Fall 2014 -- Fishing for Complements by Carolina Scientific

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Carolina Scientific

sc覺ent覺fic Fall 2014 | Volume 7 | Issue 1 Fall 2014 | Volume 7 | Issue 1

FISHING FOR COMPLEMENTS matching snapper fish with mangrove habitats by radio tracking full story on page 18 1

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scıentific Executive Board

Mission Statement: Founded in Spring 2008, Carolina Scientific serves to educate undergraduates by focusing on the exciting innovations in science and current research that are taking place at UNC-Chapel Hill. Carolina Scientific strives to provide a way for students to discover and express their knowledge of new scientific advances, to encourage students to explore and report on the latest scientific research at UNCChapel Hill, and to educate and inform readers while promoting interest in science and research.

Letter from the Editors: Research is not defined by one final “eureka!” moment leading to a brilliant discovery. It’s more accurately understood by observing how scientific approaches change over time. For one scientist, change has meant altering her focus from cancer to genetically modified crops (page 8). For another, change involves constant modifications to perfect an artificial tumor-building device (page 10). But for us, change comes in the form of new content and a new perspective. In this issue of Carolina Scientific, we offer a wider array of content than before. With the addition of narrative, professor’s perspective, and opinion-based article styles, we’ve painted a more complete picture of the research community at UNCChapel Hill. Enjoy! –Erin Moore & Josh Sheetz

on the cover

Co-Editors-in-Chief Erin Moore Josh Sheetz Associate Editors Matthew Leming Parth Majmudar Design Editor Tracie Hayes Copy Editor Kimberly Hii Online Content Manager Jasmin Singh Public Outreach Chair Brian Davis Fundraising Chair Karthika Kandala Treasurer Linran Zhou Faculty Advisor Gidi Shemer, Ph.D.

Contributors Staff Writers

Copy Staff

Larisa Bennett Kennedi Briggs Corey Buhay Sharisse Jimenez Matthew Leming Kara Marker Taylor Nelsen Ben Penley Sam Resnick Mai Riquier Courtney Roof Rachel Terrio Hope Thomson Jeffrey Young

Sean Anderson Larisa Bennett Corey Buhay Thalita Cortes Erin Graham Kammy Liu Justin Pack Francesca Peay

Design Staff Ravae Bobb Sharisse Jimenez Clara Lee Kammy Liu Aileen Ma Matt Morrow Susan Seo

carolina_scientific@unc.edu carolinascientific.org facebook.com/CarolinaScientific @uncsci

Dr. Joel Fodrie tracks snapper fish among mangrove trees to better understand their habitat needs. See page 18 for the full story. Image by Anton Bielousov (own work: Dominican Republic trip) CC-BY-SA-3.0. Changes were made.

contents

Carolina Scientific

Biology

4 6 8

Physics and Astronomy

Love Songs and Songbirds Influencing attraction levels through changing song environments Kennedi Briggs

Telescope technology project validates new exoplanets Rachel Terrio

Feeding a Growing Population

Investigating plant cell signaling to fight world hunger Sharisse Jimenez

Opinion and Interview

Health & Medicine

Professor’s Perspective

Breaking Boundaries

A Scientist’s Guide to Gender Inequality

Building a Tumor to Save a Life Developing cost-effective and representative assays Ben Penley

From Chemo to Genome

Scrambling for Time

Innovating Electronics with Organic Materials An alternative to silicon in semiconductors Mai Riquier

Agrobacterium A biological syringe Kara Marker

Searching for New Planets with ROBO-AO

A step towards personalized cancer treatment Sam Resnick

An interview with Dr. Jack Griffith Matthew Leming Non-traditional career options for biology Ph.D.s Larisa Bennett

Explaining low numbers of STEM women Hope Thomson

Biomarkers in emergency medicine Jeffrey Young

Psychology Ecology

31 Community-Based Conservation Harmonizing the environment and people of Eburru Taylor Nelsen

The Fishery Detective Investigating snapper fish habitats in the Galápagos Corey Buhay

Gratitude: It’s in Your Genes Researchers show oxytocin plays a role in social bonding Courtney Roof

biology

Love Songs and Songbirds Influencing attraction levels through changing song environments By Kennedi Briggs

veryone loves to be serenaded by a good song: men, women and even songbirds. Studying the neurological reasons behind attraction and mate choice in songbirds just might help you find “the one.” What makes one person attracted to a smooth Barry White song as opposed to a fast paced “Crazy-in-Love” Beyoncé song? Laboratories all over the world are trying to understand how exactly the brain decides what makes a song worthy of such affection, and — even more specifically — which pathways in a songbird’s brain are involved in song learning, production and perception. Dr. Keith Sockman, an associate professor of UNC’s biology department, works extensively with songbirds to try to answer this question. Lincoln’s sparrows, or songbirds, use song as their primary means of courtship. Male sparrows sing their song, and female sparrows respond either negatively or positively to the song according to their preference. A positive response indicates that the female has chosen this male as her mate, which is no trivial affair in the life of a songbird. On the other hand, failure to impress the female songbird would mean that the male must continue his search for a mate elsewhere. Susan Lyons, a graduate student working in Dr. Sockman’s lab, studies specifically how mating preferences change from one song to another. To study the songbirds, she simulates an environment similar to that found in nature. Male songbirds actively compete with one another for mates and are able to “modulate their competitive singing over a period” to match their competitors’ songs.1 So, at any given time, a female songbird can be exposed to any level of song. In a study to assess mating preferences, eighteen songs

Dr. Keith Sockman of intermediate performance from the male songbirds were manipulated to be of high or low performances. Faster-paced songs are characterized as high-performance whereas the slower-paced songs are characterized as lower-performance. “You can almost think of it as if you’re clapping … if you’re doing big claps, it’s harder to clap quickly,” Lyons said.2 During the study, groups of female songbirds were exposed to songs of various performance levels over seven days. On the eighth day, all of the females were exposed to the same intermediate level song. This study revealed that the songbirds that were exposed to the lower performance song

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biology

Figure 1. Dr. Keith Sockman and graduate student Susan Lyons study the ability of female songbirds to lower or raise their threshold of mate preference based on the male songbirds around them. Images courtesy of Dr. Sockman. preferred the intermediate-level song, while those who were exposed to high-performance song were considerably less tolerant of the intermediate-level song. Lyons’ research focuses on the female songbirds’ ability to lower or raise their threshold of preference according to their surroundings. Although the birds typically preferred a relatively high-performance song, their preference changed based on the level of song to which they Although the birds were previously extypically preferred posed. For example, a relatively highif in nature a female performance song, their bird who was accustomed to high-caliber preference changed males was relocated to an environment in based on the level of talented singers song to which they were which were scarce, she would previously exposed. begin to prefer an average level of song performance over the high performance to which she was originally accustomed. Many experiments involving different species yield similar results. For example, rats were trained to run through a maze for a reward. One group of rats was given four grams of cheese as their reward, while the other group was given 32 grams of cheese. However, when the rewards were switched, the rats that were typically used to getting more ate less and ran slower than those in the opposite situation, which suggests that their current decisions were influenced by their previous conditions. In another study, groups of college men were shown pictures of women they found unattractive, then pictures of women they found moderately attractive. The men rated the moderately attractive women much higher than they did before they were shown the unattractive ones — another example of a violation of the Rational Choice Theory.

However, this follows the Ebbinghaus effect thoroughly.1 The most common example of the Ebbinghaus effect is shown when surrounding a circle with smaller circles, then taking a same-sized circle and surrounding it with larger ones. When surrounded by the larger circles, the center circle will look considerably smaller than the one surrounded by smaller circles, though they are the same size. The same effect seems to happen with female songbirds, as well as college students, when it comes to mate choice. If female songbirds can manage to change their own threshold of preference of song performance simply by being surrounded by low performance songs, then, hypothetically, so can anyone, because the brain is constantly adapting so that attractiveness is completely relative to what a person is surrounded by on a daily basis.

Figure 2. Dr. Sockman investigates the neuromechanisms underlying sparrows’ songs and mating preferences. Image courtesy of Dr. Sockman.

References

1. Interview with Keith Sockman, Ph.D. 09/19/2014. 2. Interview with Susan Lyons, B.S. 09/19/2014.

biology

Art by Sharisse Jimenez

Feeding a Growing Population investigating plant cell signaling to fight world hunger BY SHARISSE JIMENEZ

o most, a world where food is plentiful and hunger is non-existent is considered anything but plausible. However, to some scientists, this dream world may not seem as surreal as we might imagine. Despite the challenges, scientists are attempting to stifle world hunger through a better understanding of plant cell signaling, or how cells communicate within a living plant system. If biologists can understand how cells “talk to each other,” they can determine ways to increase crop growth, using science to fight world hunger.1 For over 100 years, biologists

have been fascinated by cell signaling. As a key theme that encompasses nearly all of biology, cell signaling is important in an organism’s response to its environment, the development of multicellular organisms and many other functions.1 Plants have become an increasingly popular model for studying signaling due to their powerful agricultural implications. In the face of decreased availability of fresh water and arable land, the costly effects of pesticides and an increasing global population, agricultural productivity will be critical for “feeding the world in a sustainable manner.”1 Dr. Joseph Kieber, a professor of

