The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Vol 13 (2) 2018

ISSN: 2519-5670

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26.

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Changing paradigms: Library and Information Science (LIS) education and training in Zimbabwe PEDZISAI KATULI-MUNYORO AND STEPHEN M. MUTULA

Teacher efficacy and classroom management in Africa: A meta-analysis KUDUAKWASHE CHRISTOPHER MUCHENA AND WAITSHEGA TEFO SMITTA MOALOSI

Correlates of academic malpractices CHINAZA ULEANYA AND BONGANI THULANI GAMEDE

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67.

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Student throughput trends on postgraduate level: An African case study RJ (NICO) BOTHA

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VOLUME 13 (2) / 2018

Exploring the need to contextualise professional development programmes for university lecturers: A case study in Thailand LOÏSE JEANNIN AND PHILIP HALLINGER

Anthropomorphic graphics: How useful are they as an instructional aid to facilitate learning?

TS’EKELO PATRICK MOREMOHOLO AND RUDI W. DE LANGE

The external school consultant as a proposed agent for school improvement RENE M. ODDENDAAL AND ELIZE C. DU PLESSIS

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Practitioners’ Corner A contact-based practical approach to STEM projects in South Africa JOHAN VENTER AND DANIEL RODRIGUES VAN NIEKERK

Doctoral Corner

THE INDEPENDENT

Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning

The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning (IJTL) is an education-focused journal, published twice a year, online and open access [ISSN 2519-5670 (Online)] by The Independent Institute of Education. The aim of the journal is to make a difference to educators at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels. Providing a scholarly forum for academics and education practitioners to share research on teaching and learning. The journal as well as all submission and publication information can be found at https://ijtl.iie.ac.za/ The IJTL is intended to be a resource for education practitioners and researchers as it aims to provide useful, research-based resources and provide a scholarly forum for academics and education practitioners to share in research on educational practices and teaching and learning at various levels.

The following contributions are considered for publication: • Research-based empirical, reflective or synoptic articles that would be of interest to education practitioners; • Review articles that critically examine research carried out in a specific field; • Discussion or advocacy papers suitable for publication, articles for publication in a section entitled practitioners corner; • Book reviews that comprise a clear and concise evaluation of recently published books.

• The journal accepts Doctoral Abstracts, which include the link to the full text thesis from researchers that have graduated with a PhD/Doctorate in Education in the last two years. These are not peer reviewed and are published in a separate section of the journal.

Editor-in-Chief Professor Dolina Dowling BA; Dip Ed; Dip Sp Ed; APhS; MA; PhD. Managing Editor Marla Koonin BA Comm; BA Hons Journ (cum laude); MA Journ (cum laude); CPRP. Editorial Advisory Board Professor Carmel McNaught BSc (Hons); Dip Ed; MEd; PhD. Professor Andile Mji BSc; HDE; BEd; MEd; DEd. Professor Michael Glencross BSc; PGCE; BEd; BSc(Hons); MPhil; DPhil.

Dr Felicity Coughlan B SocSc Hons (SW); B SocSc Hons (Psych); MSc; DPhil.

Publisher The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning is published by The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd. ADvTech House Inanda Greens Business Park 54 Wierda Road West Wierda Valley, Sandton South Africa www.iie.ac.za

The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning – Volume 13 (2) / 2018 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

Disclaimer The publisher and the editor cannot be held responsible for any consequences arising from the use of information contained in this journal.

The views and opinions expressed do not necessarily reflect those of the publisher or the editor.

Address for correspondence Professor Dolina Dowling Editor-in-Chief The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning PO Box 2369 Randburg 2125 South Africa E-mail: editor@iie.ac.za

Contents Volume 13 (2)

1.

Notes on contributors

4.

Editorial Professor Dolina Dowling

7.

Changing paradigms: Library and Information Science (LIS) education and training in Zimbabwe Dr Pedzisai Katuli-Munyoro, University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa Professor Stephen M. Mutula, University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

26.

Teacher efficacy and classroom management in Africa: A meta-analysis Dr Kuduakwashe Christopher Muchena, Nelson Mandela University, South Africa Dr Waitshega Tefo Smitta Moalosi, University of Bostwana, Botswana

36.

Correlates of academic malpractices Dr Chinaza Uleanya, University of Zululand, South Africa Dr Bongani Thulani Gamede, University of Zululand, South Africa

53.

Student throughput trends on postgraduate level: An African case study Professor RJ (Nico) Botha, University of South Africa, South Africa

2018

67.

Anthropomorphic graphics: How useful are they as an instructional aid to facilitate learning?

Ts’ekelo Patrick Moremoholo, Central University of Technology, South Africa Professor Rudi W. de Lange, Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa

82.

The external school consultant as a proposed agent for school improvement Dr Rene M. Oddendaal, University of South Africa, South Africa Professor Elize C. du Plessis, University of South Africa, South Africa

98.

Exploring the need to contextualise professional development programmes for university lecturers: A case study in Thailand Dr Loïse Jeannin, Université Clermont Auvergne, France and University of Johannesburg, South Africa Dr Philip Hallinger, Mahidol University, Thailand and University of Johannesburg, South Africa

113.

Practitioners’ Corner A contact-based practical approach to STEM projects in South Africa Johan Venter, University of Johannesburg, South Africa Daniel Rodrigues van Niekerk, University of Johannesburg, South Africa

128.

Doctoral Corner

125.

List of reviewers The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 13 (2) / 2018 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

1 Notes on contributors

Professor RJ (Nico) Botha is Professor in Education Management in the College of Education at Unisa.

His fields of specialisation are Educational Leadership and International Education. He has been involved with the training of school principals and other educational leaders for more than 28 years and has presented more than 25 research papers at international conferences abroad and more than 40 research articles in accredited journals on this issue. He holds, inter alia, a Bachelor’s degree in Mathematics and Chemistry from the University of Pretoria and a Doctorate in Education Management from the University of South Africa. He is editor of two scholarly text books in the field of Education Management and is married with three children.

Dr Bongani Thulani Gamede is a researcher and the current head of the Social Sciences Department, University of Zululand, South Africa. Amongst his niche research areas are: entrepreneurship education, rurality education as well as Africanisation and Education. He has supervised several Masters and Doctoral students. He is also the current coordinator of the community engagement project organised under the auspices of the Faculty of Education, University of Zululand.

Dr Philip Hallinger is recognised internationally as an innovator in leadership development. A prolific author, trainer and consultant, he has lived in Asia for the past 25 years and works extensively with both private and public sector organisations. Philip is an internationally recognised scholar in educational leadership and change. He is acknowledged as an innovation leader in the areas of instructional leadership, educational change, leadership development, and school improvement. He authored the Principal Instructional Leadership Rating Scale (PIMRS), the most widely used survey instrument in the world for measuring instructional leadership.

Dr Loïse Jeannin is a project leader for pedagogical innovation at the Université Clermont Auvergne in France. She is a research associate in a French and a South African centre for educational research (Laboratoire ACTé-France, Ali Mazrui Center for Educational Research-South Africa). She has published multiple articles on the professional development of university lecturers. She is especially interested in international mobility and self-reflexion practice for university lecturers (SOTL approach).

Professor Rudi de Lange holds a PhD (Didactics) from the University of Stellenbosch (1999) and a Master’s Diploma in Technology (Graphic Design) from the Technikon Free State (1993), now the Central University of Technology. His current research interest is in the field of misleading visual communication.

He teaches research methodology and supervises masters and doctoral candidates in graphic design at the Tshwane University of Technology.

The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 13 (2) / 2018 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

2 Dr P. Katuli-Munyoro is a post-doctoral student in the Information Studies Programme at the University of KwaZulu-Natal. Katuli-Munyoro holds professional degrees in geography and environmental studies (BSc) and information studies (MSc and PhD). She has more than 15 years of working experience as a faculty staff member in higher education institutions in Zimbabwe. She is an author of seven refereed journal articles. Her research interests are education, higher education, employability skills, information technology, gender and politics.

Dr. Smitta Moalosi is a senior lecturer in the Department of Educational Foundations, University of Botswana. Smitta’s research interests are: Teacher efficacy and classroom management, Critical thinking, reasons for choosing teaching as a career, self-concept, adolescent development and trauma in orphans and vulnerable children.

Ts’ekelo Patrick Moremoholo is a doctoral student in Graphic Design at the Tshwane University of Technology (TUT). He is also a designer and lecturer at the Department of Design and Studio Art, Central University of Technology (CUT). His primary training has been in the fields of design and visual communication. His research interests include: graphic techniques such as animation, visual literacy and creativity which he integrates within graphic design and teaching practice.

Dr K.C. Muchena is a Research Associate with the HIV and AIDS Research Unit at the Nelson Mandela University. His research interests are in HIV and AIDS, Gender and family relations, and Personality development.

Professor Mutula is a full professor in the Information Studies Programme at the University of KwaZuluNatal. He is dean and head of School of Social Sciences. He has served as interim deputy vice chancellor in the college of humanities at the same university. He holds professional degrees in education (BEd), computer science (PGD Comp Sci) and information science (PhD). He has over 20 years of working experience as faculty in universities in east and Southern Africa. He is an author of books and over 120 journal refereed articles. His research interests are information ethics, e-government, digital libraries and e-learning.

Dr Rene M. Odendaal is a senior lecturer at Unisa in the Department Languages, Arts and Culture, College of Education. She obtained her doctoral degree from Rand Afrikaans University. Her research focuses mainly on learnerships, Work Integrated Learning, Open Distance Teaching and Education, but more specifically Teacher training for Arts Education. She has also presented papers nationally as well as internationally in these specific fields.

Professor Elize C. du Plessis is Professor in Curriculum and Instructional Studies and Programme Manager for PGCE Senior and FET phase. She has got 29 years’ experience in Distance Teaching. She has co-authored many textbooks. She has also presented papers nationally as well as internationally in various fields. Many students have completed their Masters and Doctoral studies under her careful guidance.

Dr Chinaza Uleanya is a lecturer and researcher in the Social Sciences Education Department, University of Zululand, South Africa. His areas of interest include: rural development through teaching and learning activities, decolonisation of education, entrepreneurship education in rural communities, amongst others. He has authored and co-authored several articles in this regard and has presented research findings in various conferences. He has received different awards and scholarships based on his research prowess as well as involvement in community development projects.

The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 13 (2) / 2018 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

3 Daniel Rodrigues van Niekerk is a lecturer in the Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering Technology at the University of Johannesburg. He received his National Diploma and B.Tech degree in Electrical Engineering from Technikon Witwatersrand in 1998 and 1999 respectively. He then spent six years working as a design technologist at Circuit Breaker Industries (CBI) from 2000 to 2006, developing electricity prepaid metering and electronic earth leakage protection products based on established specifications. In 2006, he started teaching at National Diploma and B-Tech degree level and assists voluntarily in community engagement STEM-based projects in the University. He obtained a Magister Technologiae (M-Tech) degree in Electrical Engineering in 2009 at the University of Johannesburg. His current research interest includes electrical surge protection, microcontroller and industrial control systems.

He is also registered as a professional Engineering Technologist with the Engineering Council of South Africa (ECSA).

Johan Venter is a lecturer in the Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering Technology at the University of Johannesburg and is pursuing a doctorate with the University of Pretoria on a part-time basis.

He received his B.Eng, B.Eng (Hons) and M.Eng degrees from the University of Pretoria in 2009, 2010 and 2013, respectively. His current research interest includes characterisation of SiGe BiCMOS HBT technology for the application of photodetectors from room temperature down to cryogenic temperatures.

He teaches at National Diploma and B-Tech degree level and actively engages in community engagement STEM-based projects on a voluntary part-time basis. He authored or co-authored six publications in peerreviewed journals and at local as well as international conferences.

The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 13 (2) / 2018 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

4 Editorial Dolina Dowling

The need for continuous improvement within education institutions is a sine qua non. World-class universities whether those be in the Ivy League in the US, the Russell Group in the UK, top QS-rated universities in Asia, and school systems such as those in Finland and Singapore, all endeavour to drive up their already high achievements whilst weaker institutions embark upon quality improvement programmes. In South Africa, leaders of the research-led universities guard and promote their reputations whilst others seek prominence for their institutions’ strategic niches through the achievement of their vision and mission statements. School principals scan the matric results to see how their students have fared and tellingly it is not always the preserve of the best resourced that achieve excellent results. For instance, in 2016 a rural school in KwaZulu-Natal achieved 180 distinctions whilst a recognised historically disadvantaged school achieved a 100% pass rate each year.

Needless to say, student attainment in raw figures is not the goal of education. The purpose of education is both a public and private good. Public in that the generation, dissemination and application of knowledge contributes to the socio-economic development and prosperity of a country and enhances its competitiveness in the global economy.1 Private in that it provides students with the opportunity to gain the knowledge, skills and competencies to further their own learning so that they can strive to realise their potential, participate effectively in the economy, and be engaged citizens. In short to flourish as persons and lead fulfilled lives.2 For these desiderata to be attained, education provision at every level needs to be of the highest quality.

No matter how good an education institution is, there is always room for enhancement. This is recognised by the South African government in the various grants given to institutions to enhance their provision.

Improvement takes place in areas such as governance and management, teaching and learning, research, and community engagement activities. Whilst it is difficult to prioritise one over the other since all impact on the student experience and thereby student success, high quality teaching in the class or lecture rooms cannot be overemphasised. The articles in this second volume of the 2018 Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning (IJTL) bear testimony to this.

The relevance and currency of programme offerings provides the foundation for high quality teaching and learning to take place. In the first article of this edition, the authors examine the impact of the move

1 Dowling, IJTL 2006 2 Dowling, IJTL 2006

The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 13 (2) / 2018 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

5 from industrialism to a knowledge economy and the implications for programmes. Their research findings show that the curriculum of yesteryear is no longer relevant and thus there needs to be a concomitant shift in academic programmes. They found that this has not taken place in Library and Information Science education in Zimbabwe. A number of recommendations are offered.

The role of the teacher in student learning cannot be overstated. This is the crux of the following two articles. In the first, the authors conducted a meta-analysis of the literature in Africa concerning teacher efficacy and classroom management. The correlation between student achievement and teacher efficacy was significant. This surely holds for teachers engaged at all levels of education. In the next article, the ethical and conscientious practice of teaching in ensuring quality is explored through identifying pedagogic malpractices in two sub-Saharan African universities. A number of malpractices in relation to pedagogy were found which have a negative impact on student performance. Recommendations were made to address this situation.

The fourth article deals with the thorny issue of student throughput and retention. Whilst its focus is on postgraduates, this is often a seemingly intractable problem for universities at the undergraduate level.

As a result of the investigation a number of causes were identified and recommendations were given to tackle these.

The learning materials used in programme delivery are important components of successful teaching and learning. These need to be chosen thoughtfully and interrogated for effectiveness. This is the point of the next paper in which the authors discuss their study on the use of anthropomorphised graphics in student learning material. Contrary to other studies, non-significant results were found. Further exploration is needed.

The role of external consultants in supporting school improvement is under-analysed and thus often underestimated. The sixth article provides a thoughtful analysis of the attributes and skills that such consultants can bring to this complex task and be of benefit to the school’s performance.

Implicit in the above articles, is the importance of professional development opportunities for faculty. The seventh article decries the one-size-fits-all approach to professional development and seeks to understand the contexts and in particular the way that culture - national and institutional - impact on pedagogy. The research was conducted in an English-speaking university in Thailand with findings compared to relevant literature. Context, individual competence, and career growth need to be considered so that tailored professional development programmes are offered to academics. Monitoring mechanisms need to be put in place to assess the effectiveness of such programmes. By doing so, the quality of programme offerings and teaching and learning will be enhanced, which will have a positive impact on student success.

The need to ensure a country has the human resources to drive and service the economy underpins the article in Practitioners’ Corner. South-Africa, in common with other countries, has a shortage of engineers and technicians. The authors report on a project which seeks to increase enrolment of students in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics at higher education level. This model shows considerable promise.

Doctoral Corner comprises abstracts of recently awarded doctoral degrees which are concerned with the improvement of education provision and student success whether it be at the policy, institutional or individual level. The publication of abstracts alerts researchers and practitioners to new research in their areas of interest.

The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 13 (2) / 2018 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

6 Lastly, it is with deep regret that I announce the departure of Marla Koonin, our journal managing editor.

During Marla’s tenure, she has guided the journal through the development and implementation of robust policies and procedures, accreditation by the Ministry of Higher Education, and the move to being a fully online journal. We wish her well as she embarks on the next stage of her already successful career. She will be sorely missed.

I take this opportunity to introduce and welcome the new managing editor of the IJTL, Dr Brenda van Wyk.

The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 13 (2) / 2018 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

7 Changing paradigms: Library and Information Science (LIS) education and training in Zimbabwe1  Pedzisai Katuli-Munyoro, University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa Stephen M. Mutuli, University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

ABSTRACT The purpose of the study is to assess paradigm shifts in society and their implications for Library and Information Science (LIS) education and training systems in Zimbabwe. The study was informed by the postpositivist paradigm which allows for methodological pluralism. Qualitative and quantitative methodologies were used to inform both the research design and data collection processes. The qualitative methodology was dominant, complemented by the quantitative. The strategy of inquiry combined case study with survey research designs. Respondents in the five study cases were surveyed using questionnaires and in-depth interviews. Documentary review was used to collect data on LIS curricula in Zimbabwe.

The findings of the study show that the dictum of success of the industrial era is no longer valid in the era of knowledge. The shift of focus from capital to knowledge has created different educational needs that require different educational systems. The study also found that although LIS scholars bemoan the perceived decline of LIS education and argue for improvements, only superficial changes have thus far been observed. This lack of positive development has been attributed to conservatism, inertia and the favouring of vested interests. The study provides policy makers with evidence-based research critical for analysis, advocacy, forecasting and strategic planning of an effective transformation of LIS education and training in Zimbabwe. Further research needs to be done concerning the reasons why LIS faculty staff members resist making revolutionary changes.1 Keywords: paradigm shift, Library and Information Science, education, change, competencies.

1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND The transition from the industrial age to the knowledge economy, coupled with advanced technological development and globalisation have revolutionised economies and labour markets, creating perpetual demands for a combination of new skills and mindsets. This has led to a severe mismatch between university offerings and industry needs and demands (Hensley, 2015). This disjuncture between supply and demand has prompted industry to question the validity of the traditional mode of learning in Higher Education (HE) and specifically their curricula offerings (Hensley, 2015; Wisbauer, 2017; Katuli-Munyoro & Mutula, 2018). Wisbauer (2017) asserts that the validity of the traditional mode of learning in HE (lecturing, cramming, and examination) has for some time been questioned. Critics such as Evans-Greenwood, 1 Date of submission 12 May 2017 Date of review outcome 11 August 2017 Date of acceptance 10 August 2018

The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 13 (2) / 2018 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

8 O’Leary and Williams (2015), Barber (2017), Tangient (2017) and Wisbauer (2017) argue that this mode of education will someday be cast aside, for disruptive changes are coming. Yet educators in many parts of the world cling to tradition and demonstrate imperviousness to adapting to change (Wisbauer, 2017).

The changes in HE have led library education programmes globally to diversify their offerings from the library focus towards information, and many programmes have expanded their curricula, introduced a range of courses in information technologies and related fields, and modified their names by adding ‘information’ in the title or dropping the word ‘library’ altogether (Matusiak, Stanburry & Barczyk, 2014).

The transformation suggests a trend towards the realignment of Library and Information Science (LIS) education programmes offerings to contemporary worldviews and societal conditions. The shifts in LIS education programmes globally, confirm assertions in literature that socio-economic and technological imperatives are rigidly linked to educational needs so that paradigm shifts in the economic means of production cannot be sustained over a long period without a suitably aligned education system (KatuliMunyoro & Mutula, 2018).

Kuhn (1996: 10) defines paradigms as ‘universally recognized scientific achievements that, for a time, provide model problems and solutions for a community of researchers’. Barker (1992: 32) sees a paradigm as ‘a set of rules and regulations (either written or unwritten) that does two things: 1) it establishes or defines boundaries and, 2) it tells one how to behave inside the boundaries in order to be successful’. A paradigm shift is described as a reconstruction of the field from new fundamentals, a reconstruction that changes some of the field’s most elementary theoretical generalisations as well as many of its paradigm methods and applications […]. When the transition is complete, the profession will have changed its view of the field, its methods, and its goals (Kuhn, 1970: 84-85).

However, the views on paradigms and paradigm shifts in LIS differ. Braude (1997), for example, suggests that the changes in the LIS field are not paradigm shifts but merely changes in the environment in which professional tasks are carried out, and in the tools used to accomplish these tasks. Gatten (1991) is of the opinion that LIS is a non-paradigmatic discipline, arguing that the discipline does, as yet, not possess a truly scientific tradition. Dick (1995) perceives LIS as a multiple or a dual, paradigmatic science while Matusiak, Stansbury and Barczyk (2014) consider it to be a hybrid field, some aspects of which are scientific in the Kuhnian sense (‘normal science’) and susceptible to paradigm shifts whereas others are not susceptible to paradigm shifts per se.

The education paradigm that controls and informs HE today was conceived, designed and structured to fulfill the specific intellectual, technological and socio-economic requirements of the industrial age. The industrial age needed labourers (skilled and unskilled), who could perform different mundane tasks on the factory assembly line or, generally, deal with managing the factories. It was essential that the industrial age workforce had mastered the knowledge and skills requisite for fulfilling a specific role in the factory – for example on the assembly line – while the workers usually had limited understanding of the overall production process (Tangient, 2017). An education system cast in the mold of the factory assembly line requirements was developed and became institutionalised in society. Education was concentrated in the early years of an individual’s life, before a career properly began. Knowledge was fragmented into a series of discrete segments called subjects which were then departmentalised in a factory assembly line approach (Tangient, 2017).

Topics, skills, attitudes and values were arranged into prescribed standard curricula. It implied a ‘one size fits all’ teaching and learning approach whereby stocks of knowledge were transferred from educator to The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 13 (2) / 2018 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

9 student using lectures as the primary means (Evans-Greenwood, O’Leary & Williams, 2015). The teacher was the custodian of information. Students were expected to work within the ideological confines of the received knowledge. Standardised tests were used to determine whether the knowledge transfer process was successful and a student’s proficiency was judged by his or her ability to recall lessons and pass tests (Bertolini, 2011). The education system thus emphasised memorising or ’banking’. Paulo Freire coined the concept of ‘banking’, meaning ‘depositing’ information in students for later use (Freire, n.d.: 242).

The factories, however, needed the assurance that individuals did indeed have the knowledge and skills they claimed to have. Thus, formal credentials became the norm and were used as a golden standard against which candidate employees were measured (Evans-Greenwood et al. 2015; Bertolini, 2011).

Formal qualifications became the emblems of knowledge in society and a guarantee for getting a job for life. The amount of schooling received became a measure of one’s success in terms of income, position held at work, well-being and social class (Evans-Greenwood et al., 2015). It took years and an extraordinary amount of investment, political will and advocacy for this educational approach to become indoctrinated and institutionalised in society (Bertolini, 2011). For more than two centuries, this education paradigm has served society very well (Duffy, 2010) until, in the 21st century, it succumbed to increasing doubts, criticism and anomalies (Barber, Donnelly & Rizvi, 2013).

In the 21st century, the burgeoning of an economy based on knowledge requires ‘what they call “smart creatives” - smart and capable generalists who demonstrate the attitudes and behaviors that will enable them to be effective learners and team players, with formal credentials (should the candidate hold them) playing only a minor role’ (Evans-Greenwood et al., 2015: 6). This trend is evident in contemporary society as was demonstrated by Ernst and Young, Penguin Random House Publishers, when they scrapped an academic degree as an entry point requirement, reasoning that there is ‘no evidence correlating success at university with success in work environments’ (Sherriff, 2017: 1). In today’s knowledge economy, lifelong learning (LL) has become the norm as a way of keeping up to date in one’s field (Tangient, 2017).

In Zimbabwe, Goodsett and Koziura (2016) reported that graduates being produced in HE were inadequately prepared for contemporary labour requirements. Burnett’s (2013) study assessing the changing needs of information professionals in Zimbabwe substantiated the assertions in literature that LIS graduates were not adequately prepared to fulfill their roles and responsibilities as expected. Another study by Munyoro (2014) found that LIS employers were dissatisfied with the products of Zimbabwe’s LIS education systems.

The present paper focuses on paradigm shifts in society and the challenges they pose to the survival, and the very existence, of the LIS profession and its academic discipline in Zimbabwe. The paper aims to raise awareness of, stimulate debate about, and advocate for, deep-seated transformations in LIS education and training. The central argument of this study is that LIS educators and policy makers need to realise that the world is in the midst of a historical development. Where the world socio-economic imperatives are evolving from focusing on capital as in the industrial era to ‘knowledge’ as a critical resource for socioeconomic development. As a result, the requirements for success are substantially different from those that typified the industrial age. LIS graduates need and deserve an education that prepares them for success in today’s global, highly interconnected and continuously changing environments.

2. PROBLEM STATEMENT Literature concerned with the LIS profession and its academic discipline indicates that internal as well as external influences are inspiring important innovations that may lead to major transformations (Moran & Marchionini, 2012; Raju, 2013; Munyoro, 2014). In the meantime, many LIS practitioners have realised their inadequacies and are adapting to the needs of the contemporary information environment. LIS

The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 13 (2) / 2018 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

10 academics however, by their nature, remain reluctant to proactively initiate changes in the curricula that may leapfrog the academic discipline ahead in order to meet the requirements of the contemporary information environment (Van House & Sutton, 1996). As a result, industry and the LIS academic discipline currently seem to operate in different paradigmatic contexts. This has led to a major disjunction between supply and demand and a chronic dissatisfaction with LIS education products (Munyoro, 2014).

The situation has motivated the present researcher to assess the changes taking place in the LIS profession and its academic discipline. Similar criticisms of other academic fields are hotly debated in scholarly discourse and literature but in relation to LIS education and training, the problem remains under researched in the Zimbabwean context. The present research aims to address this gap. The purpose of the study is to assess LIS education and training in Zimbabwe in the context of the paradigm shift in society and to determine if, and to what degree, indicators of change, mostly at the global level, are reflected in LIS education in Zimbabwe. Continued dissatisfaction with the products of Zimbabwe’s LIS education systems poses a major problem. If the problem is not addressed, LIS education will continue to stray from its principal mission of supplying qualified professionals for industry and society.

3. Objectives of the study The present study was guided by the following research objectives: 1. To determine the changes effected in the LIS profession and its academic discipline 2. To assess awareness and attitudes of LIS faculty staff regarding the changes.

4. Definition of concepts Diffusion Diffusion is ‘the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels; over time, among the members of a social system’ (Rogers & Scott, 1997: 4).

Innovation Innovation is any ‘new idea, practice, or object considered new to individual or other units of adoption’ (Rogers, 2003: 11).

Paradigm ‘Universally recognised scientific achievements that, for a time, provide model problems and solutions for a community of researchers’ (Kuhn, 1996: 10).

A paradigm shift ‘A reconstruction of the field from new fundamentals, a reconstruction that changes some of the field’s most elementary theoretical generalisations as well as many of its paradigm methods and applications […]. When the transition is complete, the profession will have changed its view of the field, its methods, and its goals’ (Kuhn 1970: 84-85).

5. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The study is informed by the Diffusion of Innovation (DOI) theory by Rogers (1995). The DOI theory centres on the conditions which stimulate or inhibit the likelihood of the dispersal of new ideas, products, or practices within a given social system (Rogers, 1995). The theory suggests that an innovation is ‘a new idea, practice, or object considered new to an individual or other unit of adoption’ (Rogers, 1995: 11).

An individual’s perception of the newness of an innovation influences its rate of adoption more than the actual time it has been around (Rogers, 1995). New innovations diffuse within a social system through communication channels. The innovation is either adopted or rejected, based on its attributes (relative advantage, complexity, compatibility, observability, and trialability) and on its consequences (positive or negative outcomes). The adoption of innovations within a social system is a change process which alters the status quo of the social system and is therefore, likely to be received enthusiastically or resisted.

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6. REVIEW OF LITERATURE In this section, relevant literature on paradigm shifts in society and the resulting disjunction between skills supplied and skills needed in the labour environment is discussed. The purpose of the review is to position the study in relation to the existing body of knowledge, to evaluate what has been done on the subject and to identify the research gaps that provide the rationale for the study. Literature is reviewed on the basis of two themes derived from the study’s objectives, namely changes in the LIS profession and its academic discipline and the awareness and attitudes of faculty staff/practitioners regarding the above-mentioned shifts.

6.1 Changes in the LIS profession and its academic discipline The advanced developments in ICTs have moved the communication culture, business operations, modes of information production and dissemination radically into cyberspace. The embrace of cyberspace has compelled the LIS profession to revise its service philosophies which, in turn, have revolutionised its service models, practice, standards, professional tasks and routines and, logically, also the competencies required.

As a result, LIS professionals have become ‘system designers, knowledge managers, web designers and administrators, educators, problem solvers, navigators and publishers’ (Verma 2015: 102, Kennan, 2016) or, in the words of Ugwuanyi and Ezema (2010: 3), ‘technology officers, project managers, data administrators, data curators, data modelers, data architects, web librarians, digital librarians, cyber librarians, information scientists and knowledge analysts’. In the resulting hyperactive and ubiquitous work environments, LIS professionals are called ‘upon to explore, develop, and implement new models, new skills and attitudes, new metrics, new ways of looking at old problems, and new approaches for new problems’ (Mathews, 2014: 22). This has generated anomalies that cannot be solved within the existing paradigm of LIS education and training.

In LIS, labour environments hiring practices have shifted ‘[…] from trying to find the most highly credentialled specialists possible, [… in pursuit of] smart and capable generalists who demonstrate the [right] attitudes and behaviors that will enable them to be effective learners and team players […]’ (Evans-Greenwood et al., 2015: 6). The attitudes and behaviours that are valued in contemporary work environments fall outside the boundaries of ‘what a university education all-too-often provides’ (Barber, Donnelly & Rizvi, 2013: 12). This new reality has brought with it a major disconnection between LIS academic offerings and the requirements in labour environments. The result is a chronic mismatch between education and labour market demands. Hence, the perception that LIS graduates are inadequately prepared.

In response to the growing dissatisfaction, the LIS education and training departments have changed the names of their various programmes replacing the word ‘library’ with a plethora of phrases perceived as more effective such as information science/studies/management/communication/systems and knowledge management. The name changes were used as a strategy to ‘embrace diversification and clustering into larger organizational grouping’ (Raju, 2013: 254) to attract students and raise the status of LIS education programmes (Nnadozie, Igwe & Nwosu, 2017). Multi/trans-disciplinary and ICT-related modules and subjects were introduced (Moran & Marchionini, 2012; Siddiqui & Walia, 2013; Hensley, 2015). The aim was to prevent curriculum drift, improve quality and introduce ICTs in the curricula, aligning these with perceived environmental demands while simultaneously diversifying academic offerings. Other schools introduced minor degree programmes, work integrated learning projects, job shadowing and internships (Lowden, Hall, Elliot & Lewin, 2011). Educators, such as White (1995: 44), claim that the changes are cosmetic in nature, meant to ‘impress higher-level administrators with the appearance of newly found academic rigor’. White argues that the hastily ‘patched together’ curricula and programmes are a disservice to LIS students as the changes are superficial and the basic premises (assessment, teaching and learning methods) are still intact. Sharma (2008) concedes that it takes time and strategic planning to develop a curriculum that is properly balanced between theoretical and practical education and that fulfils contemporary demands.

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12 6.2 Awareness of, and attitudes towards changes in the LIS field Awareness implies acknowledgement of what is going on, in this case, knowledge of innovations in the LIS field. Kuhn (1970: 67) asserts that ‘awareness is prerequisite to all acceptable changes of theory’.

According to Kuhn, ‘awareness begins in the mind of the person. What we perceive, whether normal or metanormal, conscious or unconscious, is subject to the limitations and distortions produced by our inherited and socially conditional nature’ (1970: 67). LIS practitioners, faculty staff, students and policy makers are aware of the changes taking place in the field. This awareness is affirmed by the existence of a considerable body of literature on what is going on in the LIS field (see, for example, Mathews, 2014; Raju, 2013; Siddiqui & Walia, 2013).

It has been recognised that LIS education systems are based on different perceptions of change (Hensley, 2015; Raju 2017). Some role players in the LIS academic discipline have enthusiastically embraced change, whereas others have responded more cautiously, preferring to scrutinise and test proposed changes before accepting them, and others have seen change as a threat to their established values and understanding. Nemser and Whitener (2018) consider proposed changes as an impoverishment of the LIS field and its academic discipline and protest that the innovations are marginalising the traditional tenets of the profession. Hensley (2015) and Nnadozie, Igwe and Nwosu (2017) on the other hand, are optimistic and suggest that recent innovations heighten the status of the profession and have brought renewed prestige and esteem while mitigating existing negative perceptions of LIS education and training.

6.3 Quality assurance in LIS education Internationalisation and massification of higher education have resulted in ‘a growing demand for accountability and transparency . . . [which has] in turn led to a need to develop a quality culture’ (Smidt, 2015: 626). Many countries have developed accreditation systems, while others have established evaluation committees or centres that carry out cycles of external review. Independent bodies have been established, often a single national agency but sometimes, separate agencies or bodies have been established to monitor quality in different types of institutions or regions (Smidt, 2015). Such variation in approach reflects political and cultural preferences within each country.

