repository and refers to as a type of drink (Cross 2003; Sismondo 2011). In addition, in 1862, fifty six years after the first mention of the cocktail, the world’s first cocktail book ever was written by no other than the Professor Jerry Thomas, the title of the book is How to Mix Drinks or The Bon-Vivant’s Companion (Sismondo 2011). On the other hand, as mention by Burns (2004), the second wave of fame of the cocktail can be credited to the era of prohibition (1920-1933) when cocktail serves as a vessel or carrier to mask the sub-standard poor liquor. Bartenders then had to mix this poor liquor with different juices and flavoring to make it more appealing to bar patrons.

At present, a cocktail is considered as an epitome of the beverage industries, the aptitude of the bartenders to be creative, innovative and artistic using not only house pouring, but also premium brands, in short, a cocktail denote as a bartender’s craft.

Inevitably, creating cocktail recipes using basi, tapuy, and lambanog as a base ingredient could add a significant vigor and ingenuity that provides a drink a unique sensory experience. A well balanced cocktail and good taste is paramount in developing a new recipe satisfying not just the thirst but taste buds as well.

Similarly, a well presented cocktail is perceived to be appetizing and mesmerizing. People tend to appreciate more if a cocktail being served has a touch of originality and creativity. In addition, offering distinctive beverages is an alternative way to boost sales and improve customers’ satisfaction. Lastly, a cocktail recipe made from local beverages tends to be more interesting as it symbolize vivid tradition, fascinating stories and history in context (Gaytán 2011).

The Use of Affective Tests in Cocktail Drink Recipes Only a few people get a chance to evaluate and taste most of the cocktails developed before being served in the establishments. This is due to the cost, time and - 257 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

effort that the company will endure and the need to invest more even before the cocktail is being launched in their menus (Singh-Ackbarali & Maharaj 2014).

Thus, consultation on the approval of these cocktails is limited to a handful of people, usually those in charge of company ̶ official tasters with heightened sensory evaluation skills. As a result, the use of acceptance tests in a cocktail drink is hardly ever applied due to the mentioned practical reasons. Predicting consumer acceptance of these cocktails is solely based on the subjective quality assessments of the management and so the success of the product could be uncertain.

Crafting a cocktail recipe through utilization of basi, tapuy and lambanog as base ingredient aside from drinking it on its own will maximize the viability and potential of the country’s fermented and distilled beverage. Initial activity includes sensory acceptance which is mainly applied to new product development and closely related to a product success. The affective test provides information on how much the cocktail drinks will be accepted by the panelists and other information on the cocktail drink characteristics.

Conceptual Framework Currently, no formal studies yet explored in the Philippines on the use of traditional alcoholic beverages as base ingredient for cocktail recipes. The potential used of these beverages have been untapped. The conceptual model as research paradigm that was used in the study is the input-process-output-outcome model (Figure 1). The input was the development of a cocktail recipe using basi, tapuy and lambanog as a base ingredient. The process was test of acceptability with the use of a nine-point hedonic scale. The output was rating of acceptability of the panelists. For the outcome, it identifies which of the four attributes determine the drivers of liking and disliking of the basi, tapuy, and lambanog cocktail concoction.

OUTCOME INPUT

PROCESS

OUTPUT

Flavor

Recipe Development

Affective Test

Acceptability Rating

Balance Aroma Presentation

Figure 1. Research paradigm.

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MATERIALS AND METHODS Research design Affective tests or acceptance test is the sensory tool used for new product development. In order to persuade people that basi, tapuy and lambanog were feasible as base ingredients in a cocktail drink, acceptability test was conducted.

The pleasure sensation to the given attributes that the panelists had experienced when tasting the cocktail drink measured the intensity of their liking or disliking.

In addition, the tool that was used to measure the intensity is the nine-point hedonic scale (Peryam & Pilgrim 1957). The attributes chosen for the cocktail drink samples were flavor, balance, aroma and presentation. Flavor denotes the combined taste and aroma (fruity, yummy, smooth, sickly sweet, sharp, bitter) balance for the sweet, sour, bitter and salty that compliments together as a whole, including the presence of alcohol, aroma for the smell characteristics (fruity, aromatic, floral, rotten, musty, pungent) and presentation denote the appearance of the cocktail (appetizing, presentable, lovely, dull, unpleasant, distasteful). The test procedures in the study like test controls (environment), product controls (preparation) and panel controls (procedures perform by panelists) were adopted from different published works done by Institute of Food Technologists (1981), Kemp, Hollowood and Hort (2009), Piggott (2011) and Stone and Sidel (2004).

This study used quantitative and qualitative methods. Quasi-experimental research design was utilized to measure the sensory characteristics and the acceptability of cocktail drinks. Affective test method is aimed at identifying a liking for a product (Institute of Food Technologists 1981; Kemp et al. 2009; Piggott 2011; and Stone & Sidel 2004). The assessment of panelists’ response to the cocktail and its market potential was clearly defined.

The use of a nine-point hedonic scale has been a standard for many decades at the U.S. Armed Forces Quartermaster Food and Container Institute, and is the most widely used scale for measuring food acceptability (Peryam & Pilgrim 1957).

In predicting consumer acceptance, the nine-point hedonic scale is proven to be more discriminating than the shorter ones, simple and effective measuring device. However, there was some indication that a scale with eleven intervals would be even more effective (Lim 2011). In affective tests, the pleasure sensation in terms of liking the cocktail will measure the intensity. All responses were converted to numerical values ranging from 1 for “dislike extremely” to 9 for “like extremely” with 5 for “neither like nor dislike” being neutral. During the test, panelists rated the overall acceptability of each sample cocktail drink, as well as their level of acceptance in terms of flavor, balance, aroma and presentation using the nine-point hedonic scale.

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Currently, there is no industry standard in terms of specific tasting sequence (Piggott 2011); therefore, the reverse traditional method of tasting evaluation was applied in order to avoid bias during sensory evaluation. The first step was sip and taste in order to fully evaluate the flavor and balance attribute of the sample cocktail drink. The panelists was advised to hold their nose after sipping the sample cocktail drink and swirl the liquid around the tongue and exhale, they also held it in their mouth for at least ten seconds. They were required to expectorate the sample, afterwards; they did use distilled water and bread for palate clearing, and the panelists were advised to rinse their mouth even before the tasting was conducted. The second step was to sniff or smell to fully evaluate the aroma of the sample cocktail drink. The panelists were advised not to hold the sample cocktail drink to avoid interference of any scent present in their skin. They were asked to bend forward ’till the sample is 1 inch away from their nose and do short sniffs for about 3 seconds while mouth is still closed.

They were allowed to repeat this process until they figure out the aroma of the cocktail drink sample. The third step was seeing the presentation of the cocktail drink sample. This time the proper serving of cocktail drink was presented, with garnish and appropriate glass was used in the cocktail drink sample. The tasting method used was the opposite of the traditional one that is being practiced for a very long time and also different from the current alternative method known as the C: STEM or Carmer Spirits Tasting Enhancement Method (Carmer 2011).

The flow of the tasting method for the traditional one were see, smell, and taste; meanwhile, the C: STEM method would be as follows; see, sip, taste, and sniff.

On the other hand, the study used sip, taste, sniffs, and sees method. This was because the aroma and presentation had a big influence on the perceived quality of the cocktail drinks (Spence 2013). Thus, the reverse traditional method was implemented. A consent letter was also given to the panelists prior to the sensory evaluation tests. Confidentiality agreement was offered, for ethical reasons, by withholding the identity of the panelists. The safety of the participants was also considered.

The Panelists The panelists or respondents were purposively selected for sensory evaluation.

These were professional bartenders who were currently engaged in the industry and hospitality management students who have taken a bar management class and of legal drinking age (18 years old and above). Panelists that were committed and willing to participate in the study, not allergic to alcohol, and not pregnant or breast feeding women were included. They were recruited by email, short message service and personal visit to the establishment and schools they were from. These panelists or respondents are familiar with the qualities of a good - 260 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

cocktail drink and both groups were the key consumers in high growth cocktail drinks market. The novelty of this study was characterized by the selection of the panelists who had experience in cocktail drink concoction themselves, but have no idea what the sample cocktail drink would be made from. A combined thirtyfive qualified panelists were used for the study. Generally, the recommended number of panelists for consumer acceptance test is one hundred but since both groups of panelists represent consumer population, this is considered adequate sample size for the given tests. Muñoz (Moskowitz, Munoz, & Gacula 2003) also stated that small sample size could be used in preliminary phases in the early product development process.

Materials Preparation of Cocktail Drinks Recipe In order to ensure the quality and safety of the product, all ingredients were purchased only from reputable manufacturers and sellers. The tapuy, basi and lambanog were purchased at the Agribusiness Development Center of the Department of Agriculture, while the rest of the ingredients were procured at the supermarket section of a shopping mall in Manila. All bar tools and equipment were available at the College for use. Proper hygiene and good sanitation practices were observed prior to cocktail drink preparation. Two cocktail drinks each were prepared for basi, tapuy and lambanog.

The cocktail drink recipes made from basi were;

1. For the ingredients; 60 ml of basi, 30 ml of banana liqueur, 15 ml of

calamansi (Citrofortunella microcarpa) concentrate with honey and 1 piece of medium lime. For the procedure; the cut limes in a whiskey glass was muddled, the basi, banana liqueur and calamansi concentrate with honey were poured, some crushed ice was added and was then stirred. The cocktail drink was garnished with lime wheel and was named Cailocandia.

2. For the ingredients; 60 ml of basi, 30 ml of jackfruit syrup and 150 ml of lemon-lime soda. For the procedure; all ingredients were combined in a highball glass, iced was added and was then stirred. The cocktail drink was garnished with jackfruit strips and was named Basi Spritzer.

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The cocktail drink recipes made from tapuy were;

1. For the ingredients; 75 ml of tapuy, 150 ml of guava nectar, 15 ml of

simple syrup and a dash of pandan (Pandanus amaryllifolius) extract.

For the procedure; all ingredients were poured into an ice-filled highball glass, it was mists with pandan extract and was then stirred.

The cocktail drink was garnished with pandan leaves and was named Cordillera Mountain Mists.

2. For the ingredients; 60 ml of tapuy, 60 ml of lychee Juice, 30 ml of melon liqueur. For the procedure; all ingredients were poured into a Boston shaker, was then shaken and strained into a margarita glass. The cocktail drink was garnished with lychee and was named Tapuylych.

The cocktail drink recipes made from lambanog were;

1. For the ingredients; 45 ml of lambanog, 15 ml of almond liqueur,

90 ml of mango and lychee puree. For the procedure; all ingredients were poured into a Boston shaker, was then shaken and strained into a martini or cocktail glass. The cocktail drink was garnished with mango slice and was named Quezon Marino.

2. For the ingredients; 15 ml of Irish cream liqueur, 10 ml of lambanog, 15 oz. of almond liqueur and 1 pc of wafer. For the procedure; the Irish cream liqueur was poured in a shot glass, followed by lambanog, and almond liqueur then, another 5 ml of lambanog was poured in a bar spoon, ignited and slowly poured into a shot glass. When served, the flame was tamed with a piece of wafer. The cocktail drink was named ILAW ̶ the acronym of the ingredients used.

The instruments Hedonic Evaluation Tests Affective test was used to determine if the cocktail drink made from basi, tapuy, and lambanog is acceptable. A score sheet with a nine point hedonic scale as described by Peryam & Pilgrim (1957) was used where 9 = like extremely, 8 = like very much, 7 = like moderately, 6 = like slightly, 5 = neither like nor dislike, 4 = dislike slightly, 3 = dislike moderately, 2 = dislike very much, 1= dislike extremely.

The panel of professional bartenders and hospitality management was asked to rate their preferences from dislike extremely (1) to like extremely (9) for four sensory attributes (flavor, balance, aroma, presentation) and overall liking. The presentation was ascertained after the aroma attribute of the questionnaire in - 262 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

order not to influence the perceived flavor and present or display the sample cocktail drink lasts. The panelists were offered an opportunity to write their comments and recommendations on how the product can be improved.

Additional information concerning age, gender, cocktail drink consumption frequency and awareness on Philippine alcoholic beverages was also asked at the beginning of the test in order to characterize the respondents.

