USJ Volume IV

We define a community as any group of people that one is connected to, such as activist communities, marginalized communities, ethnic or religious communities, and more. The theme can also pertain to the absence of communities, the formation of communities, isolation from communities, and the scale of communities (groups, cities, nations, global communities).

UNDERGRADUATE SOCIOLOGY JOURNAL Volume IV April 2021

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UNDERGRADUATE SOCIOLOGY JOURNAL

VOLUME IV - 2021

EDITOR'S NOTE Dear readers, I am extremely excited to present to you the fourth volume of the Undergraduate Sociology Journal (USJ).

This past year has presented one of the greatest challenges of the century, the COVID-19 crisis. Despite its harrowing consequences, the virus has also made clear the power of unity, camaraderie and connectedness, all of which are phenomena of great interest to sociology. As such, the theme of this volume of the journal is Community, and each piece explores how community is sociologically significant. The breadth of the papers shows the salient nature of sociology, as authors explore and interpret the theme in various ways, ranging from the mental health ramifications of COVID-19 among university students to the digitalizing of commercial spaces in Toronto. We hope the papers in this volume will take you on a journey of critical analysis, self-reflection, and varied discovery as you read.

I would like to thank all those who made Volume IV of the USJ possible. Thank you to our copy and design editors for dedicating so much time and zeal to putting this journal together, even when their world has been flipped upside down by these challenging times. Thank you to our Faculty Advisor, Dr. Christian Caron for your time. Thank you to Dumkelechi Aligwekwe and Susan (Shixuan) Fan, the Co-Presidents of USSU, for your generous support through the production of this journal. Thank you to those who submitted their work for review, and congratulations to the contributors for being published.

Lastly, thank you to our readers, without whom the journal’s discursive intention would be unfulfilled. I hope you find community in the journal, among your peers at the University of Toronto, and in the world at large.

Sincerely, Debasmita Bhatttacharya Editor-in-Chief, Undergraduate Sociology Journal (USJ)

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EDITORIAL BOARD EDITOR-IN-CHIEF Debasmita Bhattacharya

COPY EDITORS Afraz Bakhtiar Audrey Steinburg Danielle Vaughan Bonas Erica Liu Lauren Alexander Sarah Tran Shivani Baldeo Sophie Chase Vittoria Blanco

DESIGN EDITORS Sarah Tran Tina Lin

FACULTY ADVISOR Dr. Christian Caron

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TABLE OF CONTENTS 2

Editor's Note

3

Editorial Board

4

Table of Contents

5

Behind Restaurant Doors: The Struggles of the Food and Beverage Industry

15

Citizen Compliance in Individualistic Societies

23 Coping with COVID-19: Mental Health within Ontario Universities 34 Criminalizing Refugees in Canada: Policy, Impacts, and Future 42 Gay Fathers Practicing Parenthood in the Predominantly Heterosexual Context 49 Gender and COVID-19: Changing Family Dynamics and Labour Distribution Before and During The Pandemic 60 Should Toronto Fear an Increasingly E-Commerce City?

67 Two Letters: On Accountability and Solidarity 75 Why Canadian Education Might Not Protect Indigenous Youth from Homelessness 82 Letter from USSU

VOLUME IV - 2021

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BEHIND RESTAURANT DOORS: THE STRUGGLES OF THE FOOD AND BEVERAGE INDUSTRY SHIVANI BALDEO

ABSTRACT The

COVID-19

pandemic

uprooted

vary for local and chain retailers, there are

countries such as Canada economically, the

common themes of interest including, but not

food and beverage industry experiencing

limited to, balancing business operations

especially harsh impacts. As the pandemic is

while prioritizing safety, coping with financial

ongoing, , it is not yet fully understood how

impacts of COVID-19, and building community

independent and chain retailers are coping

by

with and responding to the sudden economic

stakeholders such as frontline workers. These

downturn.

retailers’

themes can help understand the experiences

experiences, this study utilizes a conventional

of the food and beverage industry holistically

content analysis approach and grounded

throughout the pandemic, as well as potential

theory to collect and analyze data from social

financial consequences in the future. This

media platforms of 5 independent and 5 chain

research is a significant start to understanding

food and beverage retailers from Toronto,

the

Canada. It was found that independent and

changes, and unique impacts of COVID-19 on

chain

businesses.

To

retailers

has

understand

experience

the

pandemic

supporting

temporary

local

and

businesses

permanent

and

effects,

differently which influences their response and ability

to

adjust

implications seem to

financially.

While

the

KEYWORDS: COVID-19, Independent retailer, Chain retailer, Support, Businesses

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VOLUME IV - 2021

In the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic, businesses

populated cities. The method used to secure reliable

of all sizes have been forced to completely change

data

the way they operate overnight. This ability of

considering

businesses to adapt during this unprecedented time

platforms such as Facebook and Instagram. With

was one of the most appealing parts of this paper

data

alongside other prevalent themes and insights.

companies

COVID-19, or Coronavirus, gained global coverage

neighbourhood coffee shop like Dineen Coffee, the

beginning in January 2020 as it spread quickly

communications and practices of chain stores and

across the world. As the virus reached Canada, cities

local businesses are important for understanding

quickly felt its impact with responses of fear,

and comparing not only operational changes but

anxiety, and uncertainty. In mid-March of 2020,

community experiences, initiatives, struggles and

Canada’s,

financial implications. Another important use of this

and

more

particularly

Ontario’s,

was

a

conventional

retailers’

collection such

ranging as

from

McDonald’s

on

billion-dollar to

small

The

Considering that data collection and analysis was

majority of chain retailers and small businesses in

done primarily using social media posts and that

the hospitality industry closed due to being

conclusions were drawn from a full observers’

categorized as non-essential and due to uncertainty

interpretations, it might be helpful for advertising or

around the safest way to proceed with operations.

marketing teams to see how their posts are being

With the pandemic’s effects progressing quickly,

interpreted.

close.

marketing

a

all

would

for

posts

research

businesses

be

media

analysis,

government declared a state of emergency and that non-essential

could

social

content

purposes.

businesses had to cope with quick and organized changes to facilitate safety and health. However, not

Important themes that arose included increased

all businesses had the same financial power and

safety of daily operations, building community

manual labour to do so (Finch 2020). While citizens

through supporting others, and more broadly, the

were under quarantine or self-isolating at home, it

impacts of COVID-19 on businesses’ finances. The

was unclear what was going on behind the scenes

combination of these three themes provides insights

of businesses adapting to the necessary changes

into the broader context of Toronto during the

while losing thousands to millions in revenue

pandemic. While all cases shared similar themes in

(McDonald 2020). The impacts were brutal for both

cross-case analysis, there were important contextual

small businesses and chain retailers, particularly

differences with the issues, adaptations, and abilities

those in the food and beverage industry, with

to counter COVID-19 between local businesses and

thousands of employees getting laid off and

larger brands (Lannigan 2020). Developing an

predictions of one in 10 businesses not surviving the

enhanced understanding of the food and beverage

pandemic and closing permanently (Wilson 2020).

industry’s response to a pandemic like COVID-19 is important for better preparation and quick planning

To better understand the responses to COVID-19 by

for similar future crises. More specifically, this

the

paper

research is essential to observe what changes are

qualitatively uses a multiple case study of 10

successful and unsuccessful, which may provide

retailers to examine small local businesses and

insight into which adjustments should remain

larger chain companies in Toronto, one of Canada’s

beyond the pandemic. Overall, this paper aims to

most economically flourishing and densely

describe in-depth observations and their

food

and

beverage

industry,

this

PAGE 7

implications in the world during the pandemic by

I proceeded to select retailers that would best help

researching how independent and chain retailers in

to identify patterns and themes by having accessible

the food and beverage industry in Toronto, Canada

data. I utilized a grounded theory approach as my

have responded to the COVID-19 pandemic.

background knowledge was limited to my own experiences dealing with COVID-19 as a citizen and

METHODS

employee, as well as observing news coverage on

The main method of data collection and analysis

social media and news stations (Lannigan 2020).

employed

inductive

However, incorporating my own experience, the

conventional qualitative content analysis involving a

majority of retailers I chose were ones with which I

grounded theory approach. Conventional content

was highly familiar with as a customer. This aided in

analysis was important for this study as the existing

making comparisons between their past operations

literature and observations on COVID-19 were

and regulations and new ones.

in

this

study

was

an

limited. Using this method allowed me to engage in research without preconceived categories or having

I used a multiple case study approach to examine

to use a theoretical framework to analyze my data

two different contexts - local small businesses and

(Lannigan

in

branded operators - within the same industry, under

upholding grounded theory, where I used an

the bounded condition of COVID-19. Using a case

iterative process to allow coding and hypothesis

study

building to influence and connect to each other.

conditions and served to provide “thick descriptions”

Grounded theory was crucial to observe how

and answers to my research question of how

retailers engage and respond as things change with

Toronto chain and local food and beverage retailers

the social context of COVID-19 (Lannigan 2020). I

responded

also engaged in an inductive schema that started

Furthermore, it allowed for observations of shared

with general data collection of COVID-19, then

data since ethnographies and focus groups were

retailer

and

unsafe to carry out during pandemic conditions.

afterwards, creating categories and themes to help

While this paper focuses on a descriptive type of

answer my research question.

multiple case study to describe the phenomenon at

2020).

collection,

This

method

coding

for

also

aided

keywords

helped

to

facilitate

researching

COVID-19

contextual

(Lannigan

2020).

hand, it includes exploratory aspects as well, I first had a general research question interrogating

examining

a

situation

in

which

a

current

how the hospitality industry responded to COVID-19.

intervention has no clear outcomes (Lannigan 2020).

I sought out general information on the broader topic of COVID-19 affecting the hospitality industry

I selected 5 local stores - The Lakeview Restaurant,

to contextualize my research. This included five

Dineen Coffee Co, Nadege Patisserie, Dairy Cream,

news articles, from sources such as CP24 and the

and Village Juicery - which all own and operate

Globe and the Mail, detailing the severe impacts of

under 10 stores within Toronto. I then chose 5 chain

the virus on the hospitality industry and, more

retailers, including Starbucks, Chatime, Booster

particularly, the food and beverage sector. I then

Juice, McDonald’s, and Pizza Nova. I decided to use a

decided to focus on how the food and beverage

conventional content analysis where I manually

industry responded to COVID-19 and if responses

copied texts from social media posts that contained

differed between independent and chain retailers.

information prioritizing COVID-19 coverage (for

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VOLUME IV - 2021

TABLE 1 SIMPLE DISTRIBUTION TABLE

Starbucks Chatime Pizza Nova McDonald's Booster Juice The Lakeview Dineen Coffee Nadege Patisserie Dairy Cream Village Juicery TOTAL

FACEBOOK POSTS 1 9 1 0 0 1 1 22 7 0 42

INSTAGRAM POSTS 4 10 9 8 13 15 19 1 16 32 127

TWITTER POSTS 2 0 6 5 9 0 0 0 0 0 22

WEB PAGE NEWS ARTICLES (PARAGRAPHS) (RETAILER) 31 0 11 1 11 1 8 3 10 0 4 1 0 0 3 0 3 0 0 0 81 6

TOTAL 38 31 28 24 32 21 20 26 26 32 278

example, if a post mentioned social distancing), but

Although I manually collected all units of analysis, I

also

the

believe my transparent process and familiarity with

pandemic to get a well-rounded understanding of

the retailers enabled me to select relevant and

the discourse of retailers before and during the

appropriate data, thus increasing its richness and

pandemic. At this time, I found that two of my local

depth and reducing the risk of content bias

retailers did not have sufficient social media posts

(Lannigan 2020). After data collection, I began my

and decided to choose two new small businesses

first stage of coding, where I coded up to 10

that sufficed. When collecting data, I copied and

keywords for each unit. These keywords conveyed

pasted all text, hashtags, and emojis into an excel

meaning in the context of COVID-19 or occurred

sheet. I also transcribed any posts that contained

frequently, including hashtags and phrases. After

photos or videos with text or audio that could not

coding stage 1, I created a list of all keywords. I then

be copied manually. All posts, excerpts, and articles

made relevant, cohesive categories to help group

were broken up into paragraphs of five to six

keywords

sentences or less to make coding individual units

categories inductively to create themes that were

easier. After successfully collecting at least 20 posts

representative of the categories (Lannigan 2020).

included

normal

advertising

before

exhaustively

(Table

2).

I

examined

for each business, between social media posts, web page excerpts, and articles (each article was

After this first stage of coding, I had a better

counted as 1 post), I created a simple distribution

understanding of the common language patterns,

table of the units of analysis (Table 1). Overall, I

regularities, and themes in the dataset (Lannigan

manually collected 191 units of analysis from

2020). I took a few days away from the data to avoid

retailers’ official social media accounts on Twitter,

thematic bias when re-coding. I re-coded the data to

Instagram, and Facebook, 81 units from store

verify earlier identified codes and to identify any

webpages, six units from retail-specific articles, and

additional analytical codes. In this stage, I removed

65 units of analysis from general COVID-19 articles

several

(not included in Table 1) for a total of 343 units of

irrelevant in the overarching scheme of the data set,

analysis including general news units and 278

such as fee and rent. I also added new keywords that

including only social media posts.

were recurrent and added context, such as groceries.

keywords

that

were

insignificant

and

To further avoid bias, I again used grounded theory and open coding methods, comparing incidences of

PAGE 9

TABLE 2 EXAMPLES OF CODED PHRASES FROM POSTS ORGANIZED INTO CATEGORIES OPERATIONS

SUPPORT

PANDEMIC

IMPACTS

SAFETY

open delivery temporarily drive-thru

protect donating care supporting local

suffering/struggle increasing sanitization standards food service industry decline in business/revenue

increasing sanitization standards cashless virtual/remotely protect

closed in restaurant dining/in store services community support

small businesses

health/public health well-being COVID-19 crisis self-isolate/self quarantine

closed

health/public health

jobs lost/lay off fear/anxiety virtual/remotely

stay/be safe working from home public spaces

economic hit

stay home

limited

community support thank you front-line healthcare workers/heroes

safety/safe social distancing stay home front-line healthcare workers/heroes

TABLE 3 FINAL DISTRIBUTION TABLE OPERATIONS 29 33 23 41 27 17 17 25 25 28

SUPPORT 27 15 19 29 18 11 6 13 15 16

PANDEMIC 25 30 17 32 20 7 6 21 18 15

IMPACTS 8 9 6 11 4 4 0 6 3 2

SAFETY 20 19 22 19 18 7 6 18 16 14

TOTAL 109 106 87 132 87 46 35 83 77 75

Retail insider - Food and Beverage Retailers in Canada Hit Hard Amid COVID-19 Panic

11

9

8

7

4

39

The Globe and the Mail - How the coronavirus is affective food service businesses

5

2

10

8

5

30

CP24 - One in 10 restaurants around the country have permanently closed due to COVID-19, new survey suggests

7

4

4

9

0

24

Starbucks Chatime Pizza Nova McDonald's Booster Juice The Lakeview Dineen Coffee Nadege Patisserie Dairy Cream Village Juicery

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VOLUME IV - 2021

TABLE 3 FINAL DISTRIBUTION TABLE (CONT.) OPERATIONS

SUPPORT

PANDEMIC

IMPACTS

SAFETY

TOTAL

Architectural Digest - 6 Ways The Coronavirus is Fundamentally Changing Hospitality Design

14

6

14

15

12

61

Foodservice and Hospitality - COVID19 Causing Unprecedented Damage to the Canadian Restaurant Industry

3

3

9

9

1

25

305

193

236

101

181

1016

TOTAL

keywords

with

similar

incidences

to

observe

FINDINGS

similarities and identify whether it qualified as a

The retailers displayed similar themes of balancing

separate keyword (for example, the keyword at

service and safety, supporting various stakeholders,

home is similar but different from the keyword stay

and undergoing hardships due to the virus. However,

home, which should be acknowledged) (Lannigan

this study found that there are crucial differences

2020).

due to the contextual conditions of local and chain retailers.

I then proceeded to coding stage 2 of enumeration after the final categories were created (see Table 2

The first prominent theme was retailers’ measures to

for categories and examples of keywords). This stage

provide food service while also engaging and

of coding simply analyzed if a keyword in a category

enforcing

was present or not. This allowed for posts to be

displayed the narrative of stores closing temporarily

coded with multiple categories if they contained

in March, as per government regulations, and

keywords that fell into more than one category. This

gradually reopening services after implementing

aided in visualizing how often certain categories

measures to comply with COVID-19 regulations.

appeared within each platform and retailer. This

Chain

coding was then logged in the final distribution

employees and customers clear on their Instagram,

table (Table 3). To create themes, I combined

Twitter, and web pages. These measures included

categories where necessary and used the context of

requiring social distancing for in-store pick-up and

the keywords to represent recurring observations. I

increasing

identified themes such as balancing safety with

communicated

operations (category of operations and safety),

company letters when COVID-19 first escalated. They

supporting

communities

advised the public that they would keep safety a

(category of support), and coping with impacts of

number one priority by engaging in protocols that

COVID-19 (category of impact and pandemic). The

limit

findings of this process will be elaborated on in the

operations and focussing on contactless methods:

next section.

stakeholders

and

safe

retailers

behaviours.

made

sanitation.

contact.

early

They

The

their

data

expectations

For

example,

and

frequently

began

collected

limiting

of

Starbucks through

in-store

PAGE 11

[...] we may adapt the store experience by

Hello ice cream lovers, I am extremely sorry but

limiting seating to improve social distancing,

we have had to close. Some people have been

enable mobile order-only scenarios for pickup

very disrespectful to our employees and have not

via the Starbucks App or delivery via Uber Eats,

been obeying the rules put in place by the

or in some cases only the Drive Thru will be

Ontario Government. The drive thru is closed

open. As a last resort, we will close a store if we

until further notice for everybody's safety and

feel it is in the best interest of our customers and

there's absolutely no walk-ins. This is non-

partners, or if we are directed to do so by

negotiable.

government authorities. In any such situation,

scheduled and we will tweak operations as

we expect store disruption to be temporary.¹

needed for everybody's safety. Thank you. [...]

[...]

Ubereats

will

resume

as

#covid_19 #safety #allinthistogether⁴ Similar to Starbucks, most companies took on a cashless and contactless tactic relying on take-out,

Only two weeks after opening, they closed for two

delivery, and drive-thru services, facilitated by third

weeks, and continued to face hardship, crafting new

party services such as Uber Eats and DoorDash.

methods to cope, such as taped socially distanced

Notably, retailers who had the ability to stay open

lines and a makeshift drive-thru. Small businesses

but were aware of the dangers of remaining so

lacked a large pool of funds to make necessary

made decisions to prioritize safety. For example,

accommodations quickly and had to rely on other

Starbucks

for

safety strategies to maintain revenue. A common

company-owned stores in high-social gathering

theme was the implementation of grocery or meal

locations, such as malls and university campuses”².

kit delivery services, Nadege Patisserie creating an

While all retailers had their own adaptations of

“at-home delivery macaron kit”⁵ and Dineen Coffee

these safety methods, such as Booster Juice’s “fruit

“delivering bake at home scones and croissants”⁶.

shaped decals [on the floor] to encourage social

Overall, whether a chain or local retailer, there was

distancing”³, some had more success than others

an evident caution of balancing the safety of the

due to levels of financial power and manual labour.

public with providing service using a circumstantial

Dairy Cream, a local ice cream parlour, faced

community-by-community

extreme frustration and made several attempts to

balance was reached through different means

balance prioritizing the health and safety of its

dependent on the retailers’ resources.

ordered

“temporary

closures

judgement,

but

this

customers, employees and neighbouring businesses while operating amidst COVID-19. In an Instagram

Another recurring pattern was retailers supporting

post, they expressed:

relevant stakeholders, like employees, front line healthcare

workers,

communities,

and

local

businesses in need. This support largely came from

¹ Starbucks Canada (2020). Navigating through COVID-19. https://stories.starbucks.ca/en/stories/2020/navigating-through-covid-19/ ² Starbucks Canada. (2020). Navigating through COVID-19.https://stories.starbucks.ca/en/stories/2020/navigating-through-covid-19/ ³ Booster Juice. (2020). https://twitter.com/boosterjuice/status/1244699423332073477 ⁴ Dairy Cream1958. (2020). https://www.instagram.com/p/B_vtIAWh8uG/ ⁵ Nadège Patisserie. (2020). https://www.facebook.com/pg/nadegepatisserie/posts/?ref=page_internal ⁶ Dineencoffeeco. (2020). https://www.instagram.com/p/CALVM2MBTG6/

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PAGE 12

the

country

VOLUME IV - 2021

chain operators who had funds, resources and

across

to

order

takeout

on

labour to do so, such as Chatime, Pizza Nova, and

Wednesdays to show support for their favourite

Booster Juice. Pizza Nova shared their initiatives of

local restaurants! Now we’re asking you to show

community support and gratitude for frontline

support for our industry, which employs millions

heroes on Twitter:

of people in this country!

Learn more about this

movement here: [...] #Delivery #SupportLocal #StayHome @canadatakeout⁹

Thank you to the frontline healthcare workers for working hard to keep our communities safe. We have delivered 300 large pizzas, 1000 focaccias

While the data illustrated that large retailers were

and 240 jars of tomato sauce and more to come;

easily

to hospitals, health-care facilities, nursing homes

businesses once again used a different approach to

and food banks. #WeAreInThisTogether⁷

support others. While some small businesses were

able

to

support

all

stakeholders,

local

able to perform the same as chain operators, Village Chatime and Booster Juice engaged similarly with

Juicery “donat[ing] over 500 meals directly to the

franchise partners, donating hundreds of free

front line”¹⁰, other small businesses showed signs of

specialty drinks to frontline workers and first

struggling to maintain revenue due to inability to

responders.

meet demands efficiently and safely (Laws 2020).

Starbucks

also

showed

care

for

Restaurants like The Lakeview were forced to

employees by increasing wages and services like:

completely “close for dine-in, takeout and delivery”¹¹. for

However, local operators feeling the impacts of

partners

COVID-19 urged their communities to keep their

(employees) who are worried about or are

businesses afloat by opting for small retailers over

feeling unsafe coming to work, as well as

chains with the popular hashtag #supportlocal

partners who need to stay home to care for

(Wilson

children. ⁸

message:

Extending

the

14-day

scheduled

shifts

to

catastrophe now

include

pay

2020).

Nadege

Patisserie

shared

the

frontline

Due to COVID-19 our stores will close their doors

workers and employees, chain operators also

on Sunday at 6:00 PM until further notice! But

acknowledged

business

don’t worry, we promise to return once it is safe

struggles, and used their large platforms to start an

for our staff, customers and community to do so

Aside

from

supporting industry

communities, and

small

#SupportLocal¹²

initiative to show support. From Booster Juice’s Instagram:

Evidently, the foodservice industry is being impacted Hey Booster Nation, let’s make Wednesdays

heavily, with chains losing revenue and local retailers

#TakeoutDay. We’re encouraging Canadians

fearing permanent closure due to

⁷ Pizza Nova. (2020). https://twitter.com/PizzaNova/status/1252973476694155265 ⁸ Starbucks Canada. (2020). Navigating through COVID-19.https://stories.starbucks.ca/en/stories/2020/navigating-through-covid-19/ ⁹ Boosterjuice. (2020). https://www.instagram.com/p/B_AGZ7PDnSS/ ¹⁰ Villagejuicery. (2020). https://www.instagram.com/p/B-j_aqMlLDE/ ¹¹ The Lakeview. (2020). http://www.thelakeviewrestaurant.ca/#about-the-lakeview ¹² Nadege Patisserie. (2020). https://www.facebook.com/pg/nadegepatisserie/posts/?ref=page_internal

PAGE 13

already low-profit margins (Finch 2020). While both

understanding the current social landscape, namely

of these impacts are negative, and unite the food

the

and

to

hospitality industry has endured massive changes

acknowledge the context and experiences of both

throughout the pandemic and documenting how

chain and local brands (Finch 2020).

these challenges have been met is essential to

beverage

industry,

it

is

imperative

hospitality

industry

during

COVID-19.