Dr. Joseph Kieber biology at UNC-Chapel Hill, has spearheaded a cell signaling project on campus. His lab works on the effects of a

biology

Carolina Scientific “One of the key principles of signal transduction is how a particular cell responds to a particular signal depending on the cellular context and the other signals that that cell receives,” said Dr. Kieber.1 In cells located in the shoot of the plant, the presence of cytokinin leads to the expression of genes that promotes cell division, thus inFigure 1. Comparison of japonica and indica varietcreasing growth. Yet in ies of Oryza sativa with decreased levels of cytokinin the roots of a plant the oxidase present in cells. Image courtesy of Dr. Kieber. same cytokinin signal growth hormone, known as cytokinin, perceived by the same on the growth and development of the histidine kinase receptors results in an flowering plant Arabidopsis thaliana. opposite outcome. Before Dr. Kieber began his career Insight from plant cell signaling in plant molecular biology, the under- pathways can be translated to understanding of molecular signal transduc- standing the transduction of signals tion in plants was “spectacularly poor.”1 in crops such as rice. Dr. Kieber and his Now, 15 years later, Dr. Kieber and his lab have recently begun researching team have discovered the mechanisms an analogous pathway in the rice plant by which cytokinin Oryza sativa. His is perceived by the interest in working cell and its ability to on rice stems from alter gene expresthe fact that it is a sion. monocot, containCy t o k i n i n s ing one leaf emare compounds bryo per seedling. similar to adenine Though his lab — one of the four continues to debases found in cipher the signalDNA. They “have ing events in Arabeen implicated in bidopsis, a dicot, almost all aspects of plant growth and Dr. Kieber believes there is reason “to development, including cell division, suspect that [cytokinin] does different shoot initiation and growth [and] leaf things in these divergent species.”1 senescence,” according to Dr. Kieber.2 In rice, advances towards potenCytokinin molecules play various roles tial agricultural applications have alin plant structures. ready been made. Within the cytokinin In plants, the presence of cyto- signaling pathway of most plants — inkinin follows a signaling pathway simi- cluding Arabidopsis and rice — is an enlar to an “evolutionarily ancient two- zyme known as cytokinin oxidase which component pathway to perceive and irreversibly degrades cytokinin into adtransduce the cytokinin signal,” said enine.3 This enzyme serves as a negative Dr. Kieber.1 Much like basic prokaryotic regulatory element that is an important signaling pathways, plant receptors re- factor in pathway dynamics. spond to an environmental stimulus A study performed at Nagoya Uniand a signal is propagated which often versity in Japan compared two varieties leads to changes in gene transcription.2 of rice and the yields they produced as a Because plants are comprised of more result of a decrease of cytokinin oxidase. complex, multicellular structures, the The japonica variety is lower-yielding, process is incredibly complicated. higher-quality rice, while the indica vari-

If biologists can understand how cells “talk to each other,” they can determine ways to increase crop growth, using science to fight world hunger.

ety is higher-yielding, lower-quality rice (Figure 1). In the indica variety, a mutation was found that decreased expression of cytokinin oxidase in the developing flower stalks, leading to an increase in cytokinin, more cell division and ultimately an increased yield. Though this mutation occurred naturally, it serves as a notable example of how increased agricultural yield can result from cytokinin pathway manipulation.1 Over the past 15 years, Dr. Kieber has shed light on the “spectacularly poor” amount of information on plant signaling pathways. Through his continued research on cytokinin signals in both rice and other plants, we come one step closer to a future world devoid of hunger.

References

1. Interview with Joseph Kieber, Ph.D. 09/18/2014. 2. Kieber, J. J.; Schaller, G. E. Arabidopsis Book 2014, 12, e0168. 3. Hwang, I.; Sheen, J.; Muller, B. Annu. Rev. Plant Biol. 2012, 63, 353380.

biology

The growths on the roots of this pecan tree were induced by the soil bacterium A. tumefaciens. The Matthysse lab is studying the bacterium’s DNA transfer mechanism and its potential applications in the development of genetically engineered crops. Image by Forestry Images CC-BY-SA-3.0.

Agrobacterium: a biological syringe By Kara Marker

lants, like humans, can fall victim to bacterial infections. Dr. Ann Matthysse, a researcher in UNC-Chapel Hill’s department of biology, has studied interactions between plants and pathogens since 1970. At the time, she believed that conducting research on the soil bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens (A. tumefaciens), which causes tumors in plants (Figure 1 right), might lead to advances with cases of human cancer. She found instead that the cancer-causing mechanism utilized by the rod-shaped bacterium has virtually nothing to do with human cancer. However, she continued to study the bacterium due to its unique initial surface reactions with wounded plants as it binds to them to begin infection. Dr. Matthysse describes A. tumefaciens as a “biological syringe” because its virulence comes from a transfer of DNA upon infection of a plant wound, a process unique to this specific plant bacteria.1 The transferred DNA integrates into the host cell chromosome and transforms the plant’s cells into tumor cells. These transformed cells then make metabolites that only A. tumefaciens can utilize as an energy source. The virus essentially taps into the host plant’s energy source in the same way a cell phone charger would pull energy from your car battery. This results in smaller fruit than the plant host normally produces, but the reduced size is not typically fatal to the plant unless the tumor blocks its main vascular tissue. Additionally,

these initial surface interactions involved in DNA transfer will function the same even if non-natural, specifically selected genes are inserted into the bacterium for transfer into a plant. Now, Dr. Matthysse is interested in manipulating this mechanism to more efficiently develop genetically engineered crops. Some crops have been difficult to engineer, but these probDr. Ann Matthysse lems can be alleviated by identifying restrictions on the host range for Agrobacterium “because if we knew what [these factors] were, it might be possible to counteract them,” she said.1 If A. tumefaciens can be manipulated to bind to these plants like it does to other plant hosts, the crops could be engineered. For example, the bacterium could transfer genes that resist pathogenic fungi, and it could also potentially improve nutrient levels in certain foods. “For example, rice that contains a lot of vitamin A, which would be good for people in India that don’t have a lot of vitamin A in their diet, has been

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biology

Figure 1. The bacterium E. coli (left) often found in cases of food poisoning. A. tumefaciens (right) causes tumor formation in plants. Dr. Matthysse’s lab found that both E. coli and A. tumefaciens are stimulated by plant cell signaling. Left image courtesy of Agricultural Research Service, USDA. Right image by C-M CC-BY-SA-3.0. made by putting the genes for vitamin A biosynthesis into Matthysse acknowledges the difficulty and importance of rice,” Dr. Matthysse said. designing the most effective experiments: identifying which In 2006, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention factors matter the most, pinpointing the best incubation time reported that an E. coli (Figure 1 left) outbreak occurred from and adjusting growth temperatures and other conditions are the bacteria infecting salad vegetables and causing disease in a serious time investment. Practicality also has to be considthose eating the vegetables raw.2 ered in this situation; increasing Salmonella was also identified as Matthysse’s studies could lead costs to customers is not a helpful a cause of disease through a simioption when considering longto revolutionary improvements term reduction in E. coli and Salmolar route. Dr. Matthysse’s lab then began to investigate E. coli, which in genetically modified foods, nella infections in raw salad vegetahas been traditionally used as a bles. Eating leafy greens has always control for the A. tumefaciens ex- and the possibilities for utilizing seemed very healthy and beneficial periments because it does not bind the A. tumefaciens gene transfer to the human diet, but these foods to the plant host. Dr. Matthysse are just as prone to contamination mechanism are endless. found that salad leaves and sprouts as others. It is probably not comencountered bacteria in multiple mon to consider the conditions of situations: contamination of irrigation water or equipment, our salad, given that it is purchased from a seemingly safe improperly prepared manure fertilizer and post-harvest situ- grocery store. “We have all gotten so far away from where our ations. Once the bacteria are bound, they cannot be removed food actually comes from,” Dr. Matthysse said. simply by washing. Infected sprouts and fruits that are not Ultimately, Dr. Matthysse’s studies could lead to revocooked prior to eating pose the greatest risk for transferring lutionary improvements in genetically modified foods, and the disease to humans. the possibilities for utilizing the A. tumefaciens gene transfer It turns out that signals produced by the plant cell mechanism are endless. Her experiments to prevent the bindstimulate bacterial binding for A. tumefaciens, E. coli and Sal- ing of pathogens like E. coli and Salmonella to salad vegetamonella. While there are multiple ways that these bacteria bles could significantly reduce the number of outbreaks of appear to be binding to alfalfa sprouts and other salad veg- these pathogens. Understanding these complicated interacetables, studies show that blocking a single sensory pathway tions will continue to provide a strong foundation for future will cause the bacteria to become unaware of the presence of studies of plant pathogens. a plant in their vicinity. Thus, although the bacteria ultimately cannot be removed once bound to the plant tissue, the sensory pathway approach could prevent the bacteria from ever binding in the first place. Currently, Dr. Matthysse is looking at References multiple methods of blocking or changing signals from plants 1. Interview with Ann G. Matthysse, Ph.D. 09/18/14. and/or altering signal receptors on pathogenic bacteria. It 2. Update on Multi-State Outbreak of E. coli O157:H7 may be possible to manipulate the environment so that sen- Infections From Fresh Spinach, October 6, 2006. http:// sory genes are turned on too soon or too late, thus rendering www.cdc.gov/ecoli/2006/september/updates/100606.htm (accessed September 22nd, 2014). attachment and infection less effective. The future of these studies remains promising, and Dr. 3. Matthysse, A. G.; Front. Plant. Sci. 2014, 5, 1–8.

health and medicine

Dr. Matthew Lockett and his research group are developing a three-dimensional assay that closely resembles the cellular environment of a real tumor. Photo by Ben Penley.