In Zimbabwe for instance, the Zimbabwe Council for Higher Education (ZIMCHE) is an overall controlling body for higher education institutions that is concerned with the quality of both Technical, Vocational Education and Training (TVET) and university education (ZIMCHE, 2016). ZIMCHE came into being in 2006 through an Act of Parliament (Chapter 25: 27). The Act empowers the Council to promote coordinate, register and authorise education and training programmes. Its major role is to control and maintain standards (standards of teaching, examination and faculty qualifications) and to enforce government policies and regulations (ZIMCHE, 2016). However, ZIMCHE is limited in terms of capacity and resources to effectively monitor and enforce quality standards in HE in Zimbabwe in a systematic manner (Madzimure, 2016).

7. METHODOLOGY The study has adopted a postpositivist perspective and combined qualitative and quantitative methodologies whereby the qualitative methodology was dominant. The study has integrated case study and survey research methods within a single research design (Creswell, 2014). Respondents in the case study were surveyed using self-administered questionnaires and in-depth interviews. The population covered by the study comprises all LIS faculty staff, Deans/Head of Departments (HODS), final year students of the five institutions offering LIS education in Zimbabwe, and LIS employers. Statistics from the five institutions concerned enumerate a population of 47 LIS faculty staff, five Deans/HODs and 150 final year students.

Groves and Couper (2018) recommend the study of whole entities in small populations in order to The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 13 (2) / 2018 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

13 eliminate sampling errors, achieve high precision and provide data for all respondents. Therefore, all the five Deans/HODs and 47 faculty staff were interviewed and surveyed respectively. Out of the 150 LIS final year students, a sample of 108 students was drawn with a 5% margin of error and a confidence level of 95% (Groves & Couper, 2018). A simple random sampling technique was employed to obtain a representative sample population of students. LIS employers were purposively selected as their numbers could not be easily determined (Benoot, Hannes & Bilsen, 2016). The total population and drawn sample population are summarised in Table 1.

Table 1: Total population and drawn sample population of the study Institutions

Deans and HODs

Faculty

LIS final year students

National University of Science and Technology (NUST)

1

15

66

Zimbabwe Open University (ZOU)

1

10

-

Harare Polytechnic College

1

10

48

Bulawayo Polytechnic College

1

08

24

Joshua Nqabuko Nkomo Polytechnic College

1

04

12

Major LIS employers (ZimLA)

LIS employers

17

Total Population

5

47

150

17

Drawn sample population

5

47

108

17

A total of 22 respondents (five Deans/HODS and 17 LIS employers) were interviewed, using in-depth face-to-face interviews. Open-ended questions were utilised to enable the respondents to respond in their own words (Creswell, 2014). One hundred and fifty-five respondents (47 LIS faculty staff and 108 LIS final year students) were surveyed using survey questionnaires. Survey questionnaires enabled the researcher to collect anonymous and confidential data from a large and geographically dispersed population and to gather responses in a standardised manner (Creswell, 2014).

LIS curricula documents from NUST, ZOU and polytechnic colleges (polytechnic colleges use a standardised national curriculum) were reviewed. Permission was sought to secure access to, and release of, the documents from the relevant institutions (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 2009). The document review method enabled the researcher to collect data free from respondents’ reactivity effects (CDC, 2009). This data collection technique also enabled the researcher to gather behind-the-scene data that could not be obtained through interviews and questionnaires (CDC, 2009). Data were collected for a period of five months (April to August 2014). SPSS 20 and NVivo 10 were used to compute and analyse the data.

8. Findings, analysis and discussions This section presents, analyses and positions the research findings in the existing body of literature. Out of the 155 survey questionnaires distributed a response rate of 66.4% was achieved. A 100% response rate was achieved for the in-depth interviews. All three LIS curricula documents were reviewed.

LIS HODs/Deans and faculty staff were asked to answer the question: What are the goals of LIS education and training programmes in Zimbabwe? The resulting research data underline the preparation of aspirant The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 13 (2) / 2018 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

14 LIS professionals, research and accreditation as the primary goals of LIS education in Zimbabwe. This was summarised by one respondent stating that: Our core function is to transfer the existing body of professional knowledge, skills and competencies to those joining the profession through teaching, learning, research and endorsing that the professional body of knowledge has been successfully transferred by awarding formal qualifications.

The findings, therefore, underlined teaching and learning, research and accreditation as the goals of LIS education in Zimbabwe. Barber, Donnelly and Rizvi (2013) also identify teaching and learning, research and accreditation as the core functions of HE. The emphasis on the transfer of standardised professional knowledge and accreditation signifies that LIS education is still informed by a deep-rooted education paradigm conceived to satisfy the requirements of the industrial era. The findings confirm Duffy’s (2010) assertion that an education paradigm cast in the mold of the industrial age still controls the design, performance and outcomes of education systems today. The findings reflect the inability of LIS education systems in Zimbabwe to meet their own goals and demands based on the current design. Gardner (2017) advises education systems to free themselves from the constraints of the obsolescent industrial education paradigm and to reconfigure an education system fit for the emerging knowledge economy.

This perspective is in line with Greer, Grover and Fowler (2013: 41) who assert that, ‘when paradigms in society shift, comparable shifts are needed in the professions and academic disciplines that serve society’.

The findings demonstrate the failure of LIS education to realign in accordance with the perceived demands of changing environments.

On the basis of the question, ‘What competencies are encapsulated in the LIS curricula?’ LIS curricular documents in Zimbabwe were scrutinised. The data show that LIS curricula were designed to impart traditional core knowledge and skills of the profession with marginal incremental changes allowed to avert curricula drift and meet perceived environmental demands. This flaw was demonstrated by the dominance of traditional core knowledge and competences, primacy of the lecture method and overreliance on the results of standardised tests in the curricula. The course outlines reviewed indicate the lecture method as the preferred delivery method and standard testing as the assessment method. This substantiates OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development) (2016) assertions that the educational system of the industrial era continues to determine the design, performance and outcomes of education systems today.

The centrality of traditional LIS core competencies and skills in the curricula signifies that LIS education systems in Zimbabwe have not deviated much from the profession’s traditional core value of information provision. Myburgh (2016) confirms that librarians still see information provision as a main task. This trend is considered laudable by Evans-Greenwood et al. (2015: 6) who note that, in the present knowledge era when professional knowledge stocks may be giving way to knowledge flows, aspirant professionals still need to know enough to ‘be conversant with, and productive in, their chosen fields’. The findings indicate that LIS graduates are indeed knowledgeable and conversant with the traditional core tenets of the profession.

A close look at courses, modules or subjects, such as Information Communication Technologies (ICTs), information systems, business management, project management, knowledge management, entrepreneurship, indigenous knowledge systems, practicum, law, ethics and marketing, shows marginal integration. This was typified in the course outlines reviewed which reveal the lack of a standardised approach to what is taught and how it is taught. Further, the lecture method and standard tests were emphasised even in applied ICTs modules. The finding confirms Haydn’s (2009) view that what is taught and how it is taught, is left to the individual lecturer’s discretion in terms of competencies, preferred subject

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15 pedagogy, teaching methods, available resources and time. Duffy (2010) considers this type of change as a tweaking strategy, focused on modifying the surface without overhauling the deeper assumptions ingrained in the curriculum. This point of view is shared by Barber, Donnelly and Rizvi (2013: 78) who consider incremental change as no option in today’s volatile environment but as a ‘classic error of strategy to calculate the risk of action [but that fails] to calculate the (often greater) risks of doing nothing’. The finding indicates the need for profound changes in LIS education going beyond superficial reforms, so that any outdated assumptions in today’s educational systems may be rooted out.

The diversity of the competencies on offer in contemporary LIS curricula suggests a commendable attempt to break away from the primary bastion of the industrial education mode, namely its devotion to the transfer of tightly held standard professional knowledge and skills. The research findings corroborate the observation of Balistreri, Giacomo, Noisette and Ptak (2012-14) that the skills needed to survive and thrive in this knowledge age have transitioned. However, a closer analysis of the data shows a delayed pace of change in LIS curricula compared to the changes taking place in the wider society and industry.

The findings suggest the presence of a strong inertial tendency and vested interests controlling the pace and type of change in Zimbabwe’s LIS academic discipline.

The diversity and increase of core competencies suggest that LIS education finds itself in a period of observable, but discontinuous change that involves a fundamental transformation of its education strategies, power, structure and systems so that a new basis for alignment to the needs of contemporary society may be created. Such a period is characterised by Gersick (1991: 20) as a ‘punctuated equilibrium’, when a system’s deep structure comes apart, leaving it in disarray until the period ends. The period has been recognised as a time of learning and trial. New ideas, practices and technologies are tested and what seems to work best is preserved until a new equilibrium is attained. Barber, Donnelly and Rizvi (2013) substantiate this research finding, stating that no one is yet sure of the contents of the new paradigm. They advise that those involved in education systems look for early signs of the newly emerging paradigm in both present and past and to use these proactively to outline the likely shape of the new paradigm and its requirements.

The study also sought to address the question, ‘what LIS skills are needed by the information industry?’ LIS final year students, when asked to comment on the statement that LIS graduates are not well suited to or prepared for the job market, were by and large in agreement. The majority (78%) consider themselves not well prepared for the job market. The findings are presented in Table 2.

Table 2: Preparedness of LIS graduates for work environments (N=72) Frequency

Percent

Sufficiently prepared

16

22

Insufficiently prepared

56

78

Table 2 shows that the majority (78%) of LIS final year students consider themselves inadequately prepared for the work environment, while 22% consider themselves adequately prepared. One student noted:

The curriculum used does not speak to the reality on the ground.

The finding suggests that LIS graduates are not confident that what they have learned will enable them to succeed in the 21st century work environments. They consider LIS curricula outdated. Mugwisi and Hikwa

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16 (2015) are of the opinion that LIS programme educators need to evaluate their curriculum constantly so that it remains relevant and aligned to environmental demands. The implications of the finding are that, as long as LIS education continues to hold on to past ideologies, it will struggle to develop the intelligences and behaviours that are essential for success in a knowledge-based economy and society.

In relation to the above questions, LIS employers assert that LIS graduates have skills gaps that need to be addressed by adapting curricula. The various perspectives of LIS employers were explicitly captured by a senior university librarian who stressed that

We cannot say they are not well suited or prepared but we can say they have knowledge and skills gaps which need to be addressed in LIS curriculum.

A closer look at the data shows that the standardised national LIS curricula common in polytechnic colleges were last reviewed in 2010 and university curricula (NUST and ZOU) have had no major reviews since their inception in 2013 and 2009 respectively. Further, there is, in LIS programmes in Zimbabwe, a dearth of tracer studies that can inform education. Findings from tracer studies provide useful data to evaluate and strengthen education programmes (Mugwisi & Hikwa, 2015). The research finding confirms Murphy’s assertion (n.d.) that few LIS education and training programmes scrutinise the relevance of the curricula they offer.

Furthermore, the data show that the polytechnic colleges and the ZOU curricula are obsolete. This suggests inadequate quality assurance measures in HE in Zimbabwe. The finding substantiates Madzimure’s (2016) assertion that the guaranteeing of quality cannot be done by an outside body like ZIMCHE alone, all universities should make a deliberate move in establishing a Directorate of Quality Assurance that will serve to guarantee and sustain quality.

The documents analysed showed that most LIS departments in Zimbabwe have established programme advisory boards. These advisory boards, from the researcher’s experience as faculty staff and board member, exist to satisfy university and ZIMCHE requirements. The advisory boards rarely meet due financial inadequacies and as a result, are out of touch with the education programmes realities. This suggests that in order for national and institutional quality management systems to operate effectively, a number of supportive infrastructural policies and frameworks are required.

Regarding the question of which skills are required of LIS professionals in the contemporary workplace, the research data show that ICT-related competencies and an array of transferable skills and behaviours are highly valued in LIS work environments. The diverse views of the respondents were aptly summarised by a university librarian: We need LIS professionals with the ability to manage projects, design business plans, source funding, manage the funds, evaluate projects and above all individuals who are creative, quick to learn, enterprising, able to work in teams, resilient and willing to [practise] continuous learning and adapt to new technologies and professional trends. Most of all we need individuals creative enough to find new ways to solve new problems, teach, communicate, research and network.

In addition, a director of a specialised library noted: We need graduates with a working knowledge of ICTs and their applications. Individuals with the ability to use and apply information communication technologies in library operations and institutional repositories; compare, evaluate, select technologies and software, translate print based services to electronic services, design web pages and manage them. The graduates need to be honest, curious, The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 13 (2) / 2018 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

17 passionate, versatile, resilient and able to work independently, able to build partnerships, continuously learn, communicate and add value to our services.

The findings make clear that LIS work environments value transferable skills and behaviours above professional expertise. They confirm the observations of Schmerling (2016) that employers look for generic transferable skills and personal attributes. A study by Katuli-Munyoro and Mutula (2018) corroborates these findings, adding that LIS employers increasingly ask for transferable knowledge and skills, rather than for traditional professional competencies. There is, in other words, an emerging trend away from the industrial demands of the past towards a new concept of professionalism and a different view of what constitutes professional knowledge. It is a subtle but perceptible trend, exemplified by hiring practices that have evolved from hiring specialists to hiring generalists or curious people who are willing to continuously learn and adapt (Evans-Greenwood et al., 2015). Caza and Creary (2016) confirm the reality of this trend, noting that careers are being transformed from a narrative of increasing specialisation into a story of blending domains and disciplines in pursuit of compelling value propositions and a competitive edge.

The emphasis on transferable employability skills, applied skills and behaviours that imply resilience and the willingness to keep learning, entails the fading value of the ‘job for life’ notion. As a result, LIS work and careers are no longer static and predetermined. In the knowledge economy, the nature of competencies, work and career paths have become ephemeral and unpredictable. The data collected by the present study show that some tenets of the industrial era work environments, among them the ‘job for life’ notion, are becoming somewhat passé and are replaced by the lifelong learning concept. Mayasari (2010: 13) suggests that ‘when organizations are in transition, the result will be better if they employ people with the right competencies and attitudes and with a sense of curiosity that drives them to keep trying and learning’.

LIS faculty staff members were asked to answer the question: ‘Have you integrated ICT in teaching and learning?’ The majority (61%) indicated that they have not integrated ICT in their teaching and learning.

Alternatively, the minority (39%) stated that ICT is part of their teaching and learning. The findings are presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1: ICT integration in teaching and learning (N=31)

Yes, There are no structures in ploace for ICT integration No. I lack confidence

12.9

4

No. Students lack ICT competencies

2

No. The ICT resources are inadequate

2

No. I have no knowledge

Percent Frequency

6.5

6.5

29

9 0

Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

6.5

2

No. There are no incentives

The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 13 (2) / 2018

38.7

12

10

20

30

40

50

18 Figure 1 shows that 61.3% of faculty staff members have not integrated ICTs in teaching and learning and attributed their failure to do so to a lack of guiding standards, confidence, incentives, capacity, ICT resources and knowledge. It is clear that the levels of ICT integration in teaching and learning in LIS education programmes in Zimbabwe are very low. The data indicate that 39% have made ICTs part of their teaching and learning. Further analysis of the data show that 39% were in the 21-35 age range; the millennials or digital natives who bring technology from their personal lives into their workplace. The activities of these millennials were observable across the five institutions offering LIS education. From this group come the innovators or change agents who are willing to try out innovations, irrespective of perceived environmental constraints in their workplace.

A critical analysis of the data indicates that the 39% of faculty who have embraced ICTs use them as teaching and learning aids. The research finding indicates, however, that ICTs are still far from being fully integrated in teaching and learning in LIS education in Zimbabwe. Sharma (2008) considers it unfortunate that, while ICTs are available to facilitate the shift to a new paradigm of teaching and learning, they are in most cases put to little use other than as mere aids to lectures. The data signify an uneven ICT adoption in LIS education and training in Zimbabwe. Czerniewicz and Jaffer (2007) attribute the uneven take-up of ICTs to the lack of an ICT policy and of regulatory frameworks, and a shortage of knowledge concerning the correct use of ICTs in teaching and learning. In addition, Baylor and Ritchie (2002: 398) posit that ‘technology will remain underused as long as faculty staff do not have the skills, knowledge and attitudes necessary to make it fully part of educational systems’.

The prevailing inadequacies in ICT resources, faculty staff and student capacity, benchmarks and guiding principles, suggest that Zimbabwe is not e-ready. Indeed, the World Economic Forum (2013) positioned Zimbabwe among nations with low levels of e-readiness. It means that Zimbabwe is not adequately prepared to apply ICTs in education and training. This is unfortunate as ICT has been defined as an essential instructional infrastructure for 21st century education systems. Sergis and Sampson (2014) opine that the state and level of a country’s technological development is a key determinant of ICT use in teaching and learning. This would imply that in the view of Sergis and Sampson, the present level of technological development in Zimbabwe does not allow for a beneficial use of ICT in teaching and learning. The findings of this study highlight the need to put in place the requisite ICT facilitative conditions to enable the full adoption of ICTs as part of education systems.

To measure the awareness or knowledge, among LIS faculty staff members, of paradigm shifts in the information industry, a five-point scale ranging from ‘strongly agree’, via ‘agree’, ‘undecided’, and ‘disagree’ to ‘strongly disagree’ was used. LIS faculty were asked to indicate their level of agreement with the statement: ‘There have been paradigm shifts in the information industry’. Nearly all (93.6%) of the LIS faculty staff members surveyed agreed that paradigm shifts have occurred in the information industry while 6.4% disagreed. The results are presented in Figure 2.

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19 Figure 2: Faculty staff response to question on paradigm shifts in the information industry (N=31)

3.2

Strongly disagree

1

3.2

Disagree

1

Percent 19.4

Agree

Frequency

6

74.2

Strongly agree

23 0

20

40

60

80

Figure 2 shows that 74.2% strongly agreed, 19.4% agreed, 3.2% disagreed and 3.2% strongly disagreed that paradigm shifts would have occurred in the information industry. The 93.6% who agreed demonstrate that faculty members have high levels of awareness or knowledge regarding paradigm shifts. Further analysis of data show that the 6.4% who disagree consist of individuals who are wary of change. Braude (1997) considers changes in the LIS field as mere changes rather than as signals of a paradigm shift.

However, Myburgh (2016) recognises these changes as part of paradigm shifts. At the same time, the high level of awareness, or knowledge, of paradigm shifts suggests that the LIS field is highly interconnected, that the communication channels are efficient and the change agents’ promotional efforts are effective. The implication is that LIS academics are aware of the changes taking place in their profession, the academic discipline and the wider society.

LIS faculty staff and employers were asked to respond to the statement that the adoption and use of ICT in the LIS profession offers more advantages than changes previously made to LIS curricula. The aim of the statement was to determine the positions of faculty staff and employers as regards change. The majority (42) felt that the introduction of ICTs and digital content had broadened career prospects, teaching and research opportunities and increased professional growth and prestige of LIS whereas a minority (6) thought that it had resulted in the obsolescence of much LIS traditional professional knowledge, competencies, routines and tasks. The different views of the respondents were captured by a male lecturer who stated, ICTs have redefined the LIS profession and given shape to the profession. Whereas all along the LIS profession has been operating like an amorphous entity, now with this current trend we begin to see the shape of the LIS profession. This has broadened our horizon of research and teaching.

The diverse views of the minority were expressed by a male senior lecturer as follows:

ICT and information related subjects have recently gained importance in the LIS curricula and traditional LIS subjects like collection development and management, reference services, cataloguing and classification have been relegated to lower level qualifications in the curricula.

Another practitioner commented:

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20

Our library statistics show a decline in visits per capita and our circulation and reference services are no longer in demand. Every day our traditional skills, standard knowledge, routines, tasks and procedures developed and cherished in the profession for years are swept aside in favour of computer mediated procedures and services. Does this signify the end of our profession?

The findings show that the majority of LIS faculty staff and practitioners have positive views on changes in the LIS field, while a minority perceives them as negative. The remarks made by the majority group resonated optimism and a favourable outlook on the future of the information industry. Respondents consider the changes as opportunities to evolve and improve the profession and its academic discipline.

Earlier studies by Raju (2017) also describe the innovations as an opportunity for the LIS profession to grow. Mugwisi and Hikwa (2015) and Myburgh (2016) declare that the changing focus from library institution to information has raised its status and managerial efficiency and has brought about at least a partial negation of the low prestige connotation of the term ‘librarian’.

Contrary to the optimistic majority, evidence from the study data shows that the pessimistic minority, instead of perceiving the changes in the profession as opportunities to evolve and improve their professional selves, consider them as a threat to the profession. Their remarks reflected a sense of loss and a desire to protect the traditions of the profession. This may indicate the strength of the existing paradigm and the difficulty of accepting ideas in which it no longer plays a role. The minority group would seem to suffer from paradigm paralysis (a determined belief that the existing paradigm is better). This prevents them from understanding and appreciating changes to the paradigm. Mathews and Linski (2016) claim that individuals who have invested much in an existing paradigm will resist change and often are very defensive of the paradigm.

Ironically, despite the prevailing high levels of awareness and the optimistic views of the participants in this study regarding change, the research data show that efforts to effect change in LIS education and training in Zimbabwe remain restrained. This is clear from the dated curricula and incremental change strategies adopted. The findings suggest that considerable inertial forces hold back more radical change.

Smith (2009) also mentions the prevailing inertia that stops those involved in LIS education from initiating meaningful innovations. Such an inertia has also been observed in scholarly discourse and literature in the LIS field where scholars depict change as a ‘crisis’ or ‘demise’ (see, for instance, Ribeiro, 2008; Munyoro, 2014). Matusiak, Stansbury and Barczyk (2014), and Hensley (2015) describe such scholars as ‘crying wolves’ who fret about the state of LIS education and the urgent need for change, while at the same time they do whatever is in their power to avoid change and maintain the status quo. Schon (1973: 30) in his seminal publication describes this type of behaviour as ‘dynamic conservatism’: a natural inclination to adapt to changing environments while at the same time wishing to protect and stay true to core values and traditions that are familiar. This study has found that the vested interests of faculty staff and HE structures, together with traditions, cultural insights and normative beliefs, are factors of considerable influence on the way change is approached and managed. According to the research data, this can be attributed to paradigm paralysis: the appeal of the existing paradigm, the pain of losing it, the fear of entering unfamiliar regions, fear of failure and the possibility of missing opportunities and even discrediting one’s life work. In addition, embracing the new paradigm might confront one with unfamiliar reward systems, inadequate human and physical resources, as well as HE structures, traditions and cultural and normative beliefs that are difficult to circumvent.

9. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS The study shows that the LIS academic discipline in Zimbabwe is failing to unshackle itself from the control, influence, design and other routines of the ebbing industrial paradigm and to reconfigure itself to suit the requirements of the emerging post-industrial paradigm. This has created a major disjunction between what is demanded by industry and what is offered in LIS education institutions.

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21 The preparation of highly credentialled LIS experts no longer conforms to the current needs and aspirations of the knowledge economy where an open pool of competent, flexible, creative and lifelong learners is required. The present study makes clear that LIS education and training systems are failing to adjust to changing environments and their demands.

Prevailing defeatist attitudes in LIS education and training towards change are detrimental to the survival, growth and relevance of the academic discipline and the profession. LIS education administrators, faculty staff and private and public partners need to come up with robust strategies to break the barriers preventing change and rise to the opportunity of offering the quality relevant education the world needs. However, this asks for strong political advocacy, will, courage, passion, strategic vision and visionary leadership.

Unless LIS educators in Zimbabwe realise the urgent need to confront their cognitive, motivational and obligatory barriers, it will be very difficult to steer the academic discipline towards the best possible future.

If the LIS academic discipline fails to break down the barriers and accept change, it will not be able to make a niche for itself in the emerging knowledge age. Instead of bemoaning the state of LIS education, stakeholders should rally in support of the historical shift of paradigms and accept its consequences. The study suggests that the Zimbabwean government, policy makers and the LIS profession and its academic discipline should seize the opportunity and reorientate LIS education systems, making them meet the needs of the knowledge age. This process requires the results and insights provided by sustained research in addition to ICT infrastructure, software and hardware, faculty competencies, reward systems, policy and regulatory frameworks, responsive curricula, new teaching and learning approaches and technologies, and funding streams. Advanced societies in Europe, America, Australia and parts of Asia have seized the opportunities offered by the paradigm shift and are already transforming their education systems, bringing them in line with the requirements of the budding knowledge age.

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26 Teacher efficacy and classroom management in Africa: A metaanalysis1 Kuduakwashe Christopher Muchena, Nelson Mandela University, South Africa Waitshega Tefo Smitta Moalisi, University of Botswana, Botswana

ABSTRACT Teachers exert a potent influence over the achievement of all students, more specifically, low-income culturally diverse students in most African countries. Although recent research has confirmed that teacher involvement is critical for promoting academic engagement of low-income and ethnically diverse students, there has been limited research in Africa. The purpose of this article is to synthesise the literature that examines the effect of teacher efficacy and classroom management on academic and behavioural outcomes of students, especially from low social economic status in Africa. A meta-analysis was conducted and reported according to the preferred reporting items for meta-analyses (PRISMA). The sample was drawn from the database search performed between January and March 2015 on PsychINFO, Google Scholar and Sabinet. The results of this meta-analysis support the findings of the studies that have been done elsewhere out of Africa that suggest a significant correlation between teacher self-efficacy and increased students’ achievement, by influencing teachers’ instructional practices, enthusiasm, commitment, and teaching behaviour. Apart from imparting knowledge and skills, teachers’ efficacy also helps students to define who they are and ultimately influence their motivation and performance.1

INTRODUCTION There has been increased demand for the realisation of universal and sustainable access to basic education for all in the United Nations post-2015 development agenda. Nevertheless, this access has been met with several challenges in the areas of quality, equality, and learning outcomes. The rapidly changing educational environment as witnessed by the development of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) has meant that the quality of education and learning outcomes have become important determinates of the well-being of individuals and society. These developments have also created a gap in the learning outcomes between those with access to the ICTs and those who do not, the rich and the poor – within and between countries (Dibapile, 2012a; Durowoju & Onuka, 2015). This has resulted in several graduates who feel that their education did not adequately prepare them for the world of work (UNESCO, 2014).

In response to these challenges, UNESCO developed a robust strategy to guide and focus its priorities in education from 2014 to 2021. The focus of the UNSECO 2014-2021 strategic plan is (i) to develop 1 Date of submission 13 October 2017 Date of review outcome 6 July 2018 Date of acceptance 9 August 2018

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27 educational systems to foster quality and inclusive lifelong learning for all, (ii) empowering learners to be creative and responsible global citizens and (iii) shaping the future educational agenda.

On the backdrop of the UNESCO 2014-2021 strategic plan, the Sub-Saharan Africa ministers of education met in Kigali, Rwanda in 2015 to assess the achievements, challenges and implementation of the Education for All (EFA) initiative. In what is now famously known as the Kigali Statement (2015), the ministers agreed that there is need to revisit the priorities, strategies and targets for the post-2015 education agenda within the context of the new perspectives and emerging challenges noted in the UNESCO 2014-2021 strategic plan. Key among the challenges for Africa are: equitable and inclusive access to education for all; inclusion, equity, and gender equality; quality of teachers on equity and learners’ outcomes; educational quality and learning outcomes, and lastly, the development of ICTs. For these challenges to be overcome, the ministers agreed that governments should strengthen research in teaching and learning, focus on quality and regional cooperation towards joint programmes, and to develop mechanisms for quality assurance and benchmarking progress at national and regional level.

Thus, the ministers acknowledged the importance of teachers’ quality on learners’ outcomes (Durowoju & Onuka, 2015).

Teachers exert a potent influence over the achievement of all students, more specifically, low-income culturally diverse students in most African countries (Adedoyin, 2010). Although recent research has confirmed that teacher involvement is critical for promoting academic engagement of low-income and ethnically diverse students (Evertson & Poole, 2008; Shaukat & Iqbal, 2012), other literature suggests that teachers have lower expectations for, and fewer interactions with, these children (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy 2001; Tschannen-Moran, Hoy & Hoy, 1998). These findings have prompted calls for promoting teacher self-efficacy for working with children from diverse backgrounds.

Aim The purpose of this article is to synthesise studies that examines the effect of teacher efficacy and classroom management on academic and behavioural outcomes of students, especially from low social economic status in Africa.

Research question To what extent do African studies show the relationship between teacher efficacy (i.e. student engagement, instructional strategies, and classroom management), and students’ motivation and achievements?

METHODOLOGY A meta-analysis was conducted and reported according to the preferred reporting items for meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines (Weed, 2008).

Search strategy A search of the following databases was performed between January and March 2015: PsychINFO, Google Scholar and Sabinet for studies done from 2010 to 2014.

Eligibility criteria Studies included described teacher efficacy and classroom management and were based on Bandura’s (1997) theory of self-efficacy. The studies focused mainly on the three key indicators of teacher efficacy, which are student engagement, instructional strategy and classroom management. The participants in the studies involved and its evaluation could either be qualified teachers, teaching a specific subject, or

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28 trainee teacher or qualified teachers with bachelors or masters’ degree and several years of experience teaching any subject. Studies were included only if they were conducted in a country in the Africa.

The analysis excluded studies if they did not describe all of the following elements of teacher efficacy; student engagement, instructional strategy and classroom management. Studies that did not include Bandura’s theory on self-efficacy were not included. As this meta-analysis is exploratory and there is relatively little research on this issue, only studies using quantitative evaluation were included. Only original research studies published in a peer-reviewed journal and studies in English were included.

Study selection process The two researchers conducted the search and removed any duplicates. They then screened the studies for eligibility. At each stage, they compared their selected studies and reconciled any difference through discussion.

Analysis strategy From the 10 studies included in the meta-analysis, seven involved in-service teachers at their various stages of experience and both genders, two involved in-service teacher teaching students with disabilities, one was for in-service teachers for a specific subject and the last one involved trainee teachers rating themselves. A brief analysis of the studies is provided on Table 1.

Table 1: Methodological quality assessment Authors

Country

Sample size

Student engagement

Instructional strategies

Classroom management

Dibapile (2012a)

Botswana

1006

Yes

Yes

Yes

Henning & Chi (2012)

Zambia

720

Yes

Yes

Yes

Adedoyin (2010)

Botswana

150

Yes

Yes

Yes

Malinen et al.

(2013)

South Africa

590

Yes

Yes

Yes

Wang’eri & Otanga (2014)

Kenya

80

Yes

Yes

Yes

Hofman & Kilimo (2014)

Tanzania

100

Yes

Yes

Yes

Durowoju & Onuka (2015)

Nigeria

60

Yes

Yes

Yes

Moalosi & Forcheh (2015)

Botswana

598

Yes

Yes

Yes

Adu, Tadu & Eze (2012)

Nigeria

1612

Yes

Yes

Yes

Sridhar & Javan (2017)

Rwanda

150

Yes

Yes

Yes

Theoretical framework Studies on teacher self-efficacy have largely been conceptualised within Bandura’s (1994, 2002) notion of self-efficacy. Teacher self-efficacy has been defined as the extent to which a teacher is confident enough

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29 of his or her ability to promote students’ learning (Bandura, 1994). According to Bandura (1994), human behaviour is motivated by the interaction of two kinds of expectations: self-efficacy and outcome expectancy; the former referring to peoples’ judgements of their capability to undertake and execute successfully a specific task in a specific context, and the latter including judgements about the likely consequences that this performance would bring about (Bandura, 1994).

LITERATURE REVIEW According to Mojavezi and Tamiz (2012) highly efficacious teachers tend to be more organised, display greater skills of instruction, questioning, explaining, and providing feedback to students having difficulties, and maintaining students on task. Low efficacy teachers, on the other hand, display a more custodial than humanistic approach to classroom management, spend significantly more time in group work as opposed to whole group instruction, feel angered and threatened by misbehaviour, and have trouble in maintaining students on task.

Teachers with high self-efficacy are much more likely to provide opportunities for student communication by using a variety of models to meet the needs of all learners (working individually, in pairs, and in groups) (Rushton, Morgan & Richard, 2007). Research has also substantiated that teachers with high level of self-efficacy are more likely to divide the class into small groups rather than teaching the class, thereby allowing the opportunity for more individualised instruction (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001).

On the other hand, motivation has been defined by Pintrich and Schunk (2002: 5) as ‘a process for goaldirected activity that is instigated and sustained’. According to Gardner’s (1985) motivation theory, students are motivated to learn and achieve when they perceive their teachers care about them. Teachers who care for students were described as demonstrating democratic interaction styles, developing expectations for student behaviour considering individual differences, modelling a ‘caring’ attitude toward their own work, and providing constructive feedback.

Moreover, high efficacy teachers encourage students for understanding. They treat students’ misunderstandings in a subject and they utilise different visual aids to make the subject more enticing and meaningful. Additionally, they give students opportunities to engage in conversations and give substantive feedback rather than scores on assignments. Additionally, there is some evidence that teachers’ affect, like enthusiasm for learning and their sensitivity concerning students’ treatment, might affect students’ emotions related to the objectives (Guo, Laura, Justice & Kaderavek, 2010).