Data collection procedure The testing was held at one of the laboratory rooms of a College situated in Malate, Manila, Philippines. The Commission on Higher Education, Republic of the Philippines recognized the College as a Center of Excellence in Hospitality Education and received a Level 4 accreditation from the Philippine Accrediting Association of Schools, Colleges and Universities (PAASCU). The basi, tapuy, and basi-based cocktail drinks were prepared and coded separately from the testing room, just before the scheduled time of evaluation to maintain its freshness and were keep in the refrigerator at 5° C prior to serving. The testing schedule was conducted on May 25 and 26, 2017 from 10:00 a.m. to 12:30 p.m. and 2:00 p.m. to 4:30 p.m. daily, with a maximum of 10 panelists per session. There was a total of 4 sessions each day, 2 in the morning and 2 in the afternoon with an interval of 30 minutes for each session. Before the evaluation, the panelists were given adequate instructions and a five-minute video clip was played to guide them accordingly on how to evaluate the cocktail drinks and attributes were clearly defined. The testing area was free from odors, free from noise, well-lit room and temperature was perceived as comfortable for the panelists. A customized portable divider to each panelist was provided to eliminate distractions and to prevent open discussion among panelists. The six 30 ml volume cocktail drink samples were served in 100 ml clear plastic cups with lids coded with three-digit random numbers and was presented one at a time (monadic approach) to the panelists. Room temperature distilled water and a piece of white crust free loaf bread were used for palate clearing in between samples. Expectorating each sample after evaluation was encouraged (especially to those low alcohol intolerance panelists), thus spittoons or spit cups were also provided. There was also a one-minute rest period in between samples. After the testing, the panelists were assisted to exit the room and was handed a token of appreciation.

Data analysis procedure In order to relate consumer liking and the sensory attributes of the sample cocktail drink, several statistical methods were applied. A bar graph was drawn - 263 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

to compare acceptance means of all cocktail drinks. The consumer evaluation data was analyzed by a non-parametric Mann-Whitney U test to asses if there was a significant difference in the acceptability rating among professional bartenders and hospitality management students. Internal preference mapping was performed to visualize the particular attribute that drives consumer acceptance of cocktail drinks. Lastly, spearman correlation was conducted among attributes to determine linear relationships. Statistical significance was set at P = 0.05. All statistical analyses were carried out using statistical software IBM SPSS 16.0 and XL-Stat Version 2017.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Demographic information of the panelists that were included were gender, age, years of working experience (professional bartenders), frequency of cocktail drink consumption, and awareness on Philippine alcoholic beverages can be seen in Table 1. Among the 35 panelists, the majority were male for both students (59%) and bartenders (69%), between 18 and 21 years for hospitality management students, while 26 and 29 years for professional bartenders. Frequency of cocktail drinks consumption in a month was 1-2 glasses (41%) for students and over 10 glasses (54%) for bartenders. It is notable that none of the student panelists was aware with basi, tapuy, and tuba and most of the bartenders (28%) and students (16%) panelists were aware only with lambanog compared to other Philippine alcoholic beverages used in this study.

Gender Male Female Age group 18 - 21 years 22 - 25 years 26 - 29 years 30 - 35 years 36 - 41 years Over 42 years Consumption frequency of cocktail drinks in a month 1-2 glasses 3-4 glasses 5-6 glasses 7-8 glasses 9-10 glasses Over 10 glasses

Percent of Students Panelists (%)

Percent of Bartenders Panelists (%)

59% 41%

69% 31%

68% 27% 5% 0% 0% 0%

0% 31% 38% 0% 0% 31%

41% 27% 9% 9% 0% 14%

15% 0% 8% 15% 8% 54%

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Years of working experience (bartender panelists) 1-3 years 4-6 years 7-9 years Over 10 years Familiarity of Local Alcoholic Beverages Basi Tapuy Lambanog Tuba Others (beer and spirits)

Percent of Students Panelists (%)

Percent of Bartenders Panelists (%)

0% 0% 0% 0%

23% 38% 8% 31%

0% 0% 16% 0% 84%

7% 7% 28% 17% 41%

Table 1. Demographic characteristic, frequency of cocktail drinks consumption, and awareness on Philippine alcoholic beverages of bartenders (n-13) and students (n-22) panelists.

The acceptance means for all basi, tapuy and lambanog-based cocktail drinks are presented in Figure 2. The acceptance means showed that lambanog-based cocktail drinks (ILAW #816 and Quezon Marino #257) have the highest acceptance as compare to basi and tapuy-based cocktail drinks. This may be explained by the characteristics of lambanog being neutral in flavor and aroma similar to vodka where it can be combined with any other ingredients. Spontaneous comments were made by the panelists “light”, “artificial,” “slightly sharp,” regarding the basi and tapuy-based cocktail drinks; this is due to unique flavor characteristic of these fermented beverages. However, the acceptability rating of these two alcoholic beverages based cocktail drink still gets a positive result of like slightly to like moderately by the panelists. Similarly, as reported by Stone and Sidel (2004), a product can be considered acceptable if it scored not lower than 6.0 when the 9-point hedonic scale (9 = like extremely, 5 = neither like nor dislike, 1 = dislike extremely) is used. All cocktail drinks evaluated by the panelists scored 6.18 to 7.87 (like slightly to like moderately) thus, the cocktail drinks prepared using basi, tapuy and lambanog-based can be considered acceptable by the professional bartenders and hospitality management students.

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Figure 2. Consumer acceptance of all six cocktail drinks.

Histogram was drawn to compare the mean value of acceptability between professional bartenders and hospitality management students. As illustrated in Figure 3, both students and bartenders give the highest mean rating score in the cocktail drink ILAW (#816), on the other hand Cordillera Mountain Mist (#328) cocktail drink has the lowest rating for bartenders and as for students it is Cailocandia (#315) cocktail drink. Likewise, only the cocktail drink Cailocandia (#315) has a different mean rating between students (6.16) describe as “like slightly” and bartenders (7.69) describe as “like moderately” compare to any other cocktail drinks.

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Figure 3. Mean comparisons of cocktail drinks across panelists (n-35).

The computed mean was subjected to non-parametric test Mann-Whitney U to test the hypothesis that the professional bartenders and hospitality management students have no significant difference in the acceptability rating of basi, tapuy and lambanog-based cocktail drink. As can be seen in Table 2, Mann-Whitney U test indicated that the acceptability rating of basi, tapuy and lambanog-based cocktail drink by professional bartenders is not statistically significantly different (p>.05) from those of hospitality management students except for Cailocandia (#315) cocktail drink (Z=-3.216; p=.001 <.05). Cailocandia (#315) cocktail drink, obtained smaller Mann-Whitney U value (49) compare to critical MannWhitney U value of 85 while all other cocktail drinks have higher U value.

Similarly, the absolute value of the obtained Z (-3.2) is less than the critical value of -1.96 which reveal the acceptability difference between professional bartenders and hospitality management students. Moreover, the mean rank of the bartenders’ acceptance rating for the Cailocandia (#315) cocktail drink was 25.23, whereas the students had a mean rank acceptance rating of 13.73.

This particular cocktail drink was more favored by the bartenders for the strong flavor, sour taste, unique aroma and flavor; while it is less liked by the students and perceived it as too sour and unattractive brownish color.

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Group Cocktail Drinks Tapuy lych (#175) Cordillera (#328) Basi Spritz (#297) Cailocandia (#315) Quezon Marino (#257) ILAW (#816)

Students Bartenders Students Bartenders Students Bartenders Students Bartenders Students Bartenders Students Bartenders

N 22 13 22 13 22 13 22 13 22 13 22 13

U Mean Rank 17.50 18.85 17.70 18.50 18.18 17.69 13.73 25.23 20.05 14.54 19.39 15.65

Sum of Ranks 385.00 245.00 389.50 240.50 400.00 230.00 302.00 328.00 441.00 189.00 426.50 203.50

Z

P

Interpretation

132.00 -0.377 0.706 Not Significant 136.50 -0.223 0.823 Not Significant 139.00 -0.137 0.891 Not Significant 49.00

-3.216 0.001

Significant

98.00

-1.542 0.123 Not Significant

112.50 -1.046 0.295 Not Significant

Table 2. Results of the Mann-Whitney U test comparing the cocktail drinks acceptance rating of professional bartenders (n-13) and hospitality management students (n-22).

Internal preference mapping (Figure 4) was conducted to visualize differences and to identify sensory attributes that drive the acceptance of each cocktail drink by the panelist. As mentioned by Janzantti, Machado and Monteiro (2011), the prominence of internal preference mapping is essential together with other statistical technique to gain deeper understanding on consumer liking and to unearth individual preferences. In the internal preference mapping of Tapuylych (#175) cocktail drink (Fig. 4a), two principal components account for 75.08% of the explained variability. It can be seen that panelists were plotted into four lobes. The attribute flavor, were plotted most by the panelists. Smaller group of panelists can be seen plotted opposite of the flavor, balance and overall liking, which means they less, accepted these attributes of the cocktail drink.

a. Tapuylych (#175).

b. Cordillera Mountain Mists (#328).

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c. Basi Spritzer (#297).

d. Cailocandia (#315).

e. Quezon Marino (#257).

f. ILAW (#816).

Figure 4. Internal preference map obtained by Principal Components Account (PCA) relating consumer acceptability of the basi, tapuy and lambanog-based cocktail drink with sensory attributes. Blue dots color for cocktail drinks and red dots color for panelists The internal preference mapping in Figure 4b shows a graphical representation of Cordillera Mountain Mists (#328) cocktail drink. The two main components explained 78.22% of the variation. The flavor, balance and overall liking were grouped in the first quadrant that explains these three attributes were contributed in the acceptance of some panelists but they give less importance on presentation. However, few panelists accepted more of the aroma and presentation of the cocktail drink. As for Basi Spritzer (#297) cocktail drink (Fig. 4c), the first two principal components explained a variation of 74.8% suggesting that flavor, balance, and overall liking are more appealing to the panelists followed by presentation and aroma. The two main components explained 73.50% of the variation in the Cailocandia (#315) cocktail drink which could be seen on Fig. - 269 Š CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

4d. The presentation attribute was more accepted by the panelists, and only few panelists like the flavor and balance. Most panelists less accepted the aroma and overall liking of this cocktail. The internal preference mapping in shown in Figure 4e refers to the Quezon Marino (#257) cocktail drink. The two main components explained 74.72% of the variation. All five attributes were plotted into four quadrants except for overall liking, which overlap between balance and flavor. Most panelist give a high acceptance in aroma attribute followed by presentation while some panelist preferred flavor and few liked the balance attribute.

Lastly, the main two principal components explained a variation of 66.09% in acceptance of ILAW (#816) cocktail drink shown in Figure 4e. The three attributes flavor, overall liking and presentation were group in the first quadrant and largest group of panelist preferred these three attributes. Few panelists like the aroma while none of the panelists gave a high acceptance on balance attribute.

Linear relationships were also investigated to reveal the attributes that contribute to the overall liking of the cocktail drinks by the panelists. It can be seen in Table 3 that all attributes are highly correlated (p <.05) with overall liking except for Tapuylych (#175) cocktail drink presentation, r (35) = .236, p =.172.

The correlation efficient of flavor and balance obtained positive and very strong compare to other attributes. The results indicated that the flavor and balance acceptance of the cocktail drinks drove the overall impression.

Cocktail drinks Flavor Balance Aroma Presentation

Tapuylych Cordillera Basi Spritzer Cailocandia Quezon Marino ILAW (#175) (#328) (#297) (#315) (#257) (#816) 0.812 0.831 0.861 0.886 0.793 0.880 0.876 0.817 0.797 0.851 0.816 0.855 0.775 0.722 0.645 0.744 0.435 0.671 0.236 0.428 0.687 0.437 0.654 0.820

Values in bold are different from 0 with a significance level alpha=0.05

Table 3. Correlations between flavor, balance, aroma attributes and overall liking of the panelist.

Relying on mean rating score alone of consumer acceptance, would not provide enough information on how the product was being liked and accepted. Hence, the use of Internal Preference Mapping and other statistical tools like Correlation Analysis provides a broader perspective on the expectation of the product and help identify the key drivers of liking. As emphasize by Drake, Gerard and Drake (2008), preference mapping assess consumer individual opinions and serves as a tool to segment them in groups of similar preference criteria. It identifies product, which are more appealing to consumers as well as repelling or negatively influenced liking. The attributes flavor and color influenced consumer preferences in his study for mild cheddar cheese. On the contrary, in the study conducted by Janzantti et al. (2011) regarding the frozen concentrated - 270 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

orange juice acceptance, although color was significant for the visual appeal of a product, this alone would not induced consumer acceptance. This observation was supported by the result of high score of color acceptance by older panelists in his study. The results of consumer acceptance of basi, tapuy and lambanogbased cocktail drinks on the other hand showed that students or younger panelists were given more importance on the color characteristics of cocktail drinks, than those of professional bartender panelists. However, several study results that flavor attributes drives the highest contribution of acceptability of a product.

Consequently, Janzantti et al. (2011) affirmed that aside from aroma, the flavor attribute drives the acceptance in his study. Similarly, the cocktail drink sensory acceptance conducted ̶ identified flavor and balance contributed to the overall liking and acceptance.

Moreover, the use of internal preference mapping and linear relationship proves that flavor and balance are the two most important attributes to be considered in cocktail drink preparation. Similarly, the results of the study conducted by Drake et al. (2008), Janzantti et al. (2011), and Morais et al. (2016) showed that combining several statistical methods in consumer acceptance testing could provide meaningful and reliable results.