Building a Tumor to Save a Life BY BEN PENLEY

do-it-yourself project with a of the initial cells will expend energy medical twist: Dr. Matthew Lock- and move through the pores during inett and his research group are cubation. This method, however, is not developing a way to model tumors in an always a reliable predictor because it is environment resembling human tissue. not representative of the environment In a method deemed “arts-and-crafty,”1 tumor cells inhabit.1 they are constructing a model that al“If you want to predict how tulows for a better unmor cells are going to derstanding of how “If you want to predict behave, you should tumor cells invade an environment how tumor cells are make neighboring tissues that looks exactly like going to behave, and how these invathe body,” Dr. Lockett 1 sive properties can be you should make an said. controlled. Dr. Lockett and Typically, tu- environment that looks his research group mor cell migration exactly like the body.” are developing such is measured using a an environment by -Dr. Matthew Lockett technique known as constructing a threea transwell assay. The dimensional assay assay places a sample of tumor cells on a that closely resembles the cellular envidisc with numerous pores. The pores are ronment of a real tumor, allowing them smaller than the cells and thus energy is to conduct controlled and extensive required for cells to migrate through the tests on tumor cell invasion. Insights pores. If cancerous, 10 percent (or more) derived from these tests might lead to

better methods for regulating the spread of tumor cells. In Dr. Lockett’s assay, tissue is represented with multiple layers of paper — paper resembling the soft material used to Dr. Matthew Lockett clean eyeglasses. Wax covers the majority of these circular sheets, save a few openings where cells are placed. A stainless steel or plastic container compresses it all. Figure 1 shows a model of the assay with five layers. The top layers (1 and 2) and bottom (4 and 5) hold tissue cells, fat cells, and macrophages involved in immune response — a composition resembling a normal cellular environment. The top layers are provided oxygen and

Carolina Scientific other necessary nutrients, much like the outer-layer cells in a tumor. The oxygen enables the cells to engage in a process known as oxidative phosphorylation to produce energy needed for normal function. The middle layer (3) is filled with cells taken from a tumor. These cells — if cancerous — will spread, or “invade,” the other layers. If the tumor is benign, the cells will remain in layer 3. The bottom layers are starved of oxygen and other necessary nutrients, producing what is known as a “necrotic core.” This deprivation of nutrients causes the cells to enter a method of energy production called glycolysis, which is fast and inefficient. These bottom layers resemble the inside of a tumor. The results derived from the incubation of the cultured assay provide an understanding of several aspects of tumor behavior. A majority of the tumor cells will move to the favored oxygenrich environment. Interestingly, some tumor cells will move to the necrotic core. From there, the cells go into a state of quiescence where they essentially “fall asleep.”1 While a tumor-killing drug targets excessively active cells on the outside of the tumor, quiescent cells on the inside can remain dormant and unaffected by these drugs. Once the outside cells are eradicated, the necrotic core is exposed to the nutrients of which it was previously deprived. The quiescent cells come out of their sleep and then begin to expand rapidly — an act that could cause recurring tumors. To circumvent the deadly consequences of quiescent cells, the composition of an individual patient’s tumor must be fully understood. A variety of cancer drugs can also be tested on a patient’s “personalized tumor” to see how cells collected from a patient’s tumor respond. The screened drugs and their effects will be analyzed, and the most suited medicine will be given to the patient. With billions of funding spent on cancer research each year,2 the low cost and minimal parts required for Dr. Lockett’s paper-based assay make it practical and desirable. “If you work in a hospital and you get a lot of tumor samples all the time,

health and medicine

Figure 1. Depictions of the representative “tumor.” If cancerous, tumor cells will spread through the assay’s layers, much like they would in tissues of the body. Images courtesy of Dr. Lockett.

Figure 2. Matthew Boyce, a graduate student in Dr. Lockett’s lab assembles a representative tumor. Image by Ben Penley. you want an assay that’s really easy to put together, really cheap and easy to analyze. Not only are we making a model for human tissue, but we’re doing it as cheaply and easily as possible,” Dr. Lockett said.1 With a time-sensitive disease like cancer, expediting treatment is extremely significant. With the constant influx of cancer patients, it is difficult to do this under the restraints imposed by the sheer amount of preparation, testing, analysis and cost. But when a test is done on a few sheets of paper and in a form that

“even sixth-graders can analyze,”1 efficient and potentially life-saving tumor cell detection becomes reality.

References

1. Interview with Matthew Lockett, Ph.D. 09/18/2014. 2. McGeary, M.; Burstein, M. Sources of Cancer Research Funding in the United States. Report on Cancer Research Funding in the United States, June 1999; National Cancer Policy Board, Institute of Medicine: 1999.

health and medicine

FROM CHEMO TO GENOME A step towards personalized cancer treatment BY SAM RESNICK

magine a future where cancer is a manageable disease that people rarely die from. Yes, cancer, the second most common cause of death in the United States. 25 percent of people who die in the United States succumb to cancer, amounting to over 1,500 people per day.1 The outcome is too familiar to some Americans: staggering healthcare costs and heavy emotional burdens on millions of families. Fortunately for families of cancer patients, Dr. Charles Perou and his team of genetics researchers at UNC-Chapel Hill are making strides towards new, more effective treatments. Every living cell is programmed to execute a function by its DNA. Cells must copy their DNA instructions and divide to promote growth and good health. When this process proceeds incorrectly, the cell’s DNA instructions are mutated, and the cell may then divide rapidly and form a tumor. As cells grow and divide at a faster rate, they develop new mutations in a “snowball effect.” Mutations that amplify cancerous activity through increased cell growth allow cancer cells to outcompete other, ordinary cells. By the time cancer has been detected in a patient, the cancerous tissue has developed hundreds of mutations in many important genes.

Recent developments in genomics are allowing scientists to look at the alterations to a cancer cell’s genome and gene expression profile. This has revolutionized how researchers search for more precise and reliable treatments. During the last five years, scientists across the world collected data from thousands of cancers in addition to the tissue from which they arose. Physicians and researchers have teamed up and deposited all of this information in Dr. Charles Perou “The Cancer Genome Atlas.” The result of this effort is that scientists are finding common themes in cancer development that may be targeted by treatment.

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Dr. Michael Gatza, a postdoctoral researcher in Dr. Perou’s lab, is using this resource to identify what is driving breast cancer to proliferate uncontrollably. In his most recent publication, Dr. Gatza and colleagues present potential targets for cancer drugs that were previously unknown.2 “Essentially, we wanted to create an approach to identify genes that were not only implicated in the growth of breast cancer but that were also essential for cancer cells to survive,” Dr. Gatza said.3 Certain subtypes of breast cancer currently have limited treatment options that only work in a minority of cases. One of these subtypes is termed the luminal subtype. While patients with luminal breast cancer often harbor mutations in similar genes, there are many differences among patients, making an effective generalized treatment next to impossible. The first thing Dr. Gatza and his team showed was that this subtype of

“Essentially, we wanted to create an approach to identify genes that were not only implicated in the growth of breast cancer but that were also essential for cancer cells to survive.” -Dr. Michael Gatza cancer consistently relied on the same cancer pathways, indicating that there are specific hallmarks of the luminal subtype that can potentially be targeted (Figure 1).2 Dr. Gatza then began to look at genes that had been copied multiple times in the same cell. When genes are copied multiple times during the development of cancer, they become more active in the cell. Researchers found that many of these amplified genes are involved in the pathways they previously identified as being strongly correlated with the luminal subtype. “We found that there was a set of genes that commonly appeared in high copies in luminal breast cancer tumors,” said Dr. Gatza, “and in many cases, we were able to show that cancers with high copy numbers of these genes often forecasted poorer survival of the patient (Figure 2).”3 The promising aspect of these results is that these genes may become targets for new drugs to treat cancer. “One of the most exciting findings was the discovery that using genetic techniques to turn off these genes causes the luminal cancer cells to die,” said Dr. Gatza. By identifying correlations between survival and specific alterations to cancer genomes, researchers can devise new agents to treat cancer by a more precise method. Targeting these cancer specific alterations to the genome, drugs with minimal side effects for normal cells in the body can be developed. Dr. Perou and his colleagues agree that the future of

Figure 1. On the top of the figure, you can see the different subtypes of breast cancer with each column representing a different sample. On the right side of the figure are the names of all the pathways Dr. Gatza analyzed. A red score indicates upregulation of the pathway while a blue score indicates downregulation. In general, the different subtypes have different pathway signatures, but these signatures are similar within subtypes. Image from Figure 1a of Gatza, M.L.; Silva G.O.; Parker J.S.; Fan C.; Perou C.M. Nat. Gen. 2014, 47, 1051–1059. cancer care lies in the development of drugs that can be combined in a personalized manner. But before this can be accomplished, leading medical researchers such as Dr. Perou must first identify the genes that will serve as prospective drug targets.

References

1. Cancer.org, Cancer Facts and Figures 2014, http://www. cancer.org/acs/groups/content/@research/documents/ webcontent/acspc-042151.pdf (accessed October 21st, 2014). 2. Gatza, M.L; Silva G.O; Parker J.S; Fan C.; Perou C.M. Nat. Gen.2014, 47, 1051-1059. 3. Interview with Michael Gatza, Ph.D. 09/15/14.

health and medicine

Scrambling forTIME

Biomarkers in Emergency Medicine

BY JEFFREY YOUNG Art by Ami Shiddapur

n the world of emergency medicine, every second is critical. Physicians must race against the clock to observe, diagnose and tailor a specific treatment for the patient based on limited information. Delays or mistakes here could be deadly. One of the biggest difficulties doctors face in the emergency room is giving the right treatment, at the right time, for the right disease, to the right patient.1 Therefore, there is a great need in emergency medicine to create personalized treatments for patients by better characterizing their symptoms and predicting how their bodies might respond to different treatments (Figure 1). Dr. Charles Cairns, the Chairman of the Department of Emergency Medicine at UNC-Chapel Hill, and his team of co-investigators are trying to find ways to surmount this problem. Dr. Cairns and his team are conducting research on biomarkers, which are molecules found in the bloodstream that are able to give doctors insight into a patient’s disease state. Researchers have identified biomarkers only present when patients have specific diseases, and certain biomarkers have been found only at specific stages of the disease’s progression or when certain symptoms are present. Dr. Cairns has recently partnered with Dr. Mohanish Deshmukh, Dr. Praveen Sethupathy and Dr. Norman Sharpless to perform research on a specific microRNA (miRNA) biomarker known as miR-29 in an attempt to develop more appropriate treatments for patients that can ultimately lead to

more positive outcomes. MiR-29 is a piece of microRNA that has been shown to be expressed in higher levels with age in studies with mice.2 In fact, it is one of very few microRNAs that become elevated not only during normal aging in mice, but also in models of accelerated aging. Conversely, levels of miR-29 are reduced in models of delayed aging in mice. These results point to the posDr. Charles B. Cairns, MD. sibility that miR-29 could be a reliable biomarker of aging in humans. This is what Dr. Cairns and his colleagues have set out to examine. The concept of accelerated aging is fairly simple. Each person has a chronological age — the amount of time since they were born, and a biological age — how old the cells in their body actually function and appear to be. These two concepts of age are important because patients of different biological ages respond differently to the same medication. This is one reason older patients typically have higher mortality rates than younger patients who have the same disease. However, there is a possibility that a younger person could be relatively “old” in terms of their biological age. Ideally, physi-