The relationships between teachers and students also influences classroom climate; teachers are responsible for regulating the classroom environment, including regulating classroom discipline, implementation of approaches and methods to learning, interacting with the students in the classroom. Friedman and Kass (2002) found that students’ perceptions of positive affinity with their teachers were related to their pursuit of pro-social classroom goals such as getting along with others and being socially responsible and were more strongly correlated to student interest in school than perceived support from parents and peers.

Perceived support from teachers also has been a positive predictor of effort in schools and the pursuit of social responsibility goals, including acting in pro-social ways that encourage peer cooperation (Evertson & Poole, 2008; Friedman & Kass, 2002). Conversely, students who perceive teachers as harsh and cold are found to consistently display poor social behaviour and low social goals as well as to achieve lower academically, in comparison with their peers (Friedman & Kass, 2002).

Students care about their relationships with their teachers and respond with greater engagement and effort when they believe that their teachers care about them and are supportive. One way that teachers convey

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30 these qualities is through their discourse with their students in the classroom. Classroom discourse structure concerns the way teachers engage student participation in learning, promote intrinsic motivation, and balance appropriate challenges with skill levels (Evertson & Poole, 2008).

A number of studies have elaborated about the influence of teacher self-efficacy beliefs on children’s achievement and success in school (Evertson & Poole, 2008; Tournaki & Podell, 2005). Teacher’s selfefficacy beliefs may influence a student’s achievement in several ways. For example, teachers with high self-efficacy beliefs are more likely than teachers with a low sense of self-efficacy to implement didactic innovations in the classroom, to use classroom management approaches and adequate teaching methods and encourage students’ autonomy, and to take responsibility for students with special learning needs (Reinders, 2010), to manage classroom problems (Chacon, 2005), and to keep students on task (Pintrich, 2003).

Tournaki and Podell (2005) gathered data from 384 general education teachers to examine how the interaction between student and teacher characteristics affects teachers’ predictions of students’ academic and social success. The participants responded to one of 32 possible case studies describing a student, in which gender, reading achievement, social behaviour, and attentiveness were manipulated experimentally, and to a 16-item teacher-efficacy scale. Their findings indicated that teachers with high efficacy made fewer negative predictions about students and seemed to adjust their predictions when student characteristics changed, while low efficacy teachers seemed to be paying attention to a single characteristic when making their predictions. In addition, all teachers responded similarly to students who exhibited a combination of aggressive and inattentive behaviours, that is, if students were friendly, inattentiveness was tolerated more than, if they were aggressive. Furthermore, all teachers made higher predictions of academic success for students reading on grade level even when they were aggressive, than for students reading below grade level even when they were friendly.

To this end, no meta-analysis has been performed to explore the characteristics and outcomes of teacher efficacy and classroom management on African studies. Most existing studies have been conducted in a single country or with a single type of category of teacher, and a meta-analysis will facilitate examination of overall trends and development of best practices. An Africa-specific meta-analysis is necessary because Africa is a developing continent with a myriad of competing demands on its financial and human resources.

The results are that most African schools are overcrowded and under resourced, and in some cases lacking necessities such as water and electricity. Accordingly, this study used a meta-analysis approach on teacher efficacy programmes for schools in Africa and evaluated the effectiveness of these initiatives. The results of this analysis will inform the process of scaling up the UNESCO strategic objectives 2014-2021.

The necessarily brief review of studies has indicated the paucity of practical work on investigating the impact of teacher self-efficacy on the students’ motivation and achievement in African classrooms. This provides a good justification for more studies in the areas. To this end, this research sought to analyse the studies done in Africa.

FINDINGS The findings of this meta-analysis support the findings of the studies that have been done elsewhere out of Africa that suggests a significant correlation between teacher self-efficacy and increased students’ achievement, by influencing teachers’ instructional practices, enthusiasm, commitment, and teaching behaviour (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001; Tournaki & Podell, 2005; Wolters & Daugherty, 2007). The results are also in line with Bandura’s observation (1994) that teachers who have a strong sense of efficacy about their capabilities can motivate their students and improve their cognitive development.

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31 However, those who have a low sense of efficacy favour a custodial orientation that relies heavily on negative sanctions to get students to study.

Student engagement Teachers with degrees and/or post-graduate diploma in education qualifications have reported higher mean scores in efficacy in student engagement. This is an indication that higher qualifications play a role in enhancing student engagement (Adedoyin, 2010; Wang’eri & Otanga, 2014). Student engagement is viewed as the teacher’s ability to encourage students to learn. Thus, the teachers who influence students to learn show commitment to their work. Additionally, it shows that teachers who engage students in learning are aware of their self-efficacy beliefs that influence thinking, and emotions that assist them with classroom activities.

The number of years teachers spend in their work can increase their efficacious beliefs because they gain experience when teaching. However, this is not true for all because teacher efficacy research (Hofman & Kilimo, 2014) shows that teachers have high and low teacher efficacy beliefs. Therefore, teaching experience may not be the best factor to influence teacher efficacy. Some researchers, for example Cheung (2008), have reported teaching experience having an impact on teacher efficacy and other researchers have reported contrary results.

Instructional strategies The studies (Dibapile, 2012a; Moalosi & Forcheh, 2015; Wang’eri & Otanga, 2014) have consistently reported no significant differences on gender and instructional strategies, although the differences in means suggest the need for further study. Females in most of the studies employed instructional methods of teaching more than males. This may be due to the concept that is generally known globally that teaching is a female job because of more females in the teaching profession than males.

Classroom management The studies show the differences in how teachers manage classroom behaviours of students because of their teaching experiences. These results show an increase in motivation and commitment of teachers in their job as described by Huberman and Miles’ (2002) that career cycles from 8-23 years of teaching experiences add to commitment and increased motivation in classroom management due to experience.

Tschannen-Moran and Hoy, (2001) have reported classroom management self-efficacy associated with teaching experience, as well as classroom self-efficacy increasing from 0- 23 years of teaching experience.

DISCUSSION The research was in response to the question on the extent to which teacher self-efficacy influences student motivation and achievements. The findings show that teacher self-efficacy is constructed from four main sources: mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, social persuasion, and somatic and emotional states.

The studies also show that teacher self-efficacy is reflected through student engagement, instructional strategies and classroom management (Bandura, 1977; Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001). However, the findings reflect that merely receiving information from these sources is not adequate for transforming efficacy beliefs. The information from different sources affects perceived self-efficacy only when it involves cognitive processing and reflective thinking (Bandura, 1997). This understanding is reflected in all the studies in this meta-analysis as they were measured using the teacher efficacy scale. Malinen et al.’s (2013) study focused on teacher efficacy for teachers working with students with disabilities and the results show that experience in teaching students with disabilities, teaching experience, interaction with people with disabilities and the amount of training related to inclusive education, all contribute towards teacher efficacy regardless of gender.

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32 Moalosi and Forcheh (2015) just like Malinen et al. (2013) also reported that experience in teaching students with disabilities explained teacher efficacy evaluations in most studies and it has the strongest explanatory variable in each country study. This cross-culturally shared finding is in unison with the theory of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997) in which mastery experiences are assumed to be the strongest source of efficacy evaluations.

Malinen et al. (2013) as well as Wang’eri & Otanga (2014) found that teacher efficacy in collaboration was a relatively stronger predictor of teachers’ attitudes towards inclusive education while the other dimensions of self-efficacy did not have such effect. In a self-reporting study on teachers attending a graduate programme at the Kenyatta University, Wang’eri & Otanga (2014) found that teacher efficacy is a sum total of efficacy in instruction, efficacy in collaboration and efficacy in managing classroom behaviour as they all showed significant levels.

From the studies it can be reported that high-efficacy teachers have learned and experienced that behaviour problems are relatively rare in classrooms where children are actively involved and interested, and in which they are appreciated for who they are, where they come from and what they are able to contribute.

Efficacious teachers have also learned that they need to know their students’ backgrounds to be able to understand non-academic factors such as environment and social economic status, that may influence their behaviour, participation and learning (Dibapile, 2012b; Malinen et al. 2013; Hofman & Kilimo, 2014; Adu, Tadu & Eze, 2012).

It is obvious that not all children learn at the same pace or in the same way (Adedoyin, 2010; Duroweju & Onuka, 2015; Wang’eri & Otanga, 2014). Schools and teachers may have to consider the extent to which education policies and practices lead to the labelling of children or to promoting the view that learning capacities are either limited or fixed. Educating the whole person is an important goal of education in itself and teachers play their part in this process, by taking into account and responding to individual differences in development and learning needs in each classroom (Hofman & Kilimo, 2014; Adu, Tadu & Eze, 2012).

A teacher must care for many different students, including those from poor, disadvantaged families, students who may have to work before or after school, children from different ethnic, religious or language minority groups and those with a variety of learning difficulties or disabilities (Adu, Tadu & Eze, 2012; Moalosi & Forcheh, 2015). Children may come to school hungry or tired; they may not have been able to do homework because of lack of electricity or parents who are illiterate and not able to help them with their school assignments. It is important for a teacher to know a child’s socio-economic and family background to be able to understand these non-academic or social factors that influence learning and behaviour (Adedoyin, 2010; Duroweju & Onuka, 2015; Sirdhar & Javan, 2017). While these factors cannot directly be altered, understanding them will enable a teacher to place a student’s ‘learning failure’ or ‘misbehaviour’ in perspective and create learning environments that reduce rather than increase the effects of such. Children may be at risk of negative and meaningless school experiences if a teacher does not understand the whole child and his/her background, and is not ready with responsive, effective instruction and classroom strategies (Wang’eri & Otanga, 2014).

When seeking explanations for lack of achievement or for behaviour problems, a teacher needs to be prepared to consider inadequacies in the learning content, process and environment rather than inadequacies in the child (Dibapile, 2012a; Malinen et al., 2013; Hofman & Kilimo, 2014; Adu, Tadu & Eze, 2012). The teacher needs to reflect on what he/she teaches and how he/she teaches. What does he/she say and does in the classroom to develop understanding? How does he introduce new topics?

Does he/she spend enough time explaining purpose and relationship to previously taught information and skills to enhance developmental learning?

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33 Another key finding in most of the studies is that a teacher must not only look at social backgrounds, but also at what happens inside the classroom (Dibapile, 2012a; Malinen et al., 2013; Hofman & Kilimo, 2014; Adu, Tadu & Eze, 2012; Wang’eri & Otanga, 2014). How students behave is often a reaction to factors within the school. A teacher needs to reflect on the learning environment he has created and whether this engages all children actively and meaningfully.

CONCLUSION The studies that have been analysed show that there is a strong relationship between teacher efficacy and student motivation. Apart from imparting knowledge and skills, teacher’s efficacy also helps children to define who they are and ultimately influence their motivation and performance. From daily interactions with teachers, children learn whether they are important or insignificant, bright or slow, liked or disliked.

Teachers transmit these messages by the way they speak to children, their facial expressions and gestures, and by the amount of time, they devote to each individual student. Often teachers point out students’ deficiencies more than praising them for their efforts and (small) improvements. For many children this is very discouraging and may result in feelings of inferiority and failure.

REFERENCES Adedoyin, O.O. (2010) ‘Factor – analytic study of teachers’ perceptions on self-efficacy in Botswana junior secondary schools: implications for educational quality’ European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2) pp.139-155.

Adu, E.O., Tadu, R. & Eze, I. (2012) ‘Teachers’ self-efficacy as correlates of secondary school students’ academic achievement in south western Nigeria’ Discovery 2(4) pp.8-16. http://www.discovery.org. in/d.htm Bandura, A. (1977) ‘Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioural change’ Psychology Review 84(2) pp.479-507.

Bandura, A. (1997) Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company.

Bandura, A. (1994) ‘Self-efficacy’ Encyclopaedia of human behaviour 4 pp.71-81.

Bandura, A. (2002) ‘Social cognitive theory in cultural context’ Journal of Applied Psychology: An international Review 51 pp.269-290.

Chacon, C. (2005) ‘Teachers’ perceived efficacy among English as a foreign language teacher in Venezuela’ Teaching and Teacher Education 21 pp.257-272.

Cheung, H.Y. (2008) ‘Teacher efficacy: A comparative study of Hong Kong and Shanghai primary inservice teachers’ The Australian Educational Researcher 35(1) pp.103-123.

Dibapile, W.T.S. (2012a) ‘A report of the responses of Botswana junior secondary school teachers on the three subscales of the teachers’ sense of efficacy scale (TSES)’ Journal of International Education Research 8(2) pp.145-154.

Dibapile, W.T.S. (2012b) Teacher efficacy and classroom management among Botswana junior secondary school teachers. PhD dissertation, University of Tennessee, US. http://trace.tennessee.edu/ utk_graddiss/1520 (Accessed 12 February 2015).

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34 Durowoju, E.O. & Onuka, A.O.U. (2015) ‘Teacher self-efficacy enhancement and school location: implication for students’ achievement in economics in senior secondary school in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria’ Journal of Education and Practice 6(11) pp.109-115.

Evertson, C. & Poole, I. (2008) ‘Proactive Classroom Management’ In T. Good (Ed.) 21st century education: A reference handbook pp.1-131-1-141. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Friedman, I.A. & Kass, E. (2002) ‘Teacher Self-Efficacy: a classroom-organization conceptualization’ Teaching and Teacher Education 18 pp.675-686.

Gardner, R.C. (1985) Social Psychology and Second Language Learning. The role of attitude and motivation in Second Language Learning. London: Edward Arnold.

Guo, Y., Justice, Laura M. & Kaderavek, J. (2010) ‘Relations among preschool teachers’ self-efficacy, classroom quality, and children’s language and literacy gains’ Teaching and Teacher Education 26(4) pp.1094-1103.

Henning, M. & Chi, C. (2012) ‘Exploring factors associated with a teacher’s self-efficacy in HIV-prevention education in Lusaka, Zambia’ International Journal of Equity Health 11(Suppl. 1) pp.4-6.

Hofman, R.H. & Kilimo, J.S. (2014) ‘Teachers’ attitudes and self-efficacy towards inclusion of pupils with disabilities in Tanzanian schools’ Journal of Education and Training 1(2) pp.177-198.

Huberman, M. & Miles, M.B. (2002) The qualitative researcher’s companion. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Hayon, L., Vonk, J.H.C. & Fessler, R. (Eds.) (1993) Teacher professional development: A multiple perspective approach (pp. 93– 118). Amsterdam: Swets & Zeitlinger.

Kigali Statement. (2015) Sub-Saharan African Statement in Education Post-2015 (9-11 February) Kigali, Rwanda.

Malinen, O.P., Savolainen, H., Engelbrecht, P., Xu, J., Nel, M. & Tlale, D. (2013) ‘Exploring teacher selfefficacy for inclusive practices in three diverse countries’ Teaching and Teacher Education 33 pp.34-44. doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2013.02.004 Moalosi, W.T.S. & Forcheh, N. (2015) ‘Self-efficacy levels and gender differentials among teacher trainees in colleges of education in Botswana’ August. doi:10.5539/jel.v4n3p Mojavezi, A. & Tamiz, M.P. (2012) ‘The Impact of Teacher Self-Efficacy on the Students’ Motivation and Achievement’ Theory and Practice in Language Studies 2(3) pp.483-491.

Pintrich, P. (2003) ‘A motivational science perspective on the role of student motivation in learning and teaching contexts’ Journal of Educational Psychology 95(4) pp.667-686.

Pintrich, P.R. & Schunk, D.H. (2002) Motivation in education: Theory, research, and Applications 2nd edition. Columbus, OH: Merrill-Prentice Hall.

Reinders, H. (2010) ‘Towards a classroom pedagogy for learner autonomy: A framework of independent language learning skills’ Australian Journal of Teacher Education 35(5) pp.40-53.

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35 Rushton, S., Morgan, J. & Richard, M. (2007) ‘Teacher’s Myers-Briggs personality profile: Identifying effective teacher personality traits’ Teaching and Teacher Education 23 pp.432-441.

Shaukat, S. & Iqbal, H.M. (2012) ‘Teacher self-efficacy as a function of student engagement, instructional strategies and classroom management’ Pakistan Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 10(2) pp.8285.

Sridhar, Y.N. & Javan, S. (2017) ‘Teacher efficacy and its relationship to classroom management style among secondary school teachers of Kigali city, Rwanda’ Journal of Education and Practice 2(2) pp.4249.

Tournaki, N. & Podell, D.M. (2005) ‘The impact of student characteristics and teacher efficacy on teachers’ predictions of student success’ Teaching and Teacher Education 12 pp.401-411.

Tschannen-Moran, M. & Hoy, A.W. (2007) ‘The differential antecedents of self-efficacy beliefs of novice and experienced teachers’ Teaching and Teacher Education 23(6) pp.944-956.

Tschannen-Moran, M. & Hoy, A.W. (2001) ‘Teacher efficacy: Capturing an elusive construct’ Teaching and Teacher Education 17(7) pp.783-805.

Tschannen-Moran, M., Hoy, A.W. & Hoy, W.K. (1998) ‘Teacher efficacy: Its meaning and measure’ Review of Educational Research (Summer) 68(2) pp.202-248.

UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization). (2014) Medium-Term Strategy 2014–2021. UNESCO: Paris.

Wang’eri, T. & Otanga, H. (2014) ‘Sources of personal teacher efficacy and influence on teaching methods among teachers in primary schools in coast province, Kenya’ Global Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences 3(3) pp.190-195.

Weed, M. (2008) ‘A potential method for the interpretive synthesis of qualitative research: Issues in the development of ‘Meta-Interpretation’ International Journal of Social Research Methodology 11(1) pp.1328.

Wolters, C.A. & Daugherty, S.G. (2007) ‘Goal structures and teachers’ sense of efficacy: their relation and association to teaching experience and academic level’ Journal of Educational Psychology 99 pp.181193.

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36 Correlates of pedagogic malpractices1 Chinaza Uleanya, University of Zululand, South Africa Bongani Thulani Gamede, University of Zululand, South Africa

ABSTRACT This study explored pedagogic malpractices; its causes and effects in two selected sub-Saharan African universities. Mixed method research design was adopted for the study. Data were collected through the use of self-designed questionnaires for the quantitative study and interviews for the qualitative study. Interviews were conducted with eight randomly selected educators, while questionnaires were administered to 480 randomly selected undergraduate university students from two universities, one in Nigeria and the other in South Africa. The quantitative data were analysed through the use of descriptive statistics, while the qualitative data were thematically analysed. The results show that the adoption of a teacher-centred approach by educators to teaching, poor or non-usage of appropriate teaching materials, poor usage of the language of instruction, absenteeism and lateness of educators to class, poor studenteducator relationship, assessment and feedback among others, are the various ways by which pedagogic malpractices are perpetrated. In addition, poor staff remuneration, lack of instructional materials, poor working environments, quality of educators, student-educator ratio, workload of educators, were shown as contributing factors of pedagogic malpractices. As a result, poor academic performance, and high drop-out rate are the effects of pedagogic malpractices. The study recommends that university education providers in sub-Saharan Africa should provide educators with a good working environment, recruit more staff, provide staff development opportunities and monitor teaching and learning activities.1 Keywords: pedagogic malpractice, higher education, survey, interviews, Nigeria, South Africa

INTRODUCTION Malpractice in the educational system is usually always associated with students. However, it goes beyond misconduct perpetrated by students in examination centres. The education system has always been considered as being void of corruption with educators being held in high esteem. (This could quite possibly be one of the reasons for their involvement in national electoral processes.) However, in recent times, malpractice seems to have crept into the educational system (Kayode, 2015). According to Adesina (2000) malpractice exists in the education system and it is perpetrated in different forms, one of which includes pedagogy. Ojerinde (2002) supports Adesina, when he states that malpractice is all encompassing and extends to negligent acts perpetrated by members of staff in an institution, including 1 Date of submission 24 December 2017 Date of review outcome 13 June 2018 Date of acceptance 20 August 2018

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37 academic staff. Dimkpa (2011) holds that academics perpetrate malpractices in various ways. These malpractices are classified as ‘pedagogic malpractices’.

Pedagogic malpractice is described as any form of malady within the classroom that constitutes mismanagement and maladministration which affects teaching and learning activities (Serfontein & Waal, 2015). An example is an educator who shows preference for a student over others. Avetisyan and Khachatryan (2014) consider it as an act against the standard of an academic institution to favour a particular person. It also means educational negligence or activities within institutions of learning which hamper the learning abilities of students. Hallak and Poisson (2007) and Heyneman (2011) state that pedagogic malpractices take various forms and occur in different places. It encompasses examination misconduct. In other words, while academic malpractices include all forms of negligence and misconduct perpetrated in an institution of learning by both students and members of staff, examination malpractice focuses on examination activities and negligence which is perpetrated by students and their cohorts.

This research paper focuses on pedagogic malpractices perpetrated by educators within and outside university classes in two selected universities in sub-Saharan Africa. The paper begins with a brief exploration of the history, the scope and categories of pedagogic malpractice and is situated within social learning theory. The following sections outline the methodology used before presenting and discussing the findings. Lastly, there is a concluding section which includes recommendations.

Brief history of pedagogic malpractice The first time the expression ‘academic malpractice’ was used, was against educators in the 1970s and 80s (Hutt & Tang, 2013). This malpractice was the failure of educators to perform their duties in teaching students. In this regard, pedagogic malpractices are used to mean negligence or corrupt acts perpetrated by educators which negatively affects teaching and learning activities, while educational malpractices are corrupt acts or negligence perpetrated by other staff in the institution of learning. However, while the latter may not necessarily affect teaching and learning directly, there is a need to explore the scope of pedagogic malpractice.

Scope of pedagogic malpractice Farquhar (2003) explains pedagogy as quality teaching that allows learning to take place. In other words, pedagogy involves the use of any medium, technique or mechanism to ensure and ascertain that learning takes place within a given session/exercise of teaching. This is corroborated by Bower (2010) who opines that educators are to improvise, use every material within their reach to ensure that students are taught. Uleanya and Gamede (2017) describe quality teaching as the factor upon which students’ success is hinged. Thus, poor quality teaching and non-improvisation of educators constitute pedagogic malpractice.

The major form of pedagogic malpractice in the university is negligence in teaching-related responsibilities by educators (Hutt & Tang, 2013; Uleanya & Gamede, 2017). This is equated with the practice in other professions such as law, politics, accounting, among others (Norris, 2014; Beigi, Asadi, Valiani & Mardani, 2015). According to Yocum and Miller (2012) pedagogic malpractice is based on the failure of the instructional abilities of educators which tends to affect teaching and learning activities as well as future productiveness of students.

Highlighting the importance of educators to students, a former president of the United States of America (Barak Obama), in his remarks to the Hispanic Chamber of Commerce (2009) states ‘From the moment students enter a school, the most important factor in their success is not the color of their skin or the income of their parents, it’s the person standing at the front of the classroom’. Educators’ negligent acts can thus

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38 affect the success or failure of students. Students attached to corrupt or negligent educators may struggle to achieve academic success in life. Also, students may be negatively affected if the person standing in front of the class as educator is incompetent to perform and discharge the expected duties effectively and efficiently in a systematic, logical and well-understandable manner. According to Hutt and Tang (2013) any act done by an educator to hamper the learning ability of students should be regarded as pedagogic malpractice. In short, pedagogic malpractices are perpetrated by educators at the expense of students.

Thus, categories of pedagogic malpractice are explored.

Categories of pedagogic malpractice Pedagogic malpractices occur in different ways. Yocum and Miller (2012) categorise pedagogic malpractice into three categories where the educators are indirectly blamed. The categories are: • When a student claims to have been incapacitated. In this regard, the student alleges that adequate skills were not provided by an educator due to incompetence or negligence.

• When a student alleges an educator fails to diagnose the cognitive abilities of the students and fails to teach based on their abilities. However, where the abilities of the students are diagnosed, the teaching is done negligently.

• When a student alleges an educator is guilty of supervising students’ training negligently.

Educators are the principal agents upon whom students depend. Killian (2014) in support of Yocum and Miller (2012), states that educators will be regarded as having taken part in malpractice when they go about their duties in ways that are below the best available standard. Meanwhile, Sikhwari, Maphosa, Masehela and Ndebele (2015) aver that educators are the bedrock upon which the academic performances of students lie. This implies that educators play important roles in the academic pursuit of students. Thus, they have to continuously learn new techniques to enable their students to function adequately as their non-performance constitutes malpractice which hampers teaching and learning activities.

Social learning theory Social learning theory views learning as a social and cognitive phenomenon. Learning, in this regard, is accepted as a behaviour that can be learnt and unlearnt by individuals within a given environment (Grisold & Kaiser, 2017). This implies that whatever is learnt by a student can be unlearnt if conscious efforts are made. Bandura (1971), one of the foremost proponents of social learning theory, states that learning is a social phenomenon which entails processes such as: attention, retention, reinforcement and motivation, as well as conditioning. Other early proponents of social learning theory: Weinstein, Ridley, Dahl and Weber (1989) aver that for such processes to successfully occur, the roles of educators are invaluable. Hence, social learning theory enjoins educators to be skillful and know the appropriate strategies to apply in any teaching and learning exercise. Joye and Wilson (2015) state that factors such as age and gender of an educator influences teaching and learning activities. This suggests that while the personality of educators has effects on their teaching strategies and classroom activities, they have great influence on learning processes of students. Daniels and McBride (2001) and Souriyavongsa, Rany, Abidin and Mei (2013) respectively state that the task of educators, the learning environment and availability of teaching and learning resources are important factors, which can limit the potential abilities of educators to transfer knowledge. Butler, Godbole and Marsh (2013) and Fook and Sidhu (2015) state that assessment and feedback, volume and assignment type, among others, are factors that contribute to pedagogic malpractice. Robertson, Line, Jones and Thomas (2000), Sawir (2005), Baker, Grant and Morlock (2008), as well as Serfontein and Waal (2014) state that factors like language policy and student-lecturer relationship are underlying factors which constitute pedagogic malpractices. On the contrary, Bower (2010) avers that educators are expected to be good improvisers. In other words, they

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39 should be able to improvise towards ensuring that they deliver, especially in circumstances when teaching and learning facilities are lacking. However, Hutt and Tang (2013) state that the inability of educators to impact their students during teaching and learning activities amounts to negligence and malpractices on the part of such educators regardless of the environment, learner-related issues, among others. The role of educators includes ensuring that learning takes place regardless of the situation in which they find themselves.

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Malpractices in the education system are usually associated with students. Educators are expected to be devoid of malpractices or negligence based on their chosen profession and the effects which any form of negligence may have on society. Hence, when students turn out to be unproductive or fail to perform academically well, they are blamed and considered playful, academically unbalanced or experiencing one form of learning challenge or the other. Pedagogic malpractice is not usually considered capable of hampering learning processes of students: university students inclusive. However, this seems untrue as many unemployable and poorly capacitated graduates have been turned out into society. Thus, this study seeks to explore various ways by which pedagogic malpractices are perpetrated in universities and to explore academics perceptions of pedagogic malpractice.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS 1. What pedagogic malpractices are perpetrated by academic staff of the selected Nigerian and South African universities?

2. What are the perceptions of academic staff of the selected Nigerian and South African universities on pedagogic malpractices?

METHODOLOGY The mixed method research design was adopted for this study in order to collect quantitative data which enhances generalisation and qualitative data for in-depth information. Creswell (2014) and Kumar (2014) view mixed method research as an approach useful for obtaining information based on representative and qualitative samples and can therefore be generalised to a population. The population of this study consists of third-year undergraduate university students in two selected universities in Nigeria and South Africa. The institutions were adopted based on similar features such as: their location, source of funding, size of institution, availability and access to resources, among others. The sample population was 488 participants from across eight faculties from the two universities. Two hundred and forty-four student respondents were from a Nigerian-based university, while the other 244 student respondents were from a South African-based university. Eight educators were randomly selected from the eight faculties in the selected universities. Five hundred questionnaires were administered and retrieved with 480 being used for the study. The researchers ensured that the questionnaires administered and used for the study were equivalent in number from both of the selected institutions. The population and sample figures are illustrated in Table 1 below.

Table 1: List of student respondents Demographics

South Africa Frequency (N =240)

Nigeria

Percent (%)

Frequency (N =240)

Percent (%)

Gender Male

110

46

114

47

Female

130

54

126

53

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40 Demographics

South Africa Frequency (N =240)

Nigeria

Percent (%)

Frequency (N =240)

Percent (%)

AGE 18-29

120

50

122

51

30-39

115

48

116

48

5

2

2

01

Agriculture and Science

39

16

43

18

Arts

72

30

67

28

Commerce, Admin. and Law

63

26

51

21

Education

66

28

79

33

240

100

240

100

40-Above Faculty

Total

Instruments The study investigated the various ways by which educators in the two selected sub-Saharan African universities perpetrate pedagogic malpractices, and the causes of such acts. Hence, a self-designed questionnaire and semi-structured interview were adopted for quantitative and qualitative data collection respectively. The self-designed questionnaire adopted the Likert rating scale as shown below: Strongly Agreed

Agreed

Disagreed

Strongly Disagreed

4 Points

3 Points

2 Points

1 Point

The questionnaire comprised two sections. The first section aimed at retrieving personal information of respondents while the second section retrieved information on the different types of pedagogic malpractices experienced by students. Each identified type of malpractice informed by the reviewed literature consisted of four statements as seen in Tables 2 and 3 below.

Semi-structured interviews were conducted with educators to answer the second research question.

The responses retrieved through interviews with educators were analysed under various themes. These interviews were used to collect data from an academic perspective on the types and causes of pedagogic malpractices conducted. An interview schedule guide was used to ensure uniformity in the questions asked. However, additional questions were asked based on the responses of the educators. This helped the researchers to gather extra useful information. Educators were conveniently selected based on their interest to participate in the study as well as their availability. The questions asked revolved around their opinion on the existence of pedagogic malpractices and the various ways by which these are perpetrated in the university system. Additionally, research ethics were duly considered and followed. For instance, the researchers ensured that respondents were obliged to respond to the administered questionnaires at their volition and their anonymity was ensured.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION Data were obtained from both students and academics using questionnaires and interviews. The answers provided by both student and academic respondents indicated that pedagogic malpractices are perpetrated in different ways and for different reasons.

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41 Findings from quantitative study Table 2 and 3 below shows six common pedagogic malpractices that the study found to be perpetrated by educators from the two selected universities. Table 2 presents the analysed data collected from student respondents in the selected South African university, while Table 3 presents the analysed data collected from students in the selected Nigerian university.