Furthermore, the cocktail drinks made for the study were deliberately simple to prepare to test the acceptability in two different groups of panelists. Each panelist has their own individual preferences and expectations. The fermented drink tapuy and basi-based cocktail drinks were perceived as a “light drink” by some panelists due to the low alcohol content. These drinks, however, can be recommended to those guests who preferred light and easy to drink cocktails. It could also be serve as an aperitif or before-dinner drink which were also mentioned by a few panelists. The lambanog-based cocktail drink on the other hand was perceived strong by some, particularly the cocktail drink ILAW (#816). This kind of drink is a shooter and consists of pure liquors, no juice or mixer was added. This type of cocktail drink can be served as an after-dinner drink and can be suggested to guests who prefer strong cocktails. Most of the panelists made comments on the presentation of the cocktail drink served. The color also made impact in the perception of the drink. The basi-based cocktail drinks were compared to “iced tea” and “tamarind” for its brownish color. It must be noted that bartenders or mixologists must also give importance to drink garnish and presentation. Some people perceive a cocktail drink to be good if it has an attractive color and embellishment. Nevertheless, even though high variability of individual preferences exhibited in the affective test, both group of panelists rated above average acceptance on basi, tapuy and lambanog-based cocktail drinks. This proves that people can make more sophisticated cocktails out of these local alcoholic beverages.

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RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS The sensory acceptance was successfully applied to test the viability of basi, tapuy and lambanog as base ingredients in a cocktail drink. The flavor, balance, aroma, and overall liking of these cocktail drinks were holistically evaluated without the influence of outside factors like ambiance and opinions from other people. The cocktail drinks presented to panelists were acceptable and had a positive attitude towards the product. The result of the study showed that there was slight to moderate level of acceptance of all cocktail drinks from professional bartenders and hospitality management students even though the cocktail drink was intentionally made simple in terms of ingredients and procedures. The lambanog-based cocktail drink ILAW (#816) has the highest acceptability rating from all panelists. Results revealed that there were no significant differences in the acceptance ratings of basi, tapuy and lambanog-based cocktail drinks except for Cailocandia (#315). The most important attribute unearth in the affective tests are flavor and balance.

Moreover, the findings suggest that basi, tapuy and lambanog can be utilized as base ingredients for cocktail drink recipes and can be mainstreamed in the market. Careful selection of ingredients and proper procedure are important considerations to obtain high acceptance for such cocktail drinks.

Bartenders and hospitality management students who have taken Bar Management class can showcase their skills and talent in cocktail drink mixing with the use of basi, tapuy and lambanog as alternative base ingredients. It is feasible then to integrate the use of Philippine fermented and distilled alcoholic beverages in Bar Management Curriculum. Exposure, aggressive marketing, and commercialization of these authentic alcoholic beverages could constitute an additional economic value to the local community and could help in preserving cultural heritage.

Creating cocktail drinks made from basi, tapuy and lambanog is a simple approach to educate people and made them aware that these products exists Ěś before it vanishes especially to the younger generation. Patronizing these products can help conserve the craft of our ancestors and could link past and present generations.

Furthermore, affective test is a great tool in product development stage to get additional insights from the target market to assured the success of the product.

Lastly, further studies with larger consumer groups particularly female bar patrons who love to consume cocktail drinks could provide more insights in the acceptance characteristics of basi, tapuy, and lambanog-based cocktail drinks.

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DEVELOPING A TECHNOLOGY FRAMEWORK FOR SINGAPORE’S HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY

Dr Godofredo Cristobal UTANES,* Dr Bhandar MAMATA,** Tuck Keong CHIA***

ABSTRACT Singapore’s services sector is experiencing major challenges brought about by the lingering lack of manpower and rising operations costs. Specific to the hotel as well as food and beverage (F&B) industries, the vacuum in the availability of much needed local manpower creates a gloomy scenario. This is aggravated by the government’s restrictions on foreign talent recruitment resulting in the proliferating substandard customer service in hotel enterprises and the closure of F&B outlets (Lim, 2015). One possible solution for business owners in these industries is the adoption of technology that could improve productivity and therefore alleviate the manpower crunch (Ansel and Dyer, 1999; Khemthong and Roberts, 2006; Jin-Zhao and Jing, 2009; Garver, 2002; Siguaw and Enz, 1999, as cited in Koutroumanis, 2011; Utanes, Albrightson, & Pakalapati, 2017).

Competitive advantage comes from reduced operating costs while delighting customers with differentiated value-added services (David, 2009; Piccoli, 2008; Harrison and St. John, 2008, as cited in Koutroumanis, 2011). The government is doing its part by providing grants and awareness to business owners especially in the small- and medium-enterprise sectors to help them acquire technologybased solutions (Spring Singapore 2017). Despite the dire need and the support from the government, a recently conducted study has revealed that adoption of technology in Singapore by the hotel and F&B industries is limited, i.e., not as much as the availability of technologies there are (Utanes, Albrightson, & Pakalapati, 2017). * DBA, Senior Lecturer, Vatel Singapore ** PhD, Senior Lecturer, Vatel Singapore *** Managing Director, Vatel Singapore

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The government supports adoption of technology but interaction with industry practitioners indicated that there are yet no clear guidelines appropriate for small and medium players on how to manage the change and adoption. Splintered groups coming from both public and private sectors have embarked on exploratory efforts hoping to arrive at the ideal framework that could deploy the use of technology to minimise the agonising situation experienced by enterprise owners in the said sectors. Noteworthy is the amassing concentration on coding applications or apps being developed by mostly techno-savvy individuals from the millennial generation. So, who is minding the big-picture planning that integrates the technology types into a holistic framework suitable to the industry at this specific time and environment? Apparently, there is no one. A follow-up question is: How should this adoption framework or model look like? This paper aimed to answer these questions.

By gathering data from the hospitality sector, the academe, a state university executive, and a technology service provider, this study attempted to understand the reasons for the seemingly lack of adoption of technologies by business owners in this sector. It was found out eventually from this study’s enquiry that the Singapore hospitality sector has some level of adoption however minimal. But no standard IT guidelines had been designed by either the Singapore government or hospitality associations. There are good justifications though that a customercentric model could be welcomed by the hospitality sector. Thus, if automation types would adversely affect hospitality guests’ satisfaction, there will be no need to embrace any technology of sorts. In a nutshell, this study found out that, indeed, a customer-centric framework is the one suitable for the Singapore hospitality industry. The process-centric framework can work in tandem with the customer-oriented one, but the former could well serve the back-of-house functions in hospitality firms.

In view of the findings, this study could therefore serve as a jump-off point for hospitality associations and the government policy makers in designing an industry-based technology blueprint, one that hopes to trigger further action and to capture the elusive strategy of using automation to curb the sector’s most pressing problems of manpower shortage and rising operations costs.

Keywords: Technology awareness, technology adoption, technology framework, technology model, hospitality, hotel, food and beverage, qualitative research, services sector, thematic analysis.

INTRODUCTION The way technology is being used in the accommodation and F&B industries in Singapore remains unorganised. Hotels seemingly acquire gadgets and robots - 278 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

generally to be perceived by would-be customers and existing guests that these organisations are fashionable, i.e., using the latest technologies. However, few to none of the early adopters follow a more holistic framework that effectively gets to the bottom of business-related concerns. As the hype of automation reaches the courtyards of the hospitality sector, computer software and devices utilised in providing hospitality services are becoming more common.

The Singapore government’s push for technology solutions in industry including the hospitality sector has primarily aimed at achieving a more manpower-lean economy. From the perspective of a possible information technology adoption, the move is to be more productivity- and efficiency-driven (Singapore Budget 2019).

In view of the need to draw relevant insights into how to proceed with the use of technological advancement in the hospitality industry especially in Singapore, the writers of this paper aimed to answer the following main question: “What technology framework is appropriate in the hospitality business in the country to best achieve organisational goals?” To answer this question, the researchers interviewed high-level and senior executives who are involved in technology and the hospitality or service industries. They were technology practitioners, designers, and planners.

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES Questions on addressing Singapore’s manpower crunch in the services sector and the rising operational costs in the hospitality industry remain categorically unanswered. The potential solutions to these issues remain elusive. Thus, hotels, restaurants, tourism agencies, and other hospitality services firms continue to struggle and are left fencing their backyards to ward-off the destabilising effects of these issues. Technology becomes accessible for this end. The issue is how reliable and cost-effective could this approach be. With this quandary, this study aimed at the following general objectives:

1. identify the level of technology adoption by business owners, operators

and managers in the hospitality sector; 2. explore whether adopting technology is necessary in Singapore’s hospitality sector; 3. determine a suitable technology adoption framework or model for F&B and hotel owners in Singapore amidst the manpower crisis and rising operational costs.

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This research used the qualitative interpretive approach to gather data to answer the above research objectives. Findings from the investigation led to conclude that a specific and customer-centric technology framework is deemed more suitable to hotel and F&B businesses. Details are explained in the following discourse.

LITERATURE REVIEW Numerous literature have been reviewed that relate to technology adoption.

Through the years it could be reckoned that technology adoption models were written about, although occasionally. Some of which are covered in the following discussion.

McAfee (2006) proposed a three-stage IT framework for adoption in companies seriously considering technology to be a partner in attaining business objectives.

This framework suggested the three categories of function IT, network IT, and enterprise IT. In this progressive sequence, automation could be implemented from the simplest of form (function IT – simulators, spreadsheets, statistical software) to the in-between form (network IT – email, blogs, mashups, wikis, instant messaging) to the most complex (enterprise IT – enterprise resource planning, customer relationship management, and supply chain management).

Table 1 details this framework.

IT Category

Definition

Characteristics

Examples

Function IT

IT that assists with the execution of discrete tasks

•C an be adopted without complements* • Impact increases when complements are in place

Simulators, spreadsheets, computer-aided design, and statistical software

Network IT

IT that facilitates interactions specifying parameters

• Does not impose complements but lets them emerge over time • Does not specify tasks or sequences • Accepts data in many formats • Use is optional

Emails, instant messaging, wikis, blogs, and mash-ups

Enterprise IT

IT that specifies business processes

• Imposes composes complements throughout the organisation •D efines tasks and sequences • Mandates data formats • Use is mandatory

Software for enterprise resource planning, customer resource management, and supply chain management

Table 1. The three varieties of work-changing IT - Andrew P. McAfee’s IT categories model (McAfee, 2006). * Complements include better skilled workers, higher levels of teamwork, redesigned processes, and new decision rights (McAfee, 2006).

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This present study found it beneficial to consider McAfee’s model as a possible reinforcement of the notable findings in this research. The researchers had contextualized this model that could prove useful in the formulation of an appropriate technology framework or frameworks for Singapore’s hospitality industry.

Details of this adaptation is expatiated in the latter discussion of findings.

Oliveira and Martins (2011) cited the Iacovou, Benbasat, and Dexter (1995) model that analysed information technology adoptions. The model accounted for perceived benefits, organisational readiness, and external pressure as influencers to embrace technological innovations in organisations.

Mugo, Njagi, and Motanya (2017) explored the technology acceptance model (or TAM) proposed in 1985 by Fred Davis. The model argued that there are factors that determine individuals’ tendency to adopt technologies, specifically on how and when these technologies could be utilised. These determinants include perceived usefulness, ease of use, and user attitude.

Predetermined Themes There are four themes the authors of this study considered to include for the purpose of describing the current status of technology adoption in Singapore’s hospitality industry. These were predetermined as necessary to answer the research questions and objectives.

1. Adoption awareness – The researchers deemed that to see the big picture

pertaining to technology adoption, awareness to the extent or level of adoption should be determined. Because there are rapid changes in industry and automation, getting the pulse of the current environmental conditions would be the building block on which a possible technology framework could be built (Conway, 2013).

2. Technology types – Utanes, Albrightson, and Pakalapati (2017) discovered that hotels in Singapore have certain technology types that are already being used. Although there were no significant trends in the use of which automation, this is already the condition that this present research in part has considered. Investigating, albeit validating, the different technology gadgets, tools, and systems that hotels and restaurants, specifically, are using also provides a good big picture perspective to attain this study’s objectives (Conway, 2013).

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3. Framework necessity – Technology is an expensive component of business these days. A technology framework provides structure and direction to industries that are perennially deluged by a plethora of costly problems. Frameworks assist in fulfilling business obligations (Mohr, 2019). Thus, this study included an element to examine the necessity of a technology framework that could be affirmed or disaffirmed by this research’s informants.

4. Suitable framework – The IT support in organisations cannot be ignored as organisations evolve almost certainly like information systems.

“Frameworks existed long before there was technology.… In order to manage a complex system or value network, organisations need to adopt a structured environment to achieve operational efficiency and effectiveness as well as understand how to measure performance and continuously improve.” (Mohr, 2019). This component of the present study is the most significant subject of investigation here.

METHODOLOGY This study used the qualitative method of research and data gathering.