The

understanding how the industry can continue to The final emergent theme, of concern and actions

adapt in the future. Additionally, as a researcher

when facing detrimental consequences of COVID-19,

interpreting data and trying to maintain objectivity,

presents further differences between chain retailers

marketers and advertising teams can benefit from

and small business. It has been documented that

understanding how their social media posts are

the food and beverage industry would suffer both

understood by the general public. This can help with

short-term and long-term financial issues, due to

future marketing and media engagement for the

debt and lack of financial relief services (Brammer

hospitality industry at large (Brammer 2020).

2020). News articles focused on the financial issues that the industry would face. Discussed are issues of

It is important to consider the categories and

mass layoffs, unpaid rent, and realistic fears of

themes of this research and how they contribute to

permanent restaurant closures, all a result of the

the research question and a greater understanding

economic condition. It is also highlighted that the

of

uncertainty around how long the pandemic will last

introduced

may help services such as delivery and the

interactions of different groups during a pandemic.

aforementioned grocery and meal kits thrive (Finch

It is important to consider how local and chain

2020).

was

operators are impacted by the pandemic and how

“fear/anxiety” which conveyed sentiments of people

this fuels common discourses. The findings showed

being worried about being in public places and

that retailers reached out to other retailers and the

eating out; this highlights one of the very reasons

local community for help, but also strived to give

why revenue is declining quickly for the food and

back to other local businesses as they were able. This

beverage industry (McDonald 2020). Following this

was true for both small and chain retailers, but the

analysis, I can conclude that slowly collapsing food

discourse reveals that they approached these goals

and beverage retailers are responding to the

differently. All of these interactions were especially

conditions of COVID-19 by being innovative with

interesting in the broader context of the financial

new methods of service such as grab and go and

impacts of lost sales and revenue, layoffs, shorter

supporting others such as other local businesses

hours of operation, and increased expectations from

and communities through hard times (Brammer

customers and the government (such as increased

2020).

sanitation)

A

keyword

found

in

this

study

retailers’

online a

discourse.

consideration

(Laws

2020).

of

This a

While

research

discourse

all

of

retailers

experienced tremendous downfalls during COVID-

CONCLUSION

19, businesses seemed to band together as an

This research offers unique findings applicable to

industry rather than to compete, often looking to

the question of how local and chain food and

others for support and precedent on how to execute

beverage retailers responded to COVID-19. These

operations safely. This discourse was essential for

findings are important in contributing to

business owners and communities, as it provided a

COMMUNITY

UNDERGRADUATE SOCIOLOGY JOURNAL

PAGE 14

VOLUME IV - 2021

positive atmosphere and instilled a sense of hope

Finch, Jessica. 2020. “Food And Beverage Retailers In

for productive outcomes when other aspects of

Canada Hit Hard Amid COVID-19 Panic”. [online]

business were not flourishing (Finch 2020).

Published Mar. 18 2020. Retail Insider. [Accessed 9 May

2020].

(https://www.retail-insider.com/retail-

Further research is required on this topic due to the

insider/2020/3/food-and-beverage-retailers-in-

lack of contextual understanding with COVID-19

canada-hit-hard-amid-covid-19-panic)

and the retailers involved. This study could be enhanced

by

employing

additional

research

methods,such as ethnography, interviews, or focus

Lannigan, James. 2020. “Grounded Theory.” SOC204 Introduction to Qualitative Methods. May 12.

groups. Due to the stay-at-home orders of COVID-19, one limitation was the inability to engage in these

Lannigan, James. 2020. “Case Studies.” SOC204

methods. An ethnography or focus group would

Introduction to Qualitative Methods. May 14.

have contributed more rich, thick descriptions of experiences through facilitation and observation.

Lannigan, James. 2020. “Content Analysis.” SOC204

While

Introduction to Qualitative Methods. May 21.

social

media

content

analysis

is

an

unobtrusive and flexible method, it is limited in lived

Laws, Nick. 2020. “COVID-19 Causing Unprecedented

experiences, which are strengths of ethnography

Damage To The Canadian Restaurant Industry -

(Lannigan 2020). Both ethnography and focus group

Foodservice And Hospitality Magazine”. [online]

methods would have yielded different data that

Published Apr. 8 2020. Foodservice and Hospitality

could enhance that used in this study. Another

Magazine.

limitation pertaining to COVID-19 conditions is the

(https://www.foodserviceandhospitality.com/covid-

lack of additional researchers to aid in the coding

19-causing-unprecedented-damage-to-the-

process. This could aid in increasing credibility and

canadian-restaurant-industry/)

theory

development

and

in

describing

[Accessed

9

May

2020].

decreasing subjective bias when interpreting data through intercoder reliability (Lannigan 2020). With

McDonald, Gayle. 2020. “How The Coronavirus Is

these different approaches used, further data on

Affecting

COVID-19,

Published Mar. 13 2020. The Globe and Mail.

the

hospitality

industry,

or

other

Food

Service 9

Businesses”.

May

[online]

geographic areas can be examined. Other methods,

[Accessed

2020].

such as longitudinal studies, can be used to gain

(https://www.theglobeandmail.com/life/food-and-

different perspectives, to understand the long term

wine/article-how-the-coronavirus-is-affecting-food-

effects of these industry changes, and the discourse

service-businesses/)

surrounding retailer experiences and interactions.

Wilson, Codi. 2020. “One In 10 Restaurants Around

REFERENCES

The Country Have Permanently Closed Due To

Brammer, Mikki. 2020. “6 Ways The Coronavirus Is

COVID-19, New Survey Suggests”. [online] Published

Fundamentally

Apr.

Changing

Hospitality

Design”.

2

2020.

CP24.

[Accessed

9

May

2020].

[online] Published May 8 2020. Architectural Digest.

(https://www.cp24.com/news/one-in-10-restaurants-

[Accessed

around-the-country-have-permanently-closed-due-

11

May

2020].

(https://www.architecturaldigest.com/story/6-wayscoronavirus-is-changing-hospitality-design)

to-covid-19-new-survey-suggests-1.4879103)

PAGE 15

CITIZEN COMPLIANCE IN INDIVIDUALISTIC SOCIETIES CLIFFORD CHUANG

INTRODUCTION In 2020, COVID-19 shook the world as one of the

crucial not only for combatting the pandemic, but

most contagious viruses seen in recent decades. By

also for strengthening national unity in general.

December 6th, over 67 million people have been million

deaths

EXPLANATION OF THE PROBLEM

University

2020).

Individualism and collectivism describe a difference

Combatting this pandemic requires a strong sense

in one’s prioritization of values. As explained by

of public cooperation and citizen compliance to

Wagner (1995), the terms refer to the relative

government

enough,

importance people accord to personal interests and

studies have suggested a stronger sense of citizen

shared pursuits (p. 153). For individualists, personal

cooperation and compliance amongst Eastern

goals are prioritized over the needs of the collective

societies compared to Western countries like

(p. 153). When conflict arises, an individualist looks

Canada, a distinction that can be attributed to

after themselves at the expense of the group’s well-

differences in culture and ideology (Bian et al.

being. The opposite holds true for collectivists, who

2020:1). This research proposal attempts to explain

believe that the needs of the group take precedence

this

over personal desires (p. 153).

infected,

with

worldwide

more

(Johns

than

Hopkins

mandates.

phenomenon

1.5

Interestingly

through

the

concepts

of

individualism and collectivism, and suggest that although citizens of collectivistic countries are more

These fundamental differences suggest that both

likely to comply with the government, policy

philosophies have markedly different implications

changes rooted in game theory may nonetheless

for

increase citizen cooperation in Canada. Doing so is

individualistic nations like Canada are encouraged

citizen

behaviour.

Those

belonging

to

to speak their mind, have different viewpoints, and

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UNDERGRADUATE SOCIOLOGY JOURNAL

PAGE 16

VOLUME IV - 2021

question forthcoming information. By extension,

with pandemic orders, accepting restrictions if it

they are more inclined to find pandemic restrictions

means that the collective good is upheld. In sharp

a violation of personal liberty, and less likely to listen

contrast to Canada, Taiwan has a total of 716 cases,

to government mandates on masks and social

and daily infection rates have remained within

distancing (Bian et al. 2020:1). On the other hand,

single digits for months (Johns Hopkins University

citizens in collectivistic societies like Taiwan are

2020).

more group-oriented (Ali et al. 2005:4). Not only are they more trusting towards the government, but

IDENTIFICATION OF POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

they are also less likely to find the government to be

AND THE PROS AND CONS OF EACH

arbitrarily revoking their freedoms (Briddlestone,

As a country whose fundamental ideology prioritizes

Green, and Douglas 2020:664). Consequently, higher

self-benefit over group desires, building a consensus

rates

for collective policies to work in Canada may prove

of

citizen

cooperation

are

observed

(Briddlestone et al. 2020:664).

difficult.

For

instance,

simply

emulating

the

stringent pandemic policies of Taiwan will not work Such differences have given individualistic societies

as a viable solution. As argued by Ali et al. (2005),

a much harder time managing the pandemic vis-à-

individualism and collectivism make up a culture’s

vis collectivistic countries. A study done by Bian et

core set of values and serve as principles that guide

al. (2020) suggested that high levels of individualism

social

reduces citizen compliance with lockdown orders

individualistic ideals, Canadian citizens will simply

by 41% (p. 16). Additionally, Canada has recently

respond with harsher retaliation and greater non-

witnessed a proliferation of anti-science sentiment,

compliance when faced with stricter policies. This

as more ‘anti-vaccinators’ and ‘anti-maskers’ openly

runs the risk of halting or even reverting progress on

protest against government restrictions (Hotez

the pandemic response. Evidently, citizens must also

2020:506). Even seemingly innocuous directives to

possess the desire to comply with the government in

wear a mask, maintain social distance, and stay

the first place. Laws that people will not listen to, no

home

matter how stringent, are ineffective as a proper

have

turned

into

predatory

political

statements, prompting non-compliance across the

relationships

(p.

4).

Having

embraced

pandemic response.

country. The infection rates reflect this dire reality: Canada currently sits at over 400,000 infected

This does not mean, however, that countries

cases, with daily numbers increasing rapidly (Johns

embracing an individualist mindset will never

Hopkins University 2020). At this rate, mathematical

achieve the level of citizen compliance required to

models suggest that Canada may witness close to

effectively tackle the COVID-19 pandemic. Germany

60,000 cases per day (Government of Canada

is proof of such a possibility; while embracing

2020:13). On the other hand, Taiwan effectively

individualist culture, Germans are also characterized

contained the pandemic through stringent GPS

by their strong bonds to the government (Neaman

tracking, effective quarantine measures, and strict

1990:599). In fact, the majority of German citizens

enforcement

mask

trust their government and comply with lockdown

2020:1341).

orders despite the harsh restrictions set by the

Taiwanese citizens are committed to cooperating

Merkel administration (ZDF 2020). Recent polls done

with the government and complying

by the German-based broadcasting company ZDF

mandates

of

(Wang,

social Ng,

distancing and

Brook

and

PAGE 17

current

seen as primarily symbolic, arising in everyday

restrictive measures to be just right, while over 30%

relationships, and aimed at facilitating human

even suggest imposing tighter restrictions (ZDF

interaction (p. 22). Law should not be thought of as

2020). Merkel’s approval rating has also soared over

an extension of state power and control over

the past few months, with 72% of Germans

citizens, but rather a tool that citizens can use to

approving

create ties with the state and with each other (p. 22).

show

that

60%

of

of

her

citizens

response

consider

to

the

pandemic

Keeping these considerations in mind, we now turn

(Infratest Dimap 2020).

to the proposals forwarded in this paper.

However,

closer

inspection

shows

that

it

is

Germany’s distinct political history that created an

RECOMMENDATIONS,

environment conducive to both individualist and

MEASURE THEIR SUCCESS

collectivist ideals. After the Second World War,

Game

when the Federal Republic succeeded in building

conceiving of strategic interactions among rational

economic foundations around collective motives, a

decision-makers. According to MacDonald and Kong

proper social state that encouraged both collectivist

(2006),

and individualist tendencies emerged (Neaman

understood by those to whom it is intended to

1990:592). Unfortunately, this means that Germany’s

speak (p. 51). Citizens must want to follow the law,

relative success with citizen compliance cannot be

and find it sensible for them to do so. In an

achieved

Germany’s

individualistic society, the rationale for many in

centralization of the welfare state around economic

breaking rules and regulations is a blatant disregard

development, the Canadian welfare state was

of the well-being of others stemming from a

enacted at a time when individualistic ideology was

prioritization of one’s own goals and desires.

already integrated into society (Wallace 1950:383).

Therefore, in line with game theory, proper law

by

Canada.

Unlike

theory

the

is

law

a

AND

theoretical

must

engage

HOW

TO

framework

for

with

and

be

reform aimed at increasing citizen compliance and

PRINCIPLES

TO

DETERMINE

A

GOOD

cooperation must create an environment in which it

SOLUTION

is inherently advantageous for oneself to benefit the

Evidently, Canada must search for a novel solution,

group and comply with government directives. This

one that can promote citizen compliance despite

can be done through collective efforts resulting in

the country’s unique individualistic framework. In

outcomes that satisfy personal interests (Wagner

designing an appropriate law reform solution for

and Moch 1986:1).

Canada, MacDonald and Kong argue that the following modalities must be considered: not only

This paper suggests a two-pronged approach to

must the law reform respect human agency, but it

improving public compliance and cooperation. It

must also be sensitive to the socio-cultural context

focuses

within which it is enacted (MacDonald and Kong

cooperation within a group setting - trust and equity

2006:10). In forwarding their arguments, MacDonald

- and suggests policies in line with game theory

and Kong (2006) introduce a perspective of the law

aimed to improve both qualities.

that deviate from its traditional interpretation: instead of being viewed as a tool of state authority used to regulate human behaviour, law should be

COMMUNITY

on

two

facets

essential

to

building

UNDERGRADUATE SOCIOLOGY JOURNAL

PAGE 18

VOLUME IV - 2021

FACET 1 - TRUST

individualist

The first essential element is trust, which describes

government perceived as fair and transparent is

an individual’s confidence in the goodwill and

personally beneficial, as it is sensible for people to

intentions of others (Chen, Chen, and Meindl

listen to a government that they know will not

1998:293). To effectively build cooperation and

ostracize them and will treat them equally vis-à-vis

compliance, citizens must learn to trust one another

other citizens (OECD 2013:32). Citizen perception of

as well as their own government. Chen et al. (1998)

governmental fairness can be improved by creating

delineate between two types of trust: cognitive and

more avenues within the parliamentary process for

affective. Cognitive trust is developed through

citizens to actively participate in legislation. For

performance with one another, while affective trust

instance, during the parliamentary readings of a

arises from the emotional bonds that stem from

specific bill aimed at authorizing the payment of the

group cohesiveness (p. 294). For an individualistic

Canada

society, developing cognitive trust between citizens

belonging to different interest groups should be

and the government will eventually lead to an

invited to partake in the legislative process. An

increase in affective trust, causing a surge in

application and screening process is required to

compliance and cooperation (p. 295).

ensure legitimacy. These individuals should then be

standpoint,

Recovery

compliance

Benefit,

various

with

a

individuals

given time to voice their questions and concerns to the

parliament, representing groups that share in their

government may be attributed to a sense of

specific struggles and circumstances. Legislators

disconnect between citizens and governmental

should then take these concerns into account when

bodies. Citizens are often ostracized and alienated

altering the bill in question, modifying the line

from the decision-making process, and feel as

drawn in the process. Such a mechanism may

though government policies are made without due

provide passionate and concerned citizens an

consideration of their unique situation (Henry

opportunity to contribute to the legislative process

2000:4). Such is especially evident for citizens of the

without having to invest substantial time and effort

West coast, who were already subject to Western

into a political career. The resulting bill may thus be

alienation prior to the spread of COVID-19 (Henry

a better reflection of the will and desires of the

2000:4). In fact, national polls suggest that local

broader society. By providing citizens with a stake in

governments are the ones that citizens trust the

the lawmaking process, Canadians will become

most. The reasons for this are two-fold: not only do

more

local governments have a better understanding of

provisions, having known firsthand the context and

the challenges faced by citizens, but they are also

reasons for which they were implemented. This

able to prioritize and fight for the specific needs of

allows citizens to perceive the law and the legislative

these people (Federation of Canadian Municipalities

process as being fairer and more transparent,

2019).

leading to a greater degree of trust and compliance

Current

sentiments

of

distrust

toward

understanding

of

future

governmental

towards governmental regulations. The success of To build cognitive trust, therefore, policies in line

these proposals can be evaluated in their ability to

with promoting fairness and transparency in the

improve citizen perception of the government

federal government are recommended. From an

(measured through national polls), their ability to increase voter turnout, and the extent to which

PAGE 19

legislation having undergone civilian oversight are

stresses that rewards be proportional to individual

well-received by the public.

contribution and punishment be appropriate to the degree

of

infraction,

coupled

with

strict

At the same time, the federal government must be

enforcement of rules and regulations (Chen et al.

mindful of any collateral negative effects that may

1998:297). In an individualist society where people

result from such a policy. For instance, a downside

act in accordance with maximizing personal benefit,

to citizen participation in parliament is that very few

an equity-based solution means that rules should be

individuals can actually sit in parliament and

altered in a way in which the costs of violating

actively participate, given the substantial time and

COVID-19 restrictions outweigh the benefits of doing

financial commitments required to doing so. Such a

so. This would ultimately lead to greater compliance

role is thus available only for a very restricted

amongst the general population. Recommendations

number of Canadians, increasing the possibility of a

in line with equity may include tax breaks for

biased representation of citizens in parliament.

grocery shoppers wearing masks, increased fines for

However, the detrimental impact of this problem

offenders caught violating quarantine and other

may be mitigated through the use of social media.

COVID-19 restrictions, and harsher punishment for

Specifically,

utilizing

repeat offenders, such as an ineligibility to receive

platforms such as Facebook or Twitter to host online

COVID-19 relief funds for a short period of time.

panels where they can directly answer questions

Harsher punishment may also be coupled with the

that concerned citizens have regarding proposed

completion of a crash course on the dangers of

legislation. Doing so can retain the benefits accrued

COVID-19. Most importantly, there must be a

from citizen participation, namely the development

substantial and evident increase in enforcement,

of transparency and trust between government and

such that the public is well aware that violating

citizens, while removing the substantial barriers to

government mandates will almost certainly result in

entry for Canadian citizens wishing to participate.

appropriate

While there may still be concerns about the lack of

proposals can be directly measured through police

professionalism involved in such a mechanism, this

arrest and fine rates, police data illustrating the

research proposal suggests that its informal nature

degree to which offenders continue to violate

is actually a strength. The federal government

COVID-19 restrictions, and data from the Minister of

should not be viewed by citizens as an ominous

Finance showing the amount accrued in tax

entity running the country at the cost of leaving

exemptions from citizens that wear masks in grocery

certain groups behind, but rather as a human-run

stores.

politicians

may

consider

sanctions.

The

success

of

these

institution that prioritizes the well-being of all citizens. Greater communication with citizens in an

Despite its potential as an effective policy proposal,

informal setting only contributes to such a vision of

the equity principle immediately gives rise to two

government,

pressing

further

bridging

the

disconnect

concerns:

its

draconian

nature,

and

whether stricter enforcement violates the Charter

between both parties.

rights of Canadian citizens. With regard to the

FACET 2 - EQUITY

former, this paper concedes that such a critique is

The second element essential to improving citizen

valid in the pre-pandemic context. However, in times

compliance and cooperation is equity, which

of national emergency, where hundreds of

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UNDERGRADUATE SOCIOLOGY JOURNAL

PAGE 20

VOLUME IV - 2021

thousands of individuals are at risk of death or

policies that make it advantageous for citizens to

irreversible damage to their health, such measures

comply with COVID-19 guidelines. In line with this

are necessary to further prevent innocent lives from

theory, this paper recommends a two-pronged

being lost. Individuals who continue to recklessly

approach

endanger the lives of others despite multiple

policies rooted in the principles of trust and equity.

warnings from the government necessarily need to

Higher levels of trust in government naturally leads

be sanctioned with heftier fines, so that they

one to comply with governmental mandates, while a

understand the benefits of breaking the law is not

stringent enforcement of just punishments and

worth the price of doing so. The second concern is

rewards ensures that the rational actor chooses to

whether stricter enforcement is at all possible

comply with COVID-19 guidelines. Increasing citizen

without violating the Charter rights of Canadian

trust may come in the form of modifying the

citizens. Currently, enforcing quarantine measures

legislative process to make it increasingly accessible

violates section 9 of the Charter, which prohibits the

to the public, coupled with the use of social media

arbitrary detainment of individuals (Government of

as a crucial median to bridging the disconnect

Canada 1982). While the Emergencies Act (Act) may

between

be

such

Recommendations in line with the principle of

considerations, its current nature is unsuitable for

equity involve tax exemptions for those that wear

this purpose. Specifically, section 4(b) of the Act

masks, heftier fines and the mandatory completion

contains

that

of courses for repeat offenders, as well as strict

prohibits the selective detainment of individuals on

enforcement of both punishment and reward. These

the basis of physical disability (Flood and Thomas

policy proposals may hopefully guide Canada in the

2020:110). Such is reflective of the War Measures Act

right direction moving forward.

invoked

an

to

temporarily

ironclad

override

limitations

clause

and is thus outdated for responding to the COVID-19 pandemic (p. 109). To justify violating Charter rights, a further recommendation would be to subject section 4(b) of the Act itself to reasonable limits by questioning whether the benefits that arise from overriding the clause outweigh the harms of doing so. Such a modification would lead to an Act more suitable for the pandemic response.

CONCLUSION During

a

pandemic,

policy

measures

place

extraordinary demands on citizens. Yet, for these measures to succeed, public cooperation and citizen compliance is essential. As such, COVID-19 has truly been a test of humanity’s strength in unity.

Despite

Canada’s

individualist

foundation,

this

research proposal has suggested that it may still be possible to increase citizen compliance through

to

reform:

citizen

specifically,

and

governmental

governmental

bodies.

PAGE 21

REFERENCES

Government of Canada. 2020. “Update on COVID-19

Ali, Abbas J., Lee, Monle, Hsieh, Yi-Ching, and

in

Krishnan,

https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/phac-

Krish.

2005.

“Individualism

and

Canada:

Epidemiology

and

Collectivism in Taiwan.” Journal of Cross Cultural

aspc/documents/services/diseases-

Management:3-16.

maladies/coronavirus-disease-covid-

Modelling.”

19/epidemiological-economic-research-data/updateBian, Bo, Li, Jingjing, Xu, Ting, & Natasha, Foutz Z.

covid-19-canada-epidemiology-modelling-20201120-

2020. “Individualism During Crises.” 1-57.

eng.pdf

Briddlestone, Mikey, Green, Ricky, and Douglas,

Henry, Shawn. 2000. “Revisiting Western Alienation:

Karen M. 2020. “Cultural Orientation, Power, Belief in

Towards

Conspiracy Theories, and Intentions to Reduce the

Alienation

Spread of COVID-19.” British Journal of Social

Canada.” University of Calgary:1-251.

a

Better and

Understanding

Political

Behaviour

of

Political

in

Western

Psychology:663-673.

Hotez,

P.J.

2020.

“Anti-Science

Extremism

in

Chen, Chao C., Chen, Xiao-Ping, & Meindl, James R.

America: Escalating and Globalizing.” Microbes and

1998. “How Can Cooperation Be Fostered? The

Infection:505-507.

Cultural Effects of Individualism-Collectivism.” The

Infratest Dimap. 2020. “Coronavirus: Angela Merkel's

Academy of Management Review:285-304.

approval

ratings

up

amid

health

crisis.”

Federation of Canadian Municipalities. 2019. “Abacus

https://www.dw.com/en/coronavirus-angela-

Data

merkels-approval-ratings-up-amid-health-crisis/a-

Polling

Results.”