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Carolina Scientific PERSONALIZED MEDICINE

• Right disease • Right subtype • Right drug • Right patient • Right dose • Right duration • Right time • Right place • Right cost

PROACTIVE MEDICINE Risk Discovery Biomarkers

Genomedisease correlations

Diagnostic Biomarkers

Risk mitigation • lifestyle • treatment

Improved outcomes & resource utilization

Figure 1. This diagram illustrates the many facets involved in developing a personalized approach to treatment. Adapted from Kingsmore, S.B.; Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2006, 5, 310–320

cians would be able to treat these two classes of patients in a different manner based on their biological ages, but this is currently not always possible or practical in an emergency room setting. By knowing a patient’s “true” age when they come to the emergency room, a physician can devise a more appropriate treatment plan. However, Dr. Cairns and his co-investigators have a long way to go until this information can be utilized in a real emergency room setting. Their research is still in its initial stages; one of the Once there is a better main challenges they face is understanding understanding of how miR-29 expression biomarkers and their is affected by different mechanisms of action, diseases. By studying miR-29 in mice, they a gene expression map hope to find a relationof RNA, proteins, and ship between miR-29 expression levels and metabolites could be treatment outcomes made for each patient. for a broad spectrum of diseases. If a correlation is observed, the research will then move to observational human studies. If the trends found in mice are also present in humans, the next step will be to create predictive models that physicians can use to understand diseases and create a personalized treatment plan for the patient. The miR-29 biomarker could also potentially slow the process of accelerated aging in patients who have elevated levels of this specific biomarker. Dr. Deshmukh’s and Dr. Sethupathy’s research observes the effects of inhibited miR-29 production and whether this inhibition allows the process of accelerated aging to be slowed down or even stopped.3 Additional research needs to be done in order to understand all of the mechanisms and biological pathways associated with miR-29, but preliminary results are promising. Currently, emergency rooms across the country utilize biomarkers. One of the most common diagnostic tests, an electrocardiogram (EKG), can quickly tell a physician if a patient has had a heart attack. A blood test for a protein complex known as troponin indicates the presence of heart damage

and can easily be done in an emergency room. According to Dr. Cairns, these simple tests have “revolutionized heart care, saving thousands of lives each year.”1 One day a biomarker for aging, like miR-29, could do something similar. Once there is a better understanding of biomarkers and their mechanisms of action, a gene expression map of RNA, proteins and metabolites could be made for each patient. By looking at this map, a physician could inform a patient they have a certain combination of biomarkers in their bloodstream, which puts them at a greater risk for a complication associated with a disease. This type of quantitative biomarker analysis has already been developed on a smaller scale to examine the disease known as sepsis. Sepsis is a broad diagnosis that refers to an infection that leads to an inflammatory response and is the tenth leading cause of death in the United States.4 Research has shown that higher levels of certain biomarkers manifest as more severe symptoms in patients.5 Dr. Cairns and his colleagues have been able to use this data to create models that predict how severe inflammation will be in other patients based on these relative biomarker levels.4 They hope that their research on miR-29 will yield similarly successful results in treating patients effectively. Looking forward, Dr. Cairns hopes that a comprehensive gene expression map of all biomarkers can be analyzed in all patients who come into the emergency room to assess their reactions to drugs and their environment. Doing so, he says, will “take care of them in a more personalized approach to medicine.”1

References

1. Interview with Charles B. Cairns, M.D. 09/16/14. 2.Dimmeler, S.; Nicotera, P. EMBO Mol. Med. 2013, 5 (2), 180–190. 3.Kole, A.J.; Swahari, V.; Hammond, S.M.; Deshmukh, M. Genes Dev. 2011, 25, 125–130. 4.Langley, R.J.; E.L.; van Velkinburgh, J.C.; Glickman, S.W.; Rice, B.J.; Wang, C.; Chen, B.; Carin, L.; Suarez, A.; Mohney, R.P.; et al. Sci. Transl. Med. 2013, 5 (195), ra95. 5.Ginde, A.A.; Blatchford, P.J.; Trzeciak, S.; Hollander, J.E.; Birkhahn, R.; Otero, R.; Osborn, T.M.; Moretti, E.; Nguyen, H.B.; Gunnerson, K.J.; et al. Shock. 2014, 42 (2), 99–107.

ecology

Community-Based Conservation harmonizing the environment and people of Eburru

The people of Eburru traditionally keep animals and hunt in the forest. Photo by Margit Bertalan.

By Taylor Nelsen

ewer than 100 bongo antelope exist on the planet. Fewer than a dozen of these majestic creatures are estimated to be in Kenyaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Eburru Forest.1 Approximately 1500 people are living in Eburru without running water or electricity.2 For generations, they have relied on the forest for hunting, fuel and timber.2 Now, for the sake of the bongos and in the name of conservation, the entire forest has been surrounded by an electric fence (Figure 1 top right). The fence physically separates the villagers from the forest and limits their access. Just as importantly, it protects the 80 square kilometers of pristine forest adjacent to the village. The Eburru Forest was once part of a forest that stretched across Kenyaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Rift Valley. Now, it is separated from the larger forest; nevertheless, it still contains a plethora of ecological beauty and rarity, including several endangered species of animals and plants. Monkeys, hogs, buffalo and the critically endangered bongo (Figure 1 top left) all make their home in the Eburru forest. The species were constantly being threatened by humans before the installation of the fence,2 and their extinction rate was astronomically large. The bongoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s stunning red coat and ivory tipped horns made it a popular target for hunters and poachers. Illegal logging and charcoal burning diminished the forest down to its current size and would have

Carolina Scientific continued. The construction of a fence was prompted to combat these issues and protect Eburru’s “fragile but important ecosystem.”3 While visiting Eburru, Margit Bertalan, a researcher seeking her Ph.D. in ecology at UNC-Chapel Hill, realized the matter was twofold. To her, these problems involving the use and conservation of the forest were more complex Margit Bertalan (right) than the Kenyan government and the conservationists involved had presumed. The dynamic relationship between the people and the forest suggested a socio-ecological problem between conservation and livelihood that was largely unaddressed. In Bertalan’s opinion, the ecological impact of the people on the forest should not overshadow the converse relationship: the social impact of the forest on the people. The conservation efforts in Eburru — specifically, the electric fence surrounding the forest — only addressed conservation concerns while ignoring the best interests of the Eburru people. Bertalan believes in establishing a middle ground: one that benefits both the forest and the impoverished people who rely on its resources. Consequently, Bertalan has developed a project that challenges the validity of the fence and its idea of conservation. “My research came about as a passion I had. I became interested in it because I saw something happening,” reflects Bertalan. “I would like to do something to change the system and how it’s going.” Ecologists’ definition of conservation has long been “to preserve, protect and restore”. This is now being questioned by a new wave of interdisciplinary researchers, including Bertalan. Flora Lu Holt, a biologist and anthropologist, defines conservation as “a response to people’s perceptions about the state of their environment and its resources, and a willingness to modify their behaviors to adjust to new realities.”4 Where typical conservation efforts focus solely on environmental resources, this new view considers humans’ power to destroy or restore their environment. Bertalan has adopted this innovative definition of conservation and translateed it into a form of research known as “community-based conservation,” which examines a problem from both an ecological and human perspective. Researchers, professionals and individuals versed in a variety of disciplines contribute to the understanding of the problem. People with traditional ecological knowledge help with field studies. By this method, the “potential for collaborating with local communities facing changing resource availability and ecological threats” is greatly utilized. 4 Bertalan says that this type of research is the most sustainable and humane option to fully understand the problem in Eburru.2 For her project, she will spend 12–18 months in Kenya interviewing, conducting focus groups and observing how people are adapting to the newly built fence. She will conduct field surveys in the forest to see if the conservation effort is truly working. She will also work with the wildlife ser-

ecology

vice and the forest service in Kenya to evaluate and hopefully temper the great mistrust the people have in the government. After her assessment is complete, she hopes to work with a non-governmental organization to implement a new solution in Eburru balancing the conservation of people with the conservation of the environment. “Ideally, there should be a way for the government to work with the people to use the forest in a sustainable way,” Bertalan said. Armed with the complete picture of conservation in Eburru, Bertalan will be able to assess how these people’s livelihood has changed and how the forest is faring. For now, the project continues to rely on considerable funding. But researchers are hopeful that Eburru natives will soon become stewards of the environment, taking ownership in and responsibility for protecting it.

Figure 1. Clockwise from top left: 1. The bongo is a critically endangered species of antelope. There are estimated to be less than 100 left. Image public domain. 2. The Kenyan government, along with Rhino Ark, an international conservation nonprofit, have built an electric fence around the Eburru forest. Image courtesy of Rhino Ark. 3. The natives of Eburru, Kenya live with no electricity, no running water and limited resources. Photo by Margit Bertalan.