Table 2: South African Student Respondents view on Pedagogic Malpractices by Educators where SA stands for Strongly Agree, A - Agree, D – Disagree and SD – Strongly Disagree SA

A

D

SD

Total

Language of instruction I enjoy the use of English language as medium of instruction

N

30

45

76

89

240

%

13

19

31

37

100

I comprehend the lectures taught through the use of English language as medium of instruction

N

58

49

73

60

240

%

24

21

30

25

100

I prefer the use of local language as medium of instruction

N

91

101

37

11

240

%

38

42

15

5

100

I perform better when taught in local language

N

98

111

26

5

240

%

41

46

11

2

100

N

35

47

99

59

240

%

15

20

41

24

100

N

42

50

75

73

240

%

18

21

31

30

100

I will perform better if I relate differently with my educators

N

72

81

35

52

240

%

30

34

14

22

100

I get regular counsel from educators

N

35

27

87

91

240

%

15

11

36

38

100

N

27

33

92

88

240

%

11

14

38

37

100

I get motivated to learn based on the teaching strategies of my educators

N

30

35

96

79

240

%

13

14

40

33

100

The teaching strategies of our educators are good and fascinating

N

27

31

87

95

240

%

11

13

36

40

100

The teaching strategies of educators make me perform better

N

21

34

89

96

240

%

9

14

37

40

100

Student-Educator Relationship I enjoy good relationship with my educators

Our educators are friendly and relate well with us

Adopted Teaching Approach I enjoy the teaching strategy of our educators

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42 SA

A

D

SD

Total

Poor or non-usage of Appropriate Teaching Materials Our educators use teaching support materials regularly

N

21

34

88

97

240

%

9

14

37

40

100

The teaching support materials adopted by our educators aid my comprehension

N

33

24

87

96

240

%

14

10

36

40

100

I enjoy classes due to the adopted teaching support materials

N

26

31

94

89

240

%

11

13

39

37

100

I perform better because of the adopted teaching support materials used by our educators

N

24

36

92

88

240

%

10

15

38

37

100

N

36

47

89

68

240

%

15

20

37

28

100

N

29

34

85

92

240

%

12

14

35

38

100

I sometimes do not attend classes because educators go late or absent themselves from classes

N

26

31

91

92

240

%

11

13

38

38

100

Absenteeism or late going of educators for classes affects me negatively

N

30

41

91

78

240

%

13

17

38

32

100

N

27

29

98

86

240

%

11

12

41

36

100

N

30

42

90

78

240

%

13

18

37

32

100

My academic performance is affected based on the assessment strategy of the educators

N

69

91

51

29

240

%

29

38

21

12

100

My academic performance is negatively affected due to the type of feedback I get from my educators

N

75

88

43

34

240

%

31

37

18

14

100

Absenteeism and Lateness of Educators to Class Educators come late to class for lectures

Educators absent themselves from lecturing

Assessment and Feedback from Educators I enjoy the feedback I get from educators

I enjoy the way educators assess us

Table 3: Nigerian Student Respondents view on Pedagogic Malpractices by Educators where SA stands for Strongly Agree, A - Agree, D – Disagree and SD – Strongly Disagree SA

A

D

SD

Total

N

90

121

19

10

240

%

38

50

8

4

100

Language of instruction I enjoy the use of English language as medium of instruction

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43 SA

A

D

SD

Total

I comprehend the lectures taught through the use of English language as medium of instruction

N

93

128

12

7

240

%

39

53

5

3

100

I prefer the use of local language as medium of instruction

N

32

52

96

61

240

%

13

22

40

25

100

I perform better when taught in local language

N

8

12

126

94

240

%

3

5

53

39

100

N

27

41

89

83

240

%

11

17

37

35

100

N

38

46

123

33

240

%

16

19

51

14

100

I will perform better if I relate differently with my educators

N

76

88

40

36

240

%

32

37

16

15

100

I get regular counsel from educators

N

28

41

98

73

240

%

12

17

41

30

100

N

21

39

122

58

240

%

9

16

51

24

100

I get motivated to learn based on the teaching strategies of my educators

N

22

35

79

104

240

%

9

15

33

43

100

The teaching strategies of our educators are good and fascinating

N

25

30

99

86

240

%

10

13

41

36

100

The teaching strategies of educators make me perform better

N

33

41

98

68

240

%

14

17

41

28

100

N

21

29

111

79

240

%

9

12

46

33

100

The teaching support materials adopted by our educators aid my comprehension

N

21

25

119

75

240

%

9

10

50

31

100

I enjoy classes due to the adopted teaching support materials of our educators

N

19

23

102

96

240

%

8

10

42

40

100

I perform better because of the adopted teaching support materials used by educator

N

12

17

114

97

240

%

5

7

48

40

100

Student-Educator Relationship I enjoy good relationship with my educators

Our educators are friendly and relate well with us

Adopted Teaching Approach I enjoy the teaching strategy of our educators

Poor or non-usage of Appropriate Teaching Materials Our educators use teaching support materials regularly

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44 SA

A

D

SD

Total

N

59

87

49

45

240

%

25

36

20

19

100

N

58

72

69

41

240

%

24

30

29

17

100

I sometimes do not attend classes because educators go late or absent themselves from classes

N

67

71

63

39

240

%

28

30

26

16

100

Absenteeism or late going of educators for classes affects me negatively

N

73

79

53

35

240

%

30

33

22

15

100

N

11

39

121

69

240

%

5

16

50

29

100

N

27

32

86

95

240

%

11

13

36

40

100

My academic performance is affected based on the assessment strategy of the educators

N

56

77

52

55

240

%

23

32

22

23

100

My academic performance is negatively affected due to the type of feedback I get from my educators

N

86

92

41

21

240

%

36

38

17

9

100

Absenteeism and Lateness of Educators to Class Educators come late to class for lectures

Educators absent themselves from lecturing

Assessment and Feedback from Educators I enjoy the feedback I get from educators

I enjoy the way educators assess us

The findings of the study as presented in Tables 2 and 3 show the different identified pedagogic malpractices perpetrated in the selected universities in South Africa and Nigeria. The study indicates that though the English language is adopted as a medium of instruction in the two countries, the majority of the South African educators in the selected university prefer to adopt the home language as a medium of instruction and the students appreciate such. For instance, the majority, 80% and 87% of the students from the selected South African university agree that they enjoy the use of their home language as a medium of instruction and perform better when taught in the same medium. However, 88% and 92% of the Nigerian students agree that they enjoy and perform better when taught in the English language. This implies that the use of English language as a medium of instruction in the selected South African university constitutes pedagogic malpractice because it hampers the teaching and learning process. However, educators in the selected Nigerian university focus on the use of the English language as a medium of instruction, hence, it does not constitute pedagogic malpractice.

The study also reveals that the student-educator relationship or lack thereof is a form of pedagogic malpractice and hampers teaching and learning activities in both selected universities. Data gathered from the student respondents show that pedagogic malpractice is perpetrated through the relationship that exists between the students and their educators. For instance, while 65% and 72% respectively of the South African and Nigerian student respondents disagree that they enjoy their relationship with their educators, 64% and 69% respectively of the student respondents in the selected South African and Nigerian universities agree that they would have performed better if they had different and better relationships with their educators. This implies that students do not enjoy the maximum cordial relationship

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45 they expect from their educators and this hampers teaching and learning activities. By extension, studentseducators’ relationship constitutes pedagogic malpractices perpetrated by educators.

The adopted teaching strategies are other forms by which pedagogic malpractices are perpetrated by educators. Of the student respondents from both the selected South African and Nigerian universities, 75% disagree that they enjoy the teaching strategies adopted by their educators. The study further reveals that 73% and 76% respectively of students from the selected South African and Nigerian universities feel demotivated to learn due to the adopted teaching strategies of the educators. This implies that the adopted teaching strategies of educators constitute pedagogic malpractice as it hampers learning processes.

Additionally, the study reveals that absenteeism and lateness to lecture is another way by which educators perpetrate pedagogic malpractice. However, the data suggest that this form of pedagogic malpractice is perpetrated more in the selected Nigerian university, compared to the selected South African university.

For instance, while 35% of the South African student respondents agree that their educators come late, 61% of the Nigerian student respondents agree that their educators come late. Also, while 26% of the South African student respondents agree that educators absent themselves from lectures, 54% of the Nigerian student respondents agree. Additionally, 24% and 58% of the South African and Nigerian student respondents respectively agree that they themselves are sometimes absent from classes. Also, 30% and 63% of the South African and Nigerian student respondents respectively agree that they sometimes absent themselves from classes and are negatively affected due to the absenteeism and lateness to lecture of their educators. While lateness to lecture and absenteeism of educators constitutes a major pedagogic malpractice in the selected Nigerian university, it is also experienced to a lesser degree, and negatively affects students in the selected South African university. This suggests that students in the selected Nigerian university often play truancy compared to their counterparts in the selected South African university, though they both experience pedagogic malpractices in the area of absenteeism and lateness of lecturers to varying degrees.

The study further shows that pedagogic malpractices is perpetrated through assessment and feedback given by educators to students. Of the South African student respondents, 69% disagree that they enjoy the way they are assessed by their educators while 77% disagree that they enjoy the feedback they receive from their educators and as such it affects their academic performances negatively. On the other hand, 76% of the Nigerian student respondents disagree that they enjoy the way they are assessed by their educators while, 79% disagree that they enjoy the feedback they receive from their educators and their academic performances are negatively affected by such. This finding suggests that assessment and feedback from educators to students is a major form of pedagogic malpractice in the two selected universities.

Another finding of the study is that poor or non-usage of appropriate teaching materials constitutes pedagogic malpractice. Of the South African and Nigerian student respondents, 77% and 79% respectively disagree that their educators use teaching materials during lectures. Added to this, 76% and 81% of the South African and Nigerian student respondents respectively agree that when teaching materials are used for lectures, it impedes their learning. This implies that the selected teaching materials are either not appropriate for the lesson or are wrongly used. Of the South African and Nigerian student respondents, 75% and 88% respectively disagree that they perform better due to the adoption and use of teaching materials by their educators. Inappropriate selection and wrong usage of teaching materials by educators constitute pedagogic malpractices.

Discussion of findings from quantitative study The findings of the quantitative study reveal that pedagogic malpractices are perpetrated by educators in different ways, among which are: the adopted language of instruction, student-educator relationship,

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46 teaching approach, poor use of instructional support materials, absenteeism/lateness of educators to class, as well as forms of assessment and feedback given to students in both selected universities. However, the language of instruction is peculiar to the selected South African university.

The finding of the study on the adopted language of instruction constituting pedagogic malpractice concurs with the work of Sawir (2005) who states that it is important that the appropriate language of instruction be used when teaching any lesson. The finding from the selected South African university also supports the work of Crystal (2003) who holds that the lingua franca of any nation that is the language of business, politics and religion, among others should be upheld as the language of instruction in any institution of learning. This has hampered the learning process through pedagogy as students find it difficult to comprehend the language used by educators during teaching and learning exercises. Robertson, Line, Jones and Thomas (2000) in support of language of instruction hampering the learning process, states that students should be taught in their lingua franca rather than foreign languages that may not help the students.

However, where the lingua franca is a foreign language, as is the case in some African countries, policy makers should ensure that there is continuity from school through to higher education in the medium of instruction so that where it is not the mother tongue language of the students, they are not disadvantaged.

The finding of the study suggests that though home languages are considered and treated as official in South Africa, the adoption of the English language constitutes pedagogic malpractice, because it hampers the teaching and learning process. The education policy on language of instruction causes some South African educators to perpetrate pedagogic malpractice. For instance, all eleven languages in South Africa are considered official and educators sometimes engage their students in the local language for easy and better comprehension. However, such students are assessed and given feedback in the English language. This may pose some forms of confusion for the students and hamper their leaning abilities, thereby constituting pedagogic malpractice.

Findings on student-educator relationships constituting pedagogic malpractice agrees with the work of Baker, Grant and Morlock (2008) who aver that the relationship between students and their educators can hamper teaching and learning activities. This suggests that pedagogic malpractice is perpetrated when educators fail in maintaining the right and positive relationship with their students.

The study shows that the adapted teaching approach of educators constitutes pedagogic malpractice, this supports the work of Hutt and Tang (2013) who state that educators perpetrate pedagogic malpractice when they adopt teacher-centred teaching strategies in lecturing their students. These hampers teaching and learning activities and subsequently amounts to negligence on the part of the educators.

Poor or non-usage of teaching materials during lectures was found which constitute pedagogic malpractices perpetrated by educators in the selected universities. This corroborates the work of Bower (2010) who states that teaching support materials are needed for easy comprehension of lessons taught to students at different levels. This implies that the appropriate use of the right teaching support materials motivates and enhances easy comprehension by students.

Absenteeism and/or lateness to lectures is another way by which pedagogic malpractice is perpetrated by educators in the selected universities. This finding corroborates the work of Dimkpa (2011) who considers it as professional misconduct. He further opines that such acts demotivate students and impedes learning processes.

The type and method of assessment and feedback given to students is revealed as another way by which educators in the selected universities perpetrate pedagogic malpractices. This concurs with the work of Fook and Sidhu (2015) who aver that the type and volume of assessments given to students can The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 13 (2) / 2018 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

47 demotivate or motivate them to learn. Also, this finding supports the work of Butler, Godbole and Marsh (2013) who hold the view that the feedback received by students contributes towards learning processes of students either positively or negatively. Assessment and feedback given to students contribute to learning processes. In other words, the learning abilities of students are enhanced through quality assessment and feedback from lecturers.

Findings from the Qualitative Study The qualitative study was used to answer the second research question. From the interviews conducted with educators, themes were generated and discussed. These themes indicate that pedagogic malpractice lingers due to challenges from the students, educators, leadership of the universities, the government and other stakeholders in the field of education. The findings from the qualitative study reflect the causes and effects of pedagogic malpractices perpetrated by educators. These findings are discussed in different themes below.

1. Assignment-related malpractices: The study shows that pedagogic malpractice is perpetrated when educators use group work in place of teaching. In this regard, educators fail to guide students in their various group activities as expected when group task / learning is adopted as a teaching strategy. Suffice to state that while students expect to be taught, some educators end up only giving students assignments. In addition, the volume of assignments also suggests pedagogic malpractice.

For instance, educators sometimes saddle students with group tasks without proper monitoring. This corroborates the finding of the work of Fook and Sidhu (2015) who opine that the high volume of assignments can constitute learning challenges for students. Some educators acknowledged assignment-related pedagogic malpractice; however, they blame it on the size of the class. For instance, an educator states that sometimes when an educator gets to class, see the size, consider the materials available, he/ she just concludes that the best option is to group the students and give them tasks to carry out.

Of course, that is another form of teaching.

2. Students-educators’ relationship: The relationship that exists between students and educators affects the attitude of the students towards the subject matter. This corroborates the finding of Hughes, Cavell and Willson (2001) and Serfontein and Waal (2014) who aver that educators influence students to acquire knowledge based on the relationship that exists between them. One of the educators admitted to this by stating that the students are to be mentored by us (educators), because whether we like it or not, they will take over from us. The way we (educators) relate with them (students) determines how far they will achieve. Unfortunately, some educators fail to relate well with students because students may take them for a ride.

This finding indicates that educators may avoid having a cordial relationship with their students for fear of being disrespected by the students. However, cordial student-educator relationships promote good interaction and better academic performance of students (Lee, 2012).

3. Language of instruction: The adopted language of instruction constitutes pedagogic malpractice.

One of the educators reports that Educators attempt to teach using a common language (English Language), but the failure of students to comprehend causes them to switch to the use of home language. However, not all educators speak the home language of the students.

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48 This is common in countries that have several indigenous languages and fail to adopt one of the indigenous languages due to the influence of the language of the colonisers.

4. Task of educators: The demands placed on educators seem to be high; hence the performance of educators fails to meet expectations. While some educators fail in discharging their duties, others discharge their duties haphazardly due to the level of burden saddled on them. This coincides with the work of Daniels and McBride (2001) who aver that the tasks saddled on educators should be manageable to enable quality output. He further opines that educators should be able to supervise the works of their students. However, this may not be possible when the educators are overburdened.

5.

Educators-students’ ratio: Educators/students’ ratio in most departments and faculties is disproportional. For instance, in South African universities, the ratio of educator to student is about 1:55, while for Nigerian universities, the ratio is about 1:352. This affects the output of educators in the discharge of their duties. This corroborates with the finding of Okebukola (2002) and Souriyavongsa, Rany, Abidin and Mei (2013) who opine that learning processes are hampered when the population of students is excessive compared to the population of educators and the facilities for teaching and learning activities are not commensurate. A report from one of the educators’ states that there is nothing any educator can do with a large population of students. Imagine that I teach over 1200 students, what magic can l perform? Yet a lot is expected from me.

6. Leadership and administration: Educators are hindered in the discharge of their duties due to the leadership roles played by administrative members of staff. The relationship that exists between administrative members of staff and educators influences the performance of educators when discharging their duties. This corroborates the finding of Weihrich, Cannice and Koontz (2008) and Serfontein and Waal (2014) which suggests that educators are motivated or demotivated to work based on the relationship that exists between the educators, their colleagues, administrative staff as well as a conducive working environment. An educator reports that the way educators are treated by non-academics sometimes is unfair and it makes them react negatively to job related issues. Lecturers feel unmotivated to work.

This experience may be common in situations where materials meant to be provided by non-academics such as secretaries within the department are not promptly provided. Also, in situations where nonacademic staff leave their duties such as registration exercises to educators.

7. Availability of instructional materials: The study reveals that low/poor availability of instructional materials affects the transfer of knowledge. Hence, some educators perpetrate pedagogic malpractices due to the poor or non-availability of teaching support materials.

Sometimes, some of us (educators) wish to meet up with the tasks, ensuring that we transfer the necessary knowledge, yet the necessary materials are not made available. In that case, there will be little or nothing that can be done other than to carry-out our responsibilities the best way we can, without teaching support materials, after all, educators are asked if they have lectured, not if they used teaching support materials.

This finding contradicts the view of Bower (2010) who avers that educators are expected to improvise and not allow non-availability of instructional materials to affect transfer of knowledge.

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49

8. Previous knowledge of students: Educators reported that the high school background and experiences of students sometimes cause pedagogic malpractices. For instance, an educator reports that

educators will rather build on acquired knowledge of students, rather than go back to all they ought to have acquired in high school.

This finding coincides with the finding of Fook and Sidhu (2015) who state that the previous learning experiences of students affect learning processes, consequently the teaching abilities of educators.

CONCLUSION This study investigated the various ways by which pedagogic malpractices are perpetrated by lecturers in two selected universities in Sub-Saharan Africa. The results show that pedagogical malpractices are perpetrated in various forms by lecturers in the universities. From the findings of the study, the effects of pedagogic malpractices are extensive. The finding corroborates the work of Mitra (2011) who states that sustainable development may be lacking due to pedagogic malpractice. Pedagogic malpractices have immediate and long-lasting effects. Some of these include: demotivation of students, poor knowledge of students, unemployability of students due to lack of knowledge, skills and competencies, poor ranking and perception of the university among other effects.

RECOMMENDATIONS Based on the findings of this study, the following four recommendations are made. Firstly, the language of communication is important; the official language of instruction must be taken into consideration as it is the language in which examinations will be written, aids the understanding of students on what is being taught and develop a number of skills and competencies, such as problem solving, critical thinking, among others. Many of the students consider the use of English language as the language of instruction as part of pedagogic malpractice; they prefer their mother tongue to be used. However, for the purpose of universality and international standards, many former colonies of Britain have adopted the English language. Nevertheless, this policy has put many students especially non-native speakers of the English language in a disadvantaged position. Hence, this study recommends that policy makers should reconsider the language of instruction policies in countries with similar situations as this affects the learning abilities of the students as well as poses difficulties to educators. This calls for the need for the adoption of a national language as the medium for teaching and learning activities. However, the English language can be used as an additional language for global standards and to accommodate foreigners. Moreover, the focus must first be to educate and empower students to be useful within their local environments before considering global standards as is the case with nations like Asia and some Latin American countries.

Secondly, the volume and type of assessments given to students must be considered by lecturers. As much as students may be willing to learn through the assessments given by lecturers, the morale to learn may be destroyed if the right assessment strategy is not properly utilised, moreover, the volume must also be checked. For instance, a variety of short assessments can be encouraged, assessment in forms of summary, practical works, as well as assessment in small groups should be encouraged. This will allow students to become more involved and greater satisfaction will be derived from the experience making learning more pleasurable.

Thirdly, lecturers should not be saddled with responsibilities beyond their capabilities. This will enable productivity as they will be able to cope with the workload and stay focused on their teaching assignment.

Where they are to be saddled with extra responsibilities such as administrative duties, provision must be made to accommodate the students to ensure they are not disadvantaged. A finding of the study shows that some university lecturers are overburdened and this hampers successful teaching.

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50 Lastly, the study further recommends that a learning environment which enhances peer learning be provided for lecturers and students. However, in the event that such is not made available, the view of Bower (2010), which states that lecturers should improvise where teaching support materials are lagging, is supported by the study. In other words, lecturers should strive to do and be the best in their various fields whatever the circumstances and raise the best students who will in turn raise others in the future.

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51 Hallak, J. & Poisson, M. (2007) Corrupt Schools, Corrupt Universities: what can be done? Paris: International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP).

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52 Sikhwari, T.D., Maphosa, C., Masehela, L. & Ndebele, C. (2015) ‘Exploring Students’ Views on Factors Affecting Academic Performance in a South African University’ International Journal of Science Education 10(3) pp.442-450.

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53 Student throughput trends on postgraduate level: An African case study1  RJ (Nico) Botha, University of South Africa

ABSTRACT Student retention and throughput is a global phenomenon facing higher education that dates back to the 1960s and currently remains a critical concern worldwide. Research literature on student retention and throughput trends at higher education institutions continuously refers to the ways in which the various stakeholders at tertiary institutions take important decisions to ensure a better completion rate (throughput) among postgraduate students at these institutions. In promoting further appreciation of throughput among postgraduate students, this paper, based on an empirical study among a number of postgraduate students at the University of Ghana, reviews some trends and possible factors that may play a role in postgraduate student throughput at African universities in general and at this university in particular. The outcomes of this study show that student throughput at this institution has decreased over time due to, inter alia, financial difficulties, personal challenges and fewer opportunities for students to get study leave from employers.

The paper concludes with recommendations to improve student throughput at postgraduate level in Africa such as academic counselling before enrolling for postgraduate studies.1 Keywords: postgraduate, students, dropouts, throughput, models, Africa, Ghana

INTRODUCTION Authors such as Astin, Bayer and Vaughan have given a clear and comprehensive historic perspective on student throughput and retention in higher education (Reason, 2017). The phenomenon of student throughput and retention has become ‘big business for researchers, educators and entrepreneurs alike’ (Sondlo, 2016: 2) as the worldwide focus and aim for tertiary institutions is on increasing the rate of student persistence and graduate rates. From the research literature, it is clear that significant improvements are evident by some higher education institutions in addressing this issue (Thomas, 2015). However, much more still needs to be understood about this issue in the context of improving institutional effectiveness and achieving national imperatives and goals.

As an institutional researcher, the author is concerned with the standards in higher education and, more specifically, with the retention or high dropout rates of students at tertiary level, specifically in African and other Third-World countries. This trend, however, is not limited to tertiary institutions among Third-World 1 Date of submission 15 August 2017 Date of review outcome 27 March 2018 Date of acceptance 22 July 2018

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54 countries alone. Tertiary institutions throughout the world are currently facing challenges and issues such as the quality of postgraduate training, the length of time it takes for postgraduate students to complete their studies, the success rate of postgraduate students, and the high percentage of postgraduate students who terminate their studies and drop out of the system before graduation (Reason, 2013; Sondlo, 2016).

Thomas (2015) conceptualises student retention and throughput on an international level, and confirms the critical challenge of this issue on a global scale and the measures placed on higher education institutions worldwide for accountability and responsiveness. According to this study, only 60% of students from colleges and universities in the United States of America (US) graduate within six years. Students who did not persist into their second-year account for $6.2 billion in state appropriations for these higher educational institutions. Of particular importance to African universities, is the finding from Tinto (2007) that the problem of student retention as manifested in the US affects a particular sector of the population, mainly African-American students with a low socio-economic background. Thomas (2015) notes that over the years, the success rates of these students have dropped even further.

Similar situations exist in the United Kingdom (UK) and other parts of the First World. The Open University in the UK reports that among 29 countries sampled in 2015, the UK has the lowest dropout rate of 19% compared to that of Germany (28%), Australia (35%) and the US (37%). This situation exists despite all the attempts, approaches and supplementary techniques to address and improve student retention and success (Thomas & May, 2014).

The current situation in Africa is, according to Sondlo (2016), even worse than in other countries of the world. In the African context, these challenges manifest themselves differently from the developed world. Broad socio-economic and political issues have had a negative impact on the African higher education system. With most of Africa lagging behind in terms of development, African higher education institutions cannot keep pace with their counterparts in developed countries in relation to competition and internationalisation of higher education. Thus, African universities’ experience of student retention is to a great extent influenced by underdevelopment and poverty, which is linked to the commitment that African universities have towards meeting the Millennium Development Goals with respect to increasing and widening participation rates (Negash & Olusalo, 2012).

Sondlo (2016) confirms this trend and cites several inter-related factors that account for the discontinuity of students in higher education on the African continent, some of which are beyond the institution’s control.

Poor preparation for higher education, lack of commitment among students, unsatisfactory academic experience, ineffective matching between students and courses by institutions, lack of social integration, financial issues and personal circumstances are some of the factors that contribute to this dilemma.

Additional reasons for students’ non-completion of their studies on the African continent include problems such as socio-economic status, educational background of parents, time factors, workload, lack of support structures, ill health, pregnancy, HIV/AIDS, family responsibilities and a lack of career guidance at school level (Sondlo, 2016).

In view of these trends in Africa and other countries worldwide, studies on the duration of postgraduate studies and concerns about shortening the time students take to complete their postgraduate studies have become matters of the utmost importance, not only to students and managers of higher education but also to governments, funders of postgraduate studies and other stakeholders in higher education. Several of these studies have expressed concerns about problems with postgraduate education, specifically about the time students take to complete their studies (Holdaway, Deblios & Winchester, 2005; Sayed, Kruss & Badat, 2008; Lessing & Schultze, 2012; Amehoe, 2014; Thomas, 2015; Sondlo, 2016).

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55 A number of studies (Latona & Browne, 2001; Carey, 2004; Manathunga, 2005; Shushok & Hulme, 2006; Lovitts, 2012; Amehoe, 2014; Luescher-Mamashela, 2015) have been done in the last few years into enrolment and student throughput at higher education institutions in Africa. These were conducted, among others, by the World Bank, the South African Department of Education, the Association of African Universities, the United States Partnership for Higher Education in Africa (PHEA) and the Centre for Higher Education and Transformation (CHET). In addition, the Higher Education Research and Advocacy Network in Africa (HERANA), an organisation on higher education and development established by CHET, has been involved in research on the status of postgraduate enrolment and throughput at higher education institutions and the impact it has on world economies (Luescher-Mamashela, 2015). These studies confirm that both student-related factors and institutional factors have an impact on low student throughput and students who take long to complete their postgraduate studies or do not complete their studies at all.

As a result of these and other studies, many countries have set priorities for institutions of higher learning to improve the efficiency of graduate outputs based on specific benchmarks. In the South African context, the Ministry of Higher Education has implemented a national plan to increase the overall participation rate and stresses that such a plan ‘… must be complemented by strategies to increase graduate outputs in the short to medium-term in order to ensure that the correct demand for high-level managerial and professional skills is satisfied’ (Sondlo, 2016: 1).

Governments globally have always embraced investment in higher education because they recognise that there is a close link between research and economic development and they are therefore interested in funding postgraduate programmes, especially doctoral programmes. Such funding takes the form of grants allocated either to institutions or directly to students, and such grants are catered for in national annual budgets. In some First-World countries such as Australia and the Nordic states, doctoral education is free; the fees are sponsored by a number of stakeholders. In other countries, such as Thailand and Japan, loans are available to students on postgraduate level. In an African country such as Ghana, postgraduate studies are not free and students are dependent on loans and in some cases bursaries to enrol in their studies. As a result, stakeholders are concerned about throughput and attrition trends. Attrition and completion rates of postgraduate students are becoming statistics of vital concern to governments and funding agencies because they tend to rely on a performance-driven model to make informed judgements about higher degree research (Eggins, 2008; Lessing & Schultze, 2012; Amehoe, 2014).

It is clear from the discussion above that the concepts of ‘student retention’ and ‘student throughput’ are highly problematic concepts that need to be conceptualised.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE STUDY Conceptualising student throughput in postgraduate education The earliest studies of postgraduate throughput and retention in postgraduate higher education occurred in the US in the 1930s and focused on what was at that time referred to as ‘student mortality’: ‘The failure of students to graduate’ (Berger & Lyon, 2015: 16). Historically, higher education research always focused on ‘solving students’ problems regarding mortality’ (Shushok & Hulme, 2006: 87).

Researchers and scholars’ comprehension of the meaning of the concept ‘throughput’ depends on various situations; and, for this reason, various terms have been developed over time to describe the different throughput situations. The use of the term ‘throughput’ may be traced back to attempts by quasi-academics and politicians to equate the success or completion rates of students at higher education institutions to the input and output concept in industry. This is similar to the conveyer belt syndrome of a factory, the success rate, determined by the quantum of output released through a revolving door (Clifford, 2014). With this

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56 perception in mind, MacMillan (2007: 237) defines throughput as: ‘the amount of work, people, or things that a system deals with in a particular period of time’.

Some other definitions of throughput go beyond the input and output production concept of an industry that appears to be limited to goods or products and consequently involves the number of people a system deals with in a particular period of time. Horne and Naudé (2007) define the throughput rate at tertiary institutions as the percentage of students who register for a module or course and pass the prescribed examination. Authors such as Craincross (1999), Latief and Blignaut (2008), Hauser and Koenig (2011) and Amehoe (2014) conclude that the simplest description of student throughput is the number of years a student takes to complete the prescribed examinations.

The concepts that underpin student retention and departure have been illustrated by scholars in various models of which Tinto’s and Durkheim’s models are the most well-known (Draper, 2008). The publication of Tinto’s 1975 landmark student integration model demarks the start of the current international dialogue on student retention and student throughput (Tinto, 1997). This model theorises that students who socially integrate into the campus community increase their commitment to the institution and are more likely to graduate (Tinto, 1975).

Tinto’s model reveals the policy gaps in the US Government’s effort to address student attrition. According to Tinto, the challenges are not access to higher education, but rather enhancing student success and improving graduation rates. This situation mirrors the challenges facing African higher education in terms of student retention and throughput to ensure that students are retained and student success rates are improved (Tinto, 2010).

While Tinto’s model has been supported, attacked and revised over the last four decades, it has significantly influenced how researchers and practitioners view postgraduate student retention and graduation (Swail, 2014). Tinto’s seminal theory created a base from which thousands of studies have followed, making postgraduate student retention one of the most widely studied areas in higher education today (Berger & Lyon, 2015). Tinto's 1975 model was followed in 1993 by a second model, this time on student departure (Tinto, 2007). This model states that to persist with their studies, students need integration into formal and informal academic systems as well as into formal and informal social systems (Draper, 2008; Demetroiu & Sciborski, 2012).

Tinto’s 1975 student integration model has changed since it was originally introduced 43 years ago. Most notably, its more recent versions have addressed motivational variables, including goal commitment. Over the last decade, motivational theories from multiple fields of study, including educational psychology and social psychology, have been applied to practice, theoretical developments and the study of postgraduate retention. The attribution theory of motivation, in particular, has been notable in practice and in the retention literature. Additionally, the expectancy theory, goal setting theory, self-efficacy beliefs, academic selfconcept, motivational orientations and optimism have been used to gain understanding into postgraduate student persistence and retention (Habley & McClanahan, 2014).

The model in Figure 1 explains the reasons behind student retention and student departures in tertiary education. The model identifies and explains three major sources of student departure from the system, namely academic difficulties; inability of individuals to resolve their educational and occupational goals; and students’ failure to become or remain incorporated in the intellectual and social life of the institution.

The central idea behind the model is that of ‘integration’ as it claims that whether a student persists or drops out is quite strongly predicted by their degree of both academic integration as well as social integration.

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57 Academic integration refers to aspects such as how many friends students have, personal contact with academics and their enjoyment of study, while social integration refers to their personal development, enjoyment of the subject, academic self-esteem and identification with academic norms and values.

Figure 1: Tinto’s 1975 model of student retention

Teaching, learning support, facilities, etc.

Academic integration

Priot qualifications

Goal Commitment Dropout decisions

Individual attributes Institutional Commitment

Family attributes e.g. mother's education

Debt, counselling, medical, personal, family events, etc.

Social integration

(Adapted from Tinto, 1975: 90) Holistic approaches to student retention that include all stakeholders were carried over from the late 1990s to the early 2000s. Retention literature from this time stresses cross-departmental institutional responsibility for retention via wide-range programming (Kadar, 2001; Lehr, 2004; Salinitri, 2005; Walters, 2004; White, 2005).

These studies emphasise that all programmes and initiatives designed to support postgraduate retention should deal with formal and informal student experiences inside and outside the classroom. Habley and McClanahan (2014) reiterate that the interactions students have with concerned individuals on campus (faculty, staff, advisors, peers, administrators) have a direct impact on postgraduate retention.

To this end, Tinto (2010) suggests that to improve postgraduate retention, all higher education institutions must offer easily accessible academic, personal and social support services, such as a literacy service, The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 13 (2) / 2018 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

58 which is imperative for student retention on the postgraduate level. Literacy studies by Brian Street, for example, have made large contributions in this field, particularly with regard to postgraduate writing and the link with postgraduate throughput. Street worked constantly to establish connections, between theory and practice, across different cultural contexts and across disciplines. Street’s ideological model entails a strong methodological commitment to ethnography and its effect on student success (Maybin, 2017).

The interactions students have on campus with individuals at academic, personal and support service centres can influence their sense of connection to the institution and their ability to navigate the campus culture, meet expectations and finally graduate. An institution that holds high expectations and actively involves students in its learning creates an environment where students are more likely to succeed (Demetroiu & Sciborski, 2012).

In conclusion, throughput is all about making adequate provision in the academic environment to help students complete their studies on schedule, to improve their success rates in the various programmes and prevent them from dropping out of the system. This involves certain strategies geared towards retaining students and making their experience fulfilling on a sustainable basis.

Factors related to postgraduate student throughput The conceptualisation above on student throughput and retention reveals the significance of throughput studies in higher education. Studies by Bischoff (2005), Visser and Hansio (2005), Reason (2017), Thomas (2015) and Maybin (2017), suggest many factors and consequences of low postgraduate throughput rates for education institutions of higher learning. Among these are numerous institutional strategies that can correct negative consequences associated with low throughput rates at an institution to increase success rates and reduce dropout rates. A low throughput rate results in time spent by lecturers engaging with students who do not complete their courses in time, negative perceptions of the image of the institution, a loss of money and time, and lower self-esteem on the part of the student.

Studies by Jiranek (2010), Wamala, Oonyu and Ocaya, (2012), and Amehoe (2014) reveal that factors such as field of study, attendance mode (part-time or full-time), scholarships and technical difficulties experienced in the course of research all have an influence on the time research master’s and doctoral students take to complete their studies. Other variables often cited in student throughput include academic and social integration and engagement, financial independency and demographic factors. These factors have been found to directly or indirectly influence students’ ability or desire to graduate. In addition, the quality of a students’ prior instruction and their preparedness for postgraduate level work can significantly influence whether or not they succeed at an institution of higher education (Habley & McClanahan, 2014).

Jiranek (2010) divides these factors into the following two broad categories: • student qualities and personal situations (referring to academic ability, financial situation, language skills, interpersonal skills and persistence) • resources and facilities available to students (referring to materials, equipment and expertise).