53001405

https://fcm.ca/en/resources/abacus-data-pollingresults

Johns

Hopkins

University.

2020.

“COVID-19

Flood, Colleen, & Thomas, Bryan. 2020. “The Federal

Dashboard by the Center for Systems Science and

Emergencies Act: A Hollow Promise in the Face of

Engineering (CSSE) at Johns Hopkins University

COVID-19?” Pp. 105-114 in Vulnerable: The Law, Policy

(JHU).”

and Ethics of COVID-19, edited by Colleen Flood,

https://www.arcgis.com/apps/opsdashboard/index.h

Vanessa

MacDonnell,

Jane

Philpott,

Sophie

tml#/bda7594740fd40299423467b48e9ecf6

Thériault,

and

Venkatapuram,

Ottawa:

Sridhar

MacDonald, Roderick A., and Kong, Hoi. 2006.

University of Ottawa Press.

“Patchwork Law Reform: Your Idea Is Good in Government of Canada. 1982. “Canadian Charter of

Practice, but It Won't Work in Theory.” Osgoode Hall

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https://laws-

lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/const/page-15.html

Neaman, Elliot Yale. 1990. “German Collectivism and the Welfare State.” Critical Review:591-618.

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OECD.

2013.

Effectiveness

“Trust and

in

the

Government, Governance

Policy

Agenda.”

https://www.oecdilibrary.org/docserver/gov_glance-2013-6-en.pdf? expires=1607221292&id=id&accname=guest&checksu m=7EA52AE4A9BA3991774C8EFB286AFB22 Wagner, John A. 1995. “Studies of IndividualismCollectivism: Effects on Cooperation in Groups.”

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Wagner, John A., and Moch, Michael K. 1986.

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Wallace, Elisabeth. 1950. “The Origin of the Social Welfare State in Canada, 1867-1900.” The Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science:383-393.

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VOLUME IV - 2021

PAGE 23

COPING WITH COVID-19:

MENTAL HEALTH WITHIN ONTARIO UNIVERSITIES SHIVANI BALDEO

ABSTRACT With the COVID-19 pandemic shifting the

decreased social connection and community

operations of daily life, university students

support, lack of daily routine, and increased

have experienced changes in all aspects of

screen time. These themes triangulate to

their life such as employment, education

explain increased mental health challenges

methods, living situations, and consequently,

and contextualize the mental struggles being

mental health. To examine these impacts, I

endured. With an enhanced understanding of

aim to research how COVID-19’s isolation

the causes and implications of decreasing

measures have shaped the mental health of

mental health patterns, institutions, peers,

post-secondary students in Ontario. This is

staff and students themselves can better

crucial for understanding these students’

protect student mental health in future times

needs, the impacts of COVID-19, and what

of crisis.

kinds of support may be necessary to aid mental health. To do this, I used a newspaper

RESEARCH STATEMENT

content analysis approach to analyze news

The COVID-19 pandemic, which emerged in late

coverage on Ontario universities from five

December of 2019, has uprooted the daily lives of

different sources: CBC News, Global News,

individuals worldwide. By trying to mitigate the

Ottawa Citizen, Healio News and the Calgary

spread of the virus, countries have caused sudden

Journal. Data was coded inductively, with open and axial coding for emerging themes of

changes in all areas of life, resulting in critical and unexplored implications for the mental health of many individuals (Bird 2020). For example, in

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VOLUME IV - 2021

Ontario in mid-March of 2020, after a state of

developing an in-depth understanding of students’

emergency was declared, citizens faced mass-

mental health impacts during the pandemic allows

layoffs, working from home, social distancing, and

for improved university responses for similar future

self-isolation measures (Bird 2020). Ontario post-

circumstances.

secondary students, in particular, endured the transition from in-person activities to online classes ,

This research can also be used beyond pandemic

residential evacuation, campus closures, and limited

circumstances and provide additional insight into

academic and mental health services (Lalonde

understanding the experiences of students. It can

2020).

inform

Despite

the

unprecedented

changes,

institutions

on

how

to

adjust

online

students were pressured to perform academically

education to cater to student needs and support

during prolonged isolation at home which provided

students academically and mentally. This research is

a new and unfamiliar context to study mental

especially vital to consider in the current context as

health under.

remote

classes

are

likely

to

persist

into

the

upcoming academic year. With more extensive To gain an understanding of how isolation has

research, universities can become more prepared to

moulded the mental health of post-secondary

facilitate students’ online education and target

students, this qualitative paper uses a newspaper

issues surrounding mental health. Overall, the

content

increasing

analysis

approach

to

analyze

news

challenges

and

pressures

on

post-

coverage from five different sources: CBC News,

secondary students during a time of vulnerability

Global News, Ottawa Citizen, Healio News and the

and isolation has guided my research to question

Calgary Journal. Data was coded inductively and

how COVID-19’s isolation measures have shaped the

traditionally

mental health of post-secondary students in Ontario.

with

open

and

axial

coding

for

emerging themes. The data set was strictly limited to coverage on Ontario universities, colleges, and

LITERATURE REVIEW

other forms of post-secondary education However,

With the pandemic only recently gaining universal

data collection ranged from professional opinions

coverage

on mental health impacts to anecdotes of students’

sociological research on the intersection of mental

lived experiences. This helped to provide a well-

health and post-secondary students in the COVID-19

rounded idea of what challenges, risks and benefits

context is limited. However, there have been studies,

students experienced during social isolation and

both qualitative and quantitative, that investigate

how such factors may have shaped their mental

the success of various angles and approaches to

health.

discussing mental well-being in students. Namely,

and

concern

as

of

January2020,

literature has delved into various key stressors This research can provide an enriched perspective

produced from COVID-19 that impact student

on the experiences of post-secondary students with

mental health. These include student distress and

their mental health within the context of COVID-19.

increased anxiety due to financial or economic

It can also contribute more broadly to the limited

issues, and a lack of social support.

discourse of Canadian mental health during COVID19 as pre-existing literature only features countries such as China and the USA. Furthermore,

PAGE 25

Implications of Financial Stress on Mental Health

contractions

Past

relationship

financial struggles have been found to impact their

between financial instability and heightened stress

mental health in a number of ways, including

levels (Rajkumar 2020). All articles within this

increasing rates of depression, anxiety, and suicide

literature review held a consensus on how students,

(Grubic 2020). Notably, vulnerable groups and those

both at the graduate and undergraduate level,

students with pre-existing mental health illnesses

experienced difficulties in the economic sector. On a

have faced more severe mental health impacts and

global level, the lockdowns and state-of-emergency

have regressed or adopted coping mechanisms that

orders will result in a recession which will only

can worsen mental health such as substance abuse

negatively impact job prospects and financial

(Usher 2020).

research

illustrates

a

strong

(Usher

2020).

Overall,

students’

stability further (Sharma 2020). As a result, many graduating students, who are entering a job market

The Role of Social Support in Coping With Stressors

in crisis, are in distress and are contemplating and

Social support has been addressed as an important

being advised to pursue another degree to secure a

factor by several researchers in coping with stress

job (Sahu 2020). This also connects to the issue of

and relieving mental health symptoms (Hansel

sudden mass-layoffs which can create panic and

2020). Social support can be viewed as the networks

anxiety (Rajkumar 2020). These feelings can often

a person makes for support and interaction on a

arise out of the inability to pay for expenses such as

daily basis (Rajkumar 2020). When in lockdown or

housing, food, transportation and travel expenses

self-isolation, individuals’ connections are severed,

(Sharma 2020). Due to this, universities were pushed

greatly reducing the positive impacts social support

to keep residences open and cater to students who

can yield. Lack of social support due to COVID-19 has

could not return home to ease financial stress. A

been found to be a catalyst for those with pre-

common suggestion discussed was the need for

existing poor mental health and for those who have

loans, grants and extra financial support from

previously recovered from poor mental health (Usher

educational

2020). Particularly, reduced social support has

institutions

including

temporarily

suspending student loans to alleviate stress (Sahu

caused

the

development

2020). A rising prevalence of depression is also seen

symptoms of depression and anxiety (Usher 2020). It

in the literature, denoting associations between

was also found that the longer a person was

suicide rates and financial dilemmas such as layoffs

confined,

and unemployment (Hansel 2020).

assessments

the

poorer became

and

their (Hansel

worsening

mental 2020).

of

health More

specifically, all studies in this literature review Another financial stressor outlined in the literature

maintained that individuals with post‐traumatic

was insufficient funding for mental health services,

stress disorder experienced more severe symptoms,

which was found to increase negative health

developed new symptoms, or developed other

outcomes (Sharma 2020). Many vulnerable groups

behaviours of avoidance and anger as a result of...

such as the unhoused, those with substance abuse,

(Usher 2020). Overall, the reviewed literature found

and marginalized groups may rely on programs and

that social ties produced positive impacts and

aid that may no longer be accessible or available

greatly improved one’s ability to cope with poor

due to COVID-19 restrictions and resultant

mental health. However, when social ties were restricted, negative thoughts, behaviours, and

COMMUNITY

UNDERGRADUATE SOCIOLOGY JOURNAL

PAGE 26

VOLUME IV - 2021

emotions arose. Thus, it is suggested that prolonged

My research can further contextualize COVID-19

isolation heavily impacts students’ social ties and

within the geographic area of Ontario and Canada.

connections, and therefore, their ability to deal with

While other studies reviewed have hosted research

mental health changes.

in various places around the world such as China, Nepal, and the US, this study can bring the Canadian all

context into the discourse (Sharma 2020; Hansel

highlighted the absence of extensive and developed

2020). Other studies have also used various groups

research on prolonged isolation’s effects on mental

to

health. Furthermore, there is a need for in-depth

vulnerable groups, and frontline workers. However,

research on immediate interventions as all reviewed

by focusing on students, this study can add to the

studies urged for future researchers to explore ways

discussion of student mental health needs which

of combating mental health impacts. Additionally,

has been a prevalent concern within many Ontario

there needs to be more research that seeks to

institutions (Smith 2020). This connects to one of the

understand mental health in the specific context of

key applications of this research and its significance.

COVID-19. . This is because a common gap I

Research on student mental health can facilitate the

identified was literature using similar pandemics

development of interventions at earlier stages which

and traumatic events such as SARS, H1N1 and even

alleviates negative long-term effects on mental

9/11 to understand impacts on mental health

health. After researching and conceptualizing key

(Hansel 2020). While epidemics like SARS are

stressors and mediators in students’ lives, a key

similar to COVID-19, and events like 9/11 provide a

application can be how to use emerging changes

unique scope, they cannot substitute for studying

such as virtual services and social support optimally

the effects of COVID-19, as many new changes (such

for intervention.

Notably,

the

several

papers

examined

study

mental

health

such

as

minorities,

as remote learning) arose solely out of COVID-19 and not other pandemics or events. Other contexts are

METHODS

not necessarily generalizable or applicable to COVD-

This study uses an inductive qualitative newspaper

19, meaning more context-specific research is

content

required.

theory and the constructivist framework for data

analysis

while

incorporating

grounded

collection and analysis. I utilized an inductive A

common

have

schema by first researching general news coverage

converged is the interplay of substance use, relapse,

on COVID-19 and its influences on mental health in

and

as

order to contextualize my research question. Prior to

discussed by Hansel (2020), Grubic (2020), and

the content analysis, my knowledge was limited to

Usher (2020). I have chosen to not examine this area

my own personal experience as a university student

and instead to study what the majority of the

in Ontario in isolation. This identity influenced my

literature has neglected to include: students coping

role as a researcher as I collected and analyzed data

with academic disturbances and the effects on their

through the lens of both a researcher and a student.

mental health (Grubic 2020). I encourage future

My social position allowed me to interpret data on a

research to explore new coping strategies and their

deeper level as I could empathize, relate to, and

risks and benefits for student mental well-being

connect with the content discussed by students in

during times of reduced support services.

the articles. After conducting general research, I

mental

area health

where

some

during

the

studies

pandemic

PAGE 27

continued to work inductively by narrowing down

FIGURE 1:

my data collection to the demographic of university students

in

Ontario,

coding

for

keywords,

generating categories, and then finding themes that target my research question. I employed grounded theory by engaging in an iterative process where my coding influenced my research question and vice versa. Furthermore, the constructivist framework aided in my understanding of how different demographics experienced different realities during isolation. Ultimately, my research aimed to bring awareness to the reality of post-secondary students in particular.

Through a content analysis of five newspaper

All selected sources explored how students felt

articles, this study aims to descriptively research

about prolonged isolation in their homes both

how the mental health of Ontario university

academically

students, between 17 and 28, is being impacted

professionals such as researchers, professors, and

during prolonged isolation due to COVID-19. After

psychologists have understood and analyzed these

reviewing literature, the data collection process

experiences

through

occurred for a week, beginning on July 19, 2020 and

conclusions

have

ending on July 26, 2020. I experienced some

consequences. This assisted in providing “thick

difficulties, such as limited access to news articles

descriptions” of how university students’ mental

and limited content. For example, I could not access

health was impacted as I had data coverage of both

certain news sites, such as the New York Times,

the

without an account or subscription (Figure 1). I also

interviewed

struggled to find content that properly reflected my

commentary to better understand what, if any,

research demographic of university students in

changes occurred to shape students’ mental health.

Ontario. I collected articles from CBC News, Ottawa

Overall, I was able to obtain rich data and research

Citizen, Global News, Healio News, and the Calgary

the contextual condition of prolonged isolation.

Journal to ensure a range of political stances (left,

After finding articles that covered my research topic

right, and center) to limit bias. I also chose articles

appropriately, I copied and pasted each article into a

and sources that encompassed a range of dates

single Google document. I organized each article by

throughout the duration of isolation. The five

including the link, the date and time of my field

articles chosen range from mid March to early

notes, the general focus or key topics discussed and

August in order to encapsulate a more thorough

the political stance. I conducted short field notes

overview of the impacts of isolation on students.

after reading through each article once. I then

Furthermore, I chose lengthy articles to supply more

divided each article into paragraphs of five to six

data and allow for themes and patterns to develop

sentences to create manageable units for coding

during coding.

and field notes. I wrote field notes in bright red after

COMMUNITY

lived

and

mentally,

studies been

experiences for

the

of

on

but

and

what

mental

students

articles

also

and

who

how

their health

were

professional

UNDERGRADUATE SOCIOLOGY JOURNAL

PAGE 28

VOLUME IV - 2021

each paragraph, summarizing my thoughts on the

coded, new words seemed to appear. I then re-

paragraph and adding personal interpretations of

coded the data to include these changes. After re-

the text (Figure 2). After completing field notes for

coding, I created a single list of keywords by copying

all articles, I took a break from the data for a day and

and

then reviewed the articles again with a fresh mind

duplicates. I examined the words to create cohesive

and added any additional field notes once I had a

categories that would group all words exhaustively

full picture of my data set.

(Figure 4). From these categories, I inductively

pasting

all

the

keywords

and

deleting

formed themes to encompass and represent the meaning and context of each category. After this

FIGURE 2:

preliminary coding, I began axial coding with a better understanding of the language and patterns of the full data set and the categories and themes. I again stepped away from the data for a day to avoid thematic bias during re-coding.

FIGURE 3:

After collecting field notes of the news coverage, I engaged in open coding or precoding. I copied the

FIGURE 4:

short paragraphs of raw data from each article into an

excel

spreadsheet

where

each

paragraph

became a clear and concise unit of analysis for coding. For each unit, I included the source name (for example CBC or The Calgary Journal), the plain text, the article link, and a notes section for reminders or details. In total, there were 54 units of analysis which I then coded for keywords. Up to 8 keywords or phrases were coded for each unit;

The next day, I reimmersed myself in the data and

keywords supplied my research question with

re-coded the entire data set to validate if my original

meaning and context, and were purposeful and

keywords, categories, and themes were comparable,

repetitive throughout the data set (Figure 3). I

or vastly different. I noticed a few new recurrent

started to observe emerging themes, however, some

analytical codes and incorporated them into my

words did not occur throughout the set, and as I

categories. I also removed several codes that were

PAGE 29

not representative of the whole data set. After re-

environment quickly. Under these circumstances,

coding, I applied grounded theory by comparing

students were unaware that social connection,

incidences and specific language, as well as use of

bonding time and interactions with their friends,

keywords, to observe any differences in my data. I

would be cut short and for a prolonged period of

also determined if those differences should be

time. They also had not faced a pandemic and did

accounted for or not (for example, keywords anxiety

not know to prepare for isolation as many prioritized

and anxiousness are similar but can mean very

their

different things in terms of mental health). This was

professionals agreed that students between the ages

done to further reduce bias. After this step, I felt I

of 17 to 28 need social interaction in their daily lives

had reached data saturation and observed a

as it is a part of their support system for coping with

contextual account of the experiences of university

mental health (Smith 2020). Due to the regulations

students during COVID-19. I then created an

of COVID-19, students are now unable to see others

enumeration chart that examined if a categorical

and are turning to alternative virtual methods

keyword occurred or not in a unit of analysis. This

instead. Students are experiencing online classes,

would help to see if certain keywords and later,

video call meetups, and are looking for support and

themes, were more prevalent than others. This also

communities online. However, these methods do

meant that a single unit could account for multiple

not suffice to fulfill the need for social interaction.

categories if a keyword was included in more than

The resulting deficit of social interaction can be

one category. This information was then included in

linked to negative mental health symptoms. For

a

the

example, in the Healio (2020) article “COVID-19’s

distribution of themes amongst articles but also

mental health effects by age group”, a psychiatrist

how often certain categories were mentioned. To

explains,

final

distribution

table

which

showed

academics

first

(Lalonde

2020).

Many

generate themes, I considered the context and meaning of the keywords. Overall, I established the

Social isolation from work colleagues is another

three themes of loss of social connection, a lack of

potential challenge. With this virus shutting

routine, and increased fear from increased screen

down the workplace, people have lost not only

time. These were all found to have detrimental

social interactions with best friends who don't

impacts on student mental health.

happen

to

live

in

their

home,

but

also

interactions with the wide variety of supportive,

FINDINGS

friendly, casual relationships at work and in

Loss of Social Connection and Support

public that make for a rich social texture,

The

data

collected

displayed

notable

and

interesting findings that encompass how students

This exemplifies how social interaction in all aspects

in Ontario are being impacted by COVID-19 in terms

of one’s life including work, school, and close

of mental health. The first theme that emerged was

friendship can be positive and supportive. However,

increased social media usage in attempts to adjust

without those connections, many are missing a vital

to the lack of social interaction. With abrupt

support system in their lives. In fact, the majority of

residential evacuation, flying to other countries

students reported feeling lonely, unmotivated, and

before borders closed, and moving cities to go back

sad due to not seeing others in person (Gramigna

home, students experienced changes in their social

2020). Overall, a lack of social interaction due to self-

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UNDERGRADUATE SOCIOLOGY JOURNAL

PAGE 30

VOLUME IV - 2021

isolation measures have caused university students

(Gramigna 2020). In fact, this was supported by the

to stay indoors and online, removing a crucial

same psychologist:

support and motivation system for their mental health and encouraging unhelpful behaviours with

Without the routine and social connection that

increased online time.

school brings, many students and teens have reported feeling sad, stressed and anxious since

Lack of Routine and Normalcy

the pandemic cancelled in-person classes in

Increased screen time is tied to the second theme

mid-March.

which was a lack of routine impacting student mental health. As a professor explained in the

Overall, while young children need routine and

article “Coronavirus: Ontario Tech prof launches

structure in their day for development, students

mental health studies during pandemic” (Rosen

need structure too in order to increase motivation

2020),

and maintain normalcy in a time of uncertainty. This ties the two themes of needing social connection

The best way for students to maintain their

and routine to a third theme: increased symptoms of

mental health during this time is structure and

fear and anxiety due to media coverage.

consistency. Especially for younger students in time of crisis, having as much normalcy as

Increased Screen Time and Pandemic Coverage

possible.

As already established, increased usage of social media has its demerits including increased anxiety,

All articles used for data collection touched on the

stress, and depression. The aforementioned three

importance of keeping a routine during a time like

terms were among the most common after coding

the pandemic. However, due to the previous finding

and were found to increase in correlation with a

that many are coping with self-isolation by going

number of factors. A particularly surprising finding

online, a sizable amount of students are actually

was that beyond increased anxiety from lack of

damaging their mental health by not keeping a

social support, there was also increased anxiety from

structured routine. Instead, common behaviours

merely looking at news coverage of the pandemic.

include what CBC’s discussion from a psychologist

Viewing and surrounding oneself with constant

details (Smith 2020):

updates from the government and with pandemicrelated issues increased anxiety and fear amongst

We've seen a lot of general anxiety, stress,

students who were overly consuming media. Where

withdrawn behaviour, apathy. A lot of kids

students

sleeping in until … the afternoon because they

assignments, seeing friends, and/or other activities,

feel like they have nothing to get up for,

prolonged isolation has altered students’ habits and

used

to

be

exercising,

completing

instead, many students are now spending increased With a lack of routine such as getting up, brushing

time online which can be a risk for their mental

teeth, and having breakfast, many students are

health. This is exemplified in the Global News article

instead falling into patterns that can be identified as

where a student explains her experiences with social

symptoms

media (Rosen 2020),

for

depression,

anxiety,

and

stress

including poor nutrition and sleeping difficulties

PAGE 31

‘As a result of spending more time online, many

social context of coping during a pandemic. As

students are spending more time on social

students undergo abrupt and drastic changes in

media’, something Warr says has given her

their social health, mental health, and academic

increased anxiety. ‘I’ve sort of myself logged off

environment, the observance, research and sharing

of my social media just ’cause I see enough of

of these experiences and findings become vital to

this COVID information on the news and now it’s

understanding

all over my social media, too.’

university students. Entering the research process, it

the

challenges

and

needs

of

was essential to not assume that students’ mental This account was shared by many others in my data

health had even been influenced in the first place. I

collection where seeing or hearing unavoidable and

had to remain objective and keep in mind that

constant news coverage had negative impacts on

although I, as a student, felt large shifts in my mental

their mental health such as increased anxiety and

well-being,

fear. This fear was attributed to the chance of

experience and reality of other post-secondary

contracting the virus from activities such as going to

students. I kept this in mind during data collection

work. Several students explained that they were

and analysis and ensured the three themes I found

anxious from seeing how intense and chaotic the

sufficiently answered my research question. Most of

situation was in the US and feared it would become

my

like that in Ontario. In this way, consuming media,

experienced

particularly about the US, developed anxiety and

Keywords that occurred most frequently included

panic (Smith 2020). The fear of the virus harbored

challenging,

from increased social media time also influenced

depression. These keywords give a snapshot of the

new behavioural patterns such as avoiding outdoor

experiences

activities and outdoor exercising. This was found to

encountered during isolation.

data

this

may

not

collection

same

that

mental

health

struggling, the

the

indicated

negative

that

be

stress, majority

lived

students effects.

anxiety, of

and

students

increase damaging behaviours such as oversleeping, thus

contributing

to

deteriorating

routines

As

evidenced

in

my

findings,

post-secondary

(Gramigna 2020). Overall, these three themes are

students’ mental health was damaged by prolonged

closely related and together they provide a complex

isolation at home due to the three themes covered.

understanding of how students’ mental health has

The most prominent theme, a lack of social

been shaped by the intertwined contexts of self-

connection, was particularly harmful for students

isolation and COVID-19.

and shaped their mental health negatively as they struggled to complete academic responsibilities

CONCLUSION

while receiving minimal social connection and

This research process was insightful and produced

support. This impacted students’ mental health with

interesting

research

increased feelings of anxiety, depression, loneliness

question of how COVID-19’s isolation regulations

and withdrawal. These same feelings and behaviours

have shaped the mental health of post-secondary

were observed with the second theme of no

students in Ontario. These findings also played an

structure and normalcy to students’ days. Without

important role in contributing to the broader

any activities or obligations to have motivation for,

discourse of mental health of university students

there was immense withdrawal, disinterest and

and especially added to the limited and obscure

apathy leading to additional somatic symptoms

findings

that

target

my

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UNDERGRADUATE SOCIOLOGY JOURNAL

PAGE 32

VOLUME IV - 2021

such as eating and sleeping difficulties. This

highlighted social connection as a key contributor to

influenced students’ mental health by worsening

one’s support system. However, this gap and overlap

certain symptoms of mental illnesses such as

is expected as the contexts of Ontario vary strongly

depression and anxiety, and having significantly

from that of existing research data of China or Nepal

more severe effects on those with pre-existing

for example.

illnesses. Lastly, with increased online exposure, students’ mental health was found to worsen as

While this study was insightful and relevant for the

consuming social media and pandemic related

upcoming

converge, intentionally and unintentionally, caused

notable limitations. Firstly, due to social distancing

spikes in anxiety, panic and fear. This resulted in

and

further negative mental health impacts as students

methods such as interviews, ethnographies and

struggled to avoid exposure to pandemic coverage

focus groups were limited for this research topic.

due to academics and social communities’ online

However, I believe this research question and further

transitions. Overall, a lack of social support and

research would be enhanced by interviews or focus

connection, lack of routine and increased screen

groups with students from Ontario universities and

time shaped poorer mental states for the majority of

colleges.

students’

academic

other

year,

conditions

While

of

content

there

were

COVID-19,

analysis

can

several

common

be

an

reinforcing

a

unobtrusive method, interviews can yield rich data

beneficial

to

and most importantly, can supply information

acknowledge that even within Ontario, this data

regarding the lived experiences of those who are

does not speak to all realities of students’ isolation

interviewed. This would give more in-depth and raw

experiences.

descriptions

in

constructivist

Ontario.