Specifically, interviews were conducted among three individuals, the informants or respondents, who were either owners or high-level professionals dealing with and using technology in providing business support to hospitality and service client-customers. The diversity in these informants’ backgrounds provides the significant differences as well as similarities in opinions regarding the issues raised relative to technology adoption in Singapore’s hospitality industry.

Informant A was a former hotel general manager and in various capacities a member of the top management of the hotel chains of Westin, Mandarin Oriental, and Hyatt International across properties that operated in the United States of America, Europe, Asia, and Africa. Equipped with a degree in travel industry and hotel management from the University of Hawaii, USA, Informant A has behind him over 30 years of rich hospitality experience. He is currently a private consultant catering to the hospitality industry using technology as a tool to assist his clients to improve customer service. Concurrently, this informant serves as academic dean to a Singapore-based hospitality management college.

Informant B is currently the academic director of an Australian university operating in Singapore. He acquired his MBA from a joint programme between one of Taiwan’s top universities and MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA). He was formerly an associate director at the National University of Singapore (NUS), Singapore’s top university, whose responsibilities included - 282 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

tying-up with other universities and international institutions. He sought partners who had state-of-the-art technologies related primarily to education-related services. Also part of his credentials is being a co-founder of two Singapore-based hospitality and tourism colleges. He was also for more than 10 years an assistant director with the Singapore Tourism Board. Prior to his illustrious career, he was a software product specialist in a Singapore technology company.

Informant C is the owner and CEO of an IT solutions company that for close to 20 years has been catering to both service and manufacturing firms whose operations extend beyond the borders of Singapore. He holds a degree in computer systems engineering from a reputable UK university. Prior to establishing his own company, he was training consultant to Fujitsu Asia Pte Ltd that provided human capital development in Vietnam under a Japanese-funded project. This training stint was in Palm OS development using C-language programming.

His current company specialises in web-enabled mobile technology using open source platforms. Among his notable clients were Singapore Airlines, BMW Asia, SBS Transit, Logitech, EADS Singapore Research and Technology Centre, Nitti Footwear, and many others. His typically process-oriented systems aim to assist his clients in raising productivity in competitive environments.

The interpretation of data was conducted using the thematic analysis method where transcribed qualitative text were analysed. The process began by transcribing the recorded interviews. Then, transcribed materials were read multiple times. The rereading of the transcriptions was complemented by listening to the recordings validating the insights derived from the previous fact-finding exercise.

A set of preconceived themes were sought after through the initial component of this methodology. These themes served as the basis to find common and varying generalizations, responses that depict the current state of technology adoption in the hospitality industry in Singapore. The reading and hearing tandem helped the researchers to extract the answers to the research questions ensuring close to vividness the atmosphere and the environmental contexts of the actual interviews (Pietkietwicz & Smith, 2012; Ponelis, 2015).

On the predetermined themes considered in this research and in anticipation of the semi-structured interview as the tool to gather data, questions were constructed to find-out certain conditions consistent with these themes. These questions were asked of the interviewees who were selected to be the subject respondents in this study. These themes are as follows with their corresponding question statements.

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1. Adoption awareness – “Do you believe that the hospitality sector in Singapore is adopting the use of technology to achieve organisational goals? Please explain.”

2. Technology types – “ Which technology types would you recommend that the hospitality sector in Singapore should adopt? Why?” 3. Framework necessity – “ Is a framework necessary for Singapore hospitality firms to adopt technology in business?

Why or why not?”

4. Suitable framework – “Could you describe your own idea of the technology framework suitable to the Singapore hospitality sector? Please elaborate.”

Probing questions were also asked during the interviews. These were aimed at exploring various areas that could serve useful in pursuance of the research aims.

Justification of the qualitative research used in this study required triangulation methods such as this (Sandberg, 2005).

Emergent themes were also determined. These are topic areas that were not included in the preconceived themes but were deemed important by the team of researchers to describe the current situation in Singapore’s hospitality sector regarding technology adoption. Overall, the thematic analysis included the initial exploratory comments, the identification of the predetermined themes, and the extraction of emergent themes (Elliott & Timulak, 2005; Pietkiewicz & Smith, 2012; Qualitative data analysis, n.d.). A summary excerpt of the thematic analyses used in this study are in the Appendix.

The justifications of the interpretative qualitative approach in this study included pragmatic validity, transgressive validity, and procedural reliability. Pragmatic validity was achieved through probing or follow-up questioning. Transgressive validity was satisfied as the informants were representative of extremely diverse professional and personal backgrounds. Procedural reliability was attained when research questions purposely satisfied the qualitative approach for interpretative analysis and by using the thematic analysis technique (Sandberg, 2005).

Furthermore, literature reviews were conducted to investigate the level of technology adoption and acceptance models. This was for the purpose of drawing more insights in conceptualising the technology framework deemed appropriate for the sector.

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FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION Adoption Awareness For the purpose of this study, adoption awareness is defined as the recognition that the hospitality industry is accepting, embracing, or implementing any form of technology in the respective businesses. It is evident in the interviews that the respondents perceived there is existing adoption awareness. Furthermore, there is a strong mandate to adopt technology as all the informants expressed their individual concept of automation the industry could or should accept and use.

Informant A The former hotel GM, now consultant, stated that in adopting technology in the industry requires the “right mindset, else it would be very difficult to push this through (referring to introducing to clients the consultancy services he offers)”.

This is because many managers and owners of hotels and restaurants had not yet subscribed to using automation in their businesses for the reason that they belong to the group of “conservative thinkers, not having a very good understanding of how technology impacts service.” This could be addressed by knowing customers’ spending and consumption patterns. As a consultant that espouses technology, it is important to go for the right hospitality outlets that fit the right service.

Some hospitality companies had been using technology because they are needed. Others think they are needed but do not have the gadgets or systems fit for their requirements (Utanes, Albrightson, & Pakalapati, 2017). The experienced respondent stated that Marriott International, InterContinental, and Hilton Worldwide as among those big hotel groups that use online technology to achieve economies of scale as related to their efforts to go against OTA’s (online travel agents) who cannibalize their financial margins.

Food for Thought, a restaurant chain in Singapore, has a branch in the Singapore Botanical Garden that has been cited by this subject informant as one of the few firms that use the ordering kiosk complementing the personal staff service when taking orders. The informant further emphasized that understanding the customers is vital. A hotel in Singapore owned by an IT professional tried to replace people with technology. He came up with ways to rid of staff attempting to achieve productivity and efficiency via automation. This research’s informant disagreed with this. Notwithstanding, these examples prove that technology is adopted in Singapore’s hospitality setting.

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Informant B Informant B is a director at the country’s state university, the National University of Singapore. One of his roles is to establish partnerships with other universities and international institutions to further strengthen the university’s global credentials. The job requires searching for new technologies and novel ideas that make sense in relation to Singapore’s – not only NUS’s – progress and future.

This informant believes there is technology adoption in the hospitality and other service sectors. Firms have sophisticated infrastructures. However, some could not turn to technology because of lack of the right people. Technology adopters in the hospitality service are tacit adopters, not needing research and development (R&D) unlike in the manufacturing sector. Early adopters are “trying to lead the pact to create distinctive competitiveness.”

Hotels are reactive adopters. If hotel customers do not need technology, then companies do not embrace it. The auntie (Singapore’s favourite term referring to the common end-user), who is into Tai Chi – an old Chinese martial art that is now a form of exercise especially for the Singaporean elderly – as a means to be healthy, does not need any sophistication. So, the hotels they use do not yet need any complicated technology.

Informant C The third informant owns an IT solutions company that he had started over 10 years ago. His technology business caters to both the service and manufacturing firms. He believes that the hospitality industry is trying to adopt some form of technology already. In some hospitality outfits, he cited robotics, electronic check-in and check-out systems, automated booking, registration billing. These are for both hotels and restaurants in Singapore. He however observes that this adoption is only at a limited extent. Generally, the industry is still paper-based.

The Internet is the most widely used though.

Informant C related a specific application in one accommodation outfits in Singapore, the M Social Hotel, where a robot was used to deliver bottled water in the rooms of hotel guests. However, the adoption of technology in the hospitality and service industries is not as prevalent and expansive as in the manufacturing sector.

Technology Types Types of technology come in wide variations for the hospitality companies that use automation. In the study conducted by Utanes, Albrightson, and Pakalapati (2017), the technology types numbered close to 50 across the F&B, housekeeping, and front desk departments in hotels in Singapore. The online - 286 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

and non-online technologies ranged from robotics, PMS (property management systems), automated trolleys, and many others.

The informants in this paper indicated similar observations as in the above study. Table 2 is the summary of the specific technology types already adopted by hotels and restaurants based on the informants’ observation and knowledge.

These verbatim responses were extracted from the thematic analysis of qualitative data gathered from the personal interviews.

Evidently, no two companies adopt the same set of technologies. Even for hotel parent companies, their chain branches adopt different devices and technology types due to these companies’ respective physical uniqueness and specific service nature and practices.

Informant A

Informant B

Hotels • Front desk automation • Back-end technology • Inventory control • Purchasing-related • HR-related • Check-in, check-out • Reservation system • GDS (global distribution system) • Hotel website • CRM (customer relationship management) system • Data analytics • Service staff identification • Electronic surveys • POS (point-of-sales) • PMS (property management system) • Loyalty program with online automation • Internet access by telcom

Hotels •H andphone •M icrosoft Office • Abacus (GDS – global distribution system) •M essenger, WeChat •O TA (online travel agent) applications •C RM (customer relationship management) system

Informant C Hotels • Robotics • Electronic check-in, check-out • GDS (global distribution system) • Internet-based technology

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Informant A

Informant B

Informant C

Restaurants • Digital marketing • Smart phones (photography) • Wifi • Bluetooth • Menu or apps, online • Order-taking, RMIS (restaurant management information system) • Beacon technology • Data gathering • Internet access by telcom • Ordering kiosk • Security system • Wire mesh • Routers • Google search

Restaurants •H andphone •M icrosoft Office

Restaurants • Tablets for food ordering • Cashless payments like in Kopitiam (a Singapore food court)

Airlines (travel) • Kiosk • Data collection

Airlines (travel) • Airport cameras

Airlines (travel)

Table 2. Current technology types verbatim from the informants.

Framework Necessity Asked if a technology framework is necessary in the hospitality industry, the informants were unanimous that it is. The need for a framework is justified by a number of reasons.

Informant A The first informant indicated that the younger consumers especially cannot live without technology. When they eat in restaurants with their families and friends, they use their handphone, surf the Internet, and take photographs of their food and of themselves (in today’s terms, selfies or wefies), and post them on Instagram or Facebook before they take their first bites. Thus, restaurants provide free Wifi in most cases as an attraction for guests. Food outlets and accommodation businesses are more preferred if and when they provide free access to the Internet.

Informant B The variation of framework in the accommodation industry is necessitated by the different types of hotel properties. This was according to Informant B. As the level of sophistication requires automation, the differences widen. Another - 288 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

reason for technology adoption and a framework to go with it is data analysis.

Unless hotels change their data infrastructure, they will not be competitive. He further stated that a framework is like leasing mathematics and physics where one would have use for a formula, a guide to help build structures that integrate things together. Why would the industry need a framework? “It is like why you need emergency risk management. You would require a plan because when there is trouble, you know what to do. So, a framework is helpful in that way.”

According to this informant, a framework transforms systems to adjust to economic changes. That is such a weighty and relevant ground for the necessity of a technology framework, especially in the hospitality industry.

Informant C Informant C argued that at times bosses and managers are not that familiar with technology. That is why, a framework would be useful. Otherwise, a “hybrid manager” should be available. He is one who is trained and knowledgeable in technology and at the same time experienced in the domain of specialization, in the case of this study, in the hospitality sector.

Suitable Framework The informants have many suggestions regarding the technology framework suitable to the hospitality service practice. While these ideas are not exactly the same between the subject informants, their opinions converged on the importance of one that is, first and foremost, customer-centric rather than aiming to achieve productivity or efficiency per se.

Table 3 describes the informants’ respective concepts and components of the ideal technology framework for the hospitality industry. These ideas are scattered and purely just indicative of each informant’s perceptions built from experiences and leaning towards each one’s business objectives and organizational roles.