References

1. Eburu Ecosystem Fence Project. http://www.rhinoark. org/our-projects/eburu-ecosystem-fence-project.html (accessed September 24th, 2014). 2. Interview with Margit Bertalan. 9/12/14. 3. Kamondo, J. Eburu Forest Conservation Management Network. http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/lessons_eburu.pdf (accessed September 24th, 2014). 4. Holt, F.L. Hum. Ecol. 2005, 33, 199–215.

ecology

The Fishery Detective Investigating snapper fish habitats in the Galápagos

By Corey Buhay

wetsuit works a lot better than a lab coat in this line of work. Dr. Joel Fodrie’s job involves spearfishing, snorkeling, tracking suspects, solving mysteries, performing surgery, operating a Go-Pro and periodically traveling to the Galápagos Islands.1 People who introduce Dr. Fodrie are fond of citing his former membership on the UNC-Chapel Hill men’s junior varsity basketball team.2 When I met him in the Galápagos, it was easy to believe; he was the tallest guy on the island. Even so,

Dr. Fodrie’s own introduction started off much more humbly: “I’m not a great teacher,” he said on my first day of class at the Galápagos Science Center. “I probably suck at teaching.”3 Dr. Fodrie’s preferred method of instruction involved floating about in the ocean and giving short, enthusiastic lectures about marine organisms as we came across them.3 A good thing, because I learned more while swimming than with any number of lectures. Even so, he’s not primarily a teaching professor, he asserts; he’s a researcher who educates outside the classroom. In North Carolina, Dr. Fodrie’s lab

Carolina Scientific studies the role that sea grass beds, oyster reefs and salt marshes play in the life of a fish — and, consequently, how important each habitat is in making a fishery more productive.4 In the Galápagos, Dr. Fodrie works with mangrove species that play a similar role as a foundation for other organisms.1 That’s how he ended up as my professor over the summer. I studied abroad for six weeks this sumDr. Fodrie is a fisheries scientist mer at UNC’s island outwho studies the link between post, a partnership behabitat and fishery health in tween the UNC Center both coastal North Carolina and for Galápagos Studies the Galápagos Islands. Image and the Universidad San courtesy of Dr. Fodrie. Francisco de Quito in Ecuador. Dr. Fodrie taught my marine ecology class. His typical professorial attire was basketball shorts and a baseball cap emblazoned with a Decoy Carvers Guild logo.3 He referred to all marine organisms with the scientific term “critter,” and spoke with a laid-back drawl that would have been very much at home in a conversation with Andy Griffith, a show Dr. Fodrie quoted often.3 He got the accent growing up in North Carolina, one town over from Morehead City, where he currently works as a fisheries scientist at UNC’s Institute for Marine Sciences. “I spent a ton of time on the water as a young person, mainly goofing around, but also doing a lot of clamming and fishing,” he reminisced.1 When he was a junior at UNC, Dr. Fodrie found himself in need of a summer job. He was wandering through Old Venable Hall when a poster about marine science caught his eye. Dr. Fodrie was intrigued — making a living by swimming around and studying fish seemed like a pretty good gig. He remembered the Morehead City marine lab, applied for a job and decided that marine science was the career for him.1 “We’re basically detectives,” he said of marine ecologists like himself. “If we have 10 fish in the system and there used to be 20, that’s a murder mystery, and we’re trying to figure out who did it.”1 This murder mystery edition of ecology was evident in the classroom, where Dr. Fodrie terrifyingly explained all potentially devastating biological phenomena in the second person. For example, discussing a starfish’s diet of mollusks sounded something like, “That sucker is going to drill into your shell and digest you from the outside, as it were.”3 As engaging as it is to hear a marine murder mystery described, I imagine it’s even more exciting to be involved in the investigation. In the Galápagos, Dr. Fodrie applies his detective skills to trace snappers, a family of predatory fish that’s also common in North Carolina.

ecology

According to Dr. Fodrie, the lab’s long-term goal is to get strong quantitative information about how habitat loss or restoration affects the number of fish that can thrive in an area. Doing work in similarly functioning habitats in North Carolina and the Galápagos, even though they are 2600 miles apart, gets the team closer to that goal.1 As Dr. Fodrie explained, “The systems are different, and the details are different, but there are some very common principles.”1 Coastal habitats in North Carolina consist of salt marshes and sea grass. In the Galápagos, mangroves perform that role. Mangroves are well known for their long, branching taproots, which form a woody lattice network that extends both above and below the water. Mangrove trees stop erosion and protect the shoreline from storms and rough waves. Birds nest in the canopies, algae grow from the branches; snails and crabs live amongst the winding roots.5

“We’re basically detectives. If we have 10 fish in the system and there used to be 20, that’s a murder mystery, and we’re trying to figure out who did it.” -Dr. Joel Fodrie Mangroves also provide underwater shelter that many fish, including snappers, take advantage of.5 Snappers are intriguing for a number of reasons. First of all, they’re smart. “A lot of fishes trap easily. You know, you put out some sort of trap or baited trap, and everything just comes in and you’ve got it,” said Dr. Fodrie.1 Not so with snappers. They will investigate a trap and avoid it. Furthermore, a school of snappers that’s easy to catch one day will know to avoid the fisherman when he returns the next day.1 “They tend to have a longer memory, if that’s a good

Figure 1. Marine iguanas use the mangroves for shade on the island of Isabella. Image courtesy of Corey Buhay.

ecology word. They’re not goldfish, where every eight seconds is a new experience for them,” said Dr. Fodrie.1 This summer, I saw a huge snapper in a mangrove-lined tide pool. It was striped and at least a foot long. It swam back and forth along the edge of the pool, eyeing the students onshore.3 “He’s figuring you out,” Dr. Fodrie said at the time.3 Snappers also have a complex life history. They have a larval stage, a juvenile stage and an adult stage. Snappers spend different phases of their life in different locations; juvenile snappers hang out in different spots than adults do. This spatial segregation allows the lab to focus on individual stages in a snapper’s life history and study how important habitat is to each of those stages.1 To do this, the team — including Matt Kenworthy, Leandro Vaca-Pita, and graduate students Danielle Keller and Rachel Gittman — videotapes fish behavior, spearfishes for samples used in dissection and implants radio tags in live-caught snappers to monitor the fishes’ movement and behavior.1 For spearfishing, the lab uses a pole spear called a Hawaiian Sling, a type they opted for because it has multiple prongs.1 “It’s kind of like a porcupine where you get four or five chances to hit the fish, whereas the spear gun is bigger and

“One of the major things in our lab, and the soapbox I often sit on, is that no one has a problem acknowledging that habitat is valuable. Beyond that, however, we really struggle to quantitatively link habitat to fish production.” -Dr. Joel Fodrie

Figure 2. Top: Dr. Fodrie’s lab takes measurements of snapper samples in the Galápagos as a source of fishery data. Center: Scientists perform surgery on snappers to implant tracking devices. Bottom: A scientist sutures up a snapper specimen after inserting a radio tag. Images courtesy of Dr. Fodrie.

the spear is basically the size of the fish,” Dr. Fodrie explained.1 (Imagine throwing a porcupine at a fish.) Spearfishing is useful for gathering samples, which the lab dissects. They’re particularly interested in examining the contents of the fishes’ stomachs to determine what they have been eating. Specifically, Dr. Fodrie’s lab wants to know whether the fish in mangrove forests have a more nutritious diet than fish outside of mangroves. (They almost always do.)1 Surgeries are for live, net-caught specimens used in long-term tracking projects. In the Galápagos, Dr. Fodrie placed the caught fish in a bath of anesthetic and performed the surgeries in a dockside gazebo on the island of Isabella.1 Isabella is a tourist hotspot, but even in the absence of human traffic, the docks are still crowded. Sea lions lounge on every available surface. They’re fuzzy. They have big brown eyes. They cuddle together when they sleep. A sea lion is an adorable creature until another sea lion waddles over its face and the former opens its mouth to complain. They sound like vomiting goats. The perfect background noise for a focused surgeon.3 “That’s our field hospital,” Dr. Fodrie said wryly. “It’s a

Carolina Scientific

ecology

Figure 3. “He’s figuring you out,” Dr. Fodrie said of the snapper in this mangrove-lined tide pool. Image courtesy of Corey Buhay. unique place to do surgery when you’ve got sea lion crap all over the place.”1 Fortunately the procedure is relatively simple: the scientists make a quick cut, insert the radio tag under the skin, and sew up the slice. According to Dr. Fodrie, the surgeries take about 15 minutes and involve sterilized tools and suture equipment designed for hospital use. After stitches, a dab of Neosporin, a recovery bath and an hour of post-surgery wait time, the fish are released, swimming away like nothing had happened.1 The surgeries were highly successful. “In all the fish, over 100, only one bid us farewell,” Dr. Fodrie said.1 When the tagged snappers are in the water, each tag sends out a signal every few minutes. The team sets up listening stations in a number of locations. “If the fish gets close enough so that the sound transmits from the fish to the listening station, we know the fish is in that area,” Dr. Fodrie said.1 The system does more than just tell how many tagged fish are in the area. “You can tell what fish, whether it was Mo or Larry or Curly, released on this day and in this place.” With enough of these listening stations, it’s possible to get an idea of each fish’s path between habitats over time.1 Dr. Fodrie’s lab is looking to draw connections between

these spatial movement patterns to determine the habitat needs of the fish. The dream is to turn the data into concrete numbers that will tell fishermen and managers of fisheries just how much habitat a species of fish needs to maximize the productivity of that fishery.1 “One of the major things in our lab, and the soapbox I often sit on, is that no one has a problem acknowledging that habitat is valuable,” Dr. Fodrie said. “Beyond that, however, we really struggle to quantitatively link habitat to fish production.”1 Wetsuit in hand, Dr. Fodrie is working on a remedy.