However,

framework,

it

is

of

one’s

experience

in

isolation

compared to filtered and edited news article These findings aid in expanding literature using the

coverage which has already been analyzed and

context of COVID-19 when discussing student

interpreted by the article author. I also believe this

mental health. In comparison to the literature

study’s credibility would have been strengthened by

reviewed, there were no points of contradiction, but

working with an additional researcher to conduct

rather

and

intercoder reliability to limit bias and subjectivity

findings. For example, only one out of the five cases

when coding. A final noteworthy limitation is that

in my data set discussed in depth the effects of

this study can contextualize COVID-19’s social

financial stress on mental health, whereas the

isolation on mental health of university students in

implications of financial stress were very prominent

Ontario, but it cannot be generalizable to all of

in all of the reviewed literature. My data set seemed

Canada or North America, for instance. Overall, this

to focus largely on the academic realm of a

research

student’s life with minor acknowledgment of other

developing

challenges such as job loss, but existing literature

experiences, pressures, challenges and emotions

featured economic challenges as a key finding.

during a crisis such as COVID-19. With an enhanced

However, my findings overlapped with a key theme

understanding, institutions, peers, staff and students

in the literature that regarded the importance of

themselves can better protect their mental health in

social support in coping with and controlling

a time of crisis.

slight

overlap

between

discourse

stressors. Both my findings and existing literature

has

significant an

implications

understanding

of

such

as

students’

PAGE 33

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Bordnick. 2020. “Behavioral Health and Response for

AuQlrUGCWNKvGgyx1ZAtu2649bM

COVID-19.” Disaster Medicine and Public Health

Usher, Kim, Bhullar, Navjot and Jackson, Debra.

Preparedness 14(5):670–76.

2020. “Life in the Pandemic: Social Isolation and Lalonde,

Emily.

2020.

“Lalonde:

COVID-19

–

Universities Must Slow down and Consult Students

Mental Health.” Journal of Clinical Nursing 29:2756– 2757. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocn.15290

about the Way Forward.” The Ottawa Citizen. https://ottawacitizen.com/opinion/columnists/lalon de-covid-19-universities-must-slow-down-andconsult-students-about-the-way-forward Rajkumar, Ravi Philip. 2020. “COVID-19 and Mental Health: A Review of the Existing Literature.” Asian Journal of Psychiatry 52(102066):102066.

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CRIMINALIZING REFUGEES IN CANADA: POLICY, IMPACTS, AND FUTURE LINA LASHIN

INTRODUCTION

CANADIAN

Canada has gained an international reputation for

ASYLUM SEEKERS

its acceptance of immigrants and refugees, a recent

The Immigration and Refugee Protection Act (IRPA)

notable

Syrian

came into effect on June 28th, 2002, during former

refugees in 2016 (Houle 2018). While Canada’s

Prime Minister Chrétien’s term. The Act was

commitment to international efforts for providing

administered

assistance

of

Citizenship Canada (IRCC) and Canada Border

resettlement, is cause for appreciation, there remain

Services Agency (CBSA). Although Canada enacted

concerns for facets of the legislative bodies and

the IRPA shortly after 9/11, it was not in response to

constitutional acts that guide the process of refugee

the attack. Instead, initial discussions were informed

acceptance.

the

by the 1999 event when 599 Chinese nationals were

Immigration and Refugee Protection Act, echoing

intercepted off the coast of British Columbia,

prevailing

requesting

example

to

being

forced

This

about

migrants

paper

concerns

by

will

20,000

in

need

examine

international

and

POLICY

by

refugee

ON

REFUGEES

Immigration,

status

in

Refugees

Canada.

AND

and

Briefly

constitutional lawyers who expressed legal, ethical

summarized, the IRPA replaced the Immigration

and sociological issues in some aspects of this

Act, creating an updated framework detailing the

convection. The argument is substantiated by

guideline for regulating immigration and refugees.

drawing on sociological theories on crime and

As this paper is concerned with the impact on

deviance to analyse the repercussions of the Act for

asylum seekers and refugees, I will highlight only

both refugees and Canadians.

relevant sections to this in the Act. The stated objectives of the Act under section 3(1) pertaining to the lives of refugees are:

PAGE 35

(a) to recognize that the refugee program is in the first

(f) being a member of an organization that there are

instance about saving lives and offering protection to the

reasonable grounds to believe engages, has engaged or

displaced and persecuted;

will engage in acts referred to in paragraph (a),(b),(b.1) or

(b) to fulfil Canada’s international legal obligations with

(c).

respect to refugees and affirm Canada’s commitment to international efforts to provide assistance to those in need of resettlement; (c) to grant, as a fundamental expression of Canada’s humanitarian ideals, fair consideration to those who come to Canada claiming persecution;

The IRPA guides the decision of every refugee claimant application, and therefore all asylum seekers are required to pass these security tests to be accepted. A prevailing issue in the legal field is

(d) to offer safe haven to persons with a well-founded fear

section 34 (1) subsection (f), which deems “members”

of persecution based on race, religion, nationality, political

of the described organizations inadmissible due to

opinion or membership in a particular social group, as well

their

as those at risk of torture or cruel and unusual treatment

Canadian

or punishment; (e) to establish fair and efficient procedures that will maintain

the

integrity

of

the

Canadian

refugee

protection system, while upholding Canada’s respect for

“engagement”

because

security. the

in It

activities is

words

that

threaten

problematic

primarily

``membership”

and

“engagement” allow for unrestricted and broad interpretation, and therefore, wrongfully capture

the human rights and fundamental freedoms of all

many refugees who have never engaged in violence,

human beings;

because “actual participation in the inadmissible

(f) to support the self-sufficiency and the social and

behavior is not required” (Bellissimo Law Group PC).

economic

Efforts for revising the scope of this clause’s

well-being

of

refugees

by

facilitating

reunification with their family members in Canada; (g) to protect the health and safety of Canadians and to maintain the security of Canadian society; and (h) to promote international justice and security by

interpretation have been consistently rejected. For instance, the Federal Court of Appeal provided that in the Kanagendren v. Canada case in 2015, “nothing

denying access to Canadian territory to persons, including

in paragraph 34(1)(f) requires or contemplates a

refugee claimants, who are security risks or serious

complicity analysis in the context of membership.

criminals.

Nor does the text of this provision require a ‘member’ to be a ‘true’ member who contributed

Section 34(1) of the IRPA on inadmissibility sets out the

following

subject

provisions

for

rejecting

refugees on security grounds:

significantly to the wrongful actions of the group” (Para. 22). Similar conclusions were made in the Poshteh v. Canada case in 2005.

(a) engaging in an act of espionage that is against Canada or that is contrary to Canada’s interests;

Public Attitudes

(b)engaging in or instigating the subversion by force of any

As this paper explores and challenges a precise in

government;

Canadian legislation on refugees, there is limited

(b.1) engaging in an act of subversion against a democratic

data on the opinions and attitudes towards the

government, institution or process as they are understood

provision from the general Canadian public (this

in Canada;

claim excludes the opinions of lawyers, judges, and

(c) engaging in terrorism;

politicians). Therefore, this section will provide an

(d) being a danger to the security of Canada; (e) engaging in acts of violence that would or might endanger the lives or safety of persons in Canada; or

overview of Canadian attitudes on refugees more generally, which also informs how restrictive

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PAGE 36

a

VOLUME IV - 2021

Canadians believe their government should be

experiencing

degree

of

polarization

in

the

when admitting refugee claimants.

positions of Canadian citizens on immigration as a whole, and more so on refugees. Accordingly, laws

General

opinions

in

Canada

on

refugees

are

and policies play an integral role in shaping

dependent on the degree of perceived economic,

sympathetic public attitudes, as well as preserving

cultural and political threat of refugees (Timothy

Canada’s “proud history and tradition of welcoming

2017:450). On the one hand, some citizens largely

immigrants who wish to start a new life here”

sympathize with asylum seekers who are victims of displacement and war and therefore maintain prorefugee sentiments. According to a study by the Environment Institute in 2018, six in ten Canadians supported the increase of refugees accepted in Canada (Environment Institute 2018:6). However, other

citizens

are

less

supportive

of

refugee

admission into Canada on the basis of them posing an

economic

threat

such

as

increasing

job

(Government

of

Canada

2012).

The

following

paragraphs outline how section 34 (1) (f) of the IRPA directly threatens the aforementioned roles.

PROBLEMS WITH THE IRPA: THESIS Section 34 (1) subsection (f) is problematic from a legal and sociological standpoint. From a legal standpoint, it has been argued that failing to meet

competition for Canadians (Timothy 2017:250). Anti-

the section (1) (f) criterion is not sufficient ground for

refugee attitudes are also shaped by a perceived

rejecting refugees in the name of security (Bond,

“cultural” threat due to different core national

Jennifer et. al. 2020:3). This is because subsection (f)

values, identity, and culture (Ibid.,). Faith Goldy, a

uses the broad terms “members” and “engagement”

Toronto-based independent journalist known for

without the need for the claimant to be a “true”

her large nationalist-Catholic following, expresses

member who “contributed significantly to the

that “the Canadian populace should at the very least

wrongful actions of the group” (Para. 22). Ultimately,

be asked who we want coming into our country…

this renders a ‘guilty by association’ notion of

the new type of immigrant who seeks to change

exclusionary politics that stereotypes refugees who

and indeed erase our history… I, for one, am proud of

are not actually security threats. For instance, a

Canada’s European history and wish that Canada

refugee can be considered a “member” if they admit

remains European” (Samuel 2018).

to having promotional posters of an authoritative politician in their store, even if it is because they

There is also the factor of “political” or security threats, that are rooted in a stereotyping of refugees as being inclined to violence. A 2016 survey revealed that

of

those

resettlement

who

of

opposed

Syrian

concerned

about

Moreover,

refugees

refugees,

terrorism are

the

at

increased 46%

(Telhami times

were 2016).

labelled

as

opportunistic and the “authenticity” of their refugee claims is questioned (Pruyers 2020: 5). Anti-refugee attitudes are most prevalent amongst conservative Canadians and supporters for right-wing candidates and parties (Ibid., 7). Canada, therefore, is

feared being targeted by the regime if they removed them. Other issues of jurisprudence include the contradiction between subsection (f) and Article 1F(a) of the Refugee Convention that maintains the criminal acts must meet a “voluntary, significant and knowing contribution” test. This renders Canada’s refugee claims system fundamentally inconsistent with international conventions.

Accordingly, this paper is concerned with the unjustified “criminal by association” label on refugee claimants and refugees more broadly. In other words, my aim is not to question the fundamental

PAGE 37

concern for security. Instead, my concern is about

Deconstructionism: The Power of Language

the generalization of asylum seekers as ‘security

As tabulated by Ashley Dawson, for a human being

threats’

oppressive

to be deprived of their home is to be rendered

conditions without pragmatic legal reasoning or

socially invisible (Dawson 2017). Dawson posits that

comprehensive

The United Nations’ outdated legal categorizations

by

virtue

‘engagement.’

of

living

evaluation The

under

of

their

unjustified

presumed

assumptions

of

and refugee laws are based on exclusion politics,

refugees will be analyzed using sociological theories

and paint refugees as not socially and legally

on crime and deviance. This paper argues that

invisible,

section 34 (1) of the IRPA on inadmissibility upholds harmful notions for asylum seekers by unjustly criminalizing residents

them

and

currently

alienating

holding

Canadian

refugee

and

immigration status. These claims are informed by theories

on

crime

and

deviance,

namely,

deconstructionism, critical race theory, control theory, and labelling theory. The paper concludes with proposed revisions for section 34 (1) (f) of the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act.

but

also

illegitimate

and

even

opportunistic “illegal aliens” (Ibid:201). The creation and usage of “illegal” as a discursive category, is largely a result of limited “linguistic opacity” for refugees. In other words, refugees in international legal codes face significant limitations in language representing

their

true

identity

and

situation

(Pulitano 2013:184). Canada’s IRPA is no exception to this notion, as the unrestrictive criteria under section 34 (1)(f) allow for the same opacity in categorizing which refugees are warranted residence, i.e. pose no security threat, and which are not. It fails to utilize

CRIMINALIZATION OF REFUGEES Human categories and models of exclusions are created, developed and implemented through

language that can accurately measure and account for the complex hardships and conditions that

McCormick

refugees have endured. This provision captures and

2012:135). Over the past decade in particular, the

endangers many refugees who have never engaged

measures and laws that have come to define

in violence, for factors such as their political support

immigration

for local self-determination movements, coerced

institutional

policies

policy

(Siegel

have

and

had

the

effective

consequence of criminalizing both asylum seekers

involvement

through

mandatory

taxing

under

and unauthorized immigrants (Bond et. al 2020:12).

authoritative regimes, or by being subject to

Several notable theories have emerged in the field

unlawful arrest.

of criminology and sociology that explore the exercise

of

power

against

the

economically

As

Michael

Foucault

has

continuously

noted,

unwanted, the marginalized, the alienated, and the

language has a constitutive bearing on reality.

dispossessed,

institutional

Jurisprudence, law, and policies are instruments of

mediums and justified ideologies of exclusions, i.e

power, “crystallized into institutions, they inform

“security threats” (Story 2005: 9). The following

individual behavior, and they act as grids for [the]

paragraphs relevant

to

particularly

highlight the

through

select

issue

of

theories refugees

that and

involvement with crime (or lack therefore).

are their

perception and evaluation of things” (Foucault 1991:79).

Accordingly,

the

categorizations

of

“in/admissible” refugees in our legal codes are not merely

descriptive

notions.

In

line

deconstructionism, legal language reflects

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perceptions in society and therefore upholds the

keeping these criteria vague and unrestricted is

same inequities present in the rest of the social

guided by implicit cultural stereotyping that is

structure (Siegel and McCormick 2012:307). This is

“embedded

certainly

individuals

evident

when

considering

the

aforementioned attitudes of right-wing Canadians.

in as

the well

routine

daily

as

culture

the

conduct of

of

social

institutions. Such prejudices and stereotypes affect the way organizations work and remain stable over

What I aim to argue here is not the reasoning that

time” (Stuart Hall et. al 1998:38).

underlies this clause, but instead the perplexing criteria of evaluating whether an asylum seeker is a

Accordingly, the sentiments that guide Canadian

danger to society or not based on their past, and

policy on refugees and immigration are not only

how this criterion reflects prevailing attitudes of the

institutional but are reflected in its civil society as

groups in power that create these laws. Naturally,

well. For instance, a study by Statistics Canada found

questions on why these descriptions of admissibility

that “Non-white skin, foreign accents and exotic

and legality are intentionally ambiguous and vague

clothing – badges of otherness worn by members of

arise.

groups culturally distant from the main-stream – increase

the

chances

of

encountering

Critical Race Theory: Institutional Racism and

discrimination” (Statistics Canada, 2013) (Ethnic

Ideological Hegemony

diversity survey: Portrait of a multicultural society

The first reason for the ambiguous ground for the

Catalogue No. 89-593-KIE). The rationale adopted by

inadmissibility provision can be understood through

our legal bodies may galvanize societal divides that

critical race theory. This provision is a structural

already persist in Canada, moving beyond the

account of how institutions operationalize the

question of Canadians “wanting” refugees or not, to

“categorizing” of certain groups to benefit other

more wide-spread discrimination against them. This

groups in power. Discriminatory provisions such as

process manifests itself into systematic racism.

these persist in British Common Law for instance - a legal code that Canada is largely an extension of.

While this Act purportedly focuses on national

These implicit attitudes are a “parcel of a way of

security, the discourse of insecurity has been rooted

thinking about contact with people from other

in

parts of the world and are diffused through every

opportunistically used to restrict immigration and

level of British society (Stuart Hall et. al 1998:38).

deny asylum seekers rights (Hout et. al 2016: 131). This

Critical race theory maintains that institutions are

is not only alarming for refugees already in Canada,

instruments used to maintain the status quo and

but also poses a humanitarian concern for refugees

can operate with racist and discriminatory notions

seeking asylum. The combination of advocating for

without acknowledging or recognizing them. This

more

process is defined as institutional racism. Indeed,

deportations and restricted refugee claims influence

the

a

policy and public perceptions of refugees, and “have

generalization of refugees as being supportive of

limited asylum seeking as an option for many forced

violent regimes or ideologies without empirical

migrants, pushing them into ever more precarious

legal evidence to support these accusations (Stuart

positions” (Hout et. al 2016:141).

IRPA

provision

is

characterized

by

Hall et. al 1998:36). The rationale behind insisting on

discriminatory

tightly

stereotyping

controlled

borders,

and

is

increasing

PAGE 39

Ultimately, the use of language this way deems

“[s]ocial groups create deviance by making the rules

crime

of

whose infraction constitutes deviance, and by

inadequate controls. This leads to institutions taking

applying those rules to particular people and

action to limit the “potential” of these problems. This

labelling

approach to problem-solving is engaging in what

Accordingly, the criminalized description of refugees

sociologists call Control Theory (Garland 2001:8-17).

and asylum seekers in our legal system poses

and

delinquency

to

be

problems

them

as

outsiders''

(Becker

1963:9).

problems for Canadian society at large, as these Control

Theory

and

Labelling

Theory:

descriptions naturally point to the phenomena of refuge as a whole. This in turn affects refugees

Marginalization and Alienation Above all, labelling is a political act, and “what

residing in Canada, who were once asylum seekers

rules are to be enforced, what behaviour

as well (Hout et. al 2016: 141). Not only are groups

regarded as deviant, and which people labeled

labelled as criminal, deviant, or “outsiders'' subject to

as outsiders must…be regarded as political

institutional

questions” (Becker 1963: 7).

marginalized from civil society as a whole and

exclusions,

they

are

also

often

alienated into isolated communities, willingly and The emergence of influential control theories that

unwillingly.

consider crime and criminals as problems resulting from insufficient control lays the bedrock for

By concluding that refugees are “threats” to security

justifying exclusionary policies, such as section 34(1)

under the excessively broad criteria in this Act and

(f) of the IRPA, which often target marginalized

other similar policies, the Canadian government

communities (Garland 2001:8-17). Control theory

incites anti-immigrant sentiment and xenophobic

maintains that “deviant” groups are categorized as a

attitudes while deepening ethnic division in our

problem in society that can only be confronted by

multi-cultural state (Hout et. al 2016:141). Stereotypes

exercising control over these groups. Consequently,

are an important aspect of labelling theory because

creating a “deviant” group of people, who are illegal

the process of categorizing people into “racial” or

and unwelcomed in Canada, is a structural form of

“ethnic” groups creates a mindset on the part of the

maintaining

the

perceiver. This mindset leads the perceiver to select

economically unwanted, the marginalized, and

and interpret traits that members of the racialized

dispossessed. Moreover, by characterizing asylum

group seem to have in common, i.e., violent

seekers as a security problem to Canadian society,

tendencies or involvement in activities that are

the section 34 (1)(f) criteria enable governments to

threats to Canada’s security. This is despite that in

absolve themselves of responsibility for addressing

most cases, the traits reside only in the mind of the

issues of ethical and legal obligations, as well as the

perceiver (Kelg 1993:147). This mindset poses a

root causes that engender the need for asylum in

humanitarian concern for refugees seeking asylum

the first place (Hout et. al 2016:140).

and is alarming for refugees already in Canada.

Labelling theory is central to this process of

POSSIBLE REVISION AND CONTINGENCIES

categorizations of criminal behaviour. The premise

As previously emphasized,, a policy, provision, or Act

of the theory, as noted by Howard S. Becker is that

rooted in exclusion, labelling and criminalization

control

and

power

against

leads to the marginalization of some Canadian

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residents and subject asylum seekers to unjust

sociologists call “raising consciousness” Canada aims

pretenses for inadmissibility. It follows then, that

to change people’s attitudes in order to eliminate

legislation of this nature should seize to inform

inequalities and discriminatory tendencies. As noted

judicial decisions and be subject to revision.

in Merton’s anomie theory, the less society is characterized by social inequality, the fewer people

In applying section 34 (1)(f), I propose that our courts

will become anomic. It follows that Canada’s goal

refer to the humanitarian principles in customary

must be a genuine social and welfare state in which

legal codes that essentially guide the application of

it is possible for everyone to achieve cultural goals by

all Canadian law. Particularly, I propose that courts

legitimate means.

engage with section 7 of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms that highlights the rights of all persons

CONCLUSION

involved in judicial proceedings in Canada. The

Given the global rise of asylum seekers, it is timely to

section holds that “everyone has the right to life,

examine how forced migrants are constructed in

liberty and security of the person and the right not

particular ways through discourses in law and

to be deprived thereof except in accordance with

security, and what sociological theories guide the

the principles of fundamental justice.” These rights

rationale behind them. If the Government of Canada

risk infringement at the hands of the ill-defined

is genuine in its goal of protecting its “proud history

criterion of “engagement” and “membership” that

and tradition of welcoming immigrants who wish to

de facto criminalize vulnerable and politically

start a new life here” (Government of Canada 2012c),

powerless

on

it must critically consider the ramifications of

insubstantial assumptions. If this section of the

provisions such as 34 (1) that aim to create

Charter

increasingly

controlled

inadmissibility, then the courts would inevitably

deportations

and

find section 34(1)(f) to unconstitutionally deprive the

criteria

liberty and security of many refugees who pose no

ramifications fail to consider that refugees are often

threat to public safety and national security.

already experiencing unparalleled hardships upon

is

human

beings,

considered

often

during

the

based analysis

of

for

borders,

broadly

refugee

legitimized

applicable

determination.

rejection These

their arrival at Canada, and “they have not passed On the civil level, the Canadian government should

our normal test of health, training and general

seek to develop policies and programs to encourage

acceptability…

the

and

hospitalization available here… language is often a

refugees in civil society such as providing labour and

barrier” (McFaul 1959:101). Canada must critically

education options, and preventing them from being

engage with the magnitude of power legal codes

isolated in their own communities and alienated

hold in determining the trajectory of human beings -

from society. Moreover, Canada should develop

namely refugees.

participation

of

current

immigrants

programs for the general population to encourage their acceptance of cultural, ethnic, religious, and racial diversity. Education programs about the value of diversity, anti‐discrimination, international laws and issues, Canada’s position on world issues and so on, would prove valuable. By adopting what

few

require

long

periods

of

PAGE 41

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GAY FATHERS PRACTICING PARENTHOOD IN THE PREDOMINANTLY HETEROSEXUAL CONTEXT SHIXUAN FAN

ABSTRACT With the increasing visibility and presentation

complications attached to their identities in

of gay fathers in the last few decades

different aspects of lives, this would be

(Berkowitz 2011), gay parents have gained

beneficial for the public to raise deeper

more recognition, civil rights, and equality

awareness of gay fathers and work toward

(Carroll 2018, 105). However, there are still

creating a truly equal social environment for

many differences and realities for us to

them. I would like to focus on the aspect of

discover.

oftentimes,

parenting of gay fathers, as well as how they

neglect the challenges gay fathers face while

take and cope with this role. Therefore, I

managing

The

general

public, and

families.

propose the research question: How do gay

been

constant

fathers practice parenthood and deal with the

debates about whether gay parenthood would

challenges in the predominantly heterosexual

affect children’s development negatively; gay

context? This paper will argue that gay fathers

fathers’ capability of raising children had been

experience

questioned (Berkowitz 2011, 515). With the

challenges while parenting in the context of

growing awareness of gay fathers, it is also

heteronormativity because of the existing

necessary for society to do more than just

social tension, gender role strains, and work-

seeing them as the same as everyone else, and

family conflicts; but they also have the

it is crucial to understand how gay fathers

resilience to cope with the status quo and they

struggle and how they cope with the

are just as competent as nongay parents in

Additionally,

relationships there

have

very

unique

difficulties

and

PAGE 43

terms of parenthood quality due to the sensitive,

external

(imposed

by

others)

and

internal

inclusive, and egalitarian family environment.