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Informant A

Informant B

Informant C

• Technology that impacts service • Digital marketing-ready • Customer-engaging, enhancing • Pursue the “service spiral” (inter-related units of service) • Rewarding loyal customers at the minimum • Understands spending and consumer patterns • Unique to each specific hospitality outlet • Compatible with app, bluetooth, beacon technology • CRM-oriented • Measures satisfaction levels • Uses data analytics, indexes, KPI’s (key performance indicators) • Do quick surveys, gathers feedback • Facilitates fast checkin-check-out services • Complements staff’s personal touch on customer service • Requires change in job descriptions • Integrates with OTA’s and company websites • Provides comprehensive information • Error-free especially

•U sed for productivity rather than for merely fashion •C ontrollable by IT personnel • Appealing to target segments •P rovides service standards •O riginates from the stakeholders • Terms of reference should be correct • Asks the right questions •S imple and easy to understand •U seful, relevant •P eople should see each other working together (cooperative model) •H olistic, not individualistic • Sustainable •C reates competitiveness •P rofitable • Educational •O pens minds of entrepreneurs to encourage them to invest in themselves • Augments business leadership •S upports competitive skills

• Varied • Supported by effective communication process • Customer-oriented • Efficiency should enhance customer satisfaction • Bosses and managers familiar with the technology used • Should maximize company benefits • Enhanced by both technology and experience in the hospitality industry • Serve as a guide to managers, owners, staff • Flexible at all levels • Unique in terms of parameters • Flexible • Understands process • Implementation could be done by managers or outsourced • Primarily for front-end customer service • Back-end is for productivity and innovation • Enhance work simplification primarily to benefit customers

Table 3. Suitable technology framework components verbatim from the informants.

Emergent Themes Apart from the predetermined themes of adoption awareness, technology types, framework necessity, and suitable framework, there were other themes that emerged from the qualitative theme analysis applied in this study. One of this was the question of the hospitality industry’s readiness to embrace or adopt technologies even if the latter concerns customer service, albeit a customer-centric approach. Parallel to this issue is the question on whether the service providers - 290 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

in Singapore or elsewhere are ready to provide the necessary technologies that hospitality firms may be willing to implement. And yet, if the ideal situation could be true, there is finally the possible problem of whether hotels and restaurants would be confident with potential technology providers, i.e., if they are prepared to deliver.

Another theme that emerged from the analysis is the question on who should create the technology framework to guide the hospitality industry in Singapore.

Candidates came out pointing to hospitality associations, industry experts, consultants, and the owners and managers of various hospitality firms. This would not be complete if the Singapore government does not participate in crafting the framework suitable to the sector. One should consider the advantages if government policies and plans could take on the ideal framework as a parcel of the grand strategy.

Last but not the least, the framework that could suit the hospitality industry is one that is not standard but differentiated according to the business categories or form hospitality firms are classified under. For instance, the technology framework for luxury and upscale hotels, both non-geographical categories, could be different from one that of midscale or economy scale classifications. In a similar manner, the technology model for an independent restaurant, or say 20-cover restaurants could be generally distinct from 50- or 100-cover franchise restaurants.

The discussion that follows and the ensuing frameworks are deduced from the findings on adoption awareness, technology types, framework necessity, and suggested (suitable) framework. It could be surmised that there were common agreements among the informants who come from practically diverse fields of experiences but nonetheless possessing certain degrees of involvements in the hospitality sector.

A clear differentiation between the hospitality industry and the manufacturing (arguably more process-driven), albeit non-hospitality, sector is that in the former, the core concern is to ensure customer satisfaction while in the latter it would be productivity derived from and efficiency of the process. Thus, the hospitality’s technology framework should be customer-centric primarily and concerned with productivity/efficiency secondarily. The reverse is true of the manufacturing/ logistics sectors which are arguably more process-centred. Taking cues from the results of this study, Figures 1 and 2 illustrate the researchers’ own conception of these opposing technology frameworks. The hospitality industry in Singapore, for all intent and purposes, could be well served by adopting the customeroriented type particularly at the front-of-house component of operations.

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Productivity Customer Customer-Centric Framework

Efficiency

Research

Customer Innovation

Figure 1. Customer-centric technology framework applicable to the hospitality sector.

Moreover, this does not justify totally abandoning the process orientation as the secondary feature of the technology framework that ought to be adopted by the sector. This is due to the encompassing nature of the hospitality business. For instance, while customer delight is required in the businesses of accommodation and F&B, there are functions or sections within these firms whereby process streamlining is required, e.g., kitchen production, laundry cleaning, and purchasing function, among a few.

Customer service Productivity Efficiency

Customer-Centric Framework

Research

Innovation Customer

Figure 2. Process-centric technology framework primarily applicable to the manufacturing sector.

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Productivity, efficiency, innovation, and research & development (R&D) are organizational goals that ought to be achieved. However, in the hospitality sector as discussed earlier, these are separate and second fiddle to the satisfaction and delight of hotel and restaurant guests that remain to be the key success factor in the business. These former objectives however take the centre stage in nonhospitality-service environments, specifically manufacturing and logistics. This is not taking for granted that the kitchen, a back-of-house department, requires a primarily process-oriented operations mindset.

In pursuance of the back-end support of the customer-centric paradigm for hospitality firms, one could also consider adopting an improved version of McAfee’s IT categories (2006) reviewed earlier in this paper. Table 4 is the researchers’ rendition of the three IT stages adapted to the hospitality sector. As hospitality firms are aided by departments like finance, accounting, personnel, maintenance, IT, administration, and head office operations, the framework below could be adopted while the front-end embraces a more customer-oriented model.

IT Category

Definition

Characteristics

Examples

Function IT

IT that assists with the execution of discrete tasks

• Can be adopted without complements* • Impact increases when complements are in place

Simulators, spreadsheets, word processing, spreadsheets, PMS, POS, RMIS, GDS, GPT

Network IT

IT that facilitates interactions specifying parameters

• Does not or does impose complements but lets them emerge over time • Specifies tasks or sequences • Accepts data in many formats

Emails, instant messaging, wikis, blogs, mash-ups, CRM SCM

Enterprise IT

IT that specifies • Imposes composes business processes complements in the contemporary • Defines tasks and sequences milieu • Mandates data formats

ERP, blockchain, machine language, artificial intelligence (AI)

Table 4. Administrative technology framework adapted from Andrew P. McAfee’s IT categories model contextualized in today’s Singapore’s hospitality sector.

In Table 4, complements (*) include better skilled workers, higher levels of teamwork, redesigned processes, and new decision rights (McAfee, 2006). Robotics can be considered as a front-end, customer-centric technology type that could best be included in the framework intending to achieve customer satisfaction and customer delight rather than productivity and efficiency in operations. Yet, it can also address process improvements.

Some of the technology types included in Table 4 are PMS (property management system), POS (point-of-sale), RMIS (restaurant management information system, GDS (global distribution system), GPT (general-purpose technologies), - 293 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

CRM (customer relationship management), SCP (supply chain planning), and ERP (enterprise resource planning). On top of these are the latest more complex technologies of AI, machine language, and blockchain. Many of these were either not in the original McAfee model or are inside a different IT category in that model version.

Based on the emergent themes, a relevant feature of the technology model for hospitality firms starting-off with the customer-centric model could be differentiated according to the specific characteristics of the diverse hotel classes of scales and restaurant business forms.

CONCLUSION Technology frameworks provide structure in business. As industries and information technology and systems all evolve in unprecedented speed, proper order and organisation are paramount in reaching business goals (Mohr, 2019). This study’s most significant finding is the technology framework that fits Singapore’s hospitality industry. It is one that is defined by primarily fulfilling customer service obligations. Thus, the framework, particularly in the front-of-house for hotels and restaurants, should be customer-centric, first and foremost. The process-centric technology framework, however, can be considered in the supporting functions in service-oriented hospitality businesses. Here, the adapted McAfee model could be considered. Together, these proposed frameworks, based on this study’s examination, may serve as starting points for specific guidelines and details according to the type of hospitality firm.

The technology types listed in this paper taken from the informant interviews can be combined with those that Utanes, Albrightson, and Pakalapati (2017) found in their study of Singapore hotels and hotel-based F&B outlets. It is hoped that the Singapore government and the hospitality associations could utilise the findings in this research to formulate technology frameworks for the hospitality industry and other service industries as well.

LIMITATION AND FURTHER STUDIES The researchers consider this paper as a Level-1 study of this nature in Singapore’s hospitality sector. A further research could be undertaken to explore a more detailed version of the customer-centric technology framework suggested here.

It is also recognised by the researchers that technologies evolve at tremendous speeds. As such, the suggested frameworks could only be truly relevant to the industry users in the context of new developments in information technology (IT) and information systems (IS).

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A spin-off study could be pursued to address the emergent themes from this research. First among these is the readiness of both the hospitality industry in finding comfort to adopt technologies that could support customer service improvements and on the other side would be the readiness of technology service providers to satisfy the customer-centric technology requirements of the industry. Further to this is the investigation of reasons as well as motivations for both parties to overcome hurdles and close in the gaps to fulfil the need to embrace customer-oriented technologies at the front-end of the hospitality service and process-centric technologies at the back-of-house operations.

Jumping off from the main findings of this study spearheaded by the suggested technology framework, as general as it is, further exploratory actions could be the logical direction hence. Efforts should consider where industry, hospitality associations, experts, and the government could collaborate to design the blueprint and guidelines consistent with the customer service mission and the country’s nation-building initiatives. This more detailed framework could specify the optional technology types – not limited to the existing ones revealed in this study – making the current state and degree of adoption as the minimum basis.

The specific guidelines should also put into serious consideration the differences in hotel and restaurant types these business firms position themselves to be.

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REFERENCES CONWAY, M. (2013). Environmental Scanning, What It Is and How To Do It. Available at https://static1.squarespace.com/static/580c492820099e7e75b9c3b4 / t/5855070359cc6826e11c5fa8/1481967382883/ES+Guide+July+13+%282% 29.pdf ELLIOTT, R., & TIMULAK, L. (2005). Descriptive and Interpretive Approaches to Qualitative Research. (PDF file). Available at http://nideffer.net/classes/ GCT_RPI_S14/readings/interpretive.pdf KOUTROUMANIS, A. (2011). Technology’s Effect on Hotels and Restaurants: Building a Strategic Competitive Advantage. Journal of Applied Business and Economics vol. 12, (1) 201, pp. 72-80.

LIM, J. (2015). ‘F&B Sector Has Growing Hunger for Workers’, The Singapore Straits Times, 19 February (Online). Available at http://www.straitstimes.com/ singapore/fb-sector-has-growing-hunger-for-workers-0 (accessed: 19 May 2017).

MCAFEE, A.P. (2006). Mastering the Three Worlds of Information Technology.

Harvard Business Review. Harvard Business Publishing.

MOHR, J. (2019). IT Frameworks, Standards, and Models: A Recipe for Value.

HDI. Available at https://www.thinkhdi.com/library/supportworld/2011/frameworks-standards-models.aspx MUGO, D.G., NJYAGI, K., CHEMWEI, B. & MOTANYA, J.O. (2017). The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and Its Application to the Utilization of Mobile Learning Technologies. British Journal of Mathematics & Computer Science. 20(4), pp. 1-8.

OLIVEIRA, T. & MARTINS, M.F. (2011). Literature Review of Information Technology Adoption Models at Firm Level. ISEGI, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal.

PIETKIEWICZ, I., & SMITH, J.A. (2012). A Practical Guide to Using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis in Qualitative Research Psychology.

Czasopismo Psychologiczne (Psychological Journal), 18(2), pp. 361-369.

PONELIS, S.R. (2015). Using Interpretive Qualitative Case Studies for Exploratory Research in Doctoral Studies: A Case of Information Systems Research in Small and Medium Enterprises. International Journal of Doctoral Studies, 10: pp. 535-550.

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QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION (PowerPoint slides). (n.d.). Available at http://www.unm.edu/~marley/methppt/fall06/day13. ppt SANDBERG, J. (2005). How Do We Justify Knowledge Produced Within Interpretive Approaches. Organizational Research Methods, 8(1). ABI/INFORM Collection: pp. 41-68.

SINGAPORE BUDGET 2019. Budget Speech, (accessed 26 February 2019), https://www.singaporebudget.gov.sg/budget_2019/home SPRING SINGAPORE 2017. Enhancing Business Processes for Productivity, Growing Businesses, (accessed 19 May 2017), https://www.spring.gov.sg/ Growing-Business/Grant/development-areas/Pages/enhancing-business-processes-for-productivity.aspx UTANES, G.C., ALBRIGHTSON, C. & PAKALAPATI, R. (2017). Singapore Hotels’ Use of Technology for Productivity, Customer Service and Branding: A Descriptive Study. CirVath International Journal, (online) Volume 9(1), p. 171.

Available at: https://issuu.com/vatel/docs/cirvath_9 (Accessed 19 May. 2017).

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APPENDIX Sample thematic analyses excerpts from informants’ verbatim responses

Questions 1. Can you say something about the current technology adoption in the hospitality industry?

Informant A Exploratory Predetermined Emergent Comments* Themes Themes Verbatim Responses (Pietkiewicz (Qualitative data (Pietkiewicz & Smith, 2012) analysis, n.d.) & Smith, 2012) The problem is not Factors that about the software and influence adoption how it works. What we need to ensure is the interactivity between the client and the provider…

Trade-off That means, if there in adopting is technology, there technology is going to be a compromise on our Big-picture service standards. perspective The truth is there needed in Adoption shouldn’t be it is adoption Awareness suppose to enhance the service standards. Not adopted yet This is part where Misunderstanding you should have of technology the right mindset; Suitable otherwise, it is very Way of suitable Framework difficult to push this framework through. There are a lot of conservative Trial needed thinkers who do not hopefully to have a very good change the understanding of mindset or point- Technology Types how technology of-view of users impacts service.