Nevill and Chen (2017) single out financial support as the main factor contributing to students’ ability to complete doctoral degrees; they have established that many postgraduate students in the US are unable to balance work, family and educational responsibilities simultaneously. Boughey (2015), in turn, cites institutional reasons such as setting standards too high, an unapproachable culture that is foreign to students and ineffective student support structures as institutional factors that contribute to the current dilemma.

But what is the situation in an African country such as Ghana regarding student throughput and the reasons or factors behind it?

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59

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The ultimate goal of any study on throughput is not only to contribute towards ensuring that students complete their studies on time, but also to ensure that the number of students who complete their studies within accepted time limits keeps rising steadily. Studies on throughput therefore seek to identify and understand the reasons why students take long to complete their studies or fail to complete their studies (student dropout situations). Apart from identifying and understanding the reasons, throughput studies also seek to recommend solutions to ensure improved completion rates and to keep dropout rates very low, while at the same time maintaining or increasing the success rate. The aim of this study is therefore to investigate the possible causes of delayed completion and non-completion among research postgraduate students at the University of Ghana and to recommend ways in which these situations can be improved in other African countries. The research question for this study can be phrased as follows: Which specific factors influence throughput rates at the University of Ghana?

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY This study represents a case study at the University of Ghana in Accra. The population for this study consisted of research master’s and doctoral candidates, who completed their theses between 2010 and 2014, but not in the prescribed period (extended candidatures), and their supervisors. The former postgraduate students were purposefully selected from the graduation classes of this period.

Purposive sampling was appropriate for this study because the study sought to investigate a phenomenon within a specific timeframe (Twumasi, 2001). The sample used for this study was 10 former master’s students (coded MS) and 10 former doctoral students (coded DS) who failed to complete their postgraduate studies in the prescribed period, and the five supervisors (coded S) who supervised the sampled students.

Face-to-face interviews were conducted with the participants. The interviews were recorded verbatim and the researcher took notes during the process. Issues related to confidentiality and accuracy of notetaking were taken seriously during the research.

Structured interview schedules were used with adequate space provided after each open-ended item to facilitate responses. Thereafter, follow-up interviews were conducted to obtain further clarification on some responses. The respondents were reminded on a weekly basis to complete interview schedules by means of electronic mail, telephone calls and personal visits by research assistants. The services of record officers were sought to retrieve the files of the students selected for review from the archives of the School of Graduate Studies at the university. Each file was thoroughly read from the first to the last document. In this process relevant data, such as date of first registration, appointment of supervisors and thesis topics, were recorded.

The structured interview schedules for both students and supervisors were pre-coded. By coding the items, it was possible to count frequency of responses in terms of ideas, themes and words. It also made it possible to categorise items; identify patterns and variables; and synthesise various accounts into coherent evidence from the responses. Written responses to some of the interview questions and responses to open-ended questions in the questionnaire were analysed qualitatively by keeping track of the responses given and teasing out the meaning of ideas expressed by the respondents into coherent themes. It was possible for the researcher to distinguish between dominant views and minority views and themes that emerged from the responses, since the structured interviews and open-ended interviews were coded. Some responses to the structured interviews were reproduced verbatim in order to support specific characteristics that emerged from the accounts.

Through document analysis, very useful data were obtained from the selected case files. These records provided documentary evidence of the experiences of student respondents and a clearer understanding of

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60 the situations described by the respondents. Themes were derived from the summarised data on each of the case files for analysis and discussion.

Trustworthiness is always assured by obtaining the same results when the research is repeated and credibility when research measures what it is intended to measure (Bovee & Thill, 2011). Interviews allowed the researcher to follow up on misunderstood items and inadequate responses, which generally promotes validity. In light of the above information, all the interview schedules were self-administered, which offered the opportunity to pose follow-up questions to the respondents personally. Another way of ensuring instrument reliability and validity was to construct interview schedules carefully to ensure that each question was related to the research topic; and to cover adequately all aspects of the research topic in the research questions. The use of interviews and document analysis for data collection ensured triangulation, which further underscores the reliability of the research.

Patton (2002) proposed a simplified model of seeking the consent of respondents and interviewees in qualitative surveys, suggesting that opening statements should be designed in a manner that would provide answers to questions such as: What is the purpose of collecting the information? How will it be used? What questions will be asked in the interview? The consent of all potential respondents was sought beforehand by emailing consent letters to them. This was done to introduce the researcher and explain the reasons for seeking the respondents’ views in the subject area so that they would feel free to express their views.

To disabuse the respondents of any doubts concerning the research, the purpose of the research was indicated in the prior consent notices and on the questionnaire. Tape recorders were used to record responses and the interviews were held without the presence of other people. The prior consent of all interviewees was sought in writing; therefore, establishing a good rapport before, during and after the interviews. Confidentiality was also ensured by reassuring the respondents at the beginning of the interview that their responses are strictly confidential and would only be used for the purpose of the research. Finally, the respondents were also given the opportunity to ask questions to clarify any doubts they had about the study.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION The interviews revealed a number of reasons or causes of extended candidature among postgraduate students at the University of Ghana. The interview responses and open-ended statements pointed to specific causes, which were analysed and grouped into four main themes for ease of reference, understanding and relevance to the objectives of the study, namely time, personal circumstances, distance from campus/ supervisor and finances.

Most postgraduate students who combined studying with work were not able to devote adequate time to their studies. The qualitatively analysed data and student case files of extended completion students clearly indicated that the students had full-time jobs at the time they enrolled for their studies. The challenge of managing time for work and study rested with the students. One doctoral student (DS1) replied in this regard: I was combining my job with numerous other commitments, this was not easy, which I could have done it another way.

One of the master’s students (MS3) stated:

My problem was time, if I had enough time I would have completed in the prescribed period.

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61 The job demands clearly made it difficult for them to complete their studies in the designated timeframe. A doctoral student (DS5) explained: Although I was officially on part-time study leave, I didn't have free time assigned to do the thesis, so I combined full-time work and periodically did the work on part-time.

Another participant, a master’s student (MS7), commented: Most graduate students work to provide for themselves and their dependents, this makes it difficult from them to concentrate on their academic work.

One of the supervisors (S1) added: The main problem was with students not working hard enough on their theses because they were working elsewhere.

Evidence in two student case files (DS4 and MS2) showed that the students did not complete their studies on time due to time constraints. They had to juggle their studies and work and could therefore not make progress. One supervisor (S5) commented in this regard:

Students couldn't complete data collection because they were working; sometimes students get employed in their thesis year and drop out. Others simply lacked focus or didn't set the right priorities.

Another supervisor (S3) shared her opinion: One of my students in my department was incapable [of] pursuing a PHD even though she had sufficient background qualifications, while another one (S1) added:

My one student was simply not focused and consistently expended his energies on other things (moonlighting) instead of completing his research.

It is evident from the personal confessions of students and their supervisors that this obstacle resulted in a challenge for them and therefore prevented them from completing their research work and submitting their theses on time, with the consequence of delayed or extended completion.

In addition to time constraints, personal circumstances were cited as another obstacle to successful completion of studies. Evidence in three student case files (DS10, DS5 and MS2) indicated unexplained circumstances and inability on the part of students to communicate their challenges, which resulted in lapsed candidature or non-completion of their studies. When these three respondents were questioned about the issue, two were prepared to elaborate: One of the doctoral students (DS5) stated the following: I had problems with my marriage, therefore I could not focus on my study, I had to save my marriage, this was more important at that time.

A master’s student (MS2) added the following: I had health problems for two years that has made it very difficult for me to focus on my postgraduate studies; I had to take extension due to ill health, I had surgery.

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62 Personal challenges, such as family constraints or misplaced priorities like becoming involved in more lucrative ventures (‘moonlighting’), employers' inability to grant students study leave and poor performance at the course work stage in the instance of master’s students, were also cited as reasons why they did not complete their studies on time. The inability of some students to communicate the difficulties they encountered during their studies also contributed to non-completion or dropping out of the system. One student (DS10) explained as follows: I did not know where to go; I had personal problems and issues that I could not discuss with my supervisor or other students; I did not have any support structure.

Besides personal challenges such as family demands (especially from students who were married) and health issues, qualitative data from student responses also revealed other issues such as the lack of access to libraries and internet services due to the distance between their residences and institution of study as reasons for slow throughput. One student (DS) commented in this regard: I was stationed in a very deprived area where I had difficulty in accessing good libraries and internet services.

Most postgraduate students were unable to get financial support for their studies due to inadequate sponsorship opportunities or sources of funding to meet the high costs of research, especially in the sciences. One student (MS4) commented: I had to ask for extension due to lack of funds to conduct field research in good time, and this results in the late return of results for samples sent abroad for analysis.

Another student (DS7) added: I could not complete on time because I had to start working in the factory when my father had a fatal accident and could no longer assist me.

A supervisor (S2) replied: Students with financial problems were engaged in full-time or part-time employment, and it appears some students wanted to guarantee themselves reasonable job security on completion of the programme.

Another issue cited by respondents was the high fees charged for postgraduate studies at universities. One student (DS4) stated the following: We are charged way too much. Government should force our public universities to charge realistic fees.

One supervisor with experience in other countries added: The model in countries which allowed its universities to charge full fees for certain market-driven and highly sought degrees and afterwards return such full fees to assist the needy or sustain the less subscribed disciplines, may be considered for Ghanaian public universities.

In this regard it is worth noting that some private tertiary institutions in Ghana are already making great strides in this direction.

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63 The lesson to be learned from these discussions is that all students interviewed encountered personal as well as institutional problems and challenges during their candidature. The challenge is how they should handle these issues so that they do not escalate into more serious problems with adverse consequences like their inability to complete their studies on time.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS It is evident from the literature and findings from this study that student retention and throughput is a wellresearched area and that ample efforts are being made to address the challenges of student attrition, low success rates and poor throughput in higher education, not only in Ghana, but also globally. Earlier studies cited above show that this had been a long-standing challenge suggesting difficulties in resolving these issues. The holistic strategies implemented by the University of Ghana are in line with international best practice models evident in the existing literature. To this end, much more research exists on why students fail to persist as opposed to why they succeed. By focusing on what students are doing right instead of what they are doing wrong, new aspects of successful student experiences may be illuminated, which can be applied to support all students.

A historical look at postgraduate retention reveals that empirical study of this phenomenon has grown considerably over the last 50 years. Researchers are concerned about the variables related to student persistence on postgraduate level and identifying best practices to encourage degree attainment. Tinto’s theory of student retention (Tinto, 2010) remains a seminal theory important to the field; however, applications of motivational theories to postgraduate retention over the last decade have brought many new and interesting perspectives to retention study and practice. Specifically, practitioners such as academic advisors have been interested in attribution theory.

In conclusion to this study, the following recommendations can be made to deal with each of the reasons that the respondents cited that resulted in the current situation of student throughput and retention at the University of Ghana. It is recommended that an effective student retention programme be introduced at the university that, inter alia, focuses on the following:

• Commitment to the students they serve: Student welfare must be put ahead of other institutional goals. In other words, institutional goals should always have a direct or indirect relationship to student success and achievement.

• Commitment to the education of all students and not just a few of them: The evaluation of services, programmes and activities that are offered to students must include all constituencies.

• Commitment to the development of supportive social and educational communities in which all students are integrated as competent members: All students who arrive on the campus must feel that they are valued and full members of the community. This also means that the expectations of achievement and behaviour should be the same for all students.

The university should consider establishing a postgraduate research endowment fund (PREF) to support research at postgraduate level. This initiative was very effective in countries such as Australia (Sondlo, 2016). As the name indicates, such an endowment fund should be established solely for promoting postgraduate research, especially at doctoral level. The private sector and industry should be obvious targets for resourcing this fund. The PREF could be used to augment the current levels of the University of Ghana’s fellowship for doctoral students. The number of recipients could be expanded to cover more beneficiaries.

Students who have a problem with personal planning and an inability to focus on their studies are advised to seek counselling from those who have been through postgraduate studies or from the university's The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 13 (2) / 2018 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

64 academic departments. In addition, students can enquire about the costs involved in studying their programmes of choice, research and other necessities involved in the entire programme to enable them make an informed decision. According to Boughey (2015), counselling has been an effective way of addressing the problem of student throughput in the US. Additionally, recent retention research has used theories of expectancy, goal setting, self-efficacy, academic self-concept, motivational orientations and optimism (Thomas, 2015; Sondlo, 2016). Research on optimism and individual strengths and focus on the positive psychology movement, have all been notable additions to the study of student success in postgraduate studies. These applications may hold great promise for the future of retention research.

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67 Anthropomorphic graphics: How useful are they as an instructional aid to facilitate learning?1 Ts’ekelo Patrick Moremoholo, Central University of Technology, South Africa Rudi W. de Lange, Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa

ABSTRACT Research has shown that decorative graphics do not contribute to learning when combined with instructional text. Some recent studies, however, indicate that decorative anthropomorphic graphics may improve comprehension during learning tasks. This article reports on an experiment involving 151 Grade 11 learners to test the potential of anthropomorphised graphics in learning material. The aim was to determine if the anthropomorphic graphics contributed to learning and whether the learners experienced the material in a positive manner. One group received text only, another received the same text but with anthropomorphised colour graphics and a third group received the text with non-anthropomorphised monochrome graphics. The anthropomorphised group did not perform significantly better than the other groups regarding comprehension and no significant difference was found regarding the enjoyment of the material. These results differ from recent studies that suggest that anthropomorphised graphics may contribute to learning and are enjoyed by learners. The non-significant results could be due to the differences in the experimental method of this study and those studies that reported positively on anthropomorphised graphics. Further research is required for instructional designers to understand better how learners process and respond to anthropomorphic graphics with a view on optimising its appearance in learning material.1 Keywords: anthropomorphism, decorative graphics, multimedia, positive emotions, learning

INTRODUCTION In the current information and digital age, learners and students are expected to have the capacity to learn from and absorb information presented in different media and in varied learning environments (Sankey, Birch & Gardiner, 2011). Students, for example, could be exposed to – and are required to learn from – lectures, laboratory experiments, studio demonstrations, digital media presentations, computer software demonstrations, educational trips, and internships. A variety of visual representations in a learning environment can benefit and assist students with different and varied learning tasks (Ainsworth & Van Labeke, 2002). Some examples are the use of information graphics to present data using charts, maps, and graphs, and the use of static or dynamic visuals to explain or demonstrate a process. These representations clarify data, explain learning material, support the learning process, and enhance the students' engagement with the learning material (Sankey et al., 2011). The facilitating effect of these 1 Date of submission 15 August 2017 Date of review outcome 5 April 2018 Date of acceptance 30 June 2018

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68 visual representations is, in turn, affected by the ability of the receivers of the material (Mayer, 2003) and their capacity to process visual information (Hollingworth, 2004; Brady, Konkle, Alvarez & Oliva, 2008).

One such visual representation can be observed where educational designers, by means of a process termed ‘anthropomorphisation’, add a human or animal characteristic to non-living objects presented in static or dynamic graphics (Muzumdar, Schommer, Hadsall & Huh, 2013). Learners and students view anthropomorphised visuals as being similar to a living entity, and an item that possesses humanlike qualities (Gebhard, Nevers & Billmann-Mahecha, 2003). Viewing an object as having humanlike characteristics may change the way we perceive and value the object, even perhaps as something that deserves moral consideration (Gebhard et al., 2003). Humanlike characteristics of a child, such as big, oversized eyes and an engaging smile, and when transferred to an illustration of an animal, make it easier for us to identify with, and embrace the animal as 'human', i.e. as one of us. Anthropomorphism includes topics such as folklore, the 'personification' of deities and gods, talking animals and objects in comics and books, and the human voice in global positioning systems. Anthropomorphism in this paper refers specifically to the personification of decorative graphics found in picture-text learning material.

Terms such as decorative visuals or decorative graphics (as employed by several scholars, such as Samuels (1970), Concannon (1975), Levie and Lentz (1982), Solman, Singh and Kehoe (1992), and Solman and Wu (1995) refer to a visual representation that beautifies learning material. Decorative visual representations are typical illustrations that do not repeat information in the text, do not illustrate difficult-to-understand text, or refer to images that do not contain learnable information. Adding humanlike characteristics to an illustration of vegetables in a lesson pertaining to healthy food is an example of anthropomorphising a useful graphic that could convey information on a specific food group. Adding a smiling face, for example, to a graphic that does not convey any information, does not repeat information in the text, nor explain difficult text, is an example of antropomorphising a decorative graphic. Such a decorative graphic may be seen as frivilous in terms of facilitating learning as it does not contain any information that one can or needs to acquire.

PROBLEM STATEMENT AND RESEARCH QUESTION This paper considers the use of anthropomorphic graphics in a learning environment and reports on an experiment where we examined how anthropomorphic graphics affect learners' comprehension following a multimedia lesson. Some scholars have called for more research on the use of anthropomorphic graphics and learning (Chen & Sun, 2012) as well as the use of anthropomorphism in different disciplines, for example languages (Sahragard, Ahmadi & Shalmani, 2016) and sciences (Dalacosta, KamariotakiPaparrigopoulou, Palyvos & Spyrellis, 2009; Tatalovic, 2009). As it stands, there is limited research to inform instructional designers and graphic designers regarding the use of anthropomorphic graphics in a learning environment (Triantos, Plakoyiannaki, Outra & Petridis, 2016). As such this paper is a deliberate attempt to contribute to the discourse of designing anthropomorphic graphics, and to contribute to the knowledge base for instructional designers.

Recent research has shown that anthropomorphising graphics may assist the learning process (Um, Plass, Hayward & Homer, 2012; Plass, Heidig, Hayward, Homer & Um, 2014). The independent variables for Um et al. (2012) and Plass et al. (2014) were graphics in the form of colour and shape which were given humanlike characteristics (by adding eyes and a mouth), as well as an external mood induction procedure. See Figure 1 below for an example of the graphics.

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69 Figure 1: Screenshots of multimedia learning materials neutral emotional design (ND), right, and positive emotional design (PD), left. Translation from German: ‘How does Immunization Work?’

Study 1 by Plass et al. (2014: 130)

According to the abovementioned researchers, these graphics increased the learners' comprehension as well as their transfer scores (i.e. their ability to apply the knowledge), whilst the external mood induction procedure improved only their transfer scores. This induction process consisted of exposing the students to a nature-based video with soothing music to place them in a positive emotional mood.

The results of the above lead us to ask several questions. Is it the positive induction process, the 'humanlike' qualities in the graphics, a combination of these two variables, an experimenter-expectancy effect, or a motivational attention-holding effect that resulted in the improved learning? Although the graphics in their experiments are anthropomorphic in nature, they are merely decorative and do not contain information that a learner could use to gain knowledge of the topic under investigation. Earlier research has shown that such decorative graphics do not contribute to learning and that they may even distract from the learning process (Samuels, 1970; Levie & Lentz, 1982; Sung & Mayer, 2012; Lenzner, Schnotz & MĂźller, 2013). The difference between the earlier studies and the later work cited above (Um et al., 2012; Plass et al., 2014; Mayer & Estrella, 2014) is that the latter studies used a digital multimedia platform as opposed to printed learning material and included a motivational induction process. The question that we seek to answer is whether anthropomorphised graphics, in the absence of a mood induction process, can contribute to learning and if learners experience these graphics as a positive element in their learning material.

ANTHROPOMORPHIC GRAPHICS AND LEARNING The section below provides a brief overview of anthropomorphism and its use in a learning environment.

The nature of anthropomorphism Anthropomorphism is popular practice and is used in folklore and the 'personification' of deities and gods (Kracher, 2002), in advertising (Kalliat, 2013), in entertainment (Lahtiranta & Kimppa, 2006), with talking animals in children's books (Burke & Copenhaver, 2004), and talking objects such as regularly observed in comic books and animations. Anthropomorphism, traditionally, is associated with children, and its use is mostly seen in religion, philosophy, science, and the arts. It is also common for people to see human features in natural forms (Guthrie, 1995). In her book titled Faces in the clouds: A new theory of religion (1995), Guthrie refers to three levels of anthropomorphism. The first is partial and which occurs when

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70 people partially associate human qualities with objects and events. The second is literal and occurs when people believe an object or animal to be a person. The third is accidental anthropomorphism and involves seeing parts of an object as being humanlike due to a chance structure of components, e.g. seeing a face in the clouds. Anthropomorphism shares similar characteristics with other forms of art such as storytelling (Burke & Copenhaver, 2004; Geerdts, Van de Walle & LoBue, 2015). Randolph Caldecott (1848-1886), one of the earliest and most influential illustrators during the Victorian era (1837-1901), used this approach for his children's books. This unique visual representation, commonly used for children's books and as an edutainment medium, continues to engage adults and children alike. One example of his illustrations is presented in Figure 2 below.

Figure 2: Randolph Caldecott's illustration depicts two dancing, humanised frogs

A Frog He Would A-Wooing Go (1883: 3)

Elements of anthropomorphism are also applied to robotic forms, industrial machines, humanoid-type machinery, and are used to build brands (Duffy, 2003; ZĹ‚otowski, Proudfoot, Yogeeswaran & Bartneck, 2015). One example of a well-known anthropomorphic brand is an illustration of a shark used by a South African rugby union team, the Sharks.

Anthropomorphism of inanimate objects can affect the manner in which consumers perceive a particular product and ultimately affect their purchasing behaviour. The work by Triantos et al. (2016), for example, found that the elements of anthropomorphism are effective when used in the packaging of grocery brands.

A good example is the use of humanlike cartoon characters in the packaging design of breakfast cereal products. Such products, including examples such as the front of a car resembling a face, command a more positive response than a product that does not display humanlike features (Aggarwal & McGill, 2007).

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71 It is especially with animation in film that anthropomorphism is popular. Inanimate objects and animals are easily given life and personality depending on the imagination of the animator and the style of the film. Anthropomorphism serves two roles in animated films: it facilitates an emotional or social relationship between the viewer and an anthropomorphised object and it may also help to convey a valuable life lesson (Leventi-Perez, 2011).

The practice of anthropomorphism is most commonly associated with animals. Chartrand, Fitzsimons and Fitzsimons (2008) explored whether subtle exposure to anthropomorphised domestic animals such as cats and dogs can stimulate interest and significantly influence behaviour. The results of their study suggest that such a procedure may indeed influence a person's social behaviour. In the aforementioned study, the participants were mainly presented with images of cats and dogs and the loyalty behaviour of the animals was subsequently measured. Participants who were exposed to images of dogs reported the trait 'loyal' for dogs while cats were not perceived as loyal. The researchers thus concluded that anthropomorphised images can influence social behaviour. Participants responded to images of anthropomorphised pets, unaware that these images influenced their behaviour. Similarly, Epley, Waytz and Cacioppo (2007) reported that people may look for alternative means to establish social connection by anthropomorphising objects or animals when they feel lonely.

Anthropomorphism in teaching and learning There is a debate as regards the use of anthropomorphic visualisation across different learning situations.

Some scholars found it to be beneficial whilst others are opposed to this practice. Blanchard and Mcnincth (1984), Byrne, Grace and Hanley (2009), and Dorion (2011) found that anthropomorphism can contribute to learning and may be used as a strategy to help the learner develop understanding. Dorian (2011: 1), for example, suggests that anthropomorphic language holds the ‘potential for the assessment and teaching of anthropomorphic analogies in secondary science’. Anthropomorphism in the form of analogies and words are thought to make a learning experience engaging and memorable (Watts & Bentley 1991; Kattmann, 2008). One example is when an oncologist would state that cancer cells will ‘die’, instead of disappear. Another example is when we refer to a computer ‘brain’ instead of a central processing unit.

The experimental work conducted by Ganea, Canfield, Ghafari and Chou (2014) indicated that anthropomorphised animals in books influence how preschool children perceive animals. These researchers concluded that children are less likely to transfer anthropomorphic characteristics and a biological property from one animal to another when they read and see a realistic presentation of an animal. Children thus seem to learn more about animals when the images are realistic and the accompanying language is factual.

A study by Bautista (2015) has shown that primary pupils' interest and attitudes towards anthropomorphic images decline with age. The tendency to anthropomorphise is thus attributed to age and it diminishes through learning experience and the progressive ability to comprehend phenomena better.

Anthropomorphic graphics in multimedia learning Multimedia learning refers to a type of learning which is delivered through words and pictures (Mayer, 2003; 2010). The rationale for using various forms of multimedia is that by generating relations between words and pictures, learners will create a better understanding than when information is presented with either words or pictures alone. However, it must be said that multimedia learning is not only accomplished by merely adding words to pictures. Multimedia learning material can consist of several elements such as sound clips, animated graphics, text that moves, to name but a few, and all combine to engage a learner and so address specific educational goals (Dong, 2010).

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72 One of the theories central to multimedia learning is Mayer's (2010) cognitive theory of multimedia learning (CTML). This theory takes advantage of the capacity of humans for processing information (words as well as pictures). The idea is to create instructional media based on how the human mind works. In short, the best way to promote meaningful learning is through active learning in which the learner is actively involved in acquiring new knowledge.

Anthropomorphic visualisation is another form of communication in multimedia learning. As with the other multimedia forms like animation, the design of anthropomorphic images presents a combination of both word and image, and this therefore implies that the user would have to exercise both visual and verbal interpretive skills. It appears that the balance with anthropomorphism is how much reality and how much fantasy one chooses to employ or combine. The value of the human elements in the graphics is that they engage a viewer, and ‘makes the learning experience a memorable one’ and so helps a learner to remember the learning material (Hope, 2015). The anthropomorphised learning material employed by Plass et al. (2014) (see Figure 1 above) is a good example where humanlike faces and expressive eyes were added to otherwise non-human entities with a view on engaging the receivers of the material.

Emotional aspects in the design of multimedia learning environments Some researchers maintain that anthropomorphism, or the introduction of visual graphics with humanlike designs, could arouse a participant's positive emotions (Bradley, 2010). Emotional design of multimedia instruction involves the extent to which visual design elements such as anthropomorphic or animated characters, shapes, and sounds in multimedia learning are used to evoke positive emotional reactions (Um et al., 2012). According to Um et al. (2012) and Mayer and Estrella (2014), the basis for incorporating design to evoke an emotional response in multimedia learning is accomplished by creating a relationship between positive emotions and the actual graphics, which could then influence the user's emotional state and so encourage deeper learning. Mayer and Estrella's (2014) work suggests that CTML and cognitive load theory (CLT) could be extended to integrate the role of motivation and affect. The experiment by Plass et al. (2014) has shown that positive emotional design could motivate learners, affect their emotions and possibly influence their cognitive abilities.

THE EXPERIMENT This study sought to establish whether anthropomorphised graphics can contribute to learning and if learners experience these graphics as a positive element in their learning material. The experiment followed a quasi-experimental design with three participant groups. The subjects, upon arrival, received a briefing about the procedure, what they had to do, and how long the session would be. The experiment took place in computer laboratories and the learning material and test questions were presented via Blackboard.

There were no time restrictions set for the participants to study the material and answer the questions.

Participants The subjects consisted of 151 Grade 11 learners from two public schools in Bloemfontein, South Africa.

Both conveniently selected schools are situated in residential suburbs in opposite parts of the city. These schools are well established and teachers use English as the medium of instruction. Apart from the gender and age groups of the participants, our ethical clearance did not permit us to collect any additional biographic information. The authors have no affiliation with the two schools, the teachers or the principals.

The subjects' ages ranged from 16 to 19; 79% were between 16 and 17 years of age (n = 120) and 21% were between 18 and 19 years of age (n = 31). There were 73 female and 78 male subjects.

Sixty subjects came from an urban school, and 91 subjects came from a peri-urban school. The Tshwane University of Technology (TUT) Research Ethics Committee provided ethical clearance, and the Department of Education of the Free State Provincial Government and the two schools granted permission for the The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 13 (2) / 2018 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

73 research to be undertaken. The learners participated voluntarily and were offered a light meal following the experiment. The parents of the participating learners gave their written permission and signed consent forms.

The learning material All the learners completed an unrelated pre-test with a view on exposing them to the procedure and the environment and which consisted of them answering 10 questions after reading a 486-word text on food safety issued by the World Health Organization (WHO, n.d.; 2006). The text for the pre-test contained five graphics. These images demonstrated the steps explained in the text – for example, the process of keeping raw food and cooked food separate.

The learning material for the experiment consisted of 484 words and came from the National Cancer Institute at the National Institutes of Health (2009) as well as the National Breast Cancer Foundation (NBCF) (2012), and explained what radiation therapy is and how it is used in the treatment of cancer.

The reason for choosing radiation therapy as a topic is that it is not a learning area covered at school level and learners are not likely to have prior knowledge about this topic. Prior knowledge is a variable that would have unduly influenced the post-test scores of the learners.

Participant groups Subjects from both schools were randomly allocated to one of three groups and assigned a computer workstation in a computer laboratory. A facilitator demonstrated the procedure on a screen after which they were instructed to complete the pre-test. Learners received the learning material via a computer and then completed an online questionnaire. The control group received text-only material whilst the two remaining groups received graphics with the same text material. The Colour Anthropomorphic group was presented with the learning material in a 14-slide format that combined the text and graphics. The Monochrome group received the same material except that their graphics were limited to black and grey tones and the graphics did not contain any anthropomorphic elements. The Monochrome group’s material was similar to the neutral material used in the experiments by Um et al. (2012) and Plass et al. (2014) (see Figure 3 below). The Text-only group condition contained 11 slides with text, but without any graphics.

Figure 3: Screenshots of two slides for the Colour Anthropomorphic group (left) and two for the Monochrome group (right)

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74

Measures Comprehension tests The comprehension questions consisted of 12 multiple-choice questions. This is the same mode and similar to the number of multiple-choice questions used by Plass et al. (2014), Schneider, Nebel, Beege and Rey (2016) and Um et al. (2012) in their experiments. Their measures consisted of 16, seven and 15 multiplechoice questions respectively. Multiple-choice questions are often used by institutions of teaching and learning in the assessment of students' knowledge or other academic activities.

These questions assessed the learners' comprehension and knowledge of the anatomy of cancer, what radiation therapy entails and how it is used in the treatment of cancer. One such question was: Which of the following clearly describe how radiation therapy is used to kill cancer cells? The learners had to select one correct answer from the following possible answers to this question: A. Radiation therapy uses a pill that a patient must take every day or by an intravenous (IV) line on a set schedule.

B. A specialized type of a light source that slows the cancer development.

C. Radiation therapy uses high-energy radiation to kill cancer cells by damaging their DNA. D. High-energy invisible light beams that kill cancer cells by slowing the growth of their DNA. E. None of the above.

Emotional questionnaire The emotional questionnaire consisted of eight statements on a 7-point Likert scale. The learners had to reflect on their feelings regarding the experimental session in general as well as the learning material.

The learners were asked to indicate whether they 'strongly agree' to 'strongly disagree' with a particular statement. These statements were similar to those used by Um et al. (2012). One example of such a statement is: I would be willing to come back and participate in a future experiment that used this learning material.

THE RESULTS A Normal Q-Q plot indicated that the scores for the unrelated pre-test were approximately normally distributed. The lowest score was 3, the highest 10, with a mean score of 6.64 out of 10. There were no procedural difficulties and the learners did not report any hindrances.

Comparing the means of the participant groups The first objective was to determine whether anthropomorphised graphics can contribute to learning. This was achieved by examining the scores of the three groups and analysing the results with appropriate The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 13 (2) / 2018 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

75 statistical tests. A Normal Q-Q plot indicated that the data were approximately normally distributed for each group. Levene's Test for Homogeneity of Variance indicated that homogeneity of variances was violated (p = 0.008). It is for this reason that we used Welch's F-test to test for any difference between the scores of the three groups. Welch's F(2, 98.446) = 1.374, p = 0.258 indicated that there was no significant difference between the groups. The test showed adequate internal consistency reliability, with Cronbach's alpha = 0.588. The descriptive statistics are presented in Table 1 below.

Table 1: The descriptive statistics of the comprehension scores for the three participant groups Normal

Mean

Std. Deviation

Std. Error

95% Confidence Interval for Mean Lower Bound

Upper Bound

Min

Max

Colour Anthropomorphic

52

8.3

2.24

0.31

7.64

8.89

4

12

Monochrome

46

8.5

1.95

0.29

7.87

9.04

3

11

Text-only

53

7.7

2.64

0.36

6.97

8.42

2

12

Effects of school and participant group A further two-way ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) tested for differences between the schools as well as possible interactions between the schools and the three groups (i.e. if there were maybe differences between the three groups in one school but not the other). There was no significant interaction effect between schools and the participant groups, F(2, 145) = 1.446; p = 0.239. The effect of the participant groups on the test scores was not different for learners in different schools. There was also no significant main effect for School, F(1, 145) = 1.162, p = 0.283. Thus, ignoring that there were different groups, the post-test scores did not differ between the learners from different schools.

The subjects' motivation scores The second objective was to determine whether learners experienced the graphics as a positive element in their learning material. This was done by analysing the results of the emotional questionnaire of the three groups with appropriate statistical tests. A Normal Q-Q plot indicated that the data are approximately normally distributed for each group. Levene's Test for Homogeneity of Variance indicated that homogeneity of variances was not violated (p = 0.365). A one-way analysis of the motivation score shows no significant difference between the groups: F(2, 148) = 0.795; p = 0.454. The test showed adequate internal consistency reliability, with Cronbach's alpha = 0.826. The descriptive statistics are presented in Table 2 below.