(internalization of homophobic ideologies) tensions in the parenting process (Giesler 2012). First of all,

SOCIAL TENSION AND CHALLENGES

many gay parents intend to have children through

To begin discussing the challenges gay fathers

adoptions, but the system is not mature enough to

undergo, we should first observe their contextual

equip their needs; gay fathers sometimes could be

position. The combination of the terms “gay” and

expecting several years of waiting time (Giesler

“father” has been perceived as contradictory in

2012). Apart from the systematic incapacity, it is not

nature within the heterosexual social frame (Bigner

uncommon for them to encounter homophobia

& Bozzett 1989). This is not only because gay couples

from the adoption agency (Giesler 2012). This makes

can’t give birth to children in the way heterosexual

it very difficult for gay men to have children. On the

couples do, but also because of the stereotypes that

other hand, those who became fathers also receive

deem gay people as anti-family (Bigner & Bozett

negative reactions from various communities, not

1989). Even within the scope of the LGBTQ+

only from the public’s heteronormative culture, but

community, the position of gay fathers is quite

also from their families of origin, or gay/lesbian

unique. Unlike lesbian individuals, people don’t

communities (Giesler 2012). In Giesler’s study, many

relate the paternal bodies to having and nurturing

gay fathers reported that some of their family

children. Gay fathers experience very different

members were supportive while some refuse to

constraints than lesbian mothers. While lesbian

accept the female gender of children due to the

mothers, nowadays, can be acknowledged as both

absence of “mother” or “female roles”; some families

the breadwinning role and the caretaking role, but

even refuse to acknowledge any children at all

gay fathers are seen as incompetent to nurture

(Giesler 2012). While some gay fathers are supported

children, this is conceptualized as the “mommy-

by friends, some other ones undergo alienation from

driven culture” by one of the gay fathers in Giesler’s

the gay community. Some gay friends of these

study, and it demonstrates that there exists a

fathers assume that they are going to detach from

double

LGBTQ+

the friend zone as soon as they have children (Giesler

community (Giesler 2012, p. 129). Therefore, gay

2012). However, sometimes the detachment is made

fathers are a minority within the minority in

by the fathers themselves because they want to shift

comparison to gay men without children. When gay

their interests and attention from their friends to

fathers develop their special identity, they are not

their children (Giesler 2012). Additionally, gay fathers

only manifesting their homosexuality to nongay

also experience internalized stigmas. Since much of

communities but also manifesting their role of

our

fathers to other gay men (Bigner & Bozett 1989).

heteronormative context, the gendered ideologies

When they perform multiple roles, their identities

become self-perpetuated. Many gay men have

aren’t consistent, they experience difficulties and

internalized the idea that having children is a

conflicts

of

“straight” thing to do (Giesler 2012). They then

intersectionality makes them unique from other

impose pressure on themselves in the process of

LGBTQ+ people (Bigner & Bozett 1989).

having children.

With that being said, gay fathers experience various

For many years, society and the public were

standard

from

even

many

inside

aspects,

the

this

kind

COMMUNITY

understanding

was

established

in

a

UNDERGRADUATE SOCIOLOGY JOURNAL

PAGE 44

VOLUME IV - 2021

homosexual

Because the traditional stereotype deems the

communities are incompatible with the idea of

concepts of “gay” and “father” as conflicting, gay

“family” supposing that gay men don’t want to have

fatherhood had been characterized as a kind of

children or long-lasting stable relationships (Weston

resistance or challenge against the predominant

1991), however, that is misleading. When childless

ideologies about family sex norms (Giesler 2012).

gay men were asked how they conceive their

Many gay fathers choose to resist the stereotypical

families to be like, the vast majority manifested that

image of “father” in heterosexual families, their roles

“they would be in a committed relationship before

are much more flexible, and they have the freedom

having children” (Berkowitz 2011, p. 524). This

to perform the nurturing work, to take on the job

pattern destabilizes the predominant segregational

traditionally done by mothers (Berkowitz 2011).

convinced

to

think

that

the

discourse that isolates gay men as aliens who cut off kinship as soon as they come out (of the closet). In

In gay families, the traditional roles of “mother” and

fact, a lot of gay men interviewed in Berkowitz’s

“father” are fused (Giesler 2012, p. 121). As also

study had an envision of families that, to a large

suggested by Berkowitz, when two men are forming

extent, reproduced the “heteronormative family

a family and having children, they are battling

ideal” (Berkowitz 2011, p. 524). Which constitute two

against the stereotypes that consider men to be the

children and a pet, but with two men instead of a

breadwinner and women to be the caregiver (Giesler

man and a woman. While gay fathers also have the

2012). When gay fathers divide the childrearing work,

agency to negotiate their family structures within

they don’t rigidly specify gendered roles, they take

the heterosexual context, the traditional values still

on the jobs that they are good at and go with

play a large role that largely affects their approaches

whichever way that works the best (Giesler 2012).

to family. Gay fathers experience many social

The

tensions, this paper will mainly focus on gender role

destabilized. Peterson, Butts, and Deville (2000)

strains and work-family challenges.

claimed that gay fatherhood can be both masculine and

gendered

feminine,

parenthood

as

they

can

classifications

escape

from

are

the

GENDER ROLE STRAINS

heteronormative family construction, gay fathers are

As originally discussed by Joseph Pleck, the gender

degendering parenting. With the redefinition of

role strain paradigm questioned the dichotomy that

parenting roles and reconfiguration of the parental

defines

two

arrangements, the family atmosphere tends to be

fundamental and distinct entities. Nowadays, with

more egalitarian and mutual than heterosexual

the increasing visibility of LGBTQ+ communities and

families with presupposed gender roles (Giesler

cases of them forming families, the traditional roles

2012). Sometimes, the “degendering” practices on

of women (staying home) and men (working

the children as well. When gay fathers raise children,

outside) in a family is no longer a definite

the boundaries of “boys” and “girls” are blurred.

dichotomy, it is complex and multi-dimensional.

Rather than teaching daughters how to be “girls”

The genders of parents are not the only factor that

and sons how to be “boys”, they often adopt gender-

determines the family work division, other social

neutral approaches while parenting (Giesler 2012, p.

categories also come into play (Richardson et al.

129).

masculinity

and

femininity

as

2012), as also mentioned by Giesler, who researched gay fathers in the frame of gender role strain.

Although fathers can also be just as competent

PAGE 45

convinced

to

think

that

the

homosexual

is another side to this phenomenon. Although

communities are incompatible with the idea of

married

gay

fathers

are

not

constrained

by

“family” supposing that gay men don’t want to have

predefined gender expectations, the formation and

children or long-lasting stable relationships (Weston

negotiation of family structures still take place in a

1991), however, that is misleading. When childless

heteropatriarchal social context, in which cisgender

gay men were asked how they conceive their

heterosexual men have the most power in society.

families to be like, the vast majority manifested that

The notion of binary division is deeply rooted

“they would be in a committed relationship before

(Berkowitz 2011). When they describe their functions

having children” (Berkowitz 2011, p. 524). This

in the family, they still adopt languages like “the

pattern destabilizes the predominant segregational

mom” or “the dad” because they were socialized into

discourse that isolates gay men as aliens who cut off

the heteronormative framework, and the knowledge

kinship as soon as they come out (of the closet). In

people learned was all constructed in it (Berkowitz

fact, a lot of gay men interviewed in Berkowitz’s

2011). Sociologists suggested making changes to the

study had an envision of families that, to a large

“social linguistic practices”, gay fathers are also

extent, reproduced the “heteronormative family

taking initiatives to actively problematize and

ideal” (Berkowitz 2011, p. 524). Which constitute two

challenge the existing categories of parental roles,

children and a pet, but with two men instead of a

and use their agency to negotiate the expression of

man and a woman. While gay fathers also have the

their unique identities and experiences (Berkowitz

agency to negotiate their family structures within

2011). Such as adopting terms like “stereotypical

the heterosexual context, the traditional values still

father” to refer to the traditional father role in

play a large role that largely affects their approaches

heterosexual families (Berkowitz 2011).

to family. Gay fathers experience many social tensions, this paper will mainly focus on gender role

Overall, gay fathers find ways to cope with the

strains and work-family challenges.

internalized gender role strain with their flexibility.

Although the expression and rhetorics of parental the

roles integrate into the heterosexual frame, gay

heterosexual rhetoric of gender dichotomy of

fathers also demonstrated their agencies. As a very

parenting,

important

Yet,

since

society many

is gay

predominated fathers

by

cross-identify

strategy,

the

cross-identifying

and

themselves as the “mother” or as having some

attachment to the mothering role show that the gay

female characteristics. For example, many gay

fathers are not just passively constrained by the

fathers make sense of their desires to have children

predominant heteropatriarchal organization. They

with terms like “maternal instinct”, “biological clock”;

feel proud to be the nurturers and caregivers in the

or sometimes describe themselves as “soccer moms”

family, and they use the predefined gendered

(Berkowitz 2011, p. 522). Corresponding to previous

languages to describe themselves as an approach to

contents, it is found that gay fathers have highly

blur

flexible family roles, such phenomenon of cross-

heterosexual context, then further transform, or even

identifying themselves with traditionally maternal

degender parental discourses and norms (Berkowitz

characteristics challenges the existing gendered

2011).

narratives and resists the constraints imposed by heteronormativity (Berkowitz 2011). However, there

COMMUNITY

and

reconfigure

the

categories

in

the

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PAGE 46

VOLUME IV - 2021

WORK-FAMILY CHALLENGE

fathers’ experiences and strategies demonstrate

Apart from the challenges caused by gender role

their

strain, many gay fathers described the experience of

heteronormativity and ideology that men ought to

having to balance their identities as professionals at

have successful careers to be “masculine” and to be

the workplace with fatherhood in the family

“good” fathers (Richardson et al. 2012, p. 333). The

(Richardson et al. 2012). For gay fathers, once they

capability of utilizing their resources and networks

have had children, adjustments to their careers

to cope with the work-family challenges should also

need to be made. In many cases, career goals

be given as much credit.

resistance

against

the

traditional

become secondary as parenting gets prioritized such

One limitation of the study done by Richardson et al.

decisions, most of them don’t think of themselves as

is that the participants are mostly highly educated,

sacrificing work per se, but choosing family over

middle-class white men with stable jobs, this means

work. Though, some fathers feel guilty for reducing

this sample has more flexibility and resources to

work hours, due to potential negative reaction from

help with childrearing (Richardson et al. 2012). Gay

the

impact

fathers of other ethnicities or from lower classes, as

(Richardson et al. 2012). With that being said, those

well as single gay fathers, would certainly experience

being the financial earners of the family tend to

much more intense work-family conflict. Therefore,

choose work over family because they rely on the

there are still spaces for further studies about other

income to support the children (Richardson et al.

types of gay fathers to create more comprehensive

2012).

understandings.

(Richardson

Since

et

workplace

the

vast

al.

or

2012).

While

further

majority

of

making

long-term

the

gay

fathers

POSITIVE EFFECTS OF GAY PARENTHOOD

interviewed by Richardson et al. think their work

Gay fathers go through many unique challenges

impinges on their family time, no matter whether

while raising children, and face a lot of doubts and

their jobs are high status or not (Richardson et al.

pressure from the public. It is proven that being

2012), they take different kinds of strategies to cope

raised by homosexual parents does not directly

with this challenge. One common approach is to

cause any negative impact on children. On the

seek outside help, such as hiring caretakers; those

contrary, the outcome of gay fathers’ parenthood

parents without enough financial resources usually

might even be more positive than non-gay parents

ask for help from other family members (Richardson

in some aspects (Bigner & Bozett 1989). While gay

et al. 2012). Other strategies include cutting back

fathers perform just as well as heterosexual parents

work hours for work demands, such as changing

in terms of coping with all sorts of issues in

schedule or shifting from full-time work to part-

childrearing,

time, etc (Richardson et al. 2012). The others may go

satisfaction and harmony with their children and

further to become stay-at-home fathers so that they

partners (Bigner & Bozett 1989). It was found that gay

can perform the caretaking role (Richardson et al.

fathers tend to make more effort to create a stable

2012). At the same time, the support could also be

and warm family environment for children, and they

external,

make

establish better relationships with their kids (Bigner

adjustments for fathers to help them manage

& Bozett 1989), since their capacity of rearing

(Richardson et al. 2012). In summary, these gay

children had been questioned, they also face

some

companies

would

also

they

provide

higher

levels

of

PAGE 47

extra amount of pressure from society. In terms of

Overall, it has been proven that there is no

internal causations, it could also because they are

significant

less restrained by the stereotypical father image of

orientation of fathers and the inadequacy of

being distant and non-verbal, gay fathers tend to be

parenting children. The identity of being gay parents

comparatively “more sensitive and responsive” to

isn’t the most important factor that determines the

their children than heterosexual fathers (Bigner &

ability to parent, but how much they devote to their

Bozett 1989, p. 164). Additionally, among gay fathers,

children, how well they manage the relationship, as

those who have disclosed their sexual orientation to

well as the home life quality provided (Bigner &

their children usually form even closer relationships

Bozett 1989). The concerns of gay parenthood

and connections with them (Bigner & Bozett 1989).

regarding children’s wellbeing are mostly pressured

Such differences in parenthood by gay fathers could

by the social stereotypes and discriminations,

be a result of their unique identity, they are likely to

instead of by the family form itself (Bigner & Bozett

play both the traditional “mother” and “father” roles,

1989).

correlation

between

the

sexual

so they - to a large extent - incorporate characters from both sides (Bigner & Bozett 1989). Furthermore,

CONCLUSION

it is also found that gay fathers perform well

To conclude, gay fathers are undergoing rather

partially as a strategy to respond to the negative

unique challenges and constraints while parenting

stereotypes and presuppositions toward gay fathers,

in the heteronormative context. This paper focused

and in a way to prove their capability of raising

on the aspects of social tensions (since they are a

children (Bigner & Bozett 1989). Either way, their

minority within the minority), gender role strains,

becoming fathers is an approach of destabilizing

and work-family conflicts. However, because of their

and redefining gendered parental characteristics.

isolation from traditional family structures, gay fathers tend to have more flexibility when it comes

Not only do children from homosexual families

to childrearing work. They also have agencies and

develop as well as other children, but they are also

strategies to resist the stereotypical narratives and

found to have some good qualities, and gay

predefined parental roles. It is also proven that they

fatherhood is creating positive effects on a societal

are just as competent as heterosexual parents in

level. According to Giesler’s study, gay fathers

terms of parenting quality, their children even

expressed that their children were sensitive, open,

develop better in certain ways. Gay fatherhood also

and inclusive, as they grow up in very unique

has profound positive effects on a societal level by

families, they know how to deal with differences

providing wider perspectives for gay communities.

better (Giesler 2012). Their children can learn to

Yet, further studies are still needed to navigate the

acknowledge and defend their special identities

parenthood of marginalized gay fathers, such as

through such different family backgrounds (Giesler

racial minorities, fathers of low financial status, or

2012) On a broader scope, through successfully

single gay fathers, since the articles I analyzed in this

raising children of their own, gay parents have

paper mainly focused on white middle-class gay

deconstructed

fathers.

and

reconstructed

the

understanding of the fathering role. They have demonstrated a much wider variety of possibilities as gay individuals (Giesler 2012).

COMMUNITY

UNDERGRADUATE SOCIOLOGY JOURNAL

PAGE 48

REFERENCES Berkowitz, Dana. 2011. "Maternal Instincts, Biological Clocks, And Soccer Moms: Gay Men's Parenting And Family Narratives." Symbolic Interaction 34(4):514535.

Bigner, Jerry J, and Frederick W. Bozett. 1989.

"Parenting By Gay Fathers." Marriage & Family Review 14(3-4):155-175.

Carroll, Megan. 2018. "Gay Fathers On The Margins: Race,

Class,

Marital

Status,

And

Pathway

To

Parenthood." Family Relations 67(1):104-117.

Giesler, Mark. 2012. "Gay Fathers' Negotiation Of Gender Role Strain: A Qualitative Inquiry." Fathering: A Journal of Theory, Research, and Practice about Men as Fathers 10(2):119-139.

Richardson, Hannah B., April M. Moyer, and Abbie E. Goldberg. 2012. "You Try To Be Superman And You Don't Have To Be": Gay Adoptive Fathers' Challenges And Tensions In Balancing Work And Family."

Fathering: A Journal of Theory, Research, and Practice about Men as Fathers 10(3):314-336.

Weston, Kath. 1991. "Chapters 2 & 5." Pp. p. 21-41, 103136 in Families We Choose: Lesbians, Gays, Kinship, Kath Weston. New York: Columbia University Press.

VOLUME IV - 2021

PAGE 49

GENDER AND COVID-19:

CHANGING FAMILY DYNAMICS AND LABOUR DISTRIBUTION BEFORE AND DURING THE PANDEMIC VIKKI HUANG, ASHNA HARJEE, ANDREW ST JOHN, DEBORA NJILAYI

ABSTRACT Gender relations have been examined through

COVID-19, and investigate if and how the

sociological, anthropological, and economic

COVID-19

lenses, among others, providing important

exacerbated,

insights into fundamental gender dynamics

changed gender relations and dynamics in our

and inequalities that exist in our society and

society and culture.

pandemic shifted,

has or

reinforced, fundamentally

culture. Gender and gendered experiences are dynamic

and

fluid

constructs

that

have

INTRODUCTION

changed drastically over time; such changes

The four interviews our team has conducted provide

have been accelerating recently by virtue of

glimpses into the lives of four unique Canadian

macrostructural shifts, such as technological

families from different socioeconomic backgrounds,

advancements

and

globalization.

Looking

back, we can see that stark changes are often facilitated or catalyzed by epoch-defining events; as we watch the world adjust to the

and capture a snapshot of their challenges and experiences during COVID-19. We have identified four core themes that will be analyzed through intersectional lenses with consideration being made for the small sample size of our data. The primary

global COVID-19 pandemic, it seems this may

themes we will deconstruct and address with

be another such event. Given the evolving and

respect to COVID-19 and gender are: changing

all-encompassing nature of COVID-19, we

labour experiences in the workplace, motherhood

examine the relationship between gender and

and emotional labour, household dynamics

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UNDERGRADUATE SOCIOLOGY JOURNAL

PAGE 50

VOLUME IV - 2021

and unpaid labour for adult children living at home,

informed that participation was voluntary, and they

and changing relationship frame and school. Our

were authorized to withdraw at any time or to

research is focused on addressing what, if any,

decline answering any questions. In our ICF, we

changes

asked our participants if they were comfortable

have

occurred

in

family/relationship labour,

being recorded and offered to provide a copy of the

circumstances of employment as a result of COVID-

recording, as well as confirmation of the destruction

19, and how gender plays a role in these changes.

of the recording once transcribed. Our recordings

dynamics,

the

distribution

of

unpaid

have been destroyed, and none of our participants

METHODS

requested a copy of the recordings or transcripts.

We conducted a qualitative research study through four semi-structured interviews. We focused on our

When transcribing, coding, and distributing our

objective, to examine the relationship between

transcripts and codes to one another, we altered our

gender and COVID-19, when designing our interview

transcripts as necessary to preserve anonymity and

guide. In this way, we constructed our questions

to protect the confidentiality of our participants.

with the intention of acquiring relevant and

Each of us transcribed our interviews individually,

significant insights relating to our research question.

and coded twice independently before distributing

We also made sure to organize our questions in a

our transcripts to one another for analysis. We made

logical, sequential format, highlighting each of our

sure to ask each other for any relevant follow-ups

subtopics, while saving room to allow for follow-up

concerning necessary information not included in

questions as necessary. We explained the purpose of

the provided transcripts before we began our formal

the research to our participants, and our group

analysis. Our four participants will be referred to

collected only relevant information for our research

throughout this paper as “B”, “D”, “R”, and “S”. B is a

question. We also ensured that we would protect

22-year-old student; she is a straight female,

the

our

unmarried with four siblings. D is a 40-year-old

participants. Our interview guide consisted of eleven

worker; she is a white, straight female, married with

questions provided in the annex on page 18. Each

two children. R is a 38-year-old worker; she is a

question was not universally applicable to each of

straight female, married with two children. S is a 39-

our participants, however, the eleven questions

year-old worker; he is a gay man, married with no

were asked to all four participants.

children.

While conducting our primary research, there were

CHANGING LABOUR EXPECTATIONS IN THE

ethical concerns regarding voluntary participation

WORKPLACE DURING COVID-19

and the “do no harm” (DNH) principle as outlined by

We

the F3E Network (2018). In light of the pandemic, we

inequalities within the labour force, and if and how

made sure to be accommodating of the personal

COVID-19 has impacted employment status(es)

circumstances of our participants, and ensured that

and/or the nature of paid labour in Canada. Based on

our participants felt comfortable before, during, and

our literature review, both Goertzen (2020) and

after the interviews. We asked our respondents to

Hupkau & Petrongolo (2020) provide important

sign an informed consent form (ICF) that permitted

insight into how female employment has become

confidentiality

and

anonymity

of

us to conduct our interviews; our participants were

investigate

the

gender

disparities

and

PAGE 51

COVID-19.

generally more vulnerable to work-related injuries

Meanwhile, Stergiou-Kita et al. (2015) concludes that

and fatalities. Professions never considered to be

male-dominated industries encourage increased

dangerous are now considered high-risk during

risk to health and safety for male employees. Stone

COVID-19, and thus workers from all socioeconomic

(2007) provides insight into the “double bind” for

backgrounds, including those represented within

women of managing professional and personal

female-dominated industries, have experienced an

responsibilities, and into the “absent presence” of

increased health and safety risk. Two of our female

male bodies within the organizational structures of

participants, D and R, communicated that they feel

workplaces at the expense and exclusion of female

at risk as essential workers during the pandemic.

employees; Haveman & Beresford (2012) provide

During her interview, R stated: “I do worry about

further insight into the persistent vertical gap

getting the virus and giving it to my kids. And going

obstructing women from career advancement.

to the office does increase the chances of that.” D

disproportionately

insecure

during

echoed

this

sentiment

in

her

interview;

she

Job Security: During our interviews, we investigated

communicated that she is “…really afraid of anybody

if and how perceptions of employment security and

[she] know[s] being ill at work, [and] being

stability have evolved since COVID-19; both Goertzen

exposed.”