References

1. Interview with F. Joel Fodrie, Ph.D. 9/15/14. 2. Holliday, R. C-STEP: Helping Dreams Come True. The University Gazette, Dec 14, 2011, p 1, 11. 3. Reporter’s notes, 6/8/14—6/29/14. 4. Coastal Fisheries Oceanography & Ecology Laboratory. http://www.unc.edu/ims/fodrie/people.htm (accessed September 24th, 2014). 5. What is a “mangrove” forest? http://oceanservice.noaa. gov/facts/mangroves.html (accessed September 24th, 2014).

physics

searching for new planets with

ROBO-AO By Rachel Terrio

Image by NASA/JPL-Caltech

Robo-AO overcomes the imprecihe Robo-AO project sounds like a science fiction movie in the mak- sion caused by heat haze, however, by ing. However, the 30-foot robot- firing a laser into space to create a “false ized adaptive-laser optic system, which planet.” This “false planet” is then used can produce images of planets at a reso- to calibrate the telescope to eliminate lution comparable to the Hubble Space Earth’s heat haze, creating a dramatically Telescope located in space, is far from high resolution. The abundance of stars in the fiction.1 Robo-AO, a six-year research proj- night sky poses a problem to telescopes ect produced by both UNC-Chapel Hill in search of exoplanets. The search for and the University of Hawaii, has the planets in the presence of bright nearby potential to contribute to the advance- stars, Dr. Law explains, is comparable to ment of exoplanet exploration while “finding a firefly in front of a spotlight.”2 upgrading the toolbox of telescope- The Kepler Space Telescope detects exopowered research. Dr. Nicholas Law, planets by measuring “dips” in a star’s physics professor and lead scientist of light curve when the planet passes, but the Robo-AO project at UNC-Chapel for each individual target, Kepler spends Hill, is no beginner to approximately 15 exoplanet research, minutes locating, Robo-AO is able which focuses on turning, adjusting to target potential planets that orbit and passing various around stars other exoplanet candidates at safety checks from than the sun. the Federal Aviation To the naked an unprecedented rate. Administration and eye, stars in the night other organizations. sky appear to twinkle thanks to the Robo-AO, however, is able to tarEarth’s “heat haze,” which bends the light get potential exoplanet candidates at an in random directions. Dr. Law began his unprecedented rate. While it locates and research on exoplanets at the California adjusts to validate exoplanet candidates Institute of Technology by studying this in a process similar to Kepler, it can do so atmospheric distortion. The haze, which within just one minute while producing varies in thickness from night to night, higher-resolution images. makes it difficult for a telescope on the “This is the difference from targround to produce images with high geting and identifying 60 targets in one resolution. night versus 200 planets,” Dr. Law ex-

Dr. Nicholas Law plained. Unlike Kepler, Robo-AO operates on an automated system that greatly reduces its cost of operation. “Robo-AO shorten[s] this process … not only by bypassing many safety checks, but also by being robotized,” Dr. Law said. Due to this unique cost-saving design and its incredible resolution, Robo-AO could be used in conjunction with a number of large-scale telescopes in the near future to contribute to the quest for earthlike celestial bodies. Dr. Law hopes that one day “organizations [will] purchase the Robo-AO design and use it for various research purposes, such as the Kepler Project.”

References

1. Robo-AO. http://www.ifa.hawaii. edu/Robo-AO (accessed October 14th, 2014). 2. Interview with Nicholas Law, Ph.D. 09/19/14.

physics

Carolina Scientific

INNOVATING ELECTRONICS

with organic materials BY MAI RIQUIER An organic light emitting diode. Image by meharris, CC BY-SA 3.0

ilicon Valley might need a new name. Improvements in semiconducting materials are directing efficient, inexpensive innovations in technology that could mean more carbon and less silicon in your hard drive. For decades, silicon and other inorganic elements have dominated as the main component of semiconductors, which are the essential components of electronic devices such as computer and memory chips. However, scientists are working towards advancements in organic semiconductors, which are constructed from mostly carbon-based materials instead of silicon.1 The organic materials emerging from these efforts have allowed for cost-effective alternatives to cell phone, computer and tablet components.2 “These materials have properties that are like those of conventional semiconductors,” Dr. Laurie E. McNeil, a distinguished professor of physics and astronomy at UNC-Chapel Hill, said. “They can do the same things as those materials, but can be manufactured [inexpensively] and can have their characteristics adjusted more easily. Therefore, it is easier to design the electronics that you want.”1 For instance, perylene-tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ) is a semiconducting two-molecule, or binary, compound synthesized from organic sources. Organic materials such as TCNQ are an attractive choice for semiconductors because their physical and chemical properties can be easily manipulated. For example, if the hydrogen atoms in TCNQ are replaced with fluorine atoms, the molecule becomes more electronegative and is able to attract more charge from perylene. Changes in the chemical structure of semiconducting material can cause a considerable change in character, such as the color of light emitted from LED light bulbs. Dr. McNeil is studying materials that have properties similar to silicon. “[My research team] is still trying to understand the physics of how current flows though these materi-

Organic materials are an attractive choice for semiconductors because their physical and chemical properties can be easily manipulated.

als in order to manipulate them. For example, it is important to understand the role of molecular vibrations in the organic material and how this affects the motion of charge,” Dr. McNeil said. Dr. McNeil began her research working with organic crystals consisting of one type of molecule. She has since found that materials with Dr. Laurie E. McNeil binary compounds, such as perylene-TCNQ, allow for greater chemical manipulations and thus increased freedom to design the characteristics of transistors, which are essentially switches at the core of a computer.1 Each transistor requires semiconducting material. The major drawback of organic semiconductors is the fact that they do not give the same performance as silicon transistors, which can be turned off and on more quickly. For now, the cost-effectiveness of constructing these alternative semiconductors is a tradeoff for maximum performance. The expectation is not that they will replace silicon, but that they will be used in the types of applications where low cost is favored over superior performance. So while silicon remains the elemental standard for semiconductors, research to gain broader understanding of materials for organic semiconductors could improve their versatility. “We need to understand fundamentally how organic materials work in order to have predictive power and… be confident that the material will exert the behavior that we want,” Dr. McNeil said.1 “Our understanding of the physics of these materials allows us to design better materials and thus better devices, which will lead to new applications.”

References

1. Interview with Laurie E. McNeil, Ph.D. 09/23/14. 2. Podzorov, V. MRS Bull. 2013, 38, 15-24.

opinion and interview

PROFESSORâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;S PERSPECTIVE an interview with Dr. Jack Griffith Dr. Jack Griffith is the Kenan Distinguished Professor of Microbiology and Immunology at the University of North Carolina School of Medicine. He has pioneered the use of electron microscopy as a tool for visualizing biophysical interactions. In 1999, Dr. Griffith used electron microscopy to show that our chromosomes end in giant DNA loops. Carolina Scientific caught him on the road to Taipei, Taiwan, where he is installing DNA imaging equipment for use by researchers. Dr. Griffith speaks about his early days as a genetics researcher and the role of undergraduates in todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s research world. Image courtesy of Dr. Griffith

Interview by Matt Leming

Q: What first attracted you to research as an undergraduate? A: Well, I was brought up in the Sputnik era, in Alaska. We had very fine high schools in Alaska at that time. It was not a state then; it was a territory, and the federal government funded schools. The interest in science grew, and I went into science, and then went off to Occidental College in L.A. in physics. But the situation at that point was that it was getting fairly obvious that the job market in physics was tight, and the big questions of interest were in biological areas. I ended up transitioning from physics to biophysics. Went to Caltech. Back then, there were some groups that were kind of interested in DNA, and it became very clear at that point that it would be very helpful to look at DNA through an electron microscope. In graduate school, your whole objective is to find some interesting area and develop it yourself.

Q: You completed your postdoc with the winner of the 1959 Nobel Prize. What can you tell us about that? A: Arthur Kornberg was and is one of the real pioneers in microbiology. He did more for developing the field of DNA replication than anyone else, and he did it, really, in two ways. One was his own personal research, which was stellar, and the other was generating the family of students and former students that were able to carry the research on. It was kind of this extended family, one would like to say. So he had a very

An electron microscopy image of the viral genome of the Epstein-Barr Virus, superimposed on a field of virus particles in a section of human cells. Image courtesy of Dr. Griffith.

Carolina Scientific

opinion and interview

active lab, and then the people who left his lab continued to work hard and do some really good stuff. And, well, I guess you’d have to say he was a really dominant person in the field, a wonderful person to get to know and a warm person all in all. But any people at that level are also goal-oriented, and you also have to be somewhat like that around them. Great man. I worked with him in graduate school in 1968, and he passed away five or six years ago.

Q: How has the research experience for undergraduates changed since the 1960s? A: That’s a good question. They probably were very good then and certainly are very good now. I think it’s a matter of what field you’re in. For students in any area of physics, mostly students in physics and math when I was in college, there wasn’t a lot of opportunity for doing research, because in a four-year small liberal arts college you don’t have those faculty dedicating time to research. Had I been at Caltech or UCLA or Berkeley, I would have done more research. At UNC, there are tremendous opportunities for undergraduates. I also heard that there are perhaps 1,200 scientists with Ph. D. degrees. So, I’ve had a steady stream of undergraduates through my lab. One is now in Michigan; another is at Duke. We’ve done well, and we’ve certainly enjoyed it. You certainly have to work around student schedules and when a student would offer a semester abroad and so forth. You have to be understanding about that. I think students need to be able to get into the labs and do research, and there’s certainly a lot of opportunities.

Q: Are the dynamics with undergraduates similar to graduate students? A: No, graduate students are here to work hard. They should be adapting everything they do to work here. That said, there’s stuff you’ll have to deal with. But it’s understood that undergraduates have classes and all that. The graduate students are mostly focusing their time on working in the lab or projects. But the graduate students also have classes they have to take and all that, so there’s always stuff on the table.

Q: Is there any advice you would give to undergraduates that are interested in going into research? A: You know, I think it’s exciting, and they need to do it. There’s lots of opportunities nowadays. Getting an M.D. is always useful because it gives you a leg up. It opens doors that you wouldn’t normally have. You can work with sick people, do research, go into engineering, and work on bionic eyelids and so forth. So I think, nowadays, certainly that is a very good default. And I guess one of the ways I would encourage students to do that is to get one after the other.