Table 2: The descriptive statistics of the motivational scores for the three participant groups Normal

Colour Anthropomorphic

52

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Mean

44.03

Std. Deviation

9.08

Std. Error

1.26

95% Confidence Interval for Mean Lower Bound

Upper Bound

41.5

46.36

Min

Max

12

56

76 Normal

Mean

Std. Deviation

Std. Error

95% Confidence Interval for Mean Lower Bound

Min

Max

Upper Bound

Monochrome

46

42.13

9.55

1.41

39.3

45

14

56

Text-only

53

41.74

11.00

1.51

38.7

44.2

13

56

DISCUSSION This article examined the influence of adding anthropomorphic visuals to a multimedia lesson on how radiation therapy is utilised to combat cancer. In our research we used anthropomorphised graphics of human faces to represent healthy human cells as happy faces and gave aggressive-looking faces to the cancer cells. The assumption was that facial expressions are relatively easy to recognise and may evoke emotional responses. The human faces seemed an appropriate choice for this purpose, although, as noted in the literature, there are potential limitations associated with this approach. One of the constraints in using anthropomorphisms could be the ‘direct misunderstanding of the visual metaphors so that they can lead to reification of knowledge’ (Kattmann, 2008: 9; Perry & Donath, 2004).

The results indicate that anthropomorphic graphics in learning material may not always be as effective as expected. The outcome of our experiment is, furthermore, in contrast to our initial assumption that learning material with anthropomorphic graphics would facilitate learning. A possible explanation could be a difference between the methodology of this experiment and the method used by others whose work indicated that these graphics do contribute to learning (Plass et al., 2014). The method for this experiment did not include an external mood induction process. The experiment by Plass et al. (2014) included two-minute videos that acted as a mood induction process. These videos intended to induce either a positive or a neutral emotional state. The subjects in the experiments by Plass et al. (2014), Schneider et al. (2016) and Um et al. (2012) were furthermore at a post-school level, while our learners came from secondary schools and who may not have had the same exposure to a computerised learning environment as compared to post-school individuals. Another speculative explanation could be the Hawthorne effect (Coombs & Smith, 2013). The Hawthorne effect is an experimental effect that influences subjects' actions and performance when they are aware that they are part of an experiment or are being observed.

The anthropomorphic graphics used in the current study were designed for secondary school learners in a particular grade (Grade 11) with the goal of increasing their comprehension as well as creating an emotional response. It could also be that the participants may have required some assistance in how to process these graphics. As suggested in the literature, the use of visual representations is widespread in instructional strategies (Anglin, Vaez & Cunningham, 2004) and their interpretation requires a certain level of visual literacy (Lowe, 2000). Visual literacy, according to the International Visual Literacy Association (IVLA, 2017) and Bamford (2003), involves the learner's ability and skill to understand and to make sense of information that is shown in a visual format. A person's visual literacy, in part, relies on the appropriate interpretation of design elements (line, shape, colour, proportion, and so forth), prior knowledge of the subject and of course the ability to comprehend the text that accompanies the images (Lowe, 2000). Visual literacy, similar to verbal literacy, is a learned skill.

Another reason for the non-significant results of the study could be that the learners did not pay sufficient attention to the anthropomorphic graphics, or they may have experienced difficulty in extracting relevant information from these representations. Here it is of special interest to note that Peeck (1993) supports the idea that learning from illustrated text can improve, if one can increase a learner’s visual literacy, and The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 13 (2) / 2018 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

77 provide learning tasks that require a learner to use picture processing skills. Therefore, if particular visuals are to be used in the classroom, then teachers must help learners to interpret these images and so help them acquire and develop independent visual literacy skills.

The failure to find differences among the three groups could be that the degree of our visual information may not have been noticeable enough to create a variation. Future versions of this study may include visual images with more intense forms of anthropomorphism, i.e. graphics that should evoke stronger emotions.

LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS A definite limitation of the study was the limited duration of the experiment and the immediate post-testing after the learners interacted with the learning material. This experiment was also restricted by assessing a single population (secondary school learners) in a specific geographic location (the city of Bloemfontein, South Africa) and using one educational topic (radiation therapy) in a particular educational setting (a computer laboratory setting). We believe that one or possibly a combination of some of these variables could have contributed to the non-significant results. It could also be that the anthropomorphic graphics did not facilitate learning because in essence they are decorative and do not contain any relevant information in support of the content of the learning material (Samuels, 1970; Levie & Lentz, 1982; Sung & Mayer, 2012; Lenzner et al., 2013). The experimental work by the aforementioned authors has shown that when one adds decorative graphics to instructional text, they do not facilitate learning. It is only when a graphic such as an illustration helps a reader to interpret difficult-to-interpret text, such as the working of an internal combustion engine, that they can facilitate learning. One reason why the learners' emotional scores of the three groups were similar, in contrast to the results found by Um et al. (2012) and Plass et al. (2014), is that the learners in all the groups could have experienced the visit to the university, and receiving learning material via a computer network, as quite unique and utterly new. As such this experience could have directly masked the possible positive emotional effect of the graphics. Future research on anthropomorphic visuals should investigate the issues using a variety of different educational contexts and domains. Additionally, any possible distractive effects of the visual representations could be considered by employing analytic techniques (e.g. eye tracking equipment).

The other possibility that the data did not yield support for the main hypothesis regarding the effects of anthropomorphic graphics may be due to variables like positive motivational procedures as applied in the studies by Um et al. (2012) and Plass et al. (2014). The current study did not employ a positive mood induction process in association with the anthropomorphic graphics. The reason for this decision was that we wanted to test the hypothesis that anthropomorphic graphics can contribute to learning without a positive mood induction process.

Future studies could investigate how learners process anthropomorphic information, and how learners' visual literacy affects their ability to use such graphics in learning material.

CONCLUSION In conclusion, it seems as if the decision whether the use of anthropomorphic visualisation is appropriate for a particular lesson may be dependent upon a range of issues. For example, the visual appearance of a good instructional design plays a significant role in determining learners' response as most of the participants agreed that the material was interesting and fun. Other considerations include whether the presentation appears functional and complements the learning content. However, it is also apparent that our understanding of the contingent nature of the processes that surround anthropomorphic graphics is still limited. The challenge, then, is to find a balance between the visual style of the anthropomorphic graphics and the emotional effects of the visual information. Although there was no significant difference among

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78 the three groups, it is hoped that this research will contribute to this particular field of research by further stimulating interest in the topic.

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80 Lahtiranta, J. & Kimppa, K. (2006) 'The use of extremely anthropomorphized artefacts in medicine' International Review of Information Ethics 5(1) pp.13-18.

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81 Sankey, M.D., Birch, D. & Gardiner, M.W. (2011) 'The impact of multiple representations of content using multimedia on learning outcomes across learning styles and modal preferences' International Journal of Education and Development using Information and Communication Technology 7(3) pp.18-35.

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82 The external school consultant as a proposed agent for school improvement1 Rene M. Odendaal, University of South Africa, South Africa Elize C. du Plessis, University of South Africa, South Africa

ABSTRACT Worldwide, but particularly in South Africa, school change and the provision of quality education for all, is essential. Schools are required to improve continuously to keep up with global innovation and workforce demands. To achieve this aim, the participation of different stakeholders such as school principals, school governing bodies, teachers, parents and even learners is essential. However, this involvement is often inadequate. In South Africa, with its restricted monetary resources, helping a school improve is a problem of great extent. In this regard, there is another role player that can be of aid, namely the contribution of an external school consultant, which is overlooked. as it is not a known role-player in the school improvement context in the South African sphere. This article, informed by social change, conceptual change and general systems theory, examines the role of external school consultants in school improvement as a beneficial role player that can deliver a service where essential knowledge can be imparted. As Education Consultants generally work as independent contractors, data were gathered through an internet-based inquiry, structured around open-ended writing prompts in which participants described their role as consultants.

The sample comprised 17 credentialled international school consultants, selected by purposeful sampling on the basis of an active homepage, where they advertised and comments of their services were visible with data available to contact them. Findings indicated the value of a consultant’s role as a versatile expert, an agent for school improvement and effectiveness, a professional in the service of the school community and an ethical partner in the consultancy relationship. Subsequent recommendations are that a professional body for school consultants be established and training be provided to school consultants to ensure uniform competency and ethical standards to provide an ethical basis to train and perform subsequent school improvement in schools in South Africa.1 Keywords: conceptual change, ethical conduct in school consultation, expert specialist, general systems theory, internet-based research, Posner, Von Bertalanffy, Vygotsky

INTRODUCTION School improvement has many faces. It can be about governance, leadership, faculty, students, curriculum, instruction, finances or any of the many areas related to school operations. There are also many role players involved in the process of school improvement. One important but overlooked role 1 Date of submission 12 July 2018 Date of review outcome 13 September 2018 Date of acceptance 3 October 2018

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83 player, especially in the South African context, is the school consultant. External school consultation should gain more attention in the South African context because of its highly valuable aspect which concerns significance and relevance in the advice that can be constructed through this service to and in all sectors of the school to engage with schools to identify areas in need of improvement, to determine best solutions, and to ensure success (Hollinger, 2017). There can be no restriction to look for extra capacity of external agents in order to improve schools which would not only imply other resources but other agents as well in an effort to Africanise and decolonise schools. Agents within schools who address issues relating to school improvement may be defined as internal consultants (Dougherty, 2009). However, as members of schools, internal consultants may share the same ‘blind spots’ that the schools have towards a problem and therefore often prove inadequate to deal with the highly complex and multi-tiered nature of schoolbased issues (Sanetti, Chafoulas, Fallon & Jaffrey, 2014). Consequently, internationally, many schools progressively turn to external school-based consultants to implement innovation and change (Hargreaves, Lieberman, Fullan & Hopkins, 2010), who, as non-members of the organisations, are often better situated to introduce major changes (Avakian & Clark, 2014). The main question to be answered in this study is how the role of the external school consultant can contribute to school improvement. Potential difficulties arising from the consultancy process include the perceived idea that they are well remunerated but, in the findings, and recommendations this problem is addressed through the establishment of an organised Consultation body.

Yet consultants should be aware that problems should be managed by the consultant him or herself as difficulties may vary from situation to situation. The consultant through having the necessary background knowledge about the consultancy process will then be able to intervene professionally. The aim of this research was to encourage the role of the external school consultant for school improvement. Critically it is important to note that roles and perspectives presented is from an international perspective, but future research will address issues as this practice is implemented in schools locally.

Hopkins’s (2001) categorisation of strategies to effect school change includes the participation of external experts such as school consultants as a valid means to achieve this end. A school-based external consultant, defined as ‘a professional with specialized expertise’ (Erschul & Sheridan, 2014: 3), or a team of external consultants are important agents for school improvement. An external consultant introduces, leads and supports innovation within a school as he or she works with the school and its stakeholders (Berger Yiu, Nelson et al., 2014). The consultant may intervene within the school to improve any number of issues: school management and leadership, interpersonal relationships, school climate, curriculum, instruction, academic performance, socio-emotional development of children and parent involvement (Meyers, Meyers, Graybill, Proctor & Huddleston, 2012).

The practice of employing the services of an external consultant to improve organisational functioning is common in many different professional settings and is variously defined in each. Consultation is sometimes confused with counselling, as practised in psychological health services. While there are recognisable differences between the two activities, consultation, like counselling, is also a form of providing help and assistance, and follows a similar process as a type of professional human service (Dougherty, 2009). In the absence of a generic definition of consultation, Dougherty (2009) and Erschul (2011) propose identifying aspects of consultation that are commonly agreed upon. First, consultation is an indirect form of service delivery (Erschul, 2011) and a distinct and voluntary form of interaction or participation (Saam, 2012) or intervention (Brady, Busse & Lopez, 2014; Gravois, 2012; Frank & Kratochwill, 2014; Kratochwill & Pittman, 2002; Newell, Newell & Looser, 2013). This process involves a tripartite cooperation between an expert or a specialist (the consultant), as a person who possesses the contextual knowledge and is an expert in the consultation process and the person(s) who recognised the problem (the consultee(s)). In order to solve the problem (consultee-the problem which needs to be addressed) systematically (personalised

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84 as the client) through social influence and independent and professional support should aim at best practice (Erschul & Martens 2006; Newman, Ingraham & Shriberg, 2014; Wickham, 2004). These three elements (consultant, consultee and client) are always present in a consultative relationship and the relationship is unique, should be mutually enriching and productive, and constitutes a viable approach to organisational improvement (Erschul, 2011; Lambert, 2004). Second, the aim of consultation is to provide expert professional and practical advice and/or services towards solving a problem and is thus both preventative and remedial (Dougherty, 2009; Erschul, 2011; Erschul & Martens, 2006; Zahn, 2004). In addition, consultation aims to empower consultees to manage and to sustain interventions in the future (Newman et al., 2014; Rosenfield, 2013). Third, the consultant should have a high degree of knowledge of a certain subject and the highest level of competence acquired through experience or training (Stryker, 2012). Fourth, a consultant acts as an intervention facilitator who provides help to individuals, groups and organisations with a view to identifying and analysing problems or opportunities (Avakian & Clark, 2014) and achieving agreed upon goals constructively, exchanging one situation for another, improved one (Hargreaves et al., 2010; Kratochwill & Pittman, 2002; Newell & Newell, 2011). In this sense, a consultant may be conceived as a ‘critical friend’, which implies a safe and unconditional tolerance for mistakes, with emphasis on confidentiality (Erschul, 2011; Erschul & Martens, 2006). A consultant is also a professional who should conform to the technical and ethical standards of consultancy as a professional occupation, thus implying that underhanded practices or taking advantage of the consultee’s need should be strictly avoided (Dougherty, 2009; Zahn, 2004). When applied to the school situation, all of the above identifying features of a consultant are valid. However, the interaction between different consultation roles and skills, as well as the diversity of individual school contexts, makes it difficult to generalise a specific consultation role for an external school consultant (Rimehaug & Helmersberg, 2010). The role adopted by a school consultant differs according to the context and the problem. A situational approach allows for flexibility, depending on context and process (Rimehaug & Helmersberg, 2010).

In South Africa where learner performance presents a problem (Department of Basic Education, 2014, Samoff, 2012, Spaull, 2013), this points to immense obstacles to improvement in the quality of schooling.

In this regard, multifaceted expert input is necessary; however, in South Africa, this aspect which should focus on the role of external school consultants in school improvement, is very little explored. A literature search indicated only two papers, by Druker and De Jong (1996) and De Jong (1996) respectively, that are dedicated to the topic. The broader significance of external assistance is often overlooked and perceived as help provided by educational psychologists.

In an attempt to gain access and make assurance of this service in South Africa a further, internet search for external school consultants’ webpages that advertised consultancy services in South Africa only produced lists of education consultants registered with the LinkedIn facility (LinkedIn, 2015a: Education consultant profiles in South Africa; LinkedIn, 2015b: Education consultant profiles in Johannesburg area, South Africa). However, many of these consultants were employed by higher education institutions or other public organisations such as the South African Police Service, or were self-employed consultants offering diverse services ranging from language editing, instructional material development, publishing and general consulting. A possible factor militating against the more frequent use of external school consultants is the varied cost of this service, which most public schools in South Africa may not be able to carry. Disadvantaged schools, in particular, which are most urgently in need of specialist help and would benefit the most from the services of school consultants, are likely to find this service beyond their means.

Educational research in South Africa is faced with a number of challenges such as those that touch on transformation issues on decolonisation of knowledge, the widening of opportunities to the marginalised, and the implementation of programmes on participatory development (Mbembe, 2016; Patel, 2014).

These calls encourage the rethinking of knowledge production that could help to get rid of the dominant

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85 top-down research paradigms (Van der Westhuizen, 2017). It is therefore essential that a controlling body for external consultants and services be established.

The theoretical framework and choice of methodology will be discussed in the next two sections.

THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF SCHOOL-BASED CONSULTATION School-based consultation is focused on organisational change. Interventions are adopted that require systemic change in a school as an organisation, which is affected by school leaders, teachers, parents, learners and other stakeholders who have to learn new facts, skills and behaviours. No single closed theory encapsulates the consultation process (Erschul & Martens, 2006). Thus, this study draws on conceptual contributions from three different schools of thought, each illustrating a distinct facet of consultation. First, we discuss the contribution of Vygotsky’s (1978) socio-cultural theory of development, which recognises person-to-person influence during organisational learning and change (Jones & Brader-Araje, 2002; Moll, 2014). Second, we draw on conceptual change theory as propounded by Posner, Strike, Hewson and Gertzog (1982), who articulate the change process as a rational activity whereby people are helped to exchange their core organising concepts from one set to another, which is incompatible with the first.

Finally, we refer to general systems theory as proposed by Von Bertalanffy (1968), in terms of which schools are studied as dynamic environments in interaction with constituent parts and other segments of society.

Vygotsky (1978) suggests that members of an organisation can learn and change based on the support they receive from more knowledgeable persons in areas just beyond their existing knowledge or schemas (the zone of proximal development). School consultants provide such support to members of the school community (the consultees) to enhance their learning about proposed interventions. This is referred to as scaffolding, because new knowledge is built on prior knowledge and experience (Jones & BraderAraje, 2002). Further, the consultees must actively engage in the process of school consultation if this knowledge is to be incorporated into their schemas. Through this process of social interaction between the parties, an improved situation is achieved. Individuals in the school community (consultees) or identified and problematic aspects of school functioning (client) are helped or ‘other regulated by the help of expert consultants to become ‘self-regulated’ with a view to achieving a successful outcome through the consultancy process (Jenkins, 2000).

According to Posner et al. (1982), conceptual change requires that prior knowledge be modified by new information that changes an existing concept and leads to the acquisition of a new concept or set of concepts (Chi, 2008; Limón, 2002; Zirbel, 2004). In this change process, people relinquish old, inconsistent and vague concepts in favour of a new set of precise and potent ways of conceptualising the world. School consultants act as agents of change, who help members of the school community to exchange old ideas, practices, strategies and processes for new ones in order to remain competitive and responsive to the needs of their customers. Thus, school consultation implies that consultees undergo a process of cognitive restructuring, which involves a conceptual shift or change that leads to enhanced organisational effectiveness (Lambert et al., 2011). However, members of the school community must first experience dissatisfaction with their existing concepts of school functioning and seek expert advice.

Through the input of the consultants, old knowledge is replaced by new information, then reorganised, transferred and accepted as a new concept (diSessa & Wagner, 2005; Limón, 2002; Zirbel, 2004).

However, consultees must find the new ways of conceptualising to be intelligible, plausible and fruitful for successful conceptual change to occur (Vosniadou, 2013). ‘Intelligible’ means that the new concept must be clear enough to make sense to the consultee; ‘plausible’ means the new concept must be seen as plausibly true; and ‘fruitful’ means the new concept must appear potentially productive to the consultee for solving current problems (Posner et al., 1982).

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86 Von Bertalanffy (1968) regarded a system as a configuration of parts, connected and joined together by a web of relationships. A system, such as a school, should not be reduced to its smaller units, but seen as a dynamic integrated whole that is connected with the broader society. All systems are goal directed and seek to achieve objectives through the collective effort of individuals and groups within the systems. According to the general systems perspective, a school consultant should recognise that a school is a social system with complex properties and subsystems embedded in a larger environmental context. Interventions to effect school improvement should thus consider, expand and deepen relationships between the school and the home, the community and other stakeholders. The consultant should recognise and engage subsystems, such as classrooms, the functioning of teachers in the classroom and the parent community, during broader school interventions (Sabatino, 2014). The consultant should continually make provision for feedback loops from the top of the organisation to all subsystems to implement any successful intervention (Bowen, 2004). In addition, input, processing and output are of significance.

School consultants provide knowledge (input) to help consultees see the connection between knowledge and their concerns (the process), enabling them to develop best practices (output). In this way, schools are helped to develop more sophisticated and dynamic approaches for achieving school success (Sabatino, 2014; Wickham, 2004). Consultation based on general systems theory has as its goal an increase in the level of problem-solving in a school as a dynamic system (Dougherty, 2013).

METHODOLOGY The role of external school consultants was investigated by means of an exploratory qualitative study.

Data were gathered through an internet-based inquiry, which elicited e-mailed accounts structured around open-ended writing prompts in which participants described their role as consultants with a view to making recommendations for improving practice (Hine & Stewart, 2000). In this case, we were primarily interested in understanding the role of consultants from an emic point of view, that is, the point of view of the consultants themselves. Seventeen (17) international external school consultants from diverse contexts replied on an invitation to take part in a study which was directed to the effect of external consultancy on schools. The criteria used for the selection of the participants was on the basis of an active webpage that advertised their services and their status as licensed and credentialled professional external school consultants who should have a very good knowledge of the consulting process. As indicated there were also a list of comments with clients details available and though not contacted, a sign of satisfaction with services rendered. Purposive sampling aims at locating information-rich individuals or cases, that is, individuals or cases that are likely to be knowledgeable or informative about the phenomena under investigation (Johnson & Christensen, 2014). The internet was used to identify and to connect with information-rich participants. In so doing, we were able to include experts otherwise unavailable for study for practical and financial reasons, thereby increasing the pool of participants and the potential for data gathering, which would not have been possible if we had relied on face-to-face contacts (Markham, 2004) as these were not available in an internet search. This contributed to the feasibility of this study to try to stimulate interest in such a service in the South African context.

Ethical requirements were met by ensuring that participation was voluntary, and participants were assured that their privacy and anonymity would be protected through the use of pseudonyms and the omission of information that could cause them to be identified. Conditions for participation, aimed at the protection of participants, were contained in an e-mailed letter of invitation. Data were gathered through written e-mailed accounts that were approximately three pages in length, in which participants described their experience as consultants. The e-mailed accounts were structured around a set of flexible open-ended questions, which acted as a prompt for writing. We developed the questions based on the literature review presented earlier in this study. However, participants were not limited to these questions and could add any information that they considered significant. Solicited personal documents such as these accounts that focus on perception and meaning comprise a useful research strategy in qualitative research (McMillan The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 13 (2) / 2018 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

87 & Schumacher, 2010). Webpages provided detailed additional information regarding the participants’ services. According to Johnson and Christensen (2014), personal accounts are classed as a non-interactive data gathering strategy and are a legitimate source of vivid and detailed data. Non-interactive strategies such as written material (e.g. journals, letters, self-reports or e-mails) require little or no interaction between a researcher and his or her subject (LeCompte & Preissle, 1993). In this research, the written responses were considered as first-person documents, which describe ‘an individual’s actions, experiences and beliefs’ about a particular phenomenon (McMillan & Schumacher, 2010: 361). Further, the value of solicited internet communication on a specific topic allowed participants the time and opportunity to consider and to revise their statements before sending them. This implied that participants had a greater degree of control over the meaning of the message and the presentation of self (Markham, 2004).

Data analysis included the following steps: Printed e-mailed accounts were read and reread independently, and tentative themes were identified. First, relevant extracts in the text were highlighted and then grouped without comments under themes (Delamont, 2002). Thereafter, the themes were clustered into categories, and suitable quotations were selected as rich data to illustrate the categories. The trustworthiness of interpretation was maintained by checking with participants to clarify issues or to ask for more information, and by cross-checking with a second researcher, who provided an expert opinion. Furthermore, the limitations of this qualitative study are acknowledged. The inquiry was limited to a purposeful sample and the findings cannot be generalised in any way.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION Four main findings regarding the role of external school consultants emerged from the data: the external consultant as a versatile expert; the external consultant as an agent for school improvement and effectiveness; the external consultant as a professional in the service of the school community; and the external consultant as ethical partner in the consultancy relationship.

The external consultant as a versatile expert All participants agreed that the role of an external school consultant is primarily that of an expert. In this regard, a participant said: A consultant’s aim is to provide high-quality, cost-effective consultancy and training services tailored to clients’ needs, for the benefit of professionals and pupils, which meet or exceed clients’ expectations.

This requires knowledge of educational policy, school policy and national policy; an understanding of school climate; and knowledge of the curriculum, the roles of school management and teachers and the dynamics of learner achievement. Added to this, a school consultant should have extensive knowledge of the consultation process and ethically correct procedures, and should contribute to the support and development of school performance using approaches of partnership, collaboration, mentoring and guidance. Consultants particularly require technical knowledge, which will enable them to realise a specialist role in the systematic gathering of empirical data during the internal audit that forms the first phase of the diagnostic process, data analysis and appropriate data presentation, both quantitatively and qualitatively, to the school community, so that data-driven decisions can be made to address needs in a school. Where the consultant requires additional or specialised expertise in data gathering, he or she should know where and how to procure this help from specialised agencies.

Beyond this consensus, participants added a number of other dimensions to the discussion of the role of consultants as experts. One participant described a consultant as a helper who provides assistance and helps the school choose better mechanisms to achieve school improvement.

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88 This ties in very well with Von Bertalanffy’s (1968) philosophy where schools are studies as dynamic environments. To do this, a consultant should have broad knowledge of a wide range of different strategies for school improvement, and should not be limited to a single ‘one size fits all’ type of solution; flexibility is essential. Another participant commented:

A consultant is not hired to come and give a ‘canned program’.

Further, one participant emphasised that a universal blueprint is almost a guarantee for failure. Don’t come with the attitude, ‘Hey, it worked in New York, it can work here.

The idea of a single best practice should be replaced with the notion of good practice, which can be adapted to fit unique circumstances. Moreover, the role of an external school consultant requires interpersonal expertise. A consultant often assumes the role of liaison between school leaders and the school district, the teaching staff, parents and learners, through the expert knowledge for which he or she is hired. The skill he or she should possess is to be a resourceful and creative professional who is in possession of a compendium of skills to apply in a multifaceted problem-solving environment.

Participants also stressed that a consultant does not hold the ultimate responsibility for school success; he or she provides suggestions for improvement. These limits to a consultant’s responsibility should be carefully stipulated in the written contract.

In summary, the role of a consultant is that of a versatile expert who accompanies the school to a higher level of development through sensitive and considerate social interaction (Moll, 2014); he or she is responsible for an objective and expert analysis of the school as a complex organisation at a given time; he or she should provide not only technical but also emotional support to assist the school to ‘see’ and to reflect on its needs and to exchange old ideas for new, improved ones (Posner et al., 1982).

The external school consultant as an agent for school improvement and effectiveness A consultant should engage role players in the process and discourage dependence on him or her (the consultant) to do the work. A participant stressed that a consultant does just that – consult. It is up to local administrators and teachers to follow through and bring about effective change.

School improvement is defined as a distinctive approach to educational change that aims to enhance student outcomes and to strengthen the school’s capacity for managing change (Hopkins, 2001). This involves the availability of different resources, such as competent teachers and support staff, effective administrative services, well-resourced classrooms, furnishings and equipment, adequate school feeding programmes, comprehensive parent involvement and quality assurance. School effectiveness is taken to be measured according to the improvement in student learning and achievement. However, participants did not always distinguish between the two terms, and used them interchangeably. They understood school improvement broadly in terms of the many features of a school environment that encourage student learning. Effectiveness was seen more narrowly in terms of concrete improvements in learning achievement as represented by student grades and test scores which Vygotsky’s (1978) social cultural theory recognises person to person influence during organisational learning and change.

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to do with the extent to which learning has been successful and if all [of the school’s] students achieve successful education on leaving the school.

Yet, for effectiveness to be achieved, a variety of resources in the school environment should be present and accessible to all learners. If these elements are lacking, school improvement strategies that are more wide-reaching should be implemented. Safety and order should be established in the school, teachers should be on task and parents should be involved. A participant noted:

Students can focus better on their learning when their other needs are taken care of.

It is particularly in this area that consultants are expected to make a contribution. Participants stressed the importance of both school infrastructure, such as the management and care of equipment, school grounds and buildings, and the enhanced engagement of all role players in the school, such as the management team, teachers, support staff and parents. A prerequisite is a clear mission for the school to which all role players are committed, and consultants frequently assist the school community in reviewing and updating the school’s mission. A participant explained: There can only be effective schools and school improvement if all concerned agreed on the goals of that school system or systems. If there is no agreement on what kids need to be successful, then all people in the system will be going in different directions.

This point is also supported by Von Bertalanffy (1968). Participants stressed the methodical nature of school improvement and the necessity to accompany the school community through a systematic process of improvement. The first step in this process is a data audit of the school, so that decisions can be driven by concrete data and not by mere intuition or anecdotal evidence. A participant explained: Many schools decide on school goals based on intuition rather than data. And too often the goals seem to have no relationship to the improvement of student learning.

The audit includes gathering quantitative and qualitative data, compiling a detailed description of the school context and analysing the findings. Data are required on the performance of learners and the degree to which the school meets social expectations. A participant commented: Education is not just tests; society measures schools on how well they do. We have to recognize that a school system needs to be based on the expectations of the society which it serves.

One participant pointed out: There needs to be a quality program that focuses on both state goals and local goals and it needs to be assessed both externally and internally.

After the audit, the consultant helps the school management to identify gaps in the school’s performance.

Based on this analysis, an improvement plan is drawn up and the roles and responsibilities for different actions are allocated to the management, staff and parents. The plan requires negotiated agreement about functionaries and roles; it ‘must include prime movers, tasks and a timeline’, as one participant noted. This plan should be encapsulated in writing and provides a point of reference throughout the process. Further, the plan should encourage maximum participation from the school community. One participant stressed: We need to recognise that schools need to be continually improving and evolving to meet the changing needs of the world in which we live with the goal of any and all improvement directly related to The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 13 (2) / 2018 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

90 improving the quality of instruction for the student. Such should involve input from all the players in the process: the school, the staff and the parents.

The effect of interventions requires continual monitoring and successive cycles of data gathering. The consultant should remain on board for the implementation and monitoring to ensure that the plan is fully implemented and the school does not ‘simply skirt around it’. This requires commitment. One participant noted: A culture of professionalism should be developed, dedicated to constant improvement and serving the students’ needs first.

The above findings are in line with systems theory, emphasising that all systems should be in place for a school to function successfully.

The external consultant as a professional in the service of the school community A school consultant functions within the unique paradigm of a service provider; his or her role is to serve the school community by helping it reach its vision and priorities. To do this, the consultant has to employ a variety of techniques that will engage and instruct all stakeholders in the process, including those members of the school community who may be threatened by change. A participant explained: A good consultant needs to make the process clear to others and at the same time ensure they are comfortable with it.

Thus, the consultant must fulfil the role of expert, while simultaneously fulfilling the role of one who serves the community, appreciates the school’s culture and does not try to impose his or her expertise upon the school without obtaining its participation. The consultant should direct and guide without engendering an unhealthy dependence. It is essential that the school community take ownership of the change processes that flow from consultation, because the school community has the responsibility of sustaining improvement long after the consultant has withdrawn his or her services. One participant stressed this aspect of a consultant’s role: Consultants, who honour the culture of the community, see the community as the basis for change and engage people to develop the skills necessary to make the changes themselves, are effective consultants. Skills training should help the community to take charge of the event.

To serve the school community, a consultant should manifest a willingness to enter into dialogue and show flexibility, trust, openness and a readiness to share skills and knowledge. According to a participant, the consultant should be clear, open, able to discuss and explain, able to be flexible … encouraging and persuading people to be more reflective.

The establishment of a relationship of trust takes time; one participant pointed out the necessity of

a series of preliminary on-site visits to gather information and [to] learn what local expectations are.

In this capacity, a consultant takes on the role of critical observer and listener so that he or she can determine the needs and devise the right way of communicating some modus operandi for improvement.

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n on-going conversation with decision-makers who should be engaged in the discourse of how needs a will be addressed.

One participant stressed that an overbearing or know-it-all attitude is extremely detrimental to the process.

The consultant must keep all stakeholders on board during all stages. This is a delicate process in which the consultant should motivate and persuade them to accept the perceptions of an ‘outsider’. The process is time-consuming; it requires

meetings with senior management teams, heads of department and other stakeholders to reach consensus and to produce an agreed upon plan of action for the development and improvement of the school, as stressed by one participant.

A number of participants endorsed the difficulty of managing the fine balance between the role of expert and the ‘servant’ role of one who assists the school community by listening, guiding without controlling and encouraging participation and ownership. Moreover, while acting with sensitivity and tact, a consultant should maintain an objective view and stand aloof from organisational biases and internal politics. In this regard, a participant explained: Many times, a consultant is only used to confirm what a district already knows or to take the heat off decision makers who are reluctant to take unpopular decisions.

A consultant must be one who says ‘what is needed and not what is wanted’. Consultancy requires a person with a certain profile in addition to expert knowledge: one with nuanced interpersonal skills, the ability to be firm and decisive as well as flexible, and one who displays an attitude of selflessness by placing the honour of the school community above his or her professional success. Ultimately, a consultant should help school leaders to reach a level of maturity where they are able to make changes themselves.

These findings allude to Vygotsky’s (1978) theory of trust and social interactions between parties.

The external consultant as ethical partner All participants agreed that external consultants are bound to uphold ethical principles during school consultation. A participant stressed that

a high level of ethics is needed in this profession.

An ethical approach requires honesty and open dialogue. A participant explained: Everything discussed should be out in the open. The consultant has to be brutally honest about the shortcomings of the system in order to improve it.