(2020) and Hupkau & Petrongolo (2020) provide a macro-level insight into how female-dominated

Upward

industries have become disproportionately insecure

investigated

since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic.

progression have evolved since COVID-19. Stone

Interestingly, our findings challenge the conclusions

(2007) provides insight into the “double bind” for

presented by Goertzen (2020) and Hupkau &

women - managing the demanding nature of

Petrongolo (2020); two of our female participants, D

employment and the demands of unpaid labour -

and R, revealed that they felt their employment had

and suggests that female employees are pushed out

actually become more secure since the pandemic.

of the workforce due to the preference for the “ideal

During her interview, D stated that “…because…the

worker”. Haveman & Beresford (2012) provide further

company [she] work[s] for makes hand sanitizer

insight into the reproduction of gender inequalities

and liquid soap[, t]hat really enhances [her] job

within organizational structures of workplaces at the

security

expense

because

those

products

are

really

Mobility: if

and

During

and

how

exclusion

our

interviews,

prospects

of

female

for

we

career

employees,

important during COVID.” Similarly, R claimed that

obstructing opportunities for upward mobility. Our

“…it is very difficult to hire for [her] job right now,

findings support the arguments presented by Stone

and to train new employees[, s]o [she] would say

(2007) and Haveman & Beresford (2012). While two

that [her] job is pretty secure right now.”

of our female participants, D and R, explain the challenges of managing career demands with family

Risk Exposure: Throughout our interviews, we

responsibilities and express grim prospects for

examined

gender,

career advancement during COVID-19, our male

employment, and risk; while Stergiou-Kita et al.

participant, S, remains “…very confident there are a

(2015) argue that male employees, and those

lot of opportunities for career progression in [his]

working within male-dominated industries, are

job…”

the

relationship

between

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COVID-19

AND

CISGENDER

MOTHER’S

VOLUME IV - 2021

a way that fathers are more likely than before to provide home-schooling and entertainment to their

UNPAID LABOUR families’

children (Hupkau & Petrongolo 2020:17). Women’s

distribution of unpaid labour thus impacting gender

childcare labour proportions have not changed

equality to some degree between spouses. As

throughout

Hupkau & Petrongolo (2020) argue, gender roles

pandemic

and “comparative advantages” may evolve in the

household patterns of doing unpaid labour during

long run of the pandemic (7). We conduct a research

the pandemic. According to our literature review

interview

within

built on scholars’ findings, we argue that the

households remain the same or evolve based on

pandemic division of household labour may switch

housework. According to some scholars, COVID-19

the gender dynamic within different types of

may reduce gender inequality, for this to occur men

households.

The

COVID-19

to

pandemic

examine

if

changes

gender

roles

the scales.

pandemic, In

this

and

match

research,

we

prestudy

would take on more housework so that women experience less disproportionate unpaid labour

Childcare: In terms of childcare, D has been

(Alon et al. 2020:2). As the pandemic persists, our

considering new ways to entertain children with her

interviews find that an attempt to share household

husband. However, she sometimes takes care of the

duties evenly and to negotiate these duties has

children on her own to accommodate her husband’s

occured because of COVID-19. A new way to allocate

schedule. She gets up early to do the housework and

housework and the negotiations among couples are

make breakfast for the family because her husband

in line with what scholars expect (3). Although

works full-time. According to the interview data, she

school closure has shocked many parents in terms

takes up more childcare responsibilities as she only

of their schedule to do childcare, cisgender mothers

works

experience pressure from their children staying

distribution, she thinks their proportions are “fair”.

home (11). Statistics of heterosexual married couples

However, this thought aligns with the tendency of

with school-age children shows that women’s

women being caregivers in the household, no

childcare workload is heavier than men’s even when

matter if she works or not (Zamarro et al. 2020:4).

both parents are working during the pandemic

This response also corresponds to Alon et al.’s (2020)

(Hupkau & Petrongolo 2020:4). Many households

proposal in which women continue providing the

with young children are dealing with a “spike in

disproportionate share of “cooking and cleaning” (2),

childcare needs” despite external spiking cases of

or “one spouse often provides the majority of

COVID-19 (Alon et al. 2020:11). Before the lockdown,

childcare” (13) even if both are working. The

the distribution of unpaid work, besides childcare,

proportion of childcare for married women is close

indicated

to “60 percent” and “even higher if they have young

that

women

are

usually

the

sole

part-time.

(14).

As

a

response

However,

D

to

childcare

caregivers (Zamarro et al. 2020:4), as they take on

children”

resolves

responsibilities such as “emotional labour” within

“disproportionate impact” (17) through negotiating

the household (Singh & Glavin 2017:427). Emotional

with her husband. She calls it “divide and conquer”

labour is gendered in nature, and can put risks on

and she is the initiator to plan out the day.

women’s well-being. (431). However, the lockdown impacts male-and-female gender dynamics, in such

Gender Roles: D expects to move up career-wise

this

PAGE 53

when COVID-19 is over, although she is stagnated in

has come to the frontline during the pandemic for

terms of career advancement due to the lockdown.

married women, emotional labour is done by

D is an aspiring massage therapist who practices

individuals putting their own well-being after other

clinical work and holds a positive attitude toward

people’s (427). In this case, emotional labour is

the future: “I’ll graduate, and then I can definitely

complete

move up you know”. Likewise, scholars treat COVID-

embraces her role as a mother. Her attempt to be

19 as a new opportunity for social norms to change.

responsible for others’ emotion speaks to the finding

For example, Alon et al. (2020) finds that even

that women are more likely to work in “jobs with

though persistent gender norms are the central

high

force causing uneven division of childcare (20),

Emotional labour operates outside of the labour

women in the labour market tend to grow due to

force and demonstrates the gendered nature of

the nature of crises. Alon et al. (2020:20) compares

unpaid labour distribution, as our society views

COVID-19 to the World War II crisis, saying that a

women as competent for being a skilled mother

large shock of society can result in higher female

within families.

employment.

Such

change

is

based

on

within

emotional

the

household

labour

as

she

requirements”

fully

(455).

the

assumption that fathers will experience increases in

CHILD-PARENT DYNAMICS/UNPAID LABOUR.

childcare hours due to COVID-19 even if women

IMPACT OF COVID-19 ON CHILD AND PARENT

currently take on the majority (21). Since people are

IN RELATION TO UNPAID WORK

working

This section of the paper will focus on the

from

home

now,

there

are

new

opportunities for women who do not telecommute

distribution

(22) to enter the labour force. If this prediction is

households. Many adult children have been forced

correct, then “a sizable impact of this forced

to move in with their parents during the course of

experiment on social norms” (24) will be observable

the pandemic and in light of this have been required

in our near future.

to participate in the unpaid labour of the household.

of

unpaid

labour

within

family

Our research will help uncover how child-parent Emotional Labour: Besides potential changes in

dynamics have changed during the course of the

gender roles, the cisgender mother takes up

pandemic

emotional

expressing

completed by both parties. We will explore the

concerns and showing empathy for the family. For

impact of COVID-19 on children and parents in

instance, she tries to be “considerate” and always

relation to unpaid work. The article by Pat Lackey

“communicate”

regarding

(1989) focuses on how household chores are divided

housework, which reflects a compassionate layer to

amongst children and if traditional roles are

existing unpaid labour—the emotional labour (Singh

performed by both genders. Articles by Lennon &

& Glavin 2017). She believes additional emotional

Rosenfield (1994), Fox (2001), and Solaz (2005) will

care must be provided at home because she

also help with the analysis of the impact of

stresses, as a family unit, that “we’re always all

unemployment in the unequal division of household

together” and they “[spend] a lot more time

and childcare labour. The last article by Fetterolf &

together” during the lockdown. Although this kind

Rudman (2014) will be used to discover data on how

responsibilities

with

her

such

as

spouse

of emotional labour illuminates that family bonding

COMMUNITY

and

influenced

the

unpaid

labour

UNDERGRADUATE SOCIOLOGY JOURNAL

PAGE 54

VOLUME IV - 2021

income increases or decreases unpaid labour,

daughter. By shadowing women, society urges

specifically

by

women to blindly subscribe to discrimination and

Neculaesei (2015) will be used to analyze how

unfair practises within the household; this leads to

culture plays a vital role in reinforcing traditional

women

assigned

Gender

responsibilities without any question (Pujar 2016).

Socialization: One of the three sub-themes that

However, it must be noted that this is not applicable

emerges from critical analysis of the interview data

in all cases; just as culture can be reproduced it can

is gender socialization. The participants response

also be disassembled (Neculaesei 2015). Age plays a

data revealed that parents played a vital role in

role, research has shown that older individuals above

socializing children into traditional housework

their 40s are more likely to engage blindly in

labour. During the interview B made references to

traditional gendered household tasks, whereas the

how her mom enforced gendered division tasks; her

younger

brothers were assigned male tasks like taking out

(Neculaesei 2015). Again, we see this through the

the garbage, whereas she was assigned traditionally

case of B who disagrees with the way tasks are

female tasks like cleaning, cooking, and washing

gendered within her household.

for

gender

women.

roles

Lastly,

in

an

article

households.

taking

up

generation

most

of

challenges

the

household

these

norms

dishes. This analysis supports existing literature that analyzes how married people assign traditional

Unemployment: Lastly, the interview data reveals

gender tasks between male and female children

how unemployment plays a role in how childcare

(Lackey 1989). Research on married couples shows

and household labour is unequally distributed. Our

that 59% of adults favoured traditional gendered

data shows that parenthood reproduces “doing

assignments of children tasks (Lackey 1989).

gender” (Fox 2001). B noted that even prior to COVID-19 her mom was and still is a stay-at-home

Culture: The analysis of our data shows how culture

mom and takes care of childcare responsibilities. Fox

sometimes plays a significant role in reproducing

(2001) argues that parenthood increases unbalanced

gender assigned roles in households (Neculaesei

division of childcare; because mothers are forced to

2015). During the interview, B made statements

take on a nurturing role, they become dependent on

about how traditional gender roles are still highly

the husband to provide financially (Fox 2001).

valued in the African household. B made references

Research conducted by Solaz (2005) also supports

to the common saying in her culture that girls

this data, that unemployment plays a major role in

belong in the kitchen. This statement suggests that

unequal division of unpaid labour at home. It

cultural

stereotypically

appears that the partner who is unemployed is

gendered tasks (Neculaesei 2015). This statement

expected to take up more tasks in the home and

also supports what Neculaesei (2015) refers to as

leave the financial matters to the partner who is

“linguistic practises” and how they associate with

employed. This is very much evident in our data

gendered practises and behaviours. What this

where B makes references to how their mom who is

means is that communication shapes the role of

unemployed is solely responsible for household and

women in society (Neculaesei 2015). Hence, under

childcare duties, depending on her husband for

this stereotype, women belong in the kitchen, a

financial support. This suggests that economic gain,

notion B’s mom lives by and passes down to her

power and dependency all influence the distribution

practises

reproduce

PAGE 55

having tough days and requiring space and time to

of household tasks (Lennon & Rosenfield 1994).

themselves.

The

participants

also

discussed

CHANGING RELATIONSHIP DYNAMICS AND

strategies

SCHOOL

unprecedented times, stating that they feel the

There is robust literature surrounding the historical

shared hardships have ultimately brought them

distribution of unpaid labour between the genders

together. It is clear from our data that women take

with the burden being disproportionately borne by

on more of the support role in different-sex

female identifying persons (Fetterolf & Rudman

relationships, and often guide these conversations.

they

have

used

to

navigate

these

2014). As we move through the pandemic there is initial data to suggest that the schism between the

School & COVID-19: All of our interviews referenced

unpaid work of male identifying persons and female

education in one way or another, some directly and

identifying persons in households is growing (Power

others indirectly. For parents there was stress

2020). Historically it has been observed that within

regarding

queer couples there is a more equitable distribution

challenges in providing home education alongside

of unpaid labour (Pollitt et al. 2018). The burden of

online learning. Parents also had fears relating to a

unpaid

is

return to school in the fall. For the participants

heightened when children become involved given

without children they were either attending post

the gender normative distributions of labour in dual

secondary school or had a partner doing so. They

income families (Alon et al. 2020). Coupled with the

expressed challenges around e-learning and that the

extensive work of the above authors (Fettorolf and

lack of social connection with the subjects peer

Rudman 2014, Power 2020, Pollitt et al. 2018, Alon et

groups made it difficult to engage with course

al. 2020) there is a strong association between

materials.

labour

that

is

carried

by

women

having

children

at

home,

and

the

having children and the reproduction of gender normative behaviours, particularly with reference to

Intersectionality: Our interview data reflects stark

child-care and household work (Fox 2001).

contrasts between the experiences of gendered members of society across axes of sexuality, and

Relationship Dynamics: Throughout the interviews

ethnic background. The participants of Asian and

there were a number of responses where the

African descent more readily identify inequalities in

subjects expressed key information about their

the gendered distribution of labour while those of

relationships before and after COVID-19 and theories

European

on how the changes came about as a product of the

distribution.

pandemic. There is a clear theme in partnerships

reinforces Pollitt et al.’s (2018) claims that same-sex

that individuals have increased the degree to which

couples have a more equitable distribution. During

they

about

the interviews, our subjects provided insight on how

shortfalls, needs, and capacities. Our participants

women were expected to complete chores and

have also reported that they have found the

perform childcare duties where men are often

distribution

allowed to choose to participate to the degree that

communicate

of

with

unpaid

one

labour

another

became

more

equitable throughout the course of the pandemic.

descent

they please.

Participants shared similar difficulties regarding

COMMUNITY

The

identify small

a

more

sample

we

egalitarian collected

UNDERGRADUATE SOCIOLOGY JOURNAL

PAGE 56

VOLUME IV - 2021

CONCLUSION

shifts.

COVID-19 has provided important insight into the

workplaces have embraced the evolving and all-

dynamics of gender relations within our society and

encompassing nature of COVID-19 as a unique

culture. Specifically, the COVID-19 pandemic has

opportunity to redefine gender roles, responsibilities,

highlighted the gender disparities and inequalities

and

that remain prevalent within our society. COVID-19

conclusions cannot be absolute, as the COVID-19

has provided additional responsibilities, both in the

pandemic is ongoing; shifts in gender relations will

workplace and in the household, and our findings

continue both during and even after the pandemic.

indicate that these responsibilities have been

However, COVID-19 has provided a valuable insight

disproportionately shouldered by women. By asking

into the dynamics of gender relations, the gender

our participants to speak on matters of paid

disparities and inequalities, and the positive shifts

employment and gender representation within the

regarding gender relations.

workforce, we found that gender disparities and inequalities remain prevalent within the workplace, and have only been exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic. In effect, while male employees remain confident prospects

in

their

for

employment

career

and

in

advancement,

their

female

employees remain more insecure. Similarly, we found that household responsibilities, including household maintenance and childcare, have been disproportionately specifically,

our

managed female

by

women.

participants

More

expressed

frustrations that household responsibilities were disproportionately delegated during COVID-19.

While these inequities are clear, we also found that both workplaces and households have increased the degree of communication about work during the COVID-19 pandemic to encourage a more egalitarian

labour

distribution.

All

of

our

participants expressed optimism, and intentions to support and encourage their coworkers and family members through the pandemic; words such as “fairness”, “communication”, and “support” were prominent throughout our interviews. This supports our initial theory which proposed that epochdefining events, such as the historic COVID-19 pandemic, often provide opportunities for cultural

In

this

dynamics.

way,

It

individuals,

must

be

families,

stated

that

and

our

PAGE 57

REFERENCES

Hupkau, Claudia & Barbara Petrongolo. 2020. “Work,

Alon, Titan, Matthias Doepke, Jane Olmstead-

Care and Gender During the COVID- 19 Crisis.”

Rumsey & Michèle Tertilt. 2020. “The Impact of

London School of Economics and Political Science,

COVID-19 on Gender Equality.” National Bureau of

41(3): 623-651. doi:

Economic Research NBER,

10.1111/1475-5890.12245.

Working Paper No. 26947. doi: 10.3386/w26947.

Lackey, Pat N. 1989. “Adults’ Attitudes about Charancle, Jean M. B., & Elena Lucchi. 2018.

Assignments of Household Chores to Male and

“Incorporating the Principle of “Do No Harm”:

Female Children.” Sex Roles, 20(5-6): 271-281. doi:

How to Take Action Without Causing Harm.” F3E:

10.1007/BF00287724.

Humanity & Inclusion (Operations Lennon, Mary Clare, & Sarah Rosenfield. 1994.

Division).

“Relative Fairness and the Division of Fetterolf, Janell. C. & Laurie A. Rudman. 2014.

Housework: The Importance of Options.” American

“Gender Inequality in the Home: The Role of

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Relative Income, Support for Traditional Gender

506-531. doi: 10.1086/230545.

Roles, and Perceived Entitlement”.

Gender Issues, 31(3): 219-237. doi: 10.1007/s12147-014-

Neculaesei, Angelica-Nicoleta. 2015. “Culture and

9126-x.

Gender Role Differences.” Cross-Cultural Manage Journal, Volume XVII, 1(7).

Fox, Bonnie. 2001. “The Formative Years: How Parenthood Creates Gender.” The Canadian

Pollitt, Amanda M., Brandon A. Robinson, & Debra

Review of Sociology, 38(4): 373-390. doi: 10.1111/j.1755-

Umberson. 2018. “Gender Conformity,

618X.2001.tb00978.x.

Perceptions of Shared Power, and Marital Quality in Same- and Different-Sex

Goertzen, Brianne. 2020. “Women’s Health, Unpaid

Marriages.” Gender & Society, 32(1): 109-131. doi:

Care, and COVID-19.” Canadian Centre

10.1177/0891243217742110.

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Power, Kate. 2020. “The COVID-19 Pandemic Has Haveman, Heather A., & Lauren S. Beresford. 2012. “If

Increased the Care Burden of Women and

You're So Smart, Why Aren't You the

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in Management.” The Annals of the

10.1080/15487733.2020.1776561.

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Practice

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American Academy of Political and Social Science, 639(1): 114-130. doi: 10.1177/0002716211418443.

Pujar, Sandrine. 2016. “Gender Inequalities in the Cultural Sector.” Culture Action Europe.

Belgium: Culture Action Europe.

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Singh, Diana & Paul Glavin. 2017. “An Occupational Portrait of Emotional Labor Requirements and Their Health Consequences for Workers.” Work and Occupations, 44(4): 424-466. doi: 10.1177/0730888417726835.

Solaz, Anne. 2005. “Division of Domestic Work: Is There Adjustment Between Partners When One is Unemployed?” Review of Economics of the Household, 3(4): 387-413. doi: 10.1007/s11150-005-4941-1.

Stergiou-Kita, Mary, Elizabeth Mansfield, Randy Bezo, Angela Colantonio, Enzo Garritano, Marc Lafrance, John Lewko, Steve Mantis, Joel Moody, Nicole Power, Nancy Theberge, Eleanor Westwood, & Krista Travers. 2015. “Danger Zone: Men, Masculinity and Occupational Health and Safety in High Risk Occupations.” Safety Science, 80(1): 213–220. doi: 10.1016/j.ssci.2015.07.029.

Stone, Pamela. 2007. “The Rhetoric and Reality of “Opting Out”.” Contexts, 6(4): 14-19. doi: 10.1525/ctx.2007.6.4.14.

Zamarro, Gema, Francisco Perez-Arce, & Maria Jose Prados. 2020. “Gender Differences in the Impact of COVID-19.” University of Southern California.

VOLUME IV - 2021

PAGE 59

ANNEXES

7. How is unpaid labour divided amongst you and

(Introduce yourself) Here is the consent form that I

your siblings? (if 5 is applicable)

mentioned in the email for the purpose of audiorecord and research. If you have any question for it

8. How do you share childcare work with your

as I mentioned in the email, feel free to bring it up

spouse during the lockdown by the way?

anytime even if you have signed the form. For this study, we are interested in the gendered dynamics

9.

Have

you

experienced

changes

to

your

of changes in paid and unpaid labour due to COVID-

relationship dynamics through C-19? What are they?

19. Today, I would love to chat with you about these

a. How do you deal with those changes?

changes in relation to COVID-19. Let’s get started.

10. In the long run of this pandemic, what are the 1. Can you tell me what pronouns you use, your age,

changes you would predict for your role as a

your marital status, your sexuality, and your ethnic

mother/sibling/romantic partner?

background?

a. (Identity-enhancing here if you want.)

2. Thank you for sharing. If you are currently

11. Is there anything that I haven’t asked you about

employed, how has the nature of your job changed

that I should have?

since COVID-19? a. (Prompt if you need to during the interview) By “nature” I mean your roles and responsibilities of your job (salary, location, schedule, workload, work environment, etc)?

3. In what ways would you say your job is secure, and in what ways insecure due to COVID-19?

4. Is there any opportunity for upward mobility in your job? How realistic or attainable would these goals be (if applicable)? a. How have these prospects been impacted by COVID-19?

5. If you have resumed back to living with your family,

how

learning/working

has

COVID-19

abilities

now

affected that

you

your have

resumed back to living with your family?

6. Tell me about your experiences doing unpaid labour before and during COVID-19.

COMMUNITY

UNDERGRADUATE SOCIOLOGY JOURNAL

PAGE 60

VOLUME IV - 2021

SHOULD TORONTO FEAR AN INCREASINGLY E-COMMERCE CITY? MORGAN MCKAY

ABSTRACT During

the

COVID-19

pandemic,

social

COVID-19, and investigate if and how the

distancing guidelines and growing concerns

COVID-19

pandemic

over public health essentially replaced in-

exacerbated,

person interactions with online services. The

changed gender relations and dynamics in our

growth in online consumption also led to a

society and culture.

shifted,

has or

reinforced, fundamentally

growth in online businesses and the closure of physical workspaces, with several traditional

INTRODUCTION

brick-and-mortar

services

In North America, the COVID-19 pandemic and self-

online. This paper refers to the closure of

isolation policies led to the replacement of in-

physical commercial spaces caused by a

person interactions with online services. Specifically,

growth

in

stores

online

moving

businesses

as

digital

disintegration. The closest comparison to Toronto’s accelerated digital disintegration is the growth in China’s E-Commerce society throughout the past decade. This paper

social media is more important to the average North American citizen as a space to consume goods, socialize,

and

create

a

sense

of

community.

However, what is particularly interesting about the growing prominence of digital communications is that it physically changes the urban landscape.

investigates the effects of digital disintegration in

Toronto

through

an

urban

sociology

A fair number of Toronto’s company headquarters,

perspective and a comparative analysis to

brick-and-mortar stores, and social spaces have shut

China’s economic structure.

down in favour of providing their services virtually

PAGE 61

turn,

search of work. Similarly, many post-industrial city

Canada’s E-Commerce — the business model that

models are dominated by service industries and

allows the consumption of goods and services over

consumptionscapes (Hiller 2014; Hyde 1971). Now, on

the internet — economy has grown rapidly within

a large scale, companies and institutions are

the past few months. For the purposes of this paper,

beginning to transfer their work to online services

I

(Gingras 2020; Sisson 2020).

throughout

will

be

the

COVID-19

calling

this

pandemic.

In

phenomenon

digital

disintegration. The advent of digital disintegration — the transition from the traditional economy to a

A skeptical reader may question whether the scale

predominantly e-commerce economy — has caused

of supposed digital disintegration is comparable to

a great deal of distress among city residents,

the de-industrialization period. Surprisingly, there is

particularly Torontonians (Trapunski 2020). Many

little sociological literature that studies the effects of

fear that digital disintegration is causing the loss of

digital disintegration on North American urban

Toronto’s culture and small businesses (Trapunski

planning. However, economists, sociologists, and

2020). Indeed, the advent of digital disintegration

scholars

and the ongoing pandemic may lead to the end of

heightened in importance due to COVID-19 — has

big cities as we know it, but this may not necessarily

already produced radical changes in urban planning

be for the worse. Despite the amount of anxiety that

and the economy (Gingras 2020; Sisson 2020; Bokat-

digital

lindell 2020).

disintegration

or

e-commerce

generate

note

that

digital

disintegration

—

amongst city-dwellers, there is relatively little sociological literature regarding the effects of this

COVID-19 made businesses re-consider the worth of

phenomena on Western cities. In this paper I intend

in-person workspaces when online services are a

to argue that a growing e-commerce society can

viable

offer many benefits to Toronto, but only if political

headquarters, such as “REI’s 3.2-hectare, 400,000

actors and urban planners are prepared for the

square-foot corporate headquarters [with] open-air

ensuing urban reform.

offices; a fire pit; a blueberry bog; courtyards and

alternative.