Suitable So, what I’m doing Framework is first start with the Needed to F&B, let them roll, address this and then comes the traffic where through Service spiral digital marketing where you are able to bring the traffic in because it’s all one solution, you know.

* Note: In the exploratory comments, red coloured texts signify first-round thoughts and blue ones represent the succeeding round

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You have the delivery of service here but at the same time you have, you know, the customer on this end, and we are interacting with this customer to ensure continued patronage, enhanced, improved services to them like the service spiral, the service cycle, the ones that we talk about in degree programmes. It is actually the service spiral, how we put that service spiral into space. In the old days, it’s all about loyalty programme, giving you cards, the more frequently you come to my outlet the more you benefit. That’s not enhancement at all. That’s just valuing loyalty. It is not enough.

2. Are you I am going slow offering this on this, coz it is to restaurants all about timing, who are buying while technology immediately or is available, my gut experimenting feel is consumer is with the available, he is ready restaurants for it, question is, is they the industry ready, appreciate? service providers ready for it, that is only part I am a bit, Follow-up unsure... to go into question: hotel front desk and Which brings everything as well. me to this question. Is They adopting use the industry of technology- here service sector, is where the thing hospitality, are is, in what in read in they adopting your program, there phase of is existing and there technology, is needed…. You why or why know, many of them not, coz u r express the think they saying now ended those types of the issue is technologies, based industry? on your personal experience, maybe apart from this, what you are saying, the issue is industry.

Loyalty program – one use of adoption

Adoption in restaurants

Technology Types

Readiness of the industry Adoption Possible current adoption situation Awareness

Technology now being adopted but the question is up to what extent

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Problems identified: readiness of consumers, readiness of service providers

Questions 5. Even in Singapore, long way to go?

Follow-up question: Technology adoption is a luxury in hospitality, china can afford, because of availability of funds, so they take advantage of that?

Verbatim Responses Everywhere!

For different reasons, one friend was saying… there are lot of projects, out of 20%, in places were there is corruption to raise money, china hot money comes easily, not so in Singapore.

China has that.

Money is everything.

We have 16 applications for 2 casinos and Genting got it.

Money, resources needed.

They do that because people are not reliable.

We face similar issue, lack of people in service sector Goes down to inability to create their own companies., acquire third party, drop rate 10$, tour group a to b. customers don’t come to hotel, no customer loyalty, margins, due to TA, OTA thinner and thinner, Why people don’t stay with u, because, the value don’t exceed the cost, something is worth because I pay so much and get so much.

Informant B Exploratory Predetermined Emergent Comments* Themes Themes (Pietkiewicz (Qualitative data (Pietkiewicz & Smith, 2012) analysis, n.d.) & Smith, 2012) China is not ahead China has capital resources – needed for adoption.

Capitalization issue or Cost issue Not necessary yet Cost issue Maybe high tech?

Lack of manpower to execute IT More pressing issue More reason to automate Cost issue again.

Chicken-or-egg situation?

Technology Types

MR = MC? Dispensable technology

Adoption Awareness

Is this even real these days? Only for small firms but Framework not for big firms! Necessity Framework is like a formula in mathematics

* Note: In the exploratory comments, red coloured texts signify first-round thoughts and blue ones represent the succeeding round

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Follow-up question: Should it come from government sector or the private sector?

Association?

Universities?

I think a framework is like learning maths and physics, u need a formula. Formula that helps structures, so u can see how things look like together. why do u need framework--is like why uneed emergency risk mgmt. plan--risk didn’t happen, u need a plan, because when it happens, u need a plan, so framework helpful in that way.

It should come from stakeholders, but draw upon resources and perspectives, one thing is no one owns a great idea, but more information u can acquire and then u can take out and keep what is necessary from start, will be helpful.

The questions is when doing framework, are your terms of reference correct, are you asking the right questions and help people give u answers to move forward, actually everybody got good idea and my experience is till service, why did people like...

Reason to have an IT framework

Suitable Framework

Stakeholders need to initiate adoption

Questions on the ideal framework

Suitable Framework

Suitable Framework Simple IT framework criteria. Type of framework – easy Suitable Framework to understand, relevant

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The suitable framework should come from the stakeholders: government, private sector, associations, consultants, and others

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THE STATE OF E-COMMERCE PRACTICES AND USAGE OF METRO MANILA BASED TRAVEL AGENCIES: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY

Jack Jude B. GARCIA,* Geronio G. ULAYAO**

ABSTRACT The rise of the Internet as a transformative technology has greatly impacted the global tourism industry. A significant number of travel service providers has taken advantage of an online presence and ventured into E-commerce. Online travel agents such as Expedia, Orbitz, and Travelocity have grown in popularity, providing access to a massive inventory of airline seats, hotel rooms, car rentals, and other products, all of which can be customized dynamically, responding to the needs of independent travelers. These and many other developments have resulted in heightened competition among participants in the tourism distribution channel and has provided travelers with more product options and information sources. In the Philippines, however, there is a slack in the uptake of E-commerce among travel service providers, one of which are travel agencies, who are faced with competitive pressure and are continuously challenged to assert their role. Hence, this study looked into the current E-commerce practices and usage of selected Metro Manila based travel agencies, and their perceptions of E-commerce benefits and barriers. Data for this study were derived by the use of a survey instrument, and the conduct of a focus group discussion and key informant interviews participated in by members of the Philippine Travel Agency Association operating in the Philippine capital. * De La Salle-College of Saint Benilde/Vatel Manila - Faculty, Tourism Management (jackjude. garcia@benilde.edu.ph) ** De La Salle-College of Saint Benilde/Vatel Manila - Vice Chancellor for Academics (geronio. ulayao@benilde.edu.ph)

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The study established that Metro Manila based travel agencies view E-commerce as a relevant marketing tool and additional revenue channel, but are overwhelmed by the lack of interaction opportunities, security concerns and the inadequate and unreliable public infrastructure. The study further determined that E-commerce adoption in the Philippines is at the Interactive stage based on the six stage framework of Molla and Licker (2004). At the Interactive stage, the travel agency complements its information capability with a website or Facebook presence that enables visitors to browse the travel agency’s product catalogue, make queries via an online inquiry form or email or the use of Facebook’s chat facility, and place orders. As an exploratory study, it is recommended that further research using different variables such as membership or non-membership in travel associations, length of business operations and years of experience in the travel profession, among others, be undertaken in order to extensively gain a picture of the current state of E-commerce practices and determine the perceptions of benefits and barriers by a larger segment of the Philippine travel industry.

Keywords: E-commerce, Philippines, tourism, online travel agencies.

INTRODUCTION The Internet as the fastest growing technology in economic history has impacted the world significantly bringing greater connectivity amongst the global population. Together with the World Wide Web, it serves as the technological infrastructure that has deeply penetrated and connected people’s lives. The different sectors that form part of the global society and economy today continue to adapt to the innovations that has given way to a new economic era founded on its development (Bhat & Shah 2014). Presently, it is used by an estimated 3.8 billion Internet users around the world, with almost half (49.7%) to be found in the world’s largest continent, Asia (Internet World Stats 2017). The continuous development and increased use of networked technologies such as the Internet has left no industry unchanged, and this is especially true of the global tourism industry. The tourism industry ranks as one of the largest and fastest growing economic sectors in the world today and is a vital contributor to national economies. It is a pioneer industry that has adopted information and communications technology (ICT) (OECD 2006), since it is heavily dependent on the provision of information (Buhalis & Deimezi 2004; Karanasios & Burgess 2008). Such a reality makes it inextricably linked with information and communications technology which Poon (1993) defined as “the collective term given to the most recent developments in the mode (electronic) and the mechanisms (computers and communication technologies) used for the acquisition, processing, analysis, storage, retrieval, dissemination and application of information”.

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An important component of ICT is E-commerce which is “the use of electronic networks, the Internet, mobile or digital technology for the efficient exchange of information, buying and selling of products and services, and online payments via the electronic transfer of funds” (Reedy, Schullo & Zimmerman 1999). A broader definition of E-commerce is, “the sale or purchase of goods and services, whether between businesses, households, individuals, governments, and other public or private organizations, conducted over computer-mediated networks.

The goods and services are ordered over those networks, but the payment and the ultimate delivery of the good or service may be conducted on or offline” (OECD 2002, p.89). Statista (2017) reports that as of November 2016, travel related products and services rank second in sales after fashion related products with a 55% global online purchase rate, with purchases dominantly performed via desktop computers. Mobile technology as a platform for payments is currently on the rise with the popular use of smartphones and tablets. E-commerce involves a wide range of models - it can be conducted between a business and its customers (B2C), a business and its trading partners (B2B), from a consumer to a business (C2B), and from one consumer to another (C2C).

Small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) dominate the tourism industry numerically. Low entry barriers specifically in terms of physical, financial and human capital, technology and managerial expertise (Buhalis & Peters 2006) helps to explain their dominance in the tourism industry. A great majority of the SMEs in the tourism industry are travel agencies (Abou-Shouk, Lim & Megicks 2013; Karanasios & Burgess 2008), who are service providers that have traditionally played a role as intermediaries between travel suppliers - airlines, hotels, cruise lines, tour operators - and the consumer. The advent of the Internet as an electronic intermediary and revenue channel, coupled with a rise in the popular usage of ICT by tourism enterprises presents a challenge for the travel agencies’ role in the tourism distribution channel - the system of intermediaries, or middlemen, that connects and makes possible the sale and delivery of tourism services from suppliers to consumers (Buhalis & Laws 2001). Such distribution channels aid in linking the gap between supply and demand (Gartner & Bachri 2010) and includes an elaborate network of players.

ICT facilitated structural adjustments in the distribution channel both in the demand and supply side, resulting in changes in supplier/intermediary relationships and greater competition due to the entry of more participants (Ioannides & Daughtrey 2006; Cooper & Lewis 2001). Time was when most consumers would purchase flights or make travel arrangements exclusively through brick and mortar travel agencies, who in turn coordinated directly with suppliers via call centers and/or their sales offices.

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The rise in ICT technology gave birth to Global Distribution Systems (GDS), which are computer reservations platforms or networks that contain a comprehensive inventory and information database of travel service providers. There are three dominant GDS - Amadeus, Sabre and Galileo – all of whom continue to provide valuable front and back office technology support to travel agencies, and augments the technology needs of tourism suppliers and online travel agents (OTAs). The rise in the commercial opportunities of the Internet also encouraged non-traditional players to join the tourism distribution channel i.e. the initial entry of Microsoft via the globally popular OTA, Expedia. Other major players are the metasearch companies like Kayak, Trivago and TripAdvisor, who all specialize in searching the websites of tourism service providers and OTAs while combining, sorting and organizing information on the various promotions offered by them (Amadeus 2016; Brown & Kaewkitipong 2009). An increasing number of travel service providers - airlines, hotels, car rental companies and tour operators - have taken advantage of the opportunities created by ICT to cut costs and widen their customer base by creating a direct channel to travel consumers to offer information and sell their products and services (Buhalis & Licata 2002). This serves as a threat to the travel agencies’ traditional intermediary role which challenges them to assert their relevance in the face of increased competition from different players in the tourism distribution channel.

A review of the existing literature shows that ICT and specifically, E-commerce adoption, by SMEs have been studied globally - Australia (Standing & Vasudavan 2000), New Zealand (Nodder, Mason, Ateljevic & Milne 2003; Thorn & Chen 2005), Thailand (Brown & Kaewkitipong 2009), Malaysia (Suraya 2005; Zare & Chukwunonso 2015; Set, Agbola & Mahmood 2017), Indonesia (Gartner & Bachri 2010), Hong Kong (Law & Wong 2003; Law & Lau 2004; Law, Leung & Wong 2004; Law, Leung, Lo, Leung & Fong 2014), Taiwan (Wang & Cheung 2004; Bennett & Lai 2005; Liu & Chen 2009; Hung, Yang, Yang & Chuang 2011; Shih & Fan 2013), Turkey (Kozak 2006), Egypt (Abou-Shouk, Lim & Megicks 2013), Greece (Vrana & Zafiropoulos 2006), Spain (Garin-Munoz & Perez-Amaral 2010), and South Africa (Mbatha 2013).

Of the many stakeholders that comprise the tourism industry, the travel agency sector stands to gain significantly from the numerous benefits that accrue to E-commerce adoption. A literature search, however, revealed that no studies have yet been made regarding travel agencies’ E-commerce adoption in the Philippines. Hence, this research sought to investigate and establish data to address the following research questions: a) What are the current E-commerce practices and usage of Metro Manila based travel agencies? b) What do the respondents perceive are benefits of E-commerce? c) What do the respondents perceive are barriers to E-commerce adoption? D) What E-commerce adoption baseline can be determined?