Images captured by electron microscopy in Dr. Griffith’s lab. From top to bottom: 1. A twisted DNA molecule. 2. Dr. Griffith has shown that the ends of human chromosomal DNA are arranged in large lasso-like loops called T-loops. 3. A bacterial cell being infected by a bacterial virus. Images courtesy of Dr. Griffith.

opinion and interview

BREAKING BOUNDARIES with alternative science careers

By Larisa Bennett

Image public domain.

ach year, approximately 9,000 students receive a Ph.D. in biology. Of this large potential applicant pool, only 10 percent obtain a tenure-track position at an academic institution, leaving the remaining 8,100 graduates to pursue non-traditional careers. Of all the Ph.D. students that Dr. John Bruno, professor at UNC-Chapel Hill’s biology department, has graduated, only one is employed in an academic profession. Sometimes, Dr. Bruno thinks about not taking any more graduate students because of “the limits on how many academic research jobs there are.”1 However, Non-traditional he continues to train careers account for the graduate students: eventual employment “On the other hand, there are lots of jobs of the majority of in other fields that you can apply the same biology Ph.D.s. kinds of tools to.”1 Non-traditional science professions offer a spectrum of options, from alternate academic (alt-ac) careers focused on teaching, advising or administration to industry jobs, science or medical writing, and government and policy positions. Non-traditional careers

account for the eventual employment of the majority of biology Ph.D.s. This trend is due not only to the relative scarcity of tenure-track jobs, but also because students’ interests become focused in different directions as they progress through the mentored research and postdoctoral process common to Ph.D.s before they find their ultimate career path.

Figure 1. The percentage of biological sciences Ph.D.s in tenure track positions has been steadily decreasing. Image courtesy of the National Science Foundation.

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SCIENCE CAREER RESOURCES: Broadening Experiences in Scientific Training (BEST) • In 2014, grants to fund BEST were awarded to seven schools nationally, one of which was UNC. • Program goal: to provide supplementary professional training to Ph.D. students and postdoctoral fellows • Emphasis on experiential learning (local externships in the private sector, government organizations, nonprofits and academic institutions and job shadowing opportunities) to increase hands-on experience • Emphasis on professional development training (workshops, career exploration activities and more)

Training Initiatives in Biomedical and Biological Sciences (TIBBS) • The TIBBS program is expanding to serve postdoctoral fellows as well as graduate students • Career cohorts (groups where students and postdoctoral fellows support each other, learn about different career areas and share resources) are being created

My Individual Development Plan on ScienceCareers.org • Assesses personal values, interests and skills to help you figure out where you stand right now and what skills you should improve upon to achieve your goals • Recommends possible career matches for your individual answers to the assessments and provides comprehensive information for each career While the undeniable draws of tenure-track faculty positions are job security and stability, positions in industry offer the lure of the highest available salaries for talented scientists.3 The downside? People employed in industry tend to switch jobs frequently, often changing positions about once every two years.2 Research Triangle Park (RTP) in UNC’s own backyard is a veritable smorgasbord of options for Ph.D.s. Besides large corporations (e.g. GlaxoSmithKline, Becton Dickinson and Quintiles), RTP is also home to large numbers of successful start-up companies as well as Contract Research Organizations (CROs). CROs, which contract with other companies to carry out clinical or analytical work, are major employers of Ph.D.s in the Triangle area.2 Further opportunities exist in government work. Two substantial local government employers are the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS).2 Science outreach is

opinion and interview

another area that attracts a significant percentage of doctoral scientists. The myriad of non-traditional vocations includes scientific writing, editing scientific journals, genetic counseling, grant-writing or even jobs in patent firms that require scientific expertise. A doctoral degree can also be the first step to a professional degree in law, business or veterinary medicine. Among those who have an alt-ac career is Dr. Blaire Steinwand, a STEM lecturer in the UNC biology department. “There are a lot of great things about being me,” she says.3 Dr. Steinwand teaches core classes each semester and works with other departmental faculty to transform how science is being taught. The classroom teaching style is being transitioned from straight lecture to an active learning model to better enable students to create and utilize knowledge. In this type of profession, there is no pressure for Dr. Steinwand to write grants or do research, and as an added bonus she gets a month off for Christmas. So if laboring over research is not how you want to spend your future, then an alt-ac career is a great option. For Dr. Steinwand, the alt-ac position is a perfect fit. “It’s so super fun — I mean, I was using pool noodles in class today. I love it!”3 A Ph.D. program gives graduates a set of skills that makes them marketable in a variety of careers. The ability to think like a scientist is one of those valuable skills, according to Dr. Gidi Shemer, a biology faculty advisor. “What your gut feeling is and what logic tells you often does not work,” Dr. Shemer says. “You learn to try and prove yourself wrong, and these kinds of skills give you the tools you need to deal with a new field, even if you are not familiar with the specific rules and protocols.”4 Ph.D. programs also teach students how to be persistent and resilient and how to excel at writing and negotiation. These well-honed skills open doors of opportunity. According to Dr. Erin Hopper, director of UNC’s Training Initiatives in Biomedical and Biological Sciences (TIBBS), UNC is “working hard to provide science trainees with the professional tools to be successful in a variety of careers. There are a number of career outcomes that come about through Ph.D. training, all of which are … equally beneficial to the scientific community. The real marker of career success is whether the trainees are happy and satisfied in their careers.”2 One heartening statistic is the employment rate for Ph.D.s, which is 98 percent.2 So, though the majority do not have a tenure track position, they are working in a variety of other careers. “Trainees have a responsibility to learn about the career options that are open to them, and UNC is working to help them through that process,” Dr. Hopper says. “Once you focus in on what you want to do … if you’re persistent, then the right opportunity will eventually come around.”2

References

1. Interview with John Bruno, Ph.D. 09/30/14. 2. Interview with Erin Hopper, Director of TIBBS. 09/24/14. 3. Interview with Blaire Steinwand, STEM Lecturer. 10/01/14. 4. Interview with Gidi Shemer, Biology Faculty Advisor. 09/23/14.

opinion and interview

In the year 2014, more women than men will earn a bachelor’s degree in the United States. Yet, women remain largely outnumbered in higher education STEM fields. Research shows this problem is engrained in cultural stereotypes and can discourage girls starting at a young age. Photo by Getty Images for International Aids Initiative, 2008.

a scientist’s guide to

GENDER INEQUALITY By Hope Thomson

cience is a field of unsung heroes. Whether the Ph.D. candidate working weekends or the undergraduate monitoring samples at midnight, recognition is hard earned, funding is scarce and only a select few get the call from Stockholm informing them of their entrance into the scientific elite. By an unspoken pact, scientists agree to work quietly and humbly because many believe in the nobility of the pursuit of knowledge, or perhaps they believe that one day Stockholm will award them that shiny Nobel medal. The tragedy is not these hard-working soldiers, marching with their heads down towards the ultimate discovery. The tragedy is that some gladiators never even get to enter the ring. Women and girls are discouraged from entering and succeeding in science, technology, engineering and math (STEM) careers, even though they have the mental ability, desire and passion to do the work. In a field that is focused on progress and growth, it is certainly time to correct the disparities present between men and women scientists. In 2006, only 16.6 percent of doctoral degrees in physics

were earned by women. The field clocking in with the highest percentage of female degree recipients was biological and agricultural sciences at 47.9 percent, while chemistry, computer science and other STEM areas hovered in the 20–30 percent range.1 This lack of representation for women in STEM can begin very early, as evidenced by clothing marketed to girls of all ages, but the effect begins to manifest in the high-school-tocollege transition period. Although girls are typically enrolled in as many high school math and science courses as their male classmates, female college freshmen do not choose to enter STEM majors in the same numbers as their male counterparts. This is true even though women have started to earn more bachelor’s degrees overall than men, taking home 57 percent of all awarded bachelor’s degrees in 2010.2 Beyond undergraduate education, the effect only spirals into even fewer women pursuing higher education in STEM fields, obtaining advanced degrees and being awarded tenure or leadership positions in scientific careers. The cause of this shortfall in equality can be boiled

Carolina Scientific down to a couple of factors. The first is implicit bias, or the uncontrolled and unconscious feelings, thoughts and opinions that we all have about certain subjects. Implicit bias is being studied at Harvard University through a free Internet test that has assigned general associations of the public to societal elements such as race, sexual orientation and profession. Among the 299,298 participants, the study found that 72 percent possess a slight to strong association of men with science and women with liberal arts, while the inverse (associating women with science) was only true for 10 percent of participants.3 A similar result was observed when considering the necessity of commitment to one’s career in STEM fields: 76 percent of the population (n = 83,084) showed slight to strong association of men with “career” and women with “family,” while only 6.3 percent showed the opposite association.3 These implicit biases are perceived each day, often unknowingly, and they reinforce Women and girls are the notion that discouraged from STEM fields are entering and succeeding not intended for women. Morein science, technology, over, studies have engineering and math shown that being told a subject is (STEM) careers, even male-dominated though they have the decreases female mental ability, desire and performance in the correspondpassion to do the work. ing subject, especially in highstakes exam situations. The phenomenon is called “stereotype threat,” and when exposed to it in a particular study, female students significantly underperformed their male counterparts on a given math test.1 These students were told a mantra that women in the United States hear all too often, whether on a poorly designed T-shirt or from the jerk who sits next to them in class: Girls are bad at math. Yet, the female students who were told that both genders were expected to perform similarly on the exam did just that and received the same average scores as their male classmates.4 From these observations, it is easily discernible why some women are not entering STEM fields — they do not believe they possess the confidence or the ability to do so. Challenges for women in STEM persist in spheres of higher education, and for Dr. Jillian Dempsey of the UNC-Chapel Hill chemistry department, the little things add up. “This is going to seem like a silly story,” Dr. Dempsey says. “I work in Kenan [Laboratories], and you will notice quickly that there are very few women’s bathrooms.”5 Dr. Dempsey and her colleagues saw that women’s rooms were singlestalled and placed on every other floor, while men’s rooms contained multiple stalls and were easy to find. “It’s a little frustrating … to be running up and down stairs just looking for an open restroom.” While UNC has begun to address the issue and plans to repurpose some of the bathrooms for female use, this kind of variance reminds women