Even

the

most

desirable

meeting rooms” was sold before many employees To discuss digital disintegration’s value as a source

could take advantage of the space (Gingras 2020).

of urban reform, it is first important to discuss what

There is an ongoing belief that office spaces have

it is. For the purposes of explanation, I will be

become redundant: “as the coronavirus pandemic

comparing digital disintegration to a similar time

drags on the U.S., millions of white-collar workers

period and concept, the industrialization period.

remain homebound, companies are shedding their

The

digital

HQ spaces, and the viability of downtown business

disintegration is the de-industrialization period.

districts – and even whole cities – is in doubt due to

During the 1970s, companies began to outsource

the ongoing economic devastation of Covid-19”

industrial work, which spelled certain disaster for

(Sisson 2020). In the article “How Life In Our Cities

the model of cities in the 1970s (Hiller, 2014). Before

Will Look After The Coronavirus,” which features 12

this, industrial work was centralized in the heart of

leading global experts in urban planning, it is argued

North America’s biggest cities and many working-

that cities will require radical reform to cope with

class citizens conglomerated in downtown areas in

the sudden shift in urban social affairs (Sisson 2020).

closest

comparison

there

is

to

COMMUNITY

UNDERGRADUATE SOCIOLOGY JOURNAL

PAGE 62

VOLUME IV - 2021

economic

million in 2019 (Toronto Employment Survey 2019

hotspots and convenience of access to employment.

2019: 9). There is currently a great deal of academic

The closure of office space is a matter of de-

discourse as to whether technological innovation

centralization

economic

(such as digital services and automation) harms the

resources, which to a larger extent, foreshadows a

job market — a concept aptly termed technological

radical change in the cityscape itself.

unemployment (Matuzeviciute et al. 2017: 1; Mnif et

Cities

are

typically

of

formed

around

employment

and

al. 2016: 1). Moreover, Toronto has not seen radical the

urban reform since the post-industrial period in the

decentralization of economic practices is through

1970s, and even then Caulfield (featured in Urban

the popularization of telework and work from home

Canada) admits that “Toronto was never primarily an

practices. According to Statistics Canada, 39.1% of

industrial city” (Hiller 2014: 351). The leading question

Canadian workers were teleworking for the full

from public anxiety concerning the closure of retail

duration of their working hours from March 15 to

spaces is what Torontonians should expect in the

March 21, 2020 (Deng et al. 2020). In comparison,

upcoming years.

Another

way

COVID-19

has

led

to

from 2000 to 2008, only 10 to 11% of Canadian workers were doing any form of telework (para. 7).

The true nature of an increasingly e-commerce

The

of

society (also referred to as a digital economy) and

headquarters is not the only radical form of digital

what it means to Torontonians is still unknown. In

disintegration

short, a digital economy is an economy based on

transition

to

remote

caused

by

work the

and

loss

pandemic.

“The

pandemic is […] accelerating deeper, longer-term

computing

technologies

trends affecting cities, such as the digitalization of

conducting business and transactions over the

retail, the move to a cashless economy, [and] the

internet (Li 2020: 1; Yu 2017: 1). Unfortunately,

shift to remote work and virtual delivery of services,”

sociological research on the macro-level effects of

says Robert Muggah, founder of SecDev group

technological innovation on the economy tends to

(Florida et al. 2020). Thus, urban spaces are going

be limited to the 1980s and 1990s (Matuzeviciute et

through radical changes in digital disintegration.

al. 2017: 4). However, research conducted in the

North American cityscapes have not faced such

scholarly

widespread changes to the economic structure of

Affect Unemployment? Some Empirical Evidence

urban living since the deindustrialization period.

from European Countries” found that, across 25

article

“Do

—

which

Technological

includes

Innovations

European countries, technological innovation is not It is unsurprising that digital disintegration is

a major factor in terms of unemployment (2014: 7-

causing a large amount of unrest. Post-industrial

12). While jobs will be destroyed in the short-term,

Toronto’s urban economy relies on corporate leisure

since

and leisure consumption (Hiller 2014: 345). In fact,

autonomous jobs obsolete, “the destroyed jobs in

most of Toronto’s urban function relies on the

some industries are offset by job creation in other

service industry, with the power of land use often

branches,” pushing workers into more skilled jobs

being signed to companies and service industries.

(Mnif et al. 2016: 1141). It follows that, if Torontonians

The total number of people employed in retail,

hope to remain employed throughout the radical

service, and office work in Toronto alone reached 1.1

changes to the economy, they will have to adjust

new

technologies

will

render

many

PAGE 63

their skill set for the growing popularity of electronic

more sustainable city model for the upcoming era –

services.

therefore strengthening the health and wellbeing of working

age

citizens.

Dan

Doctoroff,

CEO

of

a

Sidewalk Labs, argues that “we must leverage new

predominantly digital economy as well. China, as an

policies and technologies to make urban life more

example, has shown great success in its largely

affordable and sustainable for more people”’ (2020).

digital economy. China is the largest and most

This includes leveraging e-commerce economic

rapidly developed e-commerce market globally, as

opportunities to work in Toronto’s favour. Ignoring

sales on China’s e-commerce platforms reached a

the advent of technological innovations will not help

whopping 4.7 trillion RMB in 2016 (Li 2020: 1). In

Torontonians in the long-run, considering the

addition,

already

There

are

practical

China’s

comparisons

e-commerce

for

market

has

devastating

effects

of

the

COVID-19

adequately met the challenges of the COVID-19

pandemic on the Canadian economy. The pandemic

pandemic, which devastated the economies of

has already caused global growth to reach a

many other countries (Li and McElveen 2020).

projected negative 4.9 per cent, which makes it the

However, what may interest the Western consumer

worst recession since the great depression (Wolff

most is that “[China’s] era of innovation has only

and Hamilton 2020). In order to endure the long-

been amplified during the pandemic, as online

lasting effects of the COVID-19 pandemic and future

platforms have helped to successfully digitally

social concerns, Torontonians need to be prepared

connect and safeguard the health of a vulnerable,

to facilitate a graceful transition towards the growth

homebound population” (Li 2020). This is important

of its digital economy.

since the pandemic made public health - and the ability for the economy to survive devastating social

As with the industrial period, city planners and

problems like the pandemic - a large concern for

administration rarely have substantial power in

many Canadians.

controlling the circumstances that remake the cityscape (Hiller 2014: 352). It is unlikely that current

A large part to blame in the acceleration of digital

political actors and city planners will be able to

disintegration is the growing importance of public

control the effects of the pandemic that are already

health

altering

above

social

interaction.

As

human

the

cityscape.

As

an

example,

interaction inspires more fear than joy over public

deindustrialization was the result of manufacturers

health concerns, employees would rather stay home

deciding to outsource their work – and even

in self-isolation than interact in crowded, urban

industrialists could not have predicted how their

spaces (Florida et al. 2020). This poses large threats

business decisions would radically change the city’s

to urban communities and social life. The urban

identity (Hiller 2014: 352). As previously established,

landscape is synonymous with crowded areas. City

technological developments are rapidly advancing

staples like high-rise buildings, consumptionscapes,

and threatening our current understanding of big

and work opportunities are contingent on a large

cities – but these changes are also advancing due to

population

changing

of

working

age

citizens.

New

attitudes

and

procedures

from

the

technologies provide an opportunity to revitalize

coronavirus pandemic. In addition, cityscapes and

urban communities and cities in order to provide a

urban living is always changing (Hiller 2014: 346).

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UNDERGRADUATE SOCIOLOGY JOURNAL

PAGE 64

VOLUME IV - 2021

unexpectedly became alienated from public transit

a chance to revitalize the urban landscape.

due to rising housing prices surrounding transit Advancements in technological innovation, digital

stations (Brail and Vinodrai 2020). As public transit

disintegration, and the coronavirus pandemic made

becomes less essential due to telework, those who

inequality in Toronto increasingly apparent. Most

continue to work essential, front-line jobs and

notably, “the phenomenon of the ‘urban tech

cannot afford to work from home will be able to

landscape’

afford

[where]

the

physical

presence

of

the

necessary

commute.

Concerns

technology firms in world cities is increasingly

surrounding public health could also lead to an

evident” (Brail and Vinodrai 2020). While the

increased adoption of contactless fare payment for a

presence and growing influence of technological

healthier urban community (Bokat-Lindell 2020).

investments in Toronto have made disparities

However, this is dependent on Toronto’s willingness

between the status quo and marginalized groups

to accept the advancement of digital disintegration

evident, there is potential for inclusive development

and

in Toronto (Brail and Vindorai 2020).

question: should Toronto fear an increasingly e-

adjust

accordingly.

This

begs

the

initial

commerce society? The answer is no. According to The pathway for Toronto’s inclusive development

the chapter “The elusive, inclusive city: Toronto at a

includes

improved

crossroads”, “cities need to continue to find effective

transportation, and intentional planning meant to

and just ways to redirect opportunity” (Brail and

provide economic opportunity to marginalized

Vinodrai 2020). The demand for radical change and

groups (Brail and Vindorai 2020 ). Airbnbs and

urban reform due to digital disintegration and the

inflated rental prices have dropped out of the

pandemic might be the best opportunity Toronto

market, and condo listings have dropped over 100%

will have for quite some time – and it is in

over the summer of 2020 (Toronto rental prices fall…

Torontonian’s best interests not to let it pass.

affordable

housing,

2020). With most of Toronto’s wealthy residents gone and the appeal of large cities dropping, Toronto has a chance to re-evaluate its housing crisis. Affordable housing is a well-adopted and popular solution to modern urban problems, often cited as “the only way to reduce household crowding

and

segregation

along

racial

and

economic lines” (Bokat-Lindell 2020). Affordable housing

would

give

segregated

groups’

opportunities to take advantage of the urban tech landscape and the new opportunities provided by digital disintegration.

Adjusting

for

marginalized

affordable groups

housing access

also to

gives public

transportation, as low-income neighborhoods

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PAGE 65

REFERENCES

Florida, Richard, et al. 2020. “How Life in Our Cities

Bendix, Aria. 2020. “The Coronavirus Pandemic

Will Look After the Coronavirus Pandemic.” Foreign

Spells the End for Big Cities – Again.” Business

Policy, The Slate Group, May 1. Web.

Insider, May 8. Web. Gingras, Bokat-lindell,

Spencer.

2020.

“How

Will

Cities

Survive the Coronavirus?” The New York Times, May

Marc.

2020.

“Opinion:

Will

Corporate

Headquarters Survive the Pandemic?” The Globe and Mail, Philip Crawley, October 4. Web.

19. Web. Hiller, Harry H. 2014. Urban Canada – Third Edition.

Brail, Shauana, and Tara Vinodrai. 2020. “The Elusive,

Don Mills, ON: Oxford University Press.

Inclusive City: Toronto at a Crossroads.” Pp.38-53 in Critical

Dialogues

of

Urban

Governance,

Development and Activism: London and Toronto,

Hyde, Laurence. 1971. “City Limits”. National Film Board of Canada. Web.

edited by Susannah Brail and Vindorai. London: UCL Kong, Sherry Tao. 2020. “E-Commerce Development

Press. doi: www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv13xps83.10.

in Rural China.” Pp.129-142 in The Chinese Economic Ciuriak, Dan, and Maria Ptashkina. 2019. “Leveraging

Transformation: Views from Young Economists,

the Digital Transformation for Development: A

edited by Ligang Song et al. Australia: ANU Press.

Global

doi: www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvp7d4j8.14.

South

Strategy

for

the

Data-Driven

Economy.” Centre for International Governance Li, Anthony H. F. 2017. “Cefc News Analysis: E-

Innovation. doi: www.jstor.org/stable/resrep21057.

Commerce and Taobao Villages A Promise for Deng, Zechuan, et al. 2020. “Physical Distancing

China's Rural Development?” China Perspectives

Measures to Stop the Spread of COVID-19 Have

3(111): 57–62. doi: www.jstor.org/stable/26380522.

Resulted in a Large Number of Canadians Working from Home, Many for the First Time. This Sudden

Li, Cheng, and Ryan McElveen. 2020. “Will China's e-

Transition in How the Economy Is Operating Raises

Commerce

Questions about How Many Jobs Can Reasonably Be

Brookings, June 10. Web.

Reshape

a

Reopening

World?”

Performed from Home.” Running the Economy Remotely: Potential for Working from Home during

Matuzeviciute, Kristina, et al. 2017. “Do Technological

and

Innovations Affect Unemployment? Some Empirical

after

COVID-19,

Government

of

Canada,

Evidence from European Countries.” Economies,

Statistics Canada, May 28. Web.

5(4):48. 1-19, Dec. doi:10.3390/economies5040048.

Ewing, Lori. 2020. “COVID-19 Has Been the Push Some Canadians Needed to Move out of the City.”

Mnif, Sirine, et al. 2016. “Effects of Technological

CP24, CP24, June 13. Web.

Shock on Employment: Application of Structural Approach Economy,

VECM.”

Journal

9(4):31

of

the

Knowledge

1138–1153,

August.

doi:10.1007/s13132-016-0405-5.

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PAGE 66

Sisson, Patrick. 2020. “Here Comes the Life Sciences Land

Rush.”

Bloomberg

City

Lab,

Bloomberg,

September 15. Web. Trapunski, Richard. 2020. "Kensington Market calls for help after 20 businesses close in one year.” Now Toronto, December 4. Web. Wolff, Lisa and Terence Hamilton. 2020. “Economic fallout could steal employment prospects and a successful transition to adulthood without a child and youth-focused government response.” Policy Opinions, October 23. Web. Yu, Haiqing. 2017. “Editorial: Beyond E-Commerce: The Social Case of China's Digital Economy.” China Perspectives,

4(112):

3–8.

doi:

www.jstor.org/stable/26380533.

“Toronto Employment Survey 2019.” 2020. The City of Toronto, Toronto City Planning Division, February. (www.toronto.ca/wpcontent/uploads/2020/01/9453-TorontoEmployment-Survey-2019-Bulletin.pdf.)

“Toronto Rental Prices Fall, as Condo Listings Surged Nearly 114% This Summer.” 2020. Global News, October 23. Web.

VOLUME IV - 2021

PAGE 67

TWO LETTERS:

ON ACCOUNTABILITY AND SOLIDARITY

SOPHIE CHASE

Presented here are two letters. The first, a letter to

I also pay attention to what it means for me to

my child, wildly presupposing their birth. The

recognize systemic oppressors that I profit from,

second, a letter to my mother, offering a moment to

and what it means for me to account for these

touch on her experience as a single parent. In both, I

systemic oppressors. Accountability has become

present a discourse relating to the role of white

significant in helping me acknowledge and analyze

women in accountability and in solidarity. In this

my

piece specifically, I focus on solidarity as an

perpetuation of colonial violence. Accountability

intersectional practice, addressing structures of

has led me to a space where I do not ‘piggyback’ on

racism and oppression. Both of these pieces are tied

the experiences of others, and where I do not situate

to the notion of white fragility, as a veil that

any answers. I have begun to recognize that my

disconnects white people from the hardships,

suggestions could never account for the world’s

oppressions,

created

systemic oppressors, and thus I have no ‘answers’. In

these

this way, I have also gathered that white people

concepts, I investigate how I (as a white woman)

need to learn when to speak and when to be silent.

can face the veil of white fragility and move toward

My intention here is thus to only reflect on what is

accountability, and meaningful solidarity.

appropriate for me to offer a reflection on, and to

throughout

and

horror

history.

In

they

have

contemplating

own

points

of

blindness

and

my

own

support the answers of people who actually have In this investigation, I pay attention to the practice

the right to offer them.

of listening, what it means for me to learn without expecting others to teach me and how this

Lastly, in these letters, I have attempted to explore a

expectation is a reproduction of racial capitalism.

necessary self-consciousness or self-awareness that

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UNDERGRADUATE SOCIOLOGY JOURNAL

the brilliant Audre Lorde (1981) alerted me to,

VOLUME IV - 2021

people, in my complacency as a white woman. A

I have seen situations where white women hear

sickness recognized as a product of our society, as deep

a racist remark, resent what has been said,

as the colonial and capitalist systems themselves. I

become filled with fury, and remain silent

cannot imagine a scenario where I would wish for you

because they are afraid. That unexpressed anger lies within them like an undetonated device, usually to be hurled at the first woman of Color who talks about racism.

to hold onto a sickness without knowing its origin, a severity Segrest (1994:183) corroborates: “I knew I needed to understand the genesis of the violence that was sickening me.”

I hope to break this cycle with every decision, and every action I undertake. This becomes my pledge

Thus, I arrive here, to instill in you not only reflections

to the global community. To always work in the

on the past but questions for the future. In this way, I

form of accountability and solidarity.

move past the current action of my time, past the work of tearing down a societal cloak of hatred, division,

GIVING THE SOCIETAL CLOAK THE BOOT

and societal restraint. My love, I then ask, if humanity is successful in giving the boot to this cloak, what will be built? To be clear, I do not mean build in terms of filling a hole, as “a history that goes unacknowledged is too often a history that is doomed to be repeated.”

(Maynard 2017:4). The societal cloak pervades nearly

To My Baby.

every aspect of life and its absence will not be a hole to fill, but one to embrace. Robyn Maynard (2017:13-14)

This letter presupposes not just your birth, but many

states that “Black subjection in Canada cannot be fully

years that will hopefully be characterized by my own

understood, and therefore cannot be fully redressed or

emotional and intellectual growth. However, even

countered, without placing it in its historical context,”

with this added stability, I could not assert total

and that “it is Maynard’s hope that in recognizing our

comfort in contemplating your delivery. You see, my

conditions, we will be better placed to challenge

baby, I have not even begun to touch on the countless

them.” In learning from Maynard (2017), my hope for

interpersonal reasons that would lead to my

the future lies in a restructuring of society, attached

uncertainty over your arrival. You might then

not only to a remembrance of the past, but an

question why I write you this letter, seemingly

accountability for it. As a white member of society, I do

plagued with a clouded vision of your existence. In a

not pretend to possess the knowledge of how to build

way, I would like to write this letter to my future self.

a new structure that is detached from systemic racism.

However, I think the message would not have the

In regard to restructuring, solidarity for me will arise

effect that I am seeking when presented to anyone

through open ears and in support of a new structure

older than I already am. Mab Segrest (1994) traces a

built by those who can speak to oppression and

sickness in our heritage, in our history as white

systemic racism. Do not get me wrong, my love,

PAGE 69

support is some of the most meaningful work that

tracking our ancestry back to white settlers in so called

will arise in your lifetime. However, a lot of our dues

Canada? We are the offspring of colonizers. What

will lie in remembrance of and accountability for the

sickness from acts of genocide plague us? Segrest

past.

(1994:225) speaks to this white ancestry, the statesanctioned violent acts of men “who constructed

Regarding remembrance, France Twine (2004:886)

white history”, and what she suspects to be a

speaks to recollections from the school curriculum,

“matrilineal history... fraught with much more

When you’re doing history…They never tell you

ambivalence and opposition.” Within my own actions

that black soldiers fought in the war, or that they

of solidarity, I think about ambivalence and its ties to

were put to the front line to be killed first. They

complacency, especially when considering Segrest’s

never tell you about colonialism. They tell you

(1994:213) statement that “the complicity of white

about the British Empire, but they never tell you [.

women [has]… contributed to the escalation of racist

. .] how they achieved it.

violence.”

I ask you, my sweet, will you be able to tell when you

Something intriguing blossoms with this idea of

are being deceived? I hope that I will be able to follow

complacency, for, as a woman, I am set on an axis of

Twine’s teachings and through my own solidarity,

oppression and, at times, am even privy to its effects.

deliver to you a racial literacy fit for the identification

There exists here not a congruence but a similarity, an

of practices that are symbolically and systematically

understanding of some small kind regarding what it

racist. I hope you will be able to see the oppression

would mean to enact an oppression on another. For

that exists on our own doorstep. Robyn Maynard

women, there is a sickness in complacency and a

(2017:3) states that “Anti-blackness in Canada often

power in solidarity. This power is touched on by

goes unspoken. When acknowledged, it is assumed to

Segrest (1994:185) as she states, “It occurred to me that

exist, perhaps, but in another time (centuries ago), or

I could take on as my part of the project some of these

in another place (United States).” I do not want you to

understandings that seemed so basic to particular

just

other

cultures yet were so foreign to people outside.”

oppressors, I want you to remember the history that

Women’s power in solidarity offers a capacity to see

feeds into the perpetuation of these oppressors. How

that accountability is not just about repairing what

is it possible, as Segrest (1994:222) puts it, that “Black

occurred in the past. There are parts of the past that

soldiers came home from fighting a war to make the

will never be repaired because the hate and the horror

world "safe for democracy” to race riots, lynching and

run too deep. This is the hole to be embraced, for I

a resurgence in the Klan”? Then, my child, there is the

remind you “a history that goes unacknowledged is

piece of accountability, the piece that Segrest (1994)

too often a history that is doomed to be repeated.”

self-identifies

most

(Maynard 2017:4). Accountability is not just about

uncomfortable piece, but we can no longer sit in

repairing a past, it is also about healing for the future.

comfortability. My love, what past do we face when

In asking what this healing work looks like, we return

acknowledge

as

anti-blackness

“traitorous

and

work.”

A

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to the beginning of our conversation on solidarity. A

sickness, as Segrest (1994) has necessitated. This is our

lot of our healing work will include support for, trust

solidarity.

in, and empathy towards a new structure. I place my

accountability.

This

is

our

remembrance

and

trust in this new system for all women, and because of all women. My existence on the axis of gender has

This is our work. Do not let our people ever make you

allowed me to gain a small semblance of

feel ashamed for this work. There is honour in them

understanding of the effects of oppression, but the

labelling you a race traitor, we are a part of a race

existence of black women on the axis of gender

worth betraying. The support you will find in your

renders them invisible. “All black people are not

traitorous work will be more meaningful than any

daemonized equally or identically.” (Maynard

support from those who labelled you a traitor.

2017:12). Within this idea, Cole (2020:8-9) poses that “white power works in concert with other forms of power-including capitalism, ableism, cis-normativity, patriarchy, heteronormativity.” When we stand in solidarity, we do not pick and choose what restructuring we support and what restructuring we do not. When we stand in solidarity, we support a restructuring of the whole racist bundle, we “expand our gaze to see how the demonization of Black bodies extends to Black women and sexual minorities across the gender spectrum.” (Maynard 2017:13).

There is much work to be done, much healing to support, and much discomfort to embrace, but you will not go forward alone. For solidarity, my love, in some of its most simple definitions, means standing together. Convincing others like us, others borne from colonial blood, of the fundamental wrongness underlying their systems of power will not be easy.

Our people have lied to themselves for centuries, we have told ourselves over and over that we are on top because we deserve to be. We have rooted ourselves in beliefs that have allowed us to sleep at night, but have made us sick in the waking hours. Love, we must be an unrelenting force of constant objection to these falsehoods. We must tell our people of the root of our

With all my love.

PAGE 71

Dear Mom,

right when it suggests that those who do not fit into

Tell me a story as I fall asleep. Perhaps of the moment

society's box of meaningful intimacy are wrong?

I drew my first breath of air, as my lungs inflated, as I

Would it really shock you if I pointed out that this type

peeled my eyelids apart, as I became an independent

of meaningful, intimate love, this type of love that is

body. Or perhaps it will be of holding my small, warm

supposed to fill some void inside of you, this type of

body to your chest as I fell asleep, as I made the

love that people cheat, murder, and steal for, is just

smallest noise on exhale that you had ever heard. Or

another form of social control?

of bathing me for the first time in the kitchen sink.