Consultants’ records of previous successful consultancies should testify to their integrity and honesty so that a school that employs a consultant may be assured of ‘honest and open dialogue and a sound relationship – no surprises!’ Integrity means that a consultant should refrain from making exaggerated promises to a school. A participant mentioned:

The consultant must be honest and not make promises he/she can’t keep.

Unrealistic and dishonest promises and claims should be avoided at all costs. Further, a consultant

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s hould not identify problems and needs which don’t exist in order to create more employment for him-/ herself.

Honesty should also be demonstrated by a willingness to identify weaknesses in a school that might prove unpopular. A participant stressed: Consultants need to tell the truth and seek to help the school improve and not just say what others want to hear.

Other ethical requirements include discretion and a lack of bias as emphasised by Posner et al. (1982), whereby people are helped to exchange their core organisational concept from one set to another. A consultant must remain ‘neutral and unbiased throughout’. Openness and the ability to explain information clearly, to analyse recommendations and to answer questions honestly are important traits. A participant referred to the importance of a

willingness to be questioned about one’s recommendations and the ability to explain comments.

Playing the role of an all-knowing expert is to be eschewed. A participant noted in this regard:

We must show respect, humility and the ability to work with others as equal partners in the process.

Notwithstanding, the demand for an ethical relationship is reciprocal. A participant stressed the responsibility of the client in this regard:

Since you are hiring the person, you (the client) must also live/abide by ethical standards.

To formalise ethical behaviour, consultants should be full members of a central or a professional organisation with its own professional code. A participant pointed out the importance of involvement in professional networks.

Ethical behaviour also requires a consultant to be accountable to the students of schools; all actions, direct and indirect, must be directed at learner achievement.

A participant stressed: Most of all, the consultant must see the good of the kids being the bottom line and that takes precedence.

Another agreed, remarking as follows: There is only one need, the interest of the child and improving the quality of instruction. Further, a consultant should guard sensitive information about the school community. He or she needs to balance the role of the information seeker and the confidante for the leadership.

These findings tie in with the theories of Vygotsky (1978) and Posner et al. (1982), pointing out a relationship of trust and the ability to modify and to change in order to improve the school community.

RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION When schools want to improve, it is apposite to call on external help to guide the process of improvement and change, as emphasised by Posner et al. (1982). This study investigated the role of external school The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 13 (2) / 2018 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

93 consultants in this regard. This service cannot be underestimated in the endeavour to synergise all available sources and new resources schools need, to venture towards improvement and effectiveness, which is supported by Von Bertalanffy’s systems theory (1968). In the light of this, it is important for a school to hire an expert who is well-versed in school improvement; who will serve the school community in an ethical manner; who has the necessary credentials to unthreateningly deal with the problem(s) at hand; who can engage in open dialogue; and who can reveal the shortcomings of the school with confidence and honesty.

On the basis of the findings of the literature study and the inquiry, it is recommended that schools be receptive to the advice given by external consultants and accommodate and utilise new suggestions.

Schools should trust consultants’ judgement and insight into problems and cooperate with them to the best of their ability, which is linked to Vygotsky’s theory of support and social interaction (1978). Such mutual collaboration is the best way to gain value from this expert assistance. Schools should also realise that the success of the consultancy experience lies with their implementing and sustaining new patterns of behaviour and persisting with suggested changes, rather than falling back into old patterns.

School consultation for school improvement is well established as a strategy for school improvement internationally. These perspectives are from an international group of consultants and therefore future research would be needed to align school stakeholders’ views on these to compare or discuss. Given the contextual challenges in education in terms of calls for cognitive justice and decolonisation of knowledge, South African schools can benefit from a service that is aimed at enhancing effectiveness and improved school functioning and transformation. Further, it is recommended that a central professional body for school consultants be established by the Department of Basic Education (such as district directors, circuit managers and subject advisors) that sets down qualifications and a code of conduct to which all consultants are subjected to ensure the status, reputation and remuneration of the profession. Through this professional body, the reliability of consultants in the field could be regulated and consistency assured.

This regulated body would, similarly, be able to require that its members comply with a distinctive ethical code of conduct, which would serve as a measure to ensure ethical conduct. Finally, it is recommended that training programmes be designed to train prospective school consultants in consultancy skills, taking transformation into consideration. Providing training that encompasses certain expert competencies such as specialised knowledge, relationship building skills, analytical skills, decision-making skills, integrity and communication skills could ensure that future consultants have the competence to implement and to adapt consultation practices effectively across a range of clients, problems and contexts.

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Zirbel, E.L. (2004) ‘Framework for conceptual change’ Astronomy Educational Review 3(1) pp.62-74.

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98 Exploring the need to contextualise professional development programmes for university lecturers: A case study in Thailand1 Loïse Jeannin, Université Clermont Auvergne, France2 and University of Johannesburg, South Africa Philip Hallinger, Mahidol University, Thailand and University of Johannesburg, South Africa

ABSTRACT Although the literature on the professional development (PD) of university lecturers is growing, few studies have highlighted the importance of contextualising PD programmes to reflect universities’ idiosyncratic contexts and the specific combination of national and institutional cultures impacting pedagogical practices. In order to investigate how lecturers’ learning needs are shaped by the national and institutional cultures of universities, this study focused on one English-speaking university in Thailand. Data come from a focus group and interviews with 10 lecturers to understand: (i) their PD needs; and (ii) how these needs related to the university context. We compared the findings with themes identified in the literature and highlighted the importance of contextualising PD programmes to meet lecturers’ specific PD needs while responding to the national and institutional cultures of the university.12 Keywords: university lecturer contextualisation, Thailand.

professional

development,

professional

development

needs,

1. INTRODUCTION Although the learning needs of university lecturers have been extensively researched (Avalos, 2011; Collins & Halverson, 2010; Matsubayaski, Drake, Shaw & DeZure, 2009; Toth & McKey, 2010), generic recommendations sometimes lack elements of contextualisation ignoring the national and institutional cultures in which lecturers work (Geldenhuys & Oosthuizen, 2015; Noor Azmi, 2016). Professional Development (PD) needs are dependent on the national and institutional contexts of universities as these are shaped by the teaching and research requirements imposed on faculty, the student population, and the site’s pedagogical culture (Leibowitz, Vorster & Ndebele, 2016; Naidoo, 2016; National Comprehensive Center for Teacher Quality [NCCTQ], 2011). Hence, this article aims to scrutinise the learning needs of lecturers in one international university in Thailand to understand how they are related to the national and institutional contexts of the university. More specifically, the research examined the learning needs of university lecturers at an international university in Thailand where lecturers originated from 15 different countries and students from 92 different nations. The article addresses the following questions: 1. What are lecturers’ learning needs in this particular university environment?

1 Date of submission 28 September 2017 Date of review outcome 8 June 2018 Date of acceptance 9 July 2018 2 Laboratoire ACTé, EA4281, France

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99 2. To what extent are these needs shaped by the context of this international university in Thailand?

3. How do these needs differ from or converge with themes found in the current literature on faculty development?

Firstly, we reviewed the literature on faculty development across a wide range of higher education contexts to elicit how generic PD needs could relate to global changes affecting the majority of higher education institutions (technological changes, academic mobility) before focusing on contextually-anchored PD needs and programmes. Secondly, we analysed qualitative data from lecturers teaching in one university in Thailand and compared the findings to the current literature on faculty development. We show how some PD needs are common to the literature while others are specific to the idiosyncratic environment of the university, arguing for the promotion of contextualised PD programmes.

2. PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT NEEDS OF UNIVERSITY LECTURERS In this section of the paper, we examine some generic PD needs arising from the changing contexts of higher education worldwide before taking a closer look at how these needs are contextually anchored.

We used the following keywords to seek for relevant literature on Google Scholar and major databases in education (EBSCO, ERIC): Faculty professional development needs, university lecturer/teacher continuing education, faculty training, and combined them with context-contextualized program, developed and developing countries.

2.1. Global trends and generic PD needs Global trends, including the internationalisation and the digitalisation of higher education, have forced a reconsideration of the roles of university lecturers (JĂľgi, Karu & Krabi, 2015). Perhaps most notable among these changes are innovations in learning technology such as e-learning, online simulation, gamification, requirements related to pedagogy and curriculum reforms, and the increasing student diversity that comes with the massification of access to higher education (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2014). These changes have made it an imperative for lecturers to become lifelong learners and update their technological skills and knowledge continuously (Burns & Lawrie, 2015).

PD needs reported in the recent literature cover a wide range of domains including technology, skill development in teaching and research, student engagement, class diversity and disciplinary content knowledge (Collins & Halverson, 2010; Matsubayaski et al., 2009; Toth & McKey, 2010). For example, in a needs assessment study with 239 participants in 17 American colleges, Matsubayaski et al. (2009) found that lecturers wanted to learn more about critical thinking, syllabus design, technologies to enhance teaching effectiveness, effective assignments, how to learn effectively, and student motivation.

Collins and Halverson (2010), and Jennings and Weatherly (2013) analysed the educational changes brought by technology. They argued that teachers should better prepare students to interact through the use of communication technologies, but also help them analyse complex problems, devise relevant questions, identify credible information, and design collaborative solutions. As a result, 21st century lecturers need to be prepared to create learning environments that are conducive to the development of these generic skills.

The development of online learning platforms has created new ways of interfacing pedagogy, content, and technology that challenge lecturers to develop new pedagogical practices and attitudes (Lehiste, 2015; Mishra & Koehler, 2006; Ng, 2015). For example, Lupton (2014) highlighted issues with social media usage pertaining to privacy and the risks they can pose to the credibility and careers of faculty members. More fundamentally, the increased use of technologies challenges the traditional roles of university lecturers as the source and dispensers of knowledge (Dogan, 2014; Downes, 2012). As an

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100 example of new roles, Dogan (2014) and Downes (2012) advised lecturers to guide students through the continuous flow of information issued online to develop their information literacy and real-life problemsolving skills. However, these changes in the roles of lecturers require abundant self-reflection, training, and coaching in order to succeed (Jõgi et al., 2015).

The internationalisation process of higher education has created additional challenges for teachers who need to adapt to the different cultural backgrounds, learning styles, and expectations of their students (Gopal, 2011; Mizzi, 2017; Smith, 2014; Walker, 2015). Indeed, the growing mobility of students and educators and the massification of access to higher education have led to greater diversity in the knowledge, skills and attitudes of students studying together in the same classrooms (Altbach, Reisberg & Rumbley, 2009; Shafaei & Razak, 2016). Hence, Lee, Poch, Shaw and Williams (2012) argued that teachers urgently require intercultural competency in order to accommodate the increasing diversity of students in their classes. Gopal (2011) advocated combining Deardorff’s cultural competency model with other cultural models, including adaptational models, to support faculty members in the development of their cross-cultural competency and adjust to the context of branch campuses.

Mizzi (2017) and Walker (2015) acknowledged that teaching in diverse classes can be disturbing for unprepared teachers who are unaware of their students’ expectations and ways of learning. Both host and international lecturers may feel unprepared for the wide diversity of learning needs and preferences in their classes (Gopal, 2011; Mizzi, 2017). They may lack previous experiences with diversity and they may feel disoriented when faced with diverse students’ expectations and needs (Bertrand & Lee, 2012; Lee et al., 2012). Hence, PD programmes for inclusive teaching are increasingly promoted in the literature (Amzat & Padilla-Valdez, 2017; Banks, 2016) and complete the other generic needs identified earlier, such as technological changes and active pedagogies for 21st century students. However, lecturers’ PD programmes should also take into account the idiosyncratic contexts of universities, as highlighted in the next subsection.

2.2. Contextualised PD needs If all lecturers are potentially in need of continuing skill development and subject content updates (Geldenhuys & Oosthuizen, 2015), the implementation of PD programmes must be handled with care.

Issues of disconnection between the content of training and lecturers’ working contexts have been reported in different environments. Lewin and Stuart (2016) reviewed educational changes in developing countries and emphasised the risk of implementing standard training models that do not take into account lecturers’ specific constraints and intrinsic motivation. Preparing faculty members to teach in a culturallysensitive way is actually crucial for international lecturers confronted with new sociocultural environments (Barkhuizen, 2002; Gopal, 2011; Kainzbauer & Hunt, 2014). Kainzbauer and Hunt (2014) highlighted the expectations attached to the Thai educational culture that can constitute a disorienting experience for non-Thai lecturers, such as the high respect for teachers’ words that discourage students from questioning or debating their opinions (Kainzbauer & Hunt, 2014).

In Noor Azmi’s (2016) case study on in-service training in Malaysia, the teacher programme was undereffective. Courses ‘were too highly standardized, giving little latitude to trainers to respond to teachers’ needs; there was too little time and no follow-up’ (Lewin & Stuart, 2016: 93). On the contrary, Stuart (2016) reported a case study in Lesotho where action research methodology was highly effective, raising the question of the implementation level that is best suited to spur changes in lecturers’ practices. Lewin and Stuart (2016) suggested that local actions at school level could be more effective than national programmes that are too disconnected from schools’ idiosyncratic contexts. These case studies complemented the body of literature promoting teachers’ needs assessment on site to understand their overlooked learning needs and motivational drivers (Caffarella & Daffron, 2013; Murphy & de Paor, 2017). In addition, participatory

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101 action research, mentoring and reflective communities of practice have been reported effective to help lecturers learn relevant skills through discussions with well-informed peers and networks (Amzat & PadillaValdez, 2017; Gaible & Burns, 2005; Stuart, 2016).

The call for renewing lecturers’ technological and pedagogical skills is strongly impacted by national and institutional imperatives. Governmental and political agendas impact the mission assigned to universities, and thus influence the budget allocated to faculty PD programmes. Leibowitz et al. (2016) encouraged researchers to study the PD needs of lecturers in resource-constrained environments taking into account ‘post-colonial contexts or in neo-liberal times’ (Leibowitz et al., 2016: 2). PD needs are indeed anchored in the university’s context and depend on the student population and the institutional culture and structure (Leibowitz et al., 2016; NCCTQ, 2012). More specifically, these needs are shaped by the mission of the university and the teaching framework used to assess lecturers’ teaching and research performances (NCCTQ, 2012). In South Africa, for example, students’ demand for decolonising the curriculum creates a strong incentive for university lecturers to revise their courses’ content and pedagogical practices (Le Grange, 2016). The remaining high economic inequalities in the post-apartheid context and the sociolinguistic diversity of South African students create demand for academic staff training that accommodates such diversity of learning needs (Council on Higher Education, 2016).

The content of PD programmes must be relevant to the national and political contexts of universities necessitating to contextualise the pedagogical activities used to train lecturers (Geldenhuys & Oosthuizen, 2015). For example, Naidoo (2016) argued for the conceptualisation of PD that would creatively combine theories to fit into the local and national contexts of universities on the one hand, and to promote social justice on the other hand. PD programmes that ignore the characteristics of the student population in the institution and do not meet the specific needs of lecturers can indeed provoke resistance and jeopardise their long-term effectiveness (Quinn, 2012).

Finally, as shown in this literature review, university lecturers’ needs for PD are diverse and contextual, influenced by international and national trends, and institutional cultures, missions and teaching evaluative frameworks (CHE, 2016; NCCTQ, 2012). It is therefore crucial to assess faculty members’ learning needs before organising PD programmes (Caffarella & Daffron, 2013). For these reasons, a needs assessment has been carried out in an international university in Thailand with the aim of offering tailored PD programmes.

3. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK This research study draws on situated learning and situated cognition theory (Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989). Lecturers’ PD is approached as influenced by the situated context (including students’ characteristics, the private university’s environment and the community of colleagues). Lecturers can learn informally from peers or formally through PD programmes (Eraut, 2011; Grosemans, Boon, Verclairen, Dochy & Kyndt, 2015) and this study aims to explore to what extent their PD needs were anchored in this Thai-American university’s context.

4. METHODOLOGY 4.1. Setting The research took place in a Thai-American university in Thailand where students and teachers originated from 92 and 15 countries respectively. On its Bangkok campus, 70% of lecturers and 35% of students in the undergraduate programmes were not from Thailand. The university mission was to provide interactive learning opportunities in an English-speaking environment and to equip students with the practical skills they needed in internationalised professions. Hence, active learning pedagogy was promoted by the

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102 university’s administration. The uniqueness of this educational setting arose from the fact that the university belonged to an American educational network but complied with the Thai educational quality and employment regulations.

4.2. Qualitative design The objective of this research study was to examine to what extent the lecturers’ PD were influenced by the Thai-American context of the university. The research questions were presented in the introduction and focused on lecturers’ perceptions of PD needs. To investigate teachers’ perceptions in this bounded educational setting, a descriptive case study design was chosen (Yin, 2013). We were interested in understanding how the cultural-institutional context of the university might have shaped the learning needs of lecturers, and the exploratory nature of the case study was appropriate for this objective. More precisely, focus groups and interviews were considered a useful approach for data collection.

A needs assessment was undertaken in undergraduate departments in 2016 (Jeannin, 2016) after a presentation of the research objectives, all lecturers were invited to sign a consent form before partaking in the research. Five faculty members attended the focus group (90 minutes), and eight teachers participated in individual interviews (35 to 40 minutes). Three lecturers participated in both the focus group and the individual interview. The 10 faculty members who participated in the research included five female and five male lecturers from either Thai or international backgrounds. Participants represented diverse profiles in terms of cultural backgrounds, academic subjects, years of experience in the university and gender. The informants came from eight different countries including Asian, North American and European countries.

We argue that this sample diversity contributed to the quality and richness of the qualitative findings.

The focus group provided a first insight into teachers’ constructed realities (Stewart & Shamdasani, 2015).

The individual interviews provided more detailed information, as probes were used to prompt elaboration, illustration or clarification (Creswell, 2012; Rubin & Rubin, 2005). The interviews were used to enrich and confirm the interpretive thematic framework (Rubin & Rubin, 2005). Hence, combining the data from the focus group and individual interviews aimed at increasing the accuracy and credibility of the findings (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007; Creswell, 2012).

As some faculty members were non-native English speakers, providing immediate in-depth answers might have been challenging; therefore, all lecturers were offered the opportunity to choose an e-mail interview instead of the face-to-face interviewing modality. As reported by Meho (2006), well-designed e-mail interviews enabled participants to take the time to reflect and express their experiences, emotions and opinions with appropriate words. As a result, six participants chose asynchronous e-mail interviews while two lecturers selected face-to-face interviews. In the e-mail interview procedure, a follow-up e-mail was sent to clarify informants’ answers when it was needed. In practice, the e-mail interviews led to rich and meaningful responses as it gave participants more time to reflect on their experience and formulate their responses (Opdenakker, 2006). We thought that this double collection method was appropriate to reduce the time burden of participating in the research while enabling participants to choose what was the most convenient for them.

4.3. Data analysis Interpretive data analysis was performed on transcripts through hand coding, by labelling each sentence and gathering them under codes, categories, and themes (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). A coding journal was used to keep track of the interpretive process. No predetermined theory was use to analyse the data, as the codes and themes emerge throughout the iterative coding process. After organising the 45 codes and 19 categories that were identified in the data, five themes emerged with regard to lecturers’ PD needs.

These themes included: The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 13 (2) / 2018 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

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• Pedagogy for university-level students

• Classroom management techniques in culturally diverse classes • Differentiated instruction • Fair but effective assessments • Instructional technology.

Finally, we ensured that all segments labelled under the same code constituted a coherent whole and that the interpretive framework was consistent and comprehensive to embrace the richness of the data. The qualitative findings are reported below using pseudonyms to protect participants’ confidentiality.

5. FINDINGS 5.1. The learning needs reported by lecturers Throughout the interviews, lecturers reported their desire to develop their knowledge and skills with regard to pedagogy for university-level students, including differentiated instruction and classroom management in culturally diverse classes. They also wanted to increase their ability to develop fair but effective assessment techniques and learn more about instructional technology. The evidence of these PD needs is presented below.

In terms of pedagogy, participants highlighted their strong desire to learn pedagogical practices to increase their effectiveness and better meet the learning needs of university-level students. George explained, [my] background is not primarily in pedagogy. I would enjoy attending (in-house) seminars in classroom management and teaching methods.

He continued: I think that most teachers are experiencing the same obstacles and hurdles in ensuring- that the students meet the learning outcomes. How to motivate students to learn? How to ensure that everybody (not only the strong students) participate? How do you foster analytical proneness in a cross-cultural setting?

As the student population was very diverse, the scope of students’ learning needs and preferences was wide. This cultural diversity could also create cross-cultural communication issues. Some lecturers indeed reported a need to learn more about classroom management to better manage student behaviours in a cross-cultural setting. Steve explained: I have found myself at times in arguments with students, which has caused (…) emotions (….) I have first-hand knowledge that many students are very skilled at using their native language and culture to rally support for themselves. Having knowledge about human behaviour, or having psychology tactics could create better communication strategies and defuse volatile situations.

As a consequence, faculty members intended to gain psychological and multicultural knowledge to maintain a respectful atmosphere in class and diffuse potential contentious situations.

To accommodate students’ diversity in class, lecturers noted that differentiated instruction could help them provide different activities. Teachers reported students’ diversity in terms of English language and technology proficiency levels, previous knowledge, ages, and experiences. Lee stated:

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I would like to join differentiated instruction course [and] classroom management course. Since in all of my classes, students are very diverse, I would like to learn/know how to manage these diverse classes effectively from an expert or share experience with other lecturers.

In the e-mail interview, Mary reported a desire to

learn more about different innovative teaching methods in order to adapt [her] teaching style.

She thought it could enable students to learn through different techniques that would allow [them] to open [their] mind and understand the teachers’ ideas from other perspectives.

The desire of lecturers to expand their pedagogical skills aimed at meeting students’ diverse learning needs. It was corroborated by their interest in assessment design to better evaluate students’ various learning styles.

Regarding assessment, lecturers in this university were responsible for designing their tests individually.

They expected to develop effective and fair examinations to better structure their tests in accordance with their subjects, students, and teaching methods. In the focus group and individual interview, Ann, Luke and Peter raised questions relating to the design of tests and assessments, questioning the effectiveness of multiple-choice questions.

Different types, different structures of questions have different objectives. So, in which case, which type of questions should be used? And in what mixture? (.…) How to assess objectively?

Some lecturers reported that students were not performing as they had expected. They wondered if problems were arising from their methods of teaching or from their assessment techniques. Referring to his last assessment, Luke stated: It’s basically the same practical exercise that we have done in class, just for slight changes. But even then, it seems like a large percentage of the students aren’t able to perform. Maybe my expectations are too high based on what I am teaching in the classroom? If I had some formal training on designing the proper assessment based on class materials, (…) that may help.

As a consequence, teachers expected to improve their skills in test design to assess students effectively and objectively, but also to align examinations with their own teaching practices. This was particularly important in this context as the faculty and student populations were highly diverse (in terms of cultural backgrounds) which necessitated to assess and grade students fairly knowing that they had been accustomed to different teaching philosophies, pedagogical practices and grading expectations in their countries of origin.

Some lecturers mentioned that the increasing number of students enrolled in class could be detrimental to student engagement knowing that the university advocated for student-centred teaching. Ann emphasised, the number of students is growing day by day (…), so it is hard to get things done and hard to engage students all of them at the same time.

In this context, participants also mentioned their desire to gain knowledge in learning management systems in order to increase their students’ access to learning materials and facilitate teacher-student communication outside the classroom. For example, Ann considered attending a workshop on learning management systems to be able: The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 13 (2) / 2018 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

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t o provide information to the students outside the lecture time. This will enable me to be in contact with students outside the contact hours, and enable them to read background information beyond the content of the two-hour lecture that I provide twice a week.

Participants wanted to learn more about adult pedagogy, differentiated instruction, classroom management, assessment design and instructional technology which were related to the university’s mission to teach practical skills and contribute to the development of job-ready professionals. The connections between these learning needs and the university context are scrutinised in the next subsection.

5.2. Relationship between lecturers’ PD needs and the university context in Thailand The learning needs reported by lecturers were deeply rooted in the context of the university. As international students represented an average of 35% of the undergraduate student population, lecturers were interested in differentiated instruction in this context of diversity. Additionally, as one of the strategic objectives of the university was to develop blended and online teaching methods, lecturers were encouraged to consider new instructional technologies. Therefore, lecturers’ demand for an increased knowledge in learning management systems might have been a consequence of the university strategy for blended learning.

In the university, an active learning pedagogy was promoted by the Western administration encouraging lecturers to use class debates and problem-solving discussions. However, this active learning pedagogical approach collided with the traditional Thai teaching culture, based on knowledge transfer and memorisation in a context of high respect for lecturers’ authority (Biggs, 1994; Hallinger & Lu, 2012; Kainzbauer & Hunt, 2014). As the Thai teaching culture has been shaped by Buddhist tradition and to a lesser extent

by Confucianism, lecturers were revered for their ability to nurture their students but were also held responsible for their students’ success (Kainzbauer & Hunt, 2014; Nguyen, Terlouw & Pilot, 2006).

In the PD needs assessment, lecturers explained they wanted to promote students’ critical-thinking skills, without always knowing how to do it in classes where students’ critical habits differ. This elicited teachers’ difficulty in merging different conceptions of learning and teaching as the Thai culture and the university discourse were not easily reconciled. In addition, the fact that lecturers raised questions about the best ways to assess students revealed their awareness of difficulties in assessing students from diverse pedagogical cultures. Lecturers pinpointed the limitations of multiple-choice questions and perceived the need for a diversification of their assessment methods to embrace students’ diversity in terms of learning habits and preferences.

In this private international university, with modest to high admission fees, one of the authors (who taught in the university) noted that families were expecting students to pass smoothly from one term to another until the successful completion of their degree. Participants in the research mentioned their desire to learn how to assess students fairly and effectively in a context of stakeholders’ pressure for good marks.

Assessment and grading could indeed be points of tension for the stakeholders of private universities as conflicting objectives interplay: students demand high marks, the universities’ administration expects high pass rates but also high-quality teaching, and lecturers end up having to find a balance between students’ satisfaction and the high educational standards of their institutions.

6. DISCUSSION 6.1. Similarities and differences with the literature on PD Commonalities between our findings and the literature include differentiated instruction, classroom management, assessment design and technological learning. For example, managing emotions in crosscultural classrooms has been emphasised by van Tartwijk, den Brok, Veldman and Wubbels (2009)

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106 through the enforcement of clear classroom rules. There are however minor differences between our findings and the literature that we discuss below.

Consistent with our findings, differentiated instruction has been presented in the literature as a tool to better accommodate students’ diverse learning needs and preferences. Santangelo and Tomlinson (2009) suggested that lecturers offer diverse opportunities for learning as well as learner-centred modes of assessment. In addition to developing differentiated instruction, learning new instructional practices, such as culturally responsive teaching (Bertrand & Lee, 2012; Gay, 2010) and inclusive instruction (GlowackiDudka, Murray & Concepción, 2012) could help lecturers become more effective in international contexts (Gay, 2010). For example, Merriam and Kim (2011) encouraged teachers to recognise that learning could take on different meanings and modes in different cultures. They emphasised the importance of recognising the holistic and experience-based learning approaches in non-Western cultures, supporting a balanced development of the mind, the body, the spirit and the emotions (Merriam & Kim, 2011).

Instructional technology was mentioned by lecturers in our study, but no one raised the question of the interconnection between technology, content and pedagogy, revealing that it was not a major concern for lecturers. Participants approached technology as a way to improve their communication with students, without mentioning how they expected to transform their pedagogical practices and content to fit into the online or blended environment. This finding echoed the approach of the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (Lehiste, 2015; Mishra & Koehler, 2006; Ng, 2015) which encouraged lecturers to explore the relationship between the technology that is used, the content that is taught and the pedagogy that is implemented to ensure that the three components interface consistently and serve the learning purposes effectively.

Like in other universities hosting many different nationalities, participants in this research reported facing challenges to make teaching materials and instructional strategies relevant to diverse students. Host and international students have indeed been accustomed to different teaching styles and cultural perspectives (Bertrand & Lee, 2012; De Vita, 2001; Merriam & Kim, 2011; Mizzi, 2017; Pimpa, 2009). Therefore, teachers and students do not share the same habits with regard to teaching and learning: There are differences in the perceptions of what students’ and teachers’ roles should be (Hallinger & Lu, 2012; Kainzbauer & Hunt, 2014), what should be taught in class (Merriam & Kim, 2011; Pimpa, 2009) and what constitutes appropriate instructional practices (Ma, 2014; Nguyen et al., 2006; van Tartwijk et al., 2009).

Aligned with the findings, the literature highlighted that different expectations between international lecturers and Thai students could be disorientating (Deveney, 2007; Hallinger & Lu, 2012; Kainzbauer & Hunt, 2014; Pimpa, 2009). International universities host a variety of expectations as students and lecturers have been socialised in different institutional and national cultures (McNaught, 2012; Nguyen et al., 2006; Shafaei & Razak, 2016). Regarding the Thai cultural perspective on student-teacher relationships, Kainzbauer and Hunt (2014) showed that students were expected to respect their teachers and avoid questioning or contradicting them. In return, Thai learners expect their teachers to take responsibility for their learning and for maintaining students’ face in a context that values harmony and mutual respect.

To an outsider, these perspectives may seem inherently conflicting. On the one hand, teachers receive extremely high levels of respect (somewhat unusual in a Western educational setting), while simultaneously being allotted more than expected responsibility for students’ learning success. Hence, staff discussions and mentoring could help international lecturers decode the expectations and behaviours of their students, as required by the participants in this study and promoted in the literature (Schleicher, 2012).

6.2. Contextualising faculty PD programmes Contextualising PD programmes has to take into account the budget and human factors constraining the universities, but also to accommodate the diversity of staff learning needs and the specificity of the student The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 13 (2) / 2018 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

107 population (Leibowitz et al., 2016). Discourses pertaining to the development of relevant curriculums for the Asian contexts (Kainzbauer & Hunt, 2014; Pimpa, 2009) encourage lecturers to reflect on the content and the pedagogical approaches they use in class. These demands for culturally relevant curriculums are rising in the global South where Western mainstream knowledge might prove less relevant to their socioeconomic contexts. This requires to prepare lecturers for renewed pedagogical practices that could match students’ learning needs (Banks, 2016; Gay, 2010). Hence, instead of offering inappropriate PD programmes (Noor Azmi, 2016), it is crucial to assess the learning needs of lecturers to meet their specific needs (Caffarella & Daffron, 2013; Stuart, 2016) and help them better accommodate the learning needs of their diverse students.

As Thailand expects to become an educational hub in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) region, it requires lecturers to be ready to meet the learning needs of students from diverse language and cultural backgrounds. For example, the 2008-2022 plan for education of the Thai Ministry of Education (Office of the Higher Education Commission, 2013; Thai Ministry of Education, 2004, 2008) considered PD as a tool to increase the quality of education in the context of internationalisation of higher education.

It is indeed envisioned that faculty development could contribute to the attractiveness and the international competitiveness of Thailand. This call for contextualising PD for university lecturers resonates with other countries’ national debates regarding the contextualisation of higher education. In South Africa for example, there is a strong demand for the decolonisation and the Africanisation of Higher Education (Le Grange, 2016; Vorster & Quinn, 2017), leading faculty members to search for renewing their syllabus and participate in contextualised PD programmes (Leibowitz et al., 2016).

7. CONCLUSION This paper described the PD needs of 10 lecturers and showed how they related to the specific context of an international university in Thailand. These learning needs revolved around pedagogy for universitylevel students, differentiated instruction, classroom management, assessment design and instructional technology. The paper stressed how these learning needs were contextually rooted: the specificities of lecturers’ PD needs arose from the multicultural student population which brought about diverse learning needs and preferences. The paper revealed the dichotomy between the Thai context and the Western background of the university that impacted expectations related to student-teacher interactions. The characteristics of this private university, its mission, and the diversity of the student population contributed to the specific PD needs reported by lecturers in this setting. By showing how PD needs are contextual, we highlighted the importance of organising needs assessment prior to designing PD programmes to tailor them to distinctive cultural, political and institutional contexts.

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Practitioners’ Corner

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A contact-based practical approach to STEM projects in South Africa12 Johan Venter, University of Johannesburg, South Africa Daniel Rodrigues van Niekerk, University of Johannesburg, South Africa

ABSTRACT In South-Africa, there exists a shortage of technicians, technologists and engineers. This paper aims to document one approach that can be followed to entice young inspiring and intelligent learners from the secondary teaching institutions to enroll for engineering studies at a recognised university through Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) -based projects. The Technolab at the University of Johannesburg is an entity that was started to promote the Engineering School of the University to secondary schools. The aim is to use exciting fun technology project challenges to entice younger learners to enroll for engineering studies at the University of Johannesburg. The technology project challenges are administered by the Technolab at the University of Johannesburg. In this paper, three of the main Technolab projects are discussed, including the difficulties experienced in terms of the logistics and difficulty level of the project.