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Significance of the Study As an exploratory study, the Philippine travel sector can acquire valuable insights on E-commerce which can help in empowering them to arrive at informed decisions as to the degree of technology adoption that will be advantageous for their business operations. This study can also benefit the academic community in their pursuit of industry-based empirical studies while contributing to the body of literature on E-commerce. Furthermore, technology providers will attain greater understanding of the challenges faced by the travel sector and assist them in developing enhanced confidence-building solutions for increased adoption of E-commerce.

LITERATURE REVIEW The tourism product is basically a “confidence good”, a “mental image” of what a tourist stands to experience (Werthner & Klein 1999). There exists a temporal and spatial separation that characterizes the decision by a potential traveler to make a purchase of a tourism product. This separation means that travelers need to leave their everyday environment to experience or “consume” it, and therefore cannot avail of it in advance (Milovanovic & Gligorijevic 2017). The tourism product is one that is both tangible and intangible, highly perishable, unique and can be a mixture of products and services that are to be rendered by a host of different service providers. To bridge the gap between the temporal and spatial distance, detailed product information that is available to the potential traveler prior to making a purchase decision is vital. Based on the knowledge gained from the available information, travel consumers can feel confident and secure in making a purchase for a tourism service that has yet to be delivered or experienced in a different place, by a possibly unknown service provider at a future date.

ICT and E-commerce Tourism and ICT are very compatible (Werthner & Klein 1999; Bennett & Lai 2005). Information is tourism’s driving force and ICT is its foundation.

Travel consumers utilize ICT when they go through the tourism buying process - in planning their trips and making purchase decisions, to make payments, to document their experiences while undergoing the trip and to share their firsthand experiences and reviews.

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information via multimedia from tourism suppliers to potential travel consumers.

ICT plays an important role since it raises the possibilities for introducing new products and services, the provision of quality information, and the fulfillment of customer expectations. The ease with which information may be obtained brings a higher likelihood of buying and selling to take place (Kuster 2006).

The present-day reality that consumers can search, customize and purchase their own travel itineraries online does not augur well for the future of travel agencies (Law et al. 2014). This reality takes on greater urgency for the sector since a great number of travel service providers, notably airlines and hotels, have undertaken cost saving measures through the imposition of reduced commissions and/or commission caps, reducing travel agencies’ revenues and their client base (Wang & Cheung 2004). On the demand side, a great majority of travel consumers have come to realize that bypassing an intermediary may be advantageous in securing lower prices for travel services, most especially air tickets.

Travel agencies and E-commerce The advent of enhanced ICT and its use by tourism service providers to directly reach and sell to travel consumers has placed pressure on travel agencies who are left with no option but to compete and at the same time collaborate with those who form part of the tourism distribution channel. The adoption of E-commerce in travel agencies’ operations can serve as a gateway for them to evolve from their traditional role as a brick and mortar intermediary to a brick and click channel for them to survive in a highly competitive environment (Bennett & Lai 2005). This presents an opportunity for travel agencies to rethink their operational strategies and overhaul the traditional product-oriented business model to a marketing oriented one (Buhalis & Ujma 2006). In order then to continually provide quality information, offer products that appeal to different market segments and deliver superior service, travel agencies can adopt E-commerce to gain a competitive advantage through a presence in the electronic marketplace (Meckel, Walters, Greenwood & Baugh 2004). This will however require travel agencies to possess a fundamental and thorough understanding of its functionality, and a willingness to allocate a great part of their organizational resources and expertise. Technology on its own cannot be a separate business strategy; travel agencies need to undertake thorough planning, focus persistently in marketing their products and services efficiently, and deliver superior customer service (Buhalis 1998; O’Connor, Buhalis & Frew 2001).

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without having to go through intermediaries in the distribution channel, helping to eliminate costs that come with traditional delivery methods (Buhalis 1999; Sutanonpaiboon & Pearson 2006; Mbatha 2013). E-commerce can be a stimulus for travel agencies’ business growth through the assimilation of robust information, greater access to markets, and an increase in customer base (Migiro & Ongori 2010). Travel agencies can also benefit from the resulting efficiencies generated by the application of simplified processes that results in ease in the conduct of transactions, the reduction in distribution costs, and the resultant growth in sales and revenue (Thorn & Chen 2005).

The current literature however has shown evidence that SMEs usually lag their larger counterparts in technology adoption (MacGregor & Vrazalic 2008; AbouShouk et al. 2013). When compared with large enterprises, they differ in many ways - they usually have smaller management teams that play multifunctional roles; their owner/s often exhibit a strong influence in their operations; they lack adequate human resources in specialized areas like ICT; they have minimal or even no control over the external business environment; they are very cost conscious due to sparse financial resources and access to funding; they enjoy a meager market share; they exhibit a hesitancy to take risks; and are often resistant to change i.e. the use of new, sophisticated software or applications (Buhalis 1996; Sutanonpaiboon & Pearson 2006; Migiro & Ongori 2010). Such realities hinder them from fully realizing and maximizing the benefits of ICT.

The Philippine situation The Philippines is one of Southeast Asia’s most dynamic economies and is steadily on a growth path towards becoming a major tourist destination (UNWTO 2017). The most recent available data show that E-commerce sales in 2012 reached PHP79 billion, representing 0.6% of total income. The service sector gained the most in E-commerce sales - PHP60.17 billion, representing a 76.2% share. A breakdown of the sector shows that 89% were contributed by transport and storage, followed by administrative and support service activities at 4.4%, and wholesale/retail trade at 3.3% (DTI 2015).

A nationwide census identified that a total of 915,726 businesses operate in the Philippines, an overwhelming majority of which is comprised of micro, small and medium sized enterprises (MSMEs) numbering 911,768 businesses. In the Philippine context, MSMEs are defined as any business establishment with 10 to 199 employees and/or assets valued from PHP3 million to PHP100 million.

Micro businesses hold the lion’s share at 89.63% (820,795 companies), small sized enterprises at 9.5% (86,955), and medium sized enterprises at 0.44% (4,018) (DTI 2016).

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MSMEs in the Philippines are challenged by a lack of public policy direction and support. Local MSMEs have yet to fully exploit whatever benefits can possibly be realized with the enactment in 2000 of the Electronic Commerce Act (ECA), a guide for the implementation of E-commerce jointly implemented by three (3) major government agencies namely, the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI), the Department of Information and Communications Technology (DICT), and the Department of Science and Technology (DOST).

The Philippine E-commerce Roadmap (PECR) 2016-2020 which was launched recently has for its primary objective the enhancement of E-commerce to contribute 25 percent to the country’s gross domestic product (GDP) in the short term.

Key areas of the PECR focus on six I’s - infrastructure, investment, innovation, intellectual capital, information flow and integration (DTI 2016). The Philippine government through the PECR aims to provide a roadmap that will help address the myriad challenges posed by an inadequate and unreliable telecommunications infrastructure. Recent findings show that the Philippines went down a notch in rankings in two areas - from the 95th spot to 96th in mobile speed rankings, and from 82nd to 83rd place in fixed broadband - based on the latest Ookla Speedtest Global Index, a monthly comparison of global Internet speed data based on Speedtest ratings derived from the Ookla Speedtest service. The latest recorded mobile download speed is at 14.01 Megabits per second (Mbps) while upload speed is at 5.99 Mbps, both results of which are still below the global mobile broadband speed averages of 22.61 Mbps download and 9.10 Mbps upload respectively. In fixed broadband speed, the Philippines’ download speed is at 17.62 Mbps while upload speed is at 15.27 Mbps, both results are also below the world average, with global average download speeds at 45.07 Mbps and global average upload speeds at 21.93 Mbps (“PH declines in Ookla test”).

METHODOLOGY, SCOPE/DELIMITATION AND DATA ANALYSIS A mixed method approach was utilized for this study consisting of a survey, a focus group discussion and key informant interviews, the results of which were analyzed against the existing literature. Descriptive research design was utilized to answer the research questions presented earlier. The design focused on describing the current E-commerce practices and usage of the subjects (research question 1) to determine their level of ICT adoption (research question 4) and their perceptions of E-commerce benefits (research question 2) and barriers (research question 3). Focus group discussion and key informant interviews were also conducted to further explore the responses in the survey. To measure the variables involved in the study, a survey questionnaire was developed and - 310 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

subjected to a reliability test. The final version of the survey questionnaire had Cronbach’s alpha of .82 for E-commerce benefits and .96 for E-commerce barriers. After tabulation and initial analysis of the data from the questionnaires, a focus group discussion (FGD) was conducted with three respondents as participants. Two separate sessions of key informant interviews (KII) were also conducted. The conduct of the FGD and KII and the composition of the participants served as an opportunity to gather additional insights from travel agency manager respondents who come from different business environments with varied perceptions and attitudes towards E-commerce applications.

This research adopted the framework of Molla and Licker (2004) in their study of South African businesses’ E-commerce adoption. This study adopted their six-stage growth model to conceptually identify different phases of Metro Manila based travel agencies’ E-commerce adoption, implementation, and level of sophistication, which are the following: 1) No E-commerce. A travel agency that is not connected to the Internet, no email.

2) Connected E-commerce. A travel agency that is connected to the Internet, uses email, and E-commerce tools - mobile/landline phones, desktop/laptop computers, printers, facsimile, scanning machines, and a GDS – to facilitate transactional processes but has no website.

3) Informational E-commerce. The travel agency uses an online presence – via a website or a social media hosted page - to communicate company information and its products/services in a static manner.

4) Interactive E-commerce. The travel agency has provisions in its online presence for visitors to browse its product catalogue, make queries via an online inquiry form, email or the use of a chat facility.

5) Transactional E-commerce. The travel agency’s website facilitates online selling, purchases, and payments including the delivery of services i.e. customer service.

6) Integrated E-commerce. The travel agency’s website is integrated with customers, suppliers, customers, and its back-office systems enabling most transactions to be done electronically.

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Figure 1. Six stage E-commerce growth model (Molla & Licker, 2004).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Characteristics Gender Male Female Age 30 and below 31 - 40 41 - 50 51 and above Education Tertiary Post graduate Number of locations 0-1 2-3 4-5

Frequency

%

9 11

45 55

3 2 4 11

15 10 20 55

19 1

95 5

14 4 2

70 20 10

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Number of full time staff 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31 and above Number of travel agencies with ICT staff Yes No Number of ICT staff 0 1 2 No response Number of years in operation 5-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41 and above

4 3 3 4 0 1 5

20 15 15 20 0 5 25

9 11

45 55

11 3 3 3

55 15 15 15

3 0 4 3 3 3 2 2

15 0 20 15 15 15 10 10

Table 1: Respondents’ Profile.

Table 1 shows the breakdown of respondents’ profile according to gender, age and education. It also shows key characteristics of the travel agencies such as number of locations, staffing complement, presence of ICT staff and length of business operations. The data show that while 85% of the respondents have been in the travel business for more than 15 years, and the remaining 15% has had at least 5 years’ experience, the presence of ICT department and staff was only at 45% among respondents. This contrast indicates a personal and professional mindset as regards the use of technology in the travel business vis-à-vis the conventional and time-tested system that is characterized by personalized transactions between travel professionals and clients, a practice observed by the researcher during visits to informants’ business premises for surveys and interviews.

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Inventory of ICT tools usage and Internet presence of the respondents Internet broadband con-nection Desktops/laptops Use of e-mail Mobile/landline phones Facsimile/Scanner/Printer Skype Global Distribution System (GDS)* Amadeus Sabre Galileo Internet presence** Company website 3rd party site (social media) Facebook Instagram Blogspot

Frequency

%

20 20 20 20 20 5

100 100 100 100 100 25

12 15 7

60 75 35

10 18 18 4 1

55 90 100 22 5

Table 2: Current E-commerce practices and usage.

Table 2 shows that Internet connectivity is a given in all the respondents’ operations and as such, is especially true of travel agencies who utilize the most basic of E-commerce tools - email, desktops/laptops, mobile and landline phones, facsimile machines, scanners, and printers - to facilitate transactional processes.

The rise of the Internet has made it a familiar technology that is readily available (Abou-shouk et al. 2013) and provides travel agencies with a competitive advantage (Migiro & Ocholla 2005). Also unique to travel agencies worldwide is the use of a Global Distribution System (GDS) which are platforms or networks that are used as a single point of access for reservations (lodging, air and ground transportation), information search, client management and sales reporting. GDS networks operating in the country - Sabre, Amadeus and Galileo - offer attractive commission packages to travel agencies. Bennett and Lai (2005) advanced the view that E-commerce adoption by travel agencies can aid them in evolving from their traditional role as a brick and mortar intermediary to a brick and click channel to gain traction as a player in the tourism distribution channel. Strong evidence of a positive attitude towards a presence in the World Wide Web was demonstrated by 90% of the respondents. Fifty-five percent (55%) maintain a company website while all 18 respondents with an online presence are hosted on social media, with Facebook as the dominant choice (100%).