Tell me of walking me home from school, of packing

Audre Lorde, in a 1978 essay, responds to a debate that

me a lunch, of the face I made when I was proud, of

was ongoing at the time among feminists: does

the face I made when I was sorry. Tell me of my laugh.

pornography create and maintain sexual oppression?

Or of raising my brother. Or of being a single mother.

In considering this question, Lorde (1978) illuminates

Or perhaps tell me what you mean when you say,

a fear of desire that is deeply intertwined with the

“right kids, wrong men.”

white woman’s emotional being. This is a notion that Maree Brown (2019) also touches on stating that

I don’t imagine you even remember saying this. I

“women are taught too often to be submissive,

don’t really know why it has stuck with me. I guess it

diminutive,

provides me a comfort in knowing you don’t feel

caregiving—not peers, not emotionally complex

alone, or without love. I am thinking about these

powerhouses, not loving other women and trans

worries as I write them down, and they feel

bodies.” As our relationship with desire is stomped on

misguided. Adrienne Marree Brown (2019) writes,

and yelled at, we find ourselves in another cage, and

obedient,

and

later,

nagging

and

We [have] learned that love is a limited resource

unfortunately mom, white women are too often

and the love we want, and need is too much… We

willing to rationalize themselves into the belief that

[have] learned to shrink, to lie about the whole

this cage is safe, beautiful, wanted, or even needed. We

love we need, settling with not-quite-good-

are the people of complacency. So, when Lorde

enough in order to not be alone.

(1978:88) points out that “on the one hand, the superficially erotic has been encouraged as a sign of

I extend this in asking, Is there an unwelcome

female inferiority [and] on the other hand, women

tendency to pity the single mother?

have been made to suffer and to feel both contemptible and suspect by virtue of its existence,”

I think if I were to ask you what is right and what is

does it surprise you that the white woman fears desire?

wrong, this might be a scary question. If nothing else,

Under these pressures of the male models of power,

one would likely hope to impart this distinction onto

the white woman chooses to suppress the erotic,

their child. But in light of Marree Brown’s (2019)

because there is a false belief that it is the only way to

consideration, I pose to you that right and wrong are

truly be strong (Lorde 1978:88). In our cage, allowable

not as clear as a parent would hope. For whom is the

love and intimacy is a recurring

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VOLUME IV - 2021

commitment to marriage, god, and the afterlife.

self-respect, and a self-determination in choosing not

Conceptions that drive an innate and inexplicable

to be afraid of oneself and in realizing that it is okay to

desire to have a nuclear family. “We are socialized to

not exist in society's image of who you should be.

seek and perpetuate private, even corporate, love.

Through this empowerment, Lorde (1978:90) suggests

Your love is for one person, forever. You celebrate it

that we find a lens “through which we scrutinize all

with dying flowers and diamonds” (Brown 2019).

aspects of our existence… [and] become less willing to

Love, in this sense, does not empower us, it makes us

accept powerlessness.” As one becomes aware of the

weak.

differences between their inner conception of love and intimacy, and the conception of love and intimacy that

Luckily, mom we have been given the brilliant

society has given them, they are given a tool, to see

opportunity to learn from women and queer people of

that society does not choose to advance on the

color. June Jordan (1978:269-270) writes,

interests of oppressed individuals.

I am a feminist, and what that means to me is

How do the powerful regard women?... How do

much the same as the meaning of the fact that I

they treat us? Easily you can see that, according to

am black: it means I must undertake to love

this criterion, the overwhelming reality of power

myself and to respect myself as though my very

and government and tradition is evil, is diseased,

life depends upon self-love and self-respect.

is illegitimate, and deserves nothing from us… except a clear-minded resolve to utterly change

Similarly, Roderick Ferguson (2015) posits that it is

this total situation and, thereby, to change our

queer people of colour who have truly transformed

own destiny. (Jordan 1978:270).

our notions of sexuality. I cannot speak to the

However, it is important to remember the path to clear

experiences of queer people or BIPOC people, but the

minded resolve is one to treat with patience. Nneka

overwhelming notion from these theorists seems to

Onuorah (2015) uses film to share the stories of many

be that by existing and living under these

black lesbians. By laying out the rules that plague the

intersections of oppression, one gains sight of how

black lesbian community: “no masc on masc”, “no

unsafe and ugly the colonial and capitalist cage really

bisexuals”, “no pregnant studs”, Onuorah (2015)

is. What does it mean to have this sight?

suggests that one cannot just wash away the centuries of categorization that colonialism and its tools of

Lorde (1978:90) advances that “our erotic knowledge

slavery, segregation, and oppression has placed onto

empowers us.” This knowledge allows for recognition

black people. A participant in Onuorah’s (2015) film

that common conceptions of love are external, tied to

provides the testimony that “lesbians don’t like

social control, and oppressive. By discarding these

bisexuals because as lesbians we are already being told

external powers, we choose not to live outside of

that we are experimenting.” Stigma and categorization

ourselves, we choose not to be afraid of the phrase “it

hurt, this is not a new idea, but intersectional

feels right to me,” we choose not to be afraid of our

experiences reveal to us how the colonial system does

own minds and bodies. There is a self-love, a

not just create and apply its own hatred, it creates a

PAGE 73

transcending line of hatred. This idea is also

stories you could tell my brother as he falls asleep.

illustrated in June Jordan’s (1978:269) paper,

Think of this letter to you as a product of

originally meant to be delivered as a seminar,

consideration, respect, and admiration. Would one

This seminar was going to be a fight… from my

really be able to suggest that these acts are less

childhood… I knew that your peers would respect

intimate than the love that your family and friends

you if you could hurt somebody. Much less

celebrate with a registry?

obvious was how to elicit respect as somebody who felt and who meant love.

With all my love.

So, mom, what is our work? Marree Brown (2019) suggests that “we need to learn how to practice love such that care—for ourselves and others—is understood as political resistance and cultivating resilience.” Then, in listening to and learning from black women, which is so essential to our role as white women, I pose to you the message that true love should dispel the hatred of and pity towards the types of intimacy that don’t fit inside society's image. We should encourage these types of love. Marree Brown (2019) suggests that through encouragement, we will see that trauma and pain are the natural by-products of love and should never result in shame. This is one reason that we must engage in healing work for ourselves, and for each other.

In light of these ideas, I suggest to you that any trauma and pain you have felt as a single mother should not make you feel ashamed. If society has given you an understanding that you did something wrong, that you shouldn’t have left this person, should have tried harder at that, should have seen certain signs, are not of value unless you are caregiving for another, I ask you to consider, at the time, did it ‘feel right to you’? Is it not possible that for this reason alone, it was right? Think of all the stories you could tell me as I fall asleep. Think of all the

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REFERENCES Brown, Adrienne Marie. 2019. “Love as Political Resistance.” Bitch Media.

Cole, Desmond. 2020. “The Skin We’re In. A Year of Black Resistance and Power.” DoubleDay Canada 1(17):107-123.

Ferguson, Roderick. 2015. “The Relevance of Race for the Study of Sexuality.” In A Companion to Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer Studies, edited by G. Haggerty, and M. McGarry.

Blackwell Jordan, June. 1978. “Where is the Love?” 4th Annual Conference of Afro-American Writers at Howard University.

Lorde, Audre. 1978. “The Uses of the Erotic.” Fourth Berkshire Conference on the History of Women, Mount Holyoke College.

Lorde, Audre. 1981. “The Uses of Anger: Women Responding to Racism.” National Women’s Studies Association Conference, Storrs, Connecticut.

Maynard,

Robyn.

2017.

“Policing

Black

Lives.”

Fernwood Publishing.

Onuorah, Nneka. 2015. “The Same Difference.”

Anthony Allred and Nneka Onuorah. Film.

Segrest, Mab. 1994. “Memoir of a Race Traitor.” South End Press.

Twine, France Winddance. 2004. “A white side of Black Britain: The concept of racial literacy.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 27(6).

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WHY CANADIAN EDUCATION MIGHT NOT PROTECT INDIGENOUS YOUTH FROM HOMELESSNESS ADELE BEALS

INTRODUCTION Canada has a troubling and distressing history with

Indigenous

Peoples

are

at

a

higher

risk

of

Indigenous Peoples – the First Nations, Inuit, and

homelessness. As well, the researchers noted that

Métis Peoples of Northern Turtle Island. Colonialism

while education acted as a protective factor against

has built itself up from the abuse and death of the

homelessness for white people, it did not for

Indigenous Peoples who steward the landmass

Indigenous Peoples (Alberton et al. 2020).

known as “Canada.” This past has carried on to the present, and the effects of these tragedies are still

Consequently, education is not a protective factor

reverberating

against

today.

Indigenous

Peoples

face

homelessness

across

populations.

This

discrimination, unemployment, physical and mental

inconsistency is not explained further within the

illnesses, and homelessness because of colonization

research; nonetheless, it is an important factor to

(Alberton, Angell, Gorey, and Grenier, 2020). After

investigate, as education is an integral part of youth

hundreds of years of mistreatment and neglect,

life in Canada. Thus, this research attempted to

researchers

Indigenous

answer the question: Why might education not

populations and gathering data that can be used to

serve as a protectant from homelessness for

help end the suffering. A paper by Alberton and

Indigenous youth as it does for white youth? To

colleagues

answer this research question, a literature review is

between

are

(2020),

finally

involving

examines

Indigenous

the

Peoples

connection experiencing

homelessness and their relationship with education.

conducted,

a

phenomenological,

qualitative

analysis is performed, and a discussion is presented.

The authors conducted surveys with Indigenous Peoples and non-Indigenous white people of

BACKGROUND

European descent, and the results showed that

For many Indigenous youth, housing is a precarious

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PAGE 76

VOLUME IV - 2021

situation. Adversity at home can lead to the

assimilation of an entire population – Indigenous

displacement of a child into government hands

land, identity, pride, family, culture, ceremonies, and

(Alberton et al. 2020). As well, poor housing

ways of knowing and being were, and still are,

conditions threaten children’s safety, and present

controlled by various levels of governments (Lavallee

risks such as disease, lack of access to drinking

and Poole 2010). Children and youth were separated

water, and improper building designs and materials

from their families and prohibited from speaking

that can lead to injury, all forcing youth to leave

their own languages and engaging in spiritual

home at earlier ages (Krieger and Higgins 2002). An

practices.

unstable and poorly designed childcare system, lack

consequence of the history of Indigenous Peoples is

of adequate resources, and lack of home stability or

the IT created by the kidnapping, assimilation, and

sense of security may impact the mental health of

death of Indigenous children, within the Indian

Indigenous youth and may result in youth living on

Residential School system.

Moreover,

a

violent

and

oppressive

the streets (Kidd, Thistle, Beaulieu, O’Grady, and Gaetz 2019). Once Indigenous youth experience

Residential schools were mandated by the Federal

homelessness,

Government Indian Act, and run by churches,

several

negative

outcomes

may

follow, for example violence, exploitation, addiction,

designed

for

declines in health, and higher risk of mortality,

Indigenous youth into European culture and beliefs

including suicide (Kidd et al. 2019).

(Joseph

2018;

state-sanctioned MacDonald

and

assimilation Hudson

of

2011).

Children were stolen away from their parents and These outcomes further exacerbate the adversity

communities and forced to stay at the schools,

that homeless Indigenous youth face, as well as the

where there was inadequate food, poor medical

cycle of intergenerational trauma (IT). IT is defined

care, and physical, mental, sexual, emotional, and

as trauma that is passed down through generations

spiritual abuse by the staff (MacDonald and Hudson

following a relative’s traumatic experience, causing

2011). These children were expected to unlearn

adverse effects for generations of families who were

everything they had known, everything they thought

involved (Bombay, Matheson, and Anisman 2009).

was right, and to assimilate into a foreign culture

Thus, there can be no reasonable conversation

that invaded their lands and killed their people. The

regarding

of

consequences that the abuse and atrocities of

homelessness,

residential schools had on the psyche of Indigenous

without discussions of IT that Indigenous Peoples in

children who attended them has led to IT for their

Canada have historically and continue to suffer

families. The legacies of these schools also continue

(Patrick 2014).

to inform how governments oppressively treat

Indigenous

the

disproportionate

youth

experiencing

amount

Indigenous children and youth (Bombay et al., 2009), To better understand why education may not

which affects educational attainment.

protect Indigenous youth from homelessness and how IT may be a key component, it is necessary to

Researchers Alberton et al. (2020) concluded that

start from the beginning of Indigenous suffering.

education is a protectant from homelessness, but

Colonization of what is now called Canada has

this applies solely to the white population and not

resulted in attempted cultural genocide and

the Indigenous population. The study that Alberton

PAGE 77

et al. (2020) takes slight inspiration from, is a paper

this approach, there is a better understanding of the

by Phinney, Danziger, Pollack, and Seefeldt (2007),

events, as they are told from a subjective and

where

individual

the

researchers

examine,

in

part,

the

level.

By

compiling

many

people’s

relationship between homelessness and education.

experiences, the view of the event is shifted from

Phinney

that

subjective to objective, so others who were not there

education can influence an individual’s ability to

see the events as reality (Wisdom 1973). Accordingly,

obtain and hold a job, their ability to operate in the

for this research, videos of residential school

housing

eviction

survivors telling their experiences were found online

proceedings, and to complete housing searches.

through a Google search of “Indigenous stories of

They determined that those who had less than a

residential schools.” Through the CBC News (2018)

high school education were at risk of homelessness

YouTube

or housing insecurity by 38.8%, 3.6% more likely

Peoples, Louise Hall, Katherine Thomas, and Janet

than those who obtained a high school degree

Longclaws, were examined. Louise Hall attended

(Phinney et al. 2007). These data show that receiving

Pine

a high school diploma may decrease the likelihood

Manitoba for one year, from 1963-1964, when she was

of becoming homeless; however, as the participants

five years old. Katherine Thomas attended Guy Hill

of the Phinney et al. (2007) survey were white and

Residential School in Clearwater, Manitoba from

African American, these statistics do not apply to

1971-1973, when she was seven years old. Janet

Indigenous Peoples. This is why Alberton et al.’s

Longclaws attended Brandon Residential School in

(2020) work is important; they found that for

Brandon, Manitoba from 1962-1967, when she was

Indigenous Peoples there was zero association

seven years old (CBC News 2018).

and

colleagues

assistance

(2007)

system

and

stated

in

channel,

Creek

three

Residential

videos

School

of

in

Indigenous

Camperville,

between educational achievement and experiences of homelessness. A disproportionate amount of

The

CBC

News

(2018)

Indigenous youth are facing housing insecurity,

transcribed and examined for themes of school

displacement, or are being forced to live on the

experiences, survivors’ feelings towards residential

streets (Alberton et al. 2020). To begin to address

school

the question of why educational attainment does

grandchildren. The phenomenological approach

not protect Indigenous youth against homelessness,

was important for answering the research question,

the topic of IT and its impact on education will be

because it helped to glean whether the trauma from

explored through a phenomenological qualitative

the negative experiences at residential schools may

analysis.

have

experiences,

passed

to

YouTube

and

the

their

survivors’

videos

children

children

were

and

and

grandchildren, affecting their school experiences.

METHODOLOGY Methods

Data Analysis

It is important to look at this research from a

Quotations were pulled from three YouTube videos,

phenomenological point of view, meaning from a

where residential school survivors recounted their

point of view that recognizes that the events that

experiences during and after their time at the

happen in our society are best understood by those

residential schools. The first video is of Louise Hall, as

who experience said events (Wisdom 1973). With

she describes her first day at Pine Creek Residential

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VOLUME IV - 2021

In Katherine Thomas’ video, she reports her own

School, … and telling me like get in that shower and

struggles with trauma, as she speaks on her eleven

wash yourself, wash everything off, take that

children, saying “because of what happened in

brown, wash off that brown skin, and there is

residential school, and trying to change cycles, there

soap, I don’t know what kind of soap but it

was a time in my life where I just wanted to give

burned,

and

them [my children] all away and I said I can’t do

scrubbing, and wanted to cry because it hurt

this” (CBC News 2018c: 1:20). Katherine also spoke to

and she said wash until you take all your brown

when her own children faced a similar situation, “so

skin off because God doesn’t like brown skin

when my grandchildren got taken and I saw my girls

(CBC News 2018b: 0:37).

spiral down and it has the same effects as residential

like

I

remember

the

burn,

schools, same effects” (CBC News 2018c: 1:36).This is a This incident can be perceived as a traumatizing

display of how Katherine’s trauma has passed down

event – being told to scrub away your own skin

to her children, showing that emotions and behavior

color, so much so that it burns, because someone

can be transmitted to their children, with a

said that God does not like brown skin. This is what

perspective

Louise Hall was taught in school.

traumatizing experience, that invariably affected her

that

school

can

be

a

negative,

grandchildren’s attitudes toward education.

In Janet Longclaws’ video, the interviewer asked the question of what she had told her children about

DISCUSSION

her residential school experience. Janet described

From

her memory,

residential school survivors may carry trauma for the

the

data

presented,

it

is

evident

that

… my youngest one about ten years ago, I think

rest of their lives. Additionally, this trauma can be

we were coming back from Calgary and we

passed down intergenerationally to their children,

stopped in at Brandon residential and at that

grandchildren, and great grandchildren, causing

time it was still up, and so I took a brick and I

negative outcomes, such as mental illness (Bombay

threw it against the wall and he says, ‘what are

et al. 2009) and negative attitudes toward school

you doing mom?’ I said this one’s for Uncle Lloyd

systems. Such outcomes of the residential school

and this one’s for Auntie Joe and so I went

system lead to a multitude of effects including

through all our family members that went to

unemployment, poverty, and lack of education by

Brandon and you know he picked up the rock -

Indigenous youth – many do not graduate high

he picked up the bricks and he threw them

school or move on to postsecondary (Alberton et al.

against the wall (CBC News 2018a: 0:48).

2020). First Nations Peoples graduate high school at a rate of 36%, while 43% have not obtained any kind

This quote reveals how trauma and ideals can be

of

passed onto children. The son witnessed how angry

Assembly on Education, 2012). For those who do

his mother was, and he had just heard the

move on to higher education, it might be surmised

disturbing abuse of his family members, and so he

that education would become a protective factor

became angry as well in reliving his mother’s

from homelessness, based on the evidence of how

trauma.

education is a protector for white people. But this is

postsecondary

degree

or

diploma

(Chiefs

PAGE 79

not the case; as noted, there is zero association

poorer mental health, and disengagement from

between education as a protector and homeless

school, suggesting IT may also be linked to

Indigenous youth (Alberton et al., 2020).

Indigenous youth homelessness (Wood et al. 2020).

Without a solid education it is more difficult to find a

Building on the data analyzed, I hypothesize that

job, secure proper health care, and form beneficial

education is not a protective factor because of IT.

social connections, potentially resulting in lack of

Attitudes and negative experiences from residential

homeownership and therefore a lack of social

schools are passed down to the survivors’ children,

insurance (Conley and Gifford 2006; Phinney et al,

and from this, those children form an adverse

2007). Education likely acts as a protectant for white

relationship with school systems. School might not

people because they do not suffer the same

help protect Indigenous youth from homelessness

historical

because they hear stories about their parents,

Peoples, so the educational system works better in

grandparents, and caregivers being forced to scrub

protecting them against homelessness.

and

contemporary

IT

as

Indigenous

their skin raw, or they had seen their mother’s anger when she threw bricks at a building as she listed off

CONCLUSION

the number of family members that had been

Education attainment acts as a protective factor

abused. Although Indigenous youth know that

from homelessness for the white population, yet has

residential schools are no longer operational and

zero effect on homelessness for Indigenous youth. A

that these same Eurocentric attitudes toward

myriad of barriers are placed in Indigenous Peoples’

teaching and learning have changed somewhat

way

(Madden 2014), there is still an existing and

colonization

expected prejudice of Indigenous youth towards

experiences shared by residential school survivors

schooling, potentially enabling youth to adopt a

have facilitated negative attitudes for Indigenous

negative

school,

youth regarding their beliefs in the school system.

suggesting that school may not be an effective

Indigenous youth do not form the same relationship

protective factor against homelessness.

with education as white people, nor do educational

attitude

towards

attending

in

Canadian and

society,

persisting

beginning with

IT.

with

Harmful

protective factors assist in preventing Indigenous In their study on the impact of historical trauma for

youth in becoming less susceptible to homelessness.

contemporary Indigenous youth, Gone et al. (2019)

Such lack of protection is damaging to Indigenous

verified that Indigenous youth are still suffering

youth and their involvement with the school system;

psychological

health

yet, support can be provided through Truth and

implications that affect educational outcomes. This

Reconciliation (2015), as calls to action include

contributes to negative ideas about the benefits of

educational

education attainment, confirming that the adversity

Indigenous youth. Future research should attempt to

that Indigenous Peoples faced in residential schools

incorporate

has carried on through the years, and continues

homelessness,

today (Gone et al 2019). Additionally, IT leads to poor

intervention, substance abuse, and mental illness, as

psychosocial factors such as substance abuse,

these factors link together and are not completely

involvement within the criminal justice system,

distinct from each other. As there is not an

distress

from

adverse

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support all

specifically

factors

such

as

of

designed

Indigenous

education,

for

youth

government

UNDERGRADUATE SOCIOLOGY JOURNAL

PAGE 80

abundance of research on Indigenous populations, such work could help to decrease the disparity between

Indigenous

youth

and

homelessness,

hopefully creating a safer and more comforting world that they deserve.

VOLUME IV - 2021

PAGE 81

REFERENCES

Conley, D., and Gifford, B. 2006. “Home ownership,

Alberton, A. M., Angell, G. B., Gorey, K. M., and

social insurance, and the welfare state.” Sociological

Grenier, S. 2020. “Homelessness among Indigenous

Forum,

peoples in Canada: The impacts of child welfare

https://www.jstor.org/stable/4540927.

involvement

and

educational

achievement.”

Children and Youth Services Review 4(111):1-9. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.104846.

Bombay, A., Matheson, K., and Anisman, H. 2009.

“Intergenerational trauma: Convergence of multiple processes among First Nations Peoples in Canada.”

Journal of Aboriginal Health 5(3):6-47. Retrieved from https://jps.library.utoronto.ca/index.php/ijih/article/v iew/28987/23916.

CBC News. 2018a, March 21. “Residential school survivor to Canadians: Have some empathy.” [Video file].

Retrieved

from

https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=ZdnEPvNGUYY&list=PLeyJPHbRnGaZ1rgVgpVL7hZ 2YQzzOzb_k&index=18&ab_channel=CBCNews CBC News. 2018b, March 23. “Residential school survivor: 'I grew up hating the colour of my skin.'”

[Video

file].

Retrieved

from

https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=j2ITeM8D93Y&ab_channel=CBCNews.

CBC News. 2018c, March 26. “Residential school survivor says being separated from her family was the

worst.”

[Video

file].

Retrieved

from

https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=bt6iOj_pkfw&ab_channel=CBCNews Chiefs Assembly of Education. 2012. “A portrait of First

Nations

and

education”.

Retrieved

from

https://www.afn.ca/uploads/files/events/fact_sheetccoe-3.pdf

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21(1):55-82.

Retrieved

from

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LETTER FROM USSU Readers, We at USSU are so grateful that you took the time to read the fourth volume of the USJ! This journal is a great opportunity to showcase the brilliant work that undergraduate sociology students do at UofT. If it weren’t for the hard work of Debasmita, the Editor-in-Chief, and her Editorial Board, we would not have been able to bring you this celebration of our peers’ accomplishments. For that reason, we owe them many thanks.

We hire editors and designers every year, so if you are interested in getting involved with the journal, stay alert to USSU’s social media pages for more information on hiring periods. Also, if you would like to contribute a paper to the journal check our website for submission requirements and review periods.

Instagram: @ussu_uoft Facebook: @undergraduatesociologystudentsunion Website: ussu.sa.utoronto.ca Stay well, Dumkele Aligwekwe and Susan Fan Co-Presidents, University of Toronto Undergraduate Sociology Students’ Union (USSU)