opinion and interview

Figure 1. Great women scientists, from left to right: Marie Curie, discoverer of radioactivity and first person to win two Nobel prizes; Ada Lovelace, considered to be the world’s first computer programmer; Lise Meitner, discoverer of nuclear fission; Rosalind Franklin, instrumental crystallographer in the deciphering of DNA structure. Images public domain. that, as Dr. Dempsey says, “This field was not built for you; this building was not built for female professors.” Other aspects of a life in academia reinforce the differences between men and women rather than focus on the similarities between two intellectuals. In particular, family planning is an area that is largely unsupported at academic and industrial institutions, and UNC is no exception. From lack of daycare facilities to inadequate space available for nursing mothers, it is increasingly difficult to work at Carolina while also raising a family — the female faculty call this “juggling.”6 One policy that will impact Dr. Dempsey and others with spouses at the university is the lack of dual leave for new parents.7 If both parents work at Carolina, only one may take leave to care for a newborn or newly adopted child, and due to societal norms of child-rearing as well as physical conditions before and after labor, this is usually the woman’s responsibility. Being at home with the child logically results in taking on more of the housework, and as Dr. Dempsey worries, “Research shows a misbalance of who is pulling the weight at ®

opinion and interview women researchers must be honored, awarded and put in leadership roles. The public needs to know about great female scientists from history (Figure 1), and we have to tap into all of our country’s intellect so that future innovators can join their ranks. As a scientific and a Carolina community, it is essential that we break down the barriers to entry that women observe and implicitly feel coming into the STEM fields because these barriers have become deeply ingrained in American society. Even as a feminist, a scientist and a woman, I exhibited a moderate association of men with science and women with liberal arts on Harvard University’s implicit test. Chancellor Carol Folt recently echoed my thoughts exactly on the issue of this disparity: we are at a time where minorities and women are on the rise in STEM fields.6 Carolina should not just be a part of that change. Carolina should be leading it.

References

LEGO® recently manufactured a female chemist minifigurine to help create a positive image of women in science. Photo by Josh Sheetz. home can stick.”8 In fact, it is typically already stuck before progeny even enter the picture. A study by the American Association of University Professors found that women scientists in “dual career partnerships,” meaning they are married to a fellow scientist or academic, perform nearly twice as much housework as their spouses — up to 10 additional hours a week.9 Of course, this is on top of teaching class, overseeing a research lab and writing grant proposals — the same job-related activities performed by their spouses. Although efforts Solving this problem are being made to involve and support women in requires a holistic STEM, such as Google’s approach, one that girl-focused “Made with addresses concerns Code” computer science women face from pre-K to Ph.D.s. initiative, many obstacles, the most basic being insecurity in their field.10 Dr. Dempsey cited instances of female graduate students who were still “just not sure they were good enough,” and at the fall meeting of the American Chemical Society, the Women Chemists Committee held an entire breakfast to encourage more professional women chemists to apply for awards.11 This absence of confidence is only compounded by the micro-aggressions that exist in the workplace, the lack of support in juggling family with career and unfortunately, darker and deeper issues, such as sexual assault on female scientists in the field.12 Solving this problem requires a holistic approach, one that addresses concerns from pre-K to Ph.D.s. Girls must be encouraged and stimulated in STEM fields. Men and women need to offer young female scientists mentorship networks and understanding environments to reassure them that they are welcome in their discipline. Qualified women faculty should be considered, hired and given tenure. Accomplished

1. Hill, C.; Corbett, C.; St. Rose, A. Why So Few? Women in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics 2010. 2. Aud, S.; Hussar, W.; Johnson, F.; Kena, G.; Roth, E.; Manning, E.; Wang, X.; Zhang, J. Degrees Earned; The Condition of Education 2012; NCES 2012-045; U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics: Washington, DC, 2012. 3. Carney, D.R.; Nosek, B.A.; Greenwald, A.G.; Banaji, M.R. Implicit Association Test (IAT). In Encyclopedia of Social Psychology; Baumeister, R., Vohs, K., Eds.; SAGE Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA, 2007; pp 463–464. 4. Spencer, S.J.; Steele, C.M.; Quinn, D.M. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 1999, 35, 4–28. 5. Interview with Jillian Dempsey, Ph.D. 09/17/14. 6. Creating an Inclusive Climate for Female Faculty in the Sciences, Proceedings of the 3rd Annual Diversity in Higher Education Series, Chapel Hill, NC, Sept 23, 2014. 7. Faculty Serious Illness Leave/Parental Leave Frequently Asked Questions. http://academicpersonnel.unc.edu/faculty-policies-procedures-guidelines/leave/faculty-seriousillness-leaveparental-leave-frequently-asked-questions/ (accessed September 14th, 2014). 8. Mundy, L. Daddy Track: The Case for Paternity Leave. http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/01/ the-daddy-track/355746/ (accessed October 8th, 2014). 9. Schiebinger, L.; Gilmartin, S.K. Academe 2010, 96 (1), pp. 39–44. 10. Mendoza, M. Google Launching New Push to Get Girls Into Coding. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/06/19/ google-girls-who-code_n_5511610.html?utm_hp_ref=girlsin-stem (accessed October 5th, 2014). 11. Reporter’s notes. 248th American Chemical Society National Meeting & Exposition, San Francisco, CA, Aug 10–14, 2014. 12. Jahren, A.H. Science’s Sexual Assault Problems. http:// www.nytimes.com/2014/09/20/opinion/science-has-asexual-assault-problem.html?_r=0 (accessed September 24th, 2014).

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psychology

GRATITUDE: it’s in your genes

Researchers show oxytocin plays a role in social bonding By Courtney Roof

ratitude isn’t just about saying “thank you” to the barista making your triple macchiato in the mornings. Recent research on the biological basis of gratitude expression in romantic relationships reveals that how you express gratitude — and how often — is related to certain variations within your DNA.1,2 Social psychologist Dr. Sara Algoe is the primary investigator in the Emotions and Social Interactions in Relationships (EASIR) lab at UNC-Chapel Hill. She researches how certain emotions influence our social interactions with others and how, in turn, our interactions influence our emotions. In a joint collaboration with Dr. Baldwin Way, a social neuroscientist at Ohio State University, Dr. Algoe investigated how secretion of the hormone oxytocin plays a role in quality and quantity of people’s natural expression of gratitude. “This is the first evidence to support the hypothesized biological underpinnings of the role of the emotion of gratitude in social life,” Dr. Algoe said.1 Oxytocin, more generally referred to as the “love hormone” or the “bonding hormone,” has an influence on various interactions related to social bonding, sexual activity, maternal instinct and even stress response. Some of the earliest research investigating the role of oxytocin in relationships found that it facilitates monogamy in prairie voles.2 Since the emergence of these findings, it has been the directive of research like Dr. Algoe’s to better understand the role of oxytocin in human romantic relationships, but until recently, there had not been much biological evidence to support oxytocin’s role in promoting the bonds in these relationships. Dr. Algoe and Dr. Way hypothesized that if oxytocin has an influence on bonding in romantic relationships, it must impact behavior in order to have that influence. They proposed that oxytocin might then play a role in these interactions by affecting expression of gratitude.1 To measure oxytocin’s effect on gratitude, the researchers watched couples interact while measuring oxytocin by how the gene CD38 was expressed in subjects’ DNA. Previous research shows that the gene, which is necessary for the secretion of the oxytocin hormone in mice,3 is also correlated with greater levels of oxytocin in human plasma.4 Because this gene theoretically relates to oxytocin secretion in humans, examining the variation of this gene allowed the researchers to test how oxytocin might be related

to the frequency and quality of gratitude expression. In their study, Dr. Algoe and Dr. Way studied interactions between 77 romantic couples. In addition to undergoing genetic assessment, the couples provided information about their relationship quality and were observed in a task that required each partner to express gratitude for something the other had done. AfterDr. Sara Algoe wards, each partner independently evaluated how well the interaction had gone. The couples also provided information about their everyday gratitude expression over the course of two weeks.1 The researchers found that variation in one form of the CD38 gene correlated with greater quality of gratitude expression in the observed interactions, greater frequency of expression across the 14-day period, greater overall relationship satisfaction and more positive feelings following the gratitude expression interaction.1These findings imply that the way we express gratitude to our romantic partners is, in part, embedded in our DNA, and this behavior may ultimately have an effect on how content we are in our relationships. “This work also provides a window into a different theoretical approach for examining the role of oxytocin in social life,” Dr. Algoe said.1 Dr. Algoe is enthusiastic to continue to study the role of oxytocin in relationships more directly and suggests that it may even be possible to observe similar effects in platonic relationships.1 For now, Dr. Algoe’s research makes it clear that in the realm of romance, a simple “thank you” may go a long way.

References

1. Email with Sara Algoe, Ph.D. 09/21/14. 2. Algoe, S.B.; Way, B.M. Soc. Cogn. Affect. Neur. 2014, 1, nst182. 3. Jin, D.; Liu, H.X.; Hirai, H.; Torashima, T.; Nagai, T.; Lopatina, O.; Shnayder, N.A.; Yamada, K.; Noda, M.; Seike, T.; et al. Nature. 2007, 446, 41–45. 4. Kiss, I.; Levy-Gigi, E.; Keri, S. Biol. Psychol. 2011, 88, 223–226.

“Every great and deep difficulty bears in itself its own solution. It forces us to change our thinking in order to find it.” -Niels Bohr

Image by Ildar Sagdejev, [CC-BY-SA-3.0].

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scıentıfic Fall 2014 | Volume 7 | Issue 1

This publication was funded at least in part by Student Fees which were appropriated and dispersed by the Student Government at UNC-Chapel Hill.