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To show relevant agency information To communicate with customers To communicate with suppliers/partners To advertise and sell products/services To receive customer orders To receive customer payments To develop a customer database To increase competitive advantage To be updated on the latest travel & tourism products sold in the market To establish a presence in the global marketplace To develop new products and services To enhance service delivery to customers

Frequency Rank % 10 5 55 16 1 89 6 7 33 15 2 83 7 6 39 4 8 22 6 7 33 13 3 72 7 6 39 11 4 61 6 7 33 11 4 61

Table 3: Reasons cited for maintaining an online presence*.

A major motivation by the respondents in maintaining an online presence is to increase their competitive edge. Table 4 points to enhanced communication with potential or existing customers as cited by an 89% majority. An important component for B2C E-commerce to thrive is the value of trust that needs to be developed between the seller and the customer. Fifty-five percent (55%) of the respondents as shown in Table 4 see the Internet as a tool to showcase relevant company and product information and aid them in establishing a reputation with customers, which is further validated by all the respondents as shown in Table 5.

The survey results also point to a positive attitude towards the marketing benefits that the Internet provides - to make themselves known to a global audience (61%); to advertise and sell their products and services (83%); to receive customer orders (39%) and payments (22%) – all of which, combined with the communication capability, helps to improve the service delivery process to customers (61%). The ability to access information 24/7 allows travel agencies to keep abreast of the latest tourism products and trends in the market (39%) which stimulates the development of new and relevant products (33%).

Information about the company and its products Customers can send inquiries.

Customers can chat with agency staff.

Customers can place orders for your products.

There are existing links with suppliers/service providers.

Customers can make purchases and payments online.

It is fully integrated with links to suppliers/service providers, customers and your agency’s back office systems.

Frequency 18 17 7 9 3 4

% 100 94 39 50 17 22

2

11

Table 4: Features of the respondents’ online presence*. * Note: N=18

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Table 4 shows that the respondents’ online presence are primarily for information dissemination (100%) and a channel for inquiries (94%). The integration of online facilities into their core business operations, however, is still very minimal (11%). The researcher’s interview with Key Informant 2 regarding observations made of their agency’s website brought about a discussion regarding two dominant features: 1) the use of backlinks that refers to a link one website gets from another website, and 2) the use of manual intervention that refers to the injection of a human touch by the intervention of assigned travel agency staff to handle inquiries made by customers on the website. The researcher also perused the 10 respondents’ websites and observed the following: • five (50%) websites include flight and fare search as part of their menu; • there are two (20%) websites who maintain backlinks with travel service providers; • only one (10%) website allows a B2B facility for partner travel agencies who are part of a consortium to check availability and prices, specifically of a cruise product that they exclusively represent in the country; • there are two (20%) websites that has a payment facility - one uses Weepay, while the other utilizes Paypal; • nine travel agencies (90%) sell leisure products, specifically tour packages, as part of their offerings using manual intervention; • only one (10%) travel agency has a website that exclusively caters to a corporate audience which is utilized to solely provide information on the range of corporate travel management solutions and services that they offer.; • one menu offering that is common to eight (80%) of the respondents’ websites is the visa information and documentation services that they provide, and the countries featured are usually those that form part of their tour packages.

A key informant also intimated that “The more features that are loaded on a website, the more expensive the software cost is going to be” (Key Informant 2, 14 Jun 2018).

The researcher also inspected the 18 respondents’ Facebook page content and found 78% show company information and demonstrate a level of consistency in updating their Facebook page to showcase their products and services. Another key informant shared that “The messages that are recorded on Messenger is a convenient feature that users can always refer to, instead of having to ask them to log on frequently on our website. The accessibility of chat on the most widely used social media site by Filipinos is a built-in advantage for us” (Key Informant 1, 12 Jun 2018).

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The extant literature points to ICT as a channel for SMEs to obtain a competitive edge (Migiro & Ongori 2010; Thorn & Chen 2005). The adoption of a website and social media presence as an E-commerce marketing strategy arises from both institutional pressure, which in this case comes from customers; and competitive pressure, which is that which emerges from the threat of losing competitive advantage (Wang & Cheung 2015).

Better communication with existing/potential customers Better interaction with suppliers/partners Easy access to information on tourism products and services Providing information to customers on your company’s products and services Simplified business processes Lower distribution costs Enhanced marketing efforts Increased internal operational efficiency To increase sales and revenues

Frequency 17 16 18

% 85 80 90

16

80

14 10 12 14 16

70 50 60 70 80

Table 5: Benefits of ICT to the respondents’ business operations*.

Table 5 illustrates the respondents’ perceptions of the benefits that accrue to their use of E-commerce tools and establishment of an online presence. The section of the instrument that measured their perceptions of the above-mentioned benefits was based on their general view as it impacts on their operations, which did not require them to specifically rate each item based on a five-point scale. Their concurrence of E-commerce’s informational benefits is based on four statements – better communication with existing/potential customers; better interaction with suppliers/partners; easy access to information on tourism products and services; and providing information to customers on products and services, all of which were viewed favorably by 80-85% of this study’s subjects.

Eighty percent (80%) of the respondents also declared that the foremost operational benefit of ICT is to increase sales and revenues. There however appears to be a gap between their perceptions of operational and strategic benefits as exemplified by the statement, “enhanced marketing efforts” (strategic) and “lower distribution costs” (operational). This researcher observed that there exists a degree of uncertainty that characterizes their definitions of the said statements especially as it pertains to marketing efforts that is highly feasible through an electronic presence. Similarly, two other statements that pertain to operational benefits – simplified business processes and increased internal operational efficiency – appear to be misconstrued. * Note: N=20

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Obtain personal data from individual consumers for marketing purposes To minimize distribution costs To render efficient customer service To market your products & services in the global marketplace and increase your customer base To open another sales and revenue channel To improve the service delivery process to customers To communicate with customers To communicate with suppliers/service providers To market your products and services to the Philippine market effectively To facilitate ease in carrying out sales transactions Overall

Mean 3.5 4.05 4.2

Rank SD 7 1 3 0.83 2 1.01

4.35

1

0.81

4.2 3.95 3.9 3.9

2 4 5 5

0.77 1 0.91 1.02

4.35

1

0.88

3.6 4

6

1.19 0.29

Table 6: Perceptions of E-commerce benefits.

Table 6 shows ten statements that were all rated by the respondents via a five-point scale from 1 to 5. The results show an overall mean of 4, indicating agreement.

Two items significantly gained the highest score with a 4.35 mean indicating a positive motivation by the respondents to deploy E-commerce to achieve strategic benefits, to wit - “to market your products and services in the global marketplace and increase your customer base” and “to market your products and services to the Philippine market effectively”. Further agreement can be gleaned by the 4.20 mean score for the statement, “to open another sales and revenue channel” indicating that E-commerce adoption is viewed favorably by the respondents as another gateway to generate sales and increase revenue apart from traditional offline revenue sources. Abou-shouk et al. (2013) posited that ICT adoption is a highly viable marketing tool that can be deployed by travel agencies since it presents an opportunity to open a new sales channel to derive additional sales from consumers in international tourism markets. An electronic presence results in the reduction of transaction costs and the attainment of operational efficiency which are both classified as E-commerce operational benefits. The respondents positively affirmed such a reality - the statements, “to minimize distribution costs” and “to facilitate ease in carrying out sales transactions” scored 4.05 and 3.60 respectively. SMEs stand to generate savings in distribution costs - lower advertising expenses i.e. it is less expensive to display brochures, catalogues, and corporate information flyers on a website than traditional advertising, minus the pricey printing costs; and lower transaction costs i.e. the customer fills in an order and transaction form and makes a payment. The challenge for Manila based travel agencies as suggested by their responses towards the earlier mentioned operational benefits is to constantly rethink their strategies in terms of how they can fully harness the potential of website diffusion in achieving economies of - 318 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

scale and a decrease in operating costs while generating operational efficiency (OECD 2017).

Philippine travel consumers are not ready for E-commerce Suppliers are not ready to adopt E-commerce The Philippine ICT infrastructure is inadequate There is a security risk in making online payments There is a lack of knowledge on E-commerce business strategies by manage-ment and staff There is a current lack of in house ICT expertise Establishing a website requires high initial development costs The cost of developing a website does not offer a sufficient and timely return on investment There is less opportunity for human interaction in an online electronic transaction It is not possible to offer customized products to customers in an online transaction There is less opportunity to upsell/cross sell to customers Overall

Mean 2.6 3.1 3.65 3.9

Rank 9 8 3 2

SD 0.88 0.85 0.93 0.91

3.5

5

1

3.3 3.6

6 4

0.98 0.94

3.15

7

1.14

4.15

1

0.67

3.15

7

1.31

3.3 3.4

6

1.17 0.42

Table 7: Perceived barriers to E-commerce.

Table 7 shows that the respondents believe that the three (3) main barriers to E-commerce are less opportunity for human interaction (1), security risks in online payments (2) and inadequacy of the Philippine ICT infrastructure (3).

A pervasive practice by traditional tourism intermediaries like the travel agency is the interaction between them and their customers (Buhalis & Licata 2002).

An overriding concern from both the customer and vendor viewpoints is the security of E-commerce platforms which has been widely discussed in the extant literature (Mazzarol 2015; MacGregor & Vrazalic 2008; Garin-Munoz & PerezAmaral 2010; Umalomwa & Ranti 2009; Mbatha 2013; Buhalis 1998; Pham, Pham & Nguyen 2011; Sutanonpaiboon & Pearson 2006; Khatibi, Thyagarajan & Seetharaman 2003; Kozak 2006; Law & Lau 2004; Osorio-Gallego, LondonoMetaute & Lopez-Zapata 2016; Lucchetti & Sterlacchini 2004; Jeon, Han & Lee 2006; Thorn & Chen 2005; Vrana & Zafiropoulos 2006). The most common security threats include computer viruses, spam (unsolicited E-mail messages), the fraudulent use of credit cards, and information theft. The literature also confirms that the inadequacy or unreliability of telecommunications infrastructure in a developing country can be an inhibitor for E-commerce (Karanasios & Burgess 2008; Umalomwa & Ranti 2009). One essential prerequisite for E-commerce to work is the availability of a solid public infrastructure as it impacts on store management capabilities, controls of on-site optimization and the ease with which marketing of products and services may be done to name a few.

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To fully realize the informational, strategic and operational benefits of E-commerce, SMEs need to be able to create and efficiently deploy E-commerce capabilities (Boateng 2016). A host of factors have been identified in the literature as factors that impede the uptake of E-commerce - a limited understanding of the potential of ICT, a deficiency in training, a shortage of capital, the absence of a developed telecommunications infrastructure, a dearth of human resources and skills, cultural barriers, and a lack or absence of sound business strategies (Buhalis 1996; Umalomwa & Ranti 2009; Migiro & Ongori 2010; Abou-shouk et al. 2013). Of great concern too for SMEs are legal and security issues and the cost of technology implementation (Migiro & Ocholla 2005).

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The findings of this exploratory study show that 100% of the travel agencyrespondents included in the study employ information and communications technologies (ICT) in the conduct of their business. However, it has been noted that while ICT is already an indispensable feature of travel agency operations, the degree of usage and the extent of technological complexities differ from one travel agency to another. The study also established that the travel industry possesses an interactive capability which indicates that PTAA-affiliated Metro Manila based travel agencies can be classified under Stage 4, Interactive E-commerce, based on the six-stage framework of Molla and Licker (2004).

At Interactive stage, the travel agency complements its information capability with a website or Facebook presence that enables visitors to browse the travel agency’s product catalogue, make queries via an online inquiry form or email or the use of Facebook’s chat facility, and place orders. The study’s findings also determined that Metro Manila based travel agencies believe that E-commerce is relevant as a marketing tool and additional revenue channel. The results show that, in general, information and communications technologies are relevant and advantageous to the business operations of the respondents. However, preliminary data also shows that the travel sector is apprehensive about the lack of interaction opportunities with clients if majority of the business transactions are conducted online. There are also major concerns in terms of Internet security particularly in the area of data privacy, phishing and payments. Furthermore, the study revealed a very low confidence level on the adequacy and reliability of public ICT infrastructure in the Philippines.

As an exploratory study, it is recommended that further research using different variables such as membership or non-membership in travel associations, length of business operations and years of experience in the travel profession, among others, be undertaken in order to extensively gain a picture of the current state of - 320 © CirVath - les Cahiers Internationaux du Tourisme - no 11

E-commerce practices and determine the perceptions of benefits and barriers by a larger segment of the Philippine travel industry. Researches on more focused groups (i.e., online travel agencies, consolidators and the like) are suggested as they could reveal more relevant information and help formulate practices that can be utilized in aid of developing business process enhancements that can further benefit the Philippine travel agency sector.

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Juin 2019

Centre International de Recherche Vatel en Tourisme et HĂ´tellerie