The primary contribution of this paper is the model adopted to host STEM-based projects in South Africa and the impact of this model that leads to increased participation. In 2016 and 2017 for the AfrikaBot competition, there were 45 and 56 participants respectively and 25 and 40 successful completions respectively. For the CO2 dragster challenge, from 2014 to 2017, the number of participants increased from 22 to 129. For the Weather Station challenge during 2014 and 2015, there were a total of 22 participating groups and 14 successful completions.12

INTRODUCTION

The Technolab in the School of Electrical Engineering at the University of Johannesburg is an entity used to present Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM)-based projects to entice learners to enroll for Electrical Engineering studies. The current secondary education system has somewhat seen the need to incorporate some engineering work into their curriculum as an extension to physics, as a choice subject such as Electrical Technology, Electronics and Digital Electronics (Dept. of Basic Education, 2018a, Grade 12 Exemplars Technical Subjects). These subjects have had multiple titles but these subjects have been presented since 2008 (Dept. of Basic Education, 2018b, National Senior Certificate (NSC) 1 Date of submission 15 August 2017 Date of review outcome 29 June 2018 Date of acceptance 29 August 2018 2 The authors would like to thank the Technolab staff for availing their resources and time to host the STEM projects. The authors would like to thank the various secondary school educators, their learners and parents who availed their time to make these projects a success. The knowledge gained in how to approach and host STEM based projects in South Africa in a practical way is accredited in part to their efforts.

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114 Examinations). However, not enough exposure is given to learners at secondary school level, which causes learners to be hesitant to enroll for engineering studies. Therefore, to entice learners to enroll for engineering studies, extensive use of contact-based support is used to enable learners to gain the necessary knowledge and skills to complete fun engineering technology projects successfully. In this paper a contactbased approach in hosting STEM-based projects is presented, which can greatly increase enrolment of students in engineering studies in South Africa. A thorough discussion on the logistics, advantages and difficulties is also presented.

LITERATURE STUDY Engineering educational institutes in South Africa embrace learners that enroll for engineering studies based on their own interest in the engineering discipline. However, educational institutes also try other methods to entice learners to enroll for engineering studies. Active practical involvement in projects significantly improves learning when students build something meaningful (De Cristoforis, Pedre, Nitsche, Fisher, Pessacg & Di Pietro, 2013). Also, an effective STEM-based community outreach project must include the support of educators (Bruder & Wedeward, 2003).

Several models can be used to promote STEM education of which some examples are given in this paragraph. A mobile truck with engineering equipment is one way to bring the STEM project to the learner (Lovegrove, Batdorf, Corey, George, Pinkston, & White, 2017). Cyberlearning is another model that can be used to promote STEM education (August, Hammers, Murphy, Neyer, Gueye & Thames, 2016).

Cyberlearning generally appeals to today's youth and uses modes of information management and social interaction that is almost second nature to the current generation of learners. Cyberlearning is defined as learning that is mediated by networked computing and communications technologies (Borgman, Abelson, Dirks, Johnson, Koedinger, Linn, Lynch, Oblinger, Pea, Salen, Smith & Szalay, 2008). The Internet has matured sufficiently to support sophisticated tools, content, and services thereby becoming a viable educational platform. E-Learning however, has many interpretations but also stands for learning by electronic means and can be further categorised into formal lessons, which are structured, and use informal means such as discussions or e-mails (Bhandari, 2003:1). E-Learning includes both types of learning that does not come directly from lecture notes, books or face-to-face with a teacher but rather through electronic means.

Students struggle mostly with adapting their already established collaborative strategies that are grounded in face-to-face learning, to an online learning environment where they felt their means of communication and expression were limited (Mehlenbacher, Autry & Kelly, 2015). Established collaborative strategies are paper-based and face-to-face methods whereas online learning strategies include Google Docs and online courses require computer and internet infrastructure. For this reason, we chose the face-to-face model of approaching our STEM-based projects.

Learners from underrepresented minorities often do not participate in extracurricular engineering activities because of a lack of non-technical teacher skills and non-continual exposure to STEM-based projects, which applies to both practical and online approaches (Cross, Hamner, Zito & Nourbakhsh, 2016; Nair, Huang, Jackson & Cox-Petersen, 2017; Doherty, 2016; Mehlenbacher, Autry & Kelly, 2015). It has been reported in literature through conducted surveys that interest in STEM education is currently lacking (Nair et al., 2017; Gaitan-Leon & Tafur, 2017). Government institutions through their established methods have determined that STEM outreach programmes do not extend broadly enough to inspire promising learners (Hurlburt & Voas, 2013). Government intuitions and other reliable private sector efforts, have determined that STEM education promotes the development of future engineers and for this reason the success of STEM programmes is of great importance (Nair et al., 2017; Gaitan-Leon et al., 2017; Lovegrove et al, 2017).

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115 A good model to promote STEM-based education is to present contact-based workshops because learners are used to face-to-face learning methods (Andrijcic, Ingram & Siahmakoun, 2017; Gruenbacher, Nararajan, Pahwa, Scoglio, Lewis & Muguira, 2007; Tay, Lim & Chua, 2017). This model is costlier because of finances required for equipment, required face-to-face contact time and the remuneration of qualified educators.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY As this research was done on new STEM projects, a mixed mode research methodology is adopted.

Mixed-mode research methodology consists of qualitative as well as quantitative research techniques (Petter & Gallivan, 2004). There are six types of mixed-mode research methodologies that can be used such as sequential explanatory, sequential exploratory, sequential transformative, concurrent triangulation, concurrent nested and concurrent transformative (Creswell, Plano Clark, Guttmann & Hanson, 2003). For this work, a sequential explanatory mixed-mode methodology was chosen since it combines perceptions as well as numerical data collected where the quantitative methodology was first employed and then the qualitative methodology. The benefits of using mixed-mode research is the potential strength that offsets weaknesses in quantitative and qualitative research methods, the ability to provide more and better evidence when studying a research problem, assistance in answering questions that cannot be answered by qualitative or quantitative methodologies alone, and encourages the use of multiple views when performing research (Choudhary & Jesiek, 2016). Regarding the qualitative methodology, an interpretivist research paradigm was chosen which enables one to analyse and offer a perspective of the situation under study and provide insights into the way in which individuals make sense of the situation (Maree 2011). In the explanation that follows, each project’s qualitative and quantitative research methodology is discussed.

For all three STEM-based projects - Afrikabot, CO2 dragster challenge, Weather Station challenge - the actual project is first introduced to prospective learners in several ways ranging from road shows to meetings with parents and in-person presentations. The primary aim of the presentation phase is to gather information and feedback from prospective learners and parents to determine the amount of interest in each project. One of the primary factors in the decision to participate in a project is the cost and time needed of which the Weather station is the highest and the Co2 dragster is the lowest. No set way in terms of questioning and presentation was followed, as for each project the prospective learners’ interest is different. The project is presented, costs and logistics are discussed and then through verbal as well as documented feedback, the amount of interest is determined.

On a continual interview basis, feedback mostly consisted of the answer to the following research questions.

How well does a STEM project promote the interest in engineering where cost is not a concern? Did the STEM project capture the interest of the learners in such a way as to entice enrollment in engineering? In this way, through the perception of the researchers, the validity of the proposed approach and type of STEM project is determined. This makes up the qualitative approach in this research.

For the quantitative approach, some data analysis was performed and each one is discussed and justified accordingly. To measure success, analysis of the number of entrants at the start of the project, entrants in the actual event and the number of successful completions must to be documented accordingly. The only real way to measure the impact of STEM projects relating to engineering enrollment is to ask learners to willingly keep contact with us after completion.

For the Afrikabot competition apart from the assistance received from volunteering academics at the University, there were three staff members, namely a manager, a non-qualified technical employee and a secretary. However, three staff members alone cannot reach out to hundreds of students which resulted

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116 in poor record keeping, nor do they have enough technical expertise to ensure that projects are run successfully.

During the actual event, improved record keeping was carried out as learners had to fill in an entry form with their name, surname and grade. Additionally, they had to supply their school/college/university name and their team name. The team names are then entered into an excel spreadsheet with columns for three separate competition run attempt times. If a team fails to complete the challenge, it is then documented accordingly on the excel spreadsheet. In this way, the success of the challenge on the day is quantitatively measurable as documented in this paper.

For the CO2 dragster challenge, the educators are first introduced to the challenge and then they have to motivate learners to participate. Also, some schools are evaluating the possibility of including this challenge as part of their curriculum. On the actual event day, the same procedure as with the AfrikaBot challenge is adopted with respect to the entry forms. For the CO2 dragster event, the name, surname, team name, grade and school name details are also recorded. The team names are then entered into an excel spreadsheet and the run times are recorded. It is also documented accordingly, if a team fails to complete a challenge.

For the Weather Station challenge, the initial data for the number of interested learners were obtained as the academics were in consultation with the school educators and had to issue the donated PLC units and power supplies. Since the Technolab staff were in continual communication with the educators, an accurate conversion rate from initial start to successful participants could be determined. On the actual event day, the name and surname, team name and school name details are also recorded. Again, if a team that participated on actual event day failed to finish the challenge, it was also documented.

The results are tabulated and presented later in this paper. The elements included in the table is the number of initial interested groups, the number of groups on the actual event day and the number of successfully completed groups.

SHORT OVERVIEW OF PROJECTS This section outlines the three projects used to validate the model, namely the Weather Station, CO2 Dragster and AfrikaBot technology STEM-based projects. To outline the significance of this model, each project is discussed separately.

Robotics project: AfrikaBot The detailed background of the AfrikaBot engineering project is provided in another publication (Nel, Ettershank & Venter, 2016). The AfrikaBot challenge requires learners to build a low-cost robot, which has to navigate through a set maze, where the non-electronic components are mostly made up of recyclable materials. The main aim is to promote STEM education in developing countries. By lowering the cost of equipment used, this enables preparing the youth in economically-marginalised countries for upcoming technical programmes.

By transferring enabling technology skills in a fun and engaging way, participants will rapidly build the confidence to pursue careers in STEM fields (Nel et al, 2016). However, one critical issue that is always present is funding. The AfrikaBot robot, although still cheap compared to other do-it-yourself robot kits, comes in at around R2000 (~155 USD) per kit. Several sources of funding from industry partners have been received for financially needy learners. Not only can the industry partners receive certain company exemptions, it is also in the management’s interest that the learners succeed.

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117 There are several key facets applicable to this robot. A detailed description is given in a recent publication (Nel et al, 2016). Both software and hardware are discussed thoroughly and for the purposes of this paper, this will not be repeated here. An example of such a robot is given in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Example of a rendered AfrikaBot chassis and its implementation

In Figure 1, the chassis and an implemented example of an AfrikaBot is given. It can be clearly seen that the emphasis lies on recyclable material for the non-electronic part of the robot. Recyclable material greatly reduces costs which is a large factor in determining what kind of projects can be hosted as STEM projects at the Technolab.

The AfrikaBot project started in 2016 and will be continued in 2017. The Technolab staff hosted two events to give learners the opportunity to showcase their robots. The first opportunity was a first run semifinal event that was held at the University of Johannesburg. The second final event was held in conjunction with the final CO2 dragster challenge. Due to the number of learners that participated, coupled with the logistical requirements, this event was hosted at a larger venue, with the necessary equipment. This event was deemed successful because of the large number of learners that participated, of which the results are provided below. Due to this success, it was decided to host this final project event again in 2017.

In addition, the Arduino microcontroller development board was included as an extra category, which allowed learners to develop industry required C-based programming skills.

The engineering aim was to introduce electronic design and microcontroller programming skills. The user-friendly text-based PBASIC programming language could be used to program the Basic Stamp II microcontroller. There was also a basic graphical block type program that the students could use to control the AfrikaBot robot. This enabled eager learners with little knowledge about text-based programming, to participate in this project challenge. The mechanical and electronic microcontroller printed circuit board had to be assembled by the students.

Physics project: CO2 Dragster Challenge An engineer must have good practical knowledge of physics. The study of matter and its motion related to energy and applied force, is one of the important physics fundamentals that an aspiring engineer must practically understand.

For years, physics has been incorporated in the South African secondary school curriculum as in most other countries. In most South-African secondary schools, this is an elective module from grade 10 onwards.

Learners who choose physics from grade 10 onwards already show an interest in pursuing a career either directly in the physics field, or in the engineering field.

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118 In this project, learners build a small dragster car to demonstrate physics fundamentals of motion where a CO2 canister was the only active propellant used. The specifications of the dragster are as follows (UJ CO2 Dragster Challenge Rules, 2015):

• Total dragster length must be less than 305 mm, with total dragster height of 80 mm at the rear with wheels and a total width including wheels of 90 mm.

• Total dragster weight must be more than 75 g (excluding CO2 cartridge).

• Must have two axles.

• The hole for the cartridge must be at the rear of the car, with a minimum of 3 mm thickness around the cartridge and must be parallel to the racing surface. The depth in from the rear should be 50 mm.

• The dragster must have two screw eyes at the bottom so that the track safety string can pass through easily. The screw eyes must not touch the racing surface.

• The dragster must have four wheels made only from plastic and must be able to roll freely.

• The dragster bodies must be manufactured by hand and the material must be either plastic or wood.

Power tools may be used, but no computer-controlled machining may be used.

An example of such a CO2 dragster car is given in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Example of a CO2 dragster car

It can be clearly seen from Figure 2, that there are no motorised or electronic components on the CO2 dragster car. The only source of power is a CO2 canister, which is placed securely at the back of the car.

Great emphasis is placed on safety, as can be seen in the list of requirements. A learner with no specialist knowledge should be able to design and construct a dragster car and use it effectively on a 20-metre race track. The only time the CO2 dragster car is propelled, is when the track is made available on a scheduled race day. The learners then practically observe and experience the physics of motion, force and aerodynamics.

The 20-metre race track length includes sensors at the start and end, with other electronic equipment, to measure travel time. The time taken from when the CO2 dragster car is launched, until it reaches the end of the track is measured accurately. A safety line passes through the screw eyes mounted at the bottom of the dragster car and spans the whole 20-metre track length, to keep the car on the track when propelled by the punched rear CO2 canister.

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119 The model adopted requires learners to interact and engage with university staff members during each event. The learners also test out their dragsters cars on the actual race track made available to them before the event starts. Depending on the number of groups in an event, a minimum of one to a maximum of two practice sessions is allowed per event.

There are at least four staff members present at each event. One staff member inspects and ensures that the dragster car meets the required specifications. Another staff member logs the race times and determines the overall winner. A race director coordinates the students according to registered sequence and a track manager assists students in the logistics of placing the dragster cars correctly on the track.

The aim of this STEM-based project was to introduce in a fun way, the fundamental basics of aerodynamic motion. The students also had to design and construct the CO2 dragster car to meet the required specifications, by using workshop hand tools. A large group of learners participated as discussed in section 6, because this project challenge was open to all age groups at a secondary school level.

PLC project: Unitronics Weather Station The Unitronics Weather Station is a more difficult challenge for students and requires more resources such as training from academics, financial support and contact time. There are also a lot more engineering principles that need to be learned compared to the CO2 dragster challenge. A Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is used in this challenge and the students must learn how to program it, using Ladder Logic.

Continuous weather monitoring is critical to forecast weather patterns and enable people to adapt and plan ahead. In primary and secondary schools, learners are taught about the effects of the weather in their subjects. Learners also watch and learn about weather forecasts when televised.

In this challenge the learners are required to build their own weather station, to monitor and log certain weather parameters over a given period of time. Learners can choose which parameters they want to monitor, but they must also research a way to sense these parameters. Teams of three to four learners were allowed to compete. Figure 3 describes the more common weather parameters that can be monitored: Figure 3: Flow diagram of the PLC Project: Unitronics Weather Station

Rain

Temperature PLC Wind

Humidity

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Data logger

120 Figure 3 describes the typical elements that make up a weather station. These measurable elements are rain, temperature, wind and humidity. There are other elements that can be measured, but for the sake of time and funding, most learners chose to implement these four elements. More parameters could be monitored by the weather station, for example the UV intensity, but for logistical and financial reasons, we proposed that the learners only monitor the more common parameters. Spending for this challenge was limited to around R2000 (~153 USD). If the teams spend more than this limit, they were penalised according to an assessment rubric.

The University sponsored and also found sponsorship for two items for each team. A 230V AC to 24V DC power supply and a Unitronics Vision (V350) PLC were supplied to each team for this challenge. Listed below, are some of the most important rules for this project.

• Preferable three to four learners in a group and they may be in any school grade.

• Group members may only be school learners and we encourage an educator to mentor the group.

• Industrial support was encouraged, but the main sensing functions should be designed and developed by the learners.

• The weather station should be modular to simplify transportation.

• Correct electrical safety measures must be implemented.

• Groups, who complete the project and presented at the final project event day, may keep the sponsored power supply and PLC. Those who do not complete the project must return the power supply and PLC afterwards.

Part of the challenge was to monitor and log sensed weather parameter data over a period of time.

The learners had to demonstrate this logging feature by showing the acquired data in an appropriate format, since it was also evaluated on the assessment rubric. Each institution that decides to host a similar challenge, must set up their own assessment rubric to meet their goals. The important assessment criteria were discussed with learners and teachers. A successfully completed weather station project, becomes the property of the school or college and could then be implemented in science and technology subjects as part of the curriculum. The possibility of sponsorship was more likely if one of the main aims of the challenge, was to introduce PLC programming at secondary school level.

In most secondary schools, that conduct computer studies, only a beginner’s level of C programming is taught. However, programming is not just understanding the syntax, but also developing a thorough understanding of how to design a logical algorithm. There is simply not enough time dedicated to teaching this fundamental skill. Logical algorithm design itself takes some time to thoroughly understand and grasp.

However, there is less syntax to learn in Ladder logic than in C programming, which allows students to focus more on logical algorithm design. There were some failures (36% failure rate) and therefore it was decided to terminate this project mainly because of underfunding and the difficulty level.

The aim of this STEM-based project is to introduce and develop industrial PLC programming language skills. PLC interface sensing circuits, also had to be researched and constructed by the students. The sponsored PLCs was programmed using a combination of ladder and function block logic. This type of programming is still the most popular commonly used industrial PLC programming language.

GENERIC MODEL AND IMPLEMENTATION In this section the underlying model developed to administer the project challenges, is defined. The adopted model is illustrated in a graphical diagram format with no specific reference to any project.

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121 Formulation of the generic model In Figure 4, the overall general adopted model can be spilt up into three main phases.

Figure 4: Flow diagram of the first phase of the generic model for community service projects

Brainstorming for Community Service Projects

Finalisation of Community Service Projects

Industry Collaboration

During the first brainstorming phase as shown in Figure 4, it is extremely important that a proposed project must receive industry support, to ensure sponsorship. However, the main aim is to select a project challenge that will have an engineering related outcome.

Fundamental physics and engineering related principles were incorporated into all three community engagement project challenges. Basic electronic and programming skills were introduced and incorporated into the Weather Station and Robotics project challenges. The flow diagram shown in Figure 5, expands on the second implementation phase of the community engagement project.

Figure 5: Flow diagram of the second phase of the generic model for community service projects

Initial marketing of projects to schools

Capturing of feedback and consolidating

Presentation of Projects to educators by Technolab and academic staff

Motivation and encouragement by school educators to learners

Consolidation and documenting of interested learners

At the beginning of the year, possible project challenges are discussed and then proposed at targeted secondary schools, to determine the interest level and possible participation as shown in the first element of Figure 5. The initial project challenge presentation must also appeal to secondary school educators, so that they will be interested in motivating students to participate. The Technolab administration staff then records possible ideas and suggestions provided by school educators that will be considered by the academic staff involved in the community engagement. The project challenges are then adapted and finalised so that it can be presented by academic staff in a more detailed format to school educators.

During this phase, academic staff will answer technical related questions including logistic and engineering component sourcing related issues. Where possible the university academic staff will also engage with the industry in an attempt to acquire sponsorship, in the form of required engineering components that can be handed over to participating schools.

The last two phases are then administered and coordinated by the secondary school educators. However, schools fail to participate if learners are not interested, no matter how enthusiastic school educators may be. One way to ensure participation and interest is for the school educators to include the project challenge as a required activity in their subject curriculum. Finally, the participating learner details are

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122 documented and sent through to the Technolab administration staff, so that the requirements for project event days can be organised.

The flow diagram shown in Figure 6, expands on the third implementation phase of the community engagement project.

Figure 6: Flow diagram of the third phase of the generic model for community service projects Continued academic support to learners

On-site support at schools

Project Event days

Consolidation of results

Prize giving and networking

Support at the University

To ensure successful participation, continued support and assistance from the university academic staff must be provided on a regular basis to learners and school educators during the first part of the final phase as shown in Figure 6. Depending on the logistical requirements and the availability of academic staff, the support session can occur at the University or on-site at the secondary schools. This part starts immediately after the student groups have been finalised and is ongoing until the actual project event days, which occurs in the latter part of the year. The project event day, consolidation of results, prize giving and industry networking is the second part of the final phase.

The learners will then compete against each other on the final project event day. Learners at secondary schools as well as educators are pressed for time during the latter part of the year and therefore cannot dedicate a lot of time towards the final project event day. Therefore, it is essential to anticipate and plan ahead for any logistical requirements, to ensure that the final project event day is successfully completed.

It is important for academic staff to consider using industry experts as evaluators on the final project event day. Most university engineering departments have strong industry collaboration ties and should therefore involve industry experts at top level industry positions in medium to large scale companies. In this way, young talent can be identified by industry experts before the learner starts tertiary education.

Opportunities in the form of scholarships and even post-graduation employment can be secured. This is also an excellent opportunity for learners to network with industry experts, so that learners can feel more at ease and confident with their decision to study an engineering-related discipline.

Logistical implementation of the model The first step in the entire process of hosting STEM-based projects is to present a specific engineering project challenge to school educators. The drive is for the school educators to collaborate with university academics and administration staff. In the end, school educators can provide parents and learners with more knowledgeable guidance in the enrolling decision at tertiary studies.

After this initial presentation, the project details are then provided to the educators and learners. This can be done by the educators proposing the project formally to the learners or through the academic staff of the Technolab; either way, a hands-on approach is taken.

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123 The next step is to document and group the learners who want to participate in the engineering project challenge. One of the schools decided to make the CO2 dragster challenge part of their physical science curriculum to emphasise the fundamentals of aerodynamic motion. This approach generated great interest in the project because this is a more practical fun way of providing education to the learners. The school educators send the names of the learners and group names to the dedicated non-academic personnel at the Technolab.

The school students then start working on the projects. The academic personnel of the Technolab have dedicated time to teach learners the necessary skills and concepts to be able to complete the projects successfully. Since the academic staff are mostly busy with other responsibilities, their schedule is provided to the administration of the Technolab. In conjunction with the educators at the schools, timeslots are arranged where the academic staff then assist the students. The venue where the students are assisted can vary depending on the operational requirements of the University and the schools. More often than not, the academic staff simply drive to the school and provide assistance.

Programming skills were required for both the AfrikaBot and Weather Station project, which does not always form part of the typical taught curriculum at schools. However, some schools do have programming as part of their computer science subjects, but this requires a qualified educator, which most schools cannot afford. Also, mostly text-based C-programming is taught at schools, but there are other industrial programming languages actively used today in the industry. For example, most PLCs in the industry are programmed using either ladder or function block logic, or even a combination of both. In the weather station project, the Unitronics PLC was programmed using a combination of ladder and function block logic. Learners found this visual graphical type of programming language a lot easier to learn than textbased C-programming code.

From the middle to the end of the year, the Technolab administration staff organises the various events where the academic staff will be present to facilitate the competition’s events. Of paramount importance is the safety of the learners, therefore a considerable amount of time is spent to ensure that all applicable safety precautions are taken.

However, for the Weather Station project, we provided an assessment rubric sheet to three independent industry-qualified experts, to evaluate the student group project. The winning teams for all three project challenges received awards in the form of essential engineering tools.

RESULTS In this section, a detailed breakdown of the participants of each event is given. For the AfrikaBot and CO2 dragster challenge, all the participating learners or groups who successfully completed the challenge were interviewed as they completed the challenge. All these learners cited that the challenges were fun and they gained valuable engineering knowledge not normally taught at secondary school level.

For the Weather Station challenge, only eight teams out of the 22 participating teams expressed their willingness to participate in this challenge again. The other 14 participating teams expressed that even though they enjoyed learning Ladder Logic programming, which is not taught at secondary school level, they found the challenge to be too difficult and time consuming. In addition to this, the financial costs involved were also cited as a reason not to participate again. Of the 22 teams that participated in 2014 and 2015, only four teams participated in both years where they were allowed to upgrade their implemented weather stations. In addition to this, there were a total of 14 successfully implemented weather stations.

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124 For the AfrikaBot challenge the results are tabulated below: Table 1: AfrikaBot 2016 results

Category

Number of robots

Successful completion

Grade 8-9

14

10

Grade 10-12

24

10

7

5

Undergraduate

Table 2: AfrikaBot 2017 results

Category

Number of robots

Successful completion

Grade 8-9

17

16

Grade 10-12

24

16

Undergraduate

15

8

Between 2016 and 2017, as shown in tables 1 and 2, it can be seen that there is growth in both the number of participants (24% growth) and the number of robots successfully completing the challenge (60% growth). This includes completing the track in a given time of 60 seconds. Each participant had two extra tries for each run and each participant had a total of three runs.

In 2016 and 2017, a total of 53 and 70 entries were received respectively of willing participants for the AfrikaBot challenge (indicating a 32% growth).

For the CO2 dragster, the results are as follows.

• In 2014, one event was hosted at one school with 22 cars.

• In 2015, three events were hosted at the same school as in 2014, but the first two events were practice events. For the first and second practice event there were 40 cars. For the final event, there were 49 cars. All three events were hosted on successive days.

• In 2016 the challenge was expanded to two more schools hence three separate events were hosted. For the first event there were 22 cars. For the second event there were 55 cars and lastly for the third event there were 25 cars.

• In 2017 there was four separate events at three different schools. For the first event, there were 36 cars. For the second event, there were 33 cars. For the third and fourth event, there were 35 and 25 cars respectively.

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125 Table 3 documents the total number of successful cars in each year from the recorded data.

Table 3: CO2 dragster results

Year

Total number of participants

2014

22

2015

129

2016

102

2017

129

CONCLUSION Engineers are an essential part of developing the South African economy. STEM-based projects all over the world attempts to alleviate several underlying issues relating to attracting students into engineering, as a career choice. The current secondary schooling in the South African system lacks in that it does not introduce engineering principles to entice learners to enrol for engineering studies. By using university academics to provide their time and knowledge to enable learners to develop and implement required knowledge and skills outside of their current curriculum at secondary schools, learners were enabled to participate in the STEM-based project challenges.

By availing time and knowledge to learners in a practical format, the engineering discipline becomes more accessible, exciting and understandable to learners. This will help learners to make a more informed decision when enrolling for tertiary education. The model presented in this paper is a contact-based approach to host STEM-based projects in a way that entices learners to study a more challenging but also exciting engineering discipline.

The impact of this model is the growth seen in both participation and successful completion rates of these project challenges. As an extension to the implementation of this model, questionnaires should be developed and implemented to validate numerically the impact. In addition, the gender and age of the participants should be recorded to analyse and understand of the greater impact of the proposed model in this work. STEM-based projects should also focus on encouraging females to participate in order to change the perception of learners towards STEM-education (Nair et al., 2017; Gaitan-Leon et al., 2017; Hurlburt et al., 2013; Sharma, 2016). The hope is to make use of this presented model more widely, to increase engineering graduates in the future and thereby address the gap of supplying qualified engineers to grow the South Africa economy.

REFERENCES Andrijcic, E., Ingram, E. & Siahmakoun, A. (2017) ‘Undergraduate Research Training Workshop’ 2017 IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE) 18-21 October, pp.1-7. Indianapolis, US. August, S.E., Hammers, M.L., Murphy, D.B., Neyer, A., Gueye, P. & Thames, R.Q. (2016) ‘Virtual Engineering Sciences Learning Lab: Giving STEM Education a Second Life’ IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies 9(1) pp.18-30.

Bhandari, R. (2003) Making Distance Learning Effective: A New Approach in Maritime Education & Training. https://www.sp.edu.sg/docs/default-source/content-migration-docs/content-migration/smapaper-distlearn.pdf (Accessed 20 May 2018).

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126 Borgman, C.L., Abelson, H., Dirks, L., Johnson, R., Koedinger, K.R., Linn, M.C., Lynch, C.A., Oblinger, D.G., Pea, R.D., Salen, K., Smith, M.S. & Szalay, A. (2008) ‘Fostering Learning in the Networked World: The Cyberlearning Opportunity and Challenge’ A 21st Century Agenda for the National Science Foundation, Report of the NSF Task Force on Cyberlearning June 2008. https://www.nsf.gov/ pubs/2008/nsf08204/nsf08204.pdf (Accessed 29 May 2018).

Bruder, S. & Wedeward, K. (2003) ‘Robotics in the Classroom’ IEEE Robotics & Automation Magazine 10(3) pp.25-29.

Chaudhary, N. & Jesiek, B.K. (2016) ‘State of Mixed Methods Research in Engineering Education: InDepth Examination of JEE Articles, 2010-2015’ 2016 IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference 12–15 October, pp.1-9. Erie, Pennsylvania, US. Creswell, J.W., Plano Clark, V.L., Gutmann, M.L. & Hanson, W.E. (2003) ‘Advance mixed methods research designs’ In A. Tashakkori & C. Teddlie (Eds.) Handbook of mixed methods in social and behavioral research pp.209-240. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Cross, J., Hamner, E.L., Zito, L. & Nourbakhsh, I. (2016) ‘Engineering and Computational Thinking Talent in Middle School Student: A Framework for Defining and Recognizing Student Affinities’ 2016 IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference 12-15 October, pp.1-9. Erie, Pennsylvania, US. De Cristoforis, P., Pedre, S., Nitsche, M., Fisher, T., Pessacg, F. & Di Pietro, C. (2013) ‘A Behaviour-Based Approach for Educational Robotics Activities’ IEEE Transactions on Education 56(1) pp.61-66.

Department of Basic Education, South Africa. (2018a) Grade 12 Exemplars Technical Subjects. https://www.education.gov.za/Curriculum/NationalCurriculumStatementsGradesR-12/2018Grade12E xemplarsTechnicalSubjects/tabid/1855/ItemId /19697 /Default.aspx (Accessed 29 May 2018).

Department of Basic Education, South Africa. (2018b) National Senior Certificate (NSC) Examinations. https://www.education.gov.za/Curriculum/NationalSeniorCertificate(NSC)Examinations/tabid/338/ Default.aspx (Accessed 29 May 2018).

Doherty, E.P. (2016) ‘Experiences in Teaching to Help Retain Historically Disadvantaged Groups of STEM Students’ 2016 International Conference on Computational Science and Computational Intelligence 1517 December, pp.327-331. Las Vegas, Nevada, US. Gaitan-Leon, D.M., & Tafur, M. (2017) ‘Design of STEM Activities and Study of Their Motivation Efficacy’ 2017 IEEE Integrated STEM Education Conference 11 March, pp.79-84. Princeton, New Jersey, US. Gruenbacher, D.M., Nararajan, B., Pahwa, A., Scoglio, C., Lewis, C. & Muguira, M. (2007) ‘Increasing Women Graduate Students in STEM Fields through a Focused Recruitment Workshop’ 2007 37th Annual Frontiers in Education Conference Global Engineering: Knowledge Without Borders, Opportunities Without Passports, S2H-9 - S2H-13. Milwaukee, Wisconsin, US. Hurlburt, G.F. & Voas, J. (2013) ‘STEM's Grand Challenge: Reviving Applied Mathematics’ IT Professional 15(5) pp.51-55.

Lovegrove, W.P., Batdorf, C., Corey, A., George, J., Pinkston, B. & White, E. (2017) ‘A model community STEM outreach event using the IEEE MOVE truck’ IEEE Southeast Conference 2017 30 March-2 April, pp.1-5. Charlotte, North Carolina, US. The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 13 (2) / 2018 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

127 Mehlenbacher, B., Autry, M.K. & Kelly, A.R. (2015) ‘Instructional Design for STEM-Based Collaborative, Colocated Classroom Composition’ IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication 58(4) pp.396-409.

Nair, P., Huang, J., Jackson J. & Cox-Petersen. A. (2017) ‘Combining STEM and Business Entrepreneurship for Sustaining STEM-Readiness’ 2017 IEEE Integrated STEM Education Conference 11 March, pp.76-78.

Princeton, New Jersey, US. Nel, H., Ettershank, M. & Venter, J. (2016) ‘AfrikaBot: Design of a Robotic Challenge to Promote STEM in Africa’ 2016 International Conference on Interactive Collaborative Learning 21-23 September, pp.500509. Belfast, Ireland.

Petter, S.C. & Gallivan, M.J. (2004) ‘Toward a Framework for Classifying and Guiding Mixed Method Research in Information Systems’ 37th Annual Hawaii International Conference on Systems Sciences (HICSS) 5-8 January, pp.1-10. Hawaii, US. Sharma, J. (2016) ‘Encouraging Students to Pursue STEM’ IEEE Women in Engineering Magazine 10(2) pp.59-60.

Tay, T.T., Lim, Z.Z. & Chua, Y.L. (2017) ‘Utilizing Autonomous Mobile Robot to Increase Interest in STEM’ 2017 3rd International Conference on Science in Information Technology (ICSITech 2017) 25-26 October, pp.161-165. Bandung, Indonesia.

UJ - CO2 Dragster Challenge Rules. (2016) http://www.roboscience.co.za/UJ/dragsters/2015-UJ-CO2Dragster-Challenge-Rules.pdf (Accessed 15 May, 2017).

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Doctoral Corner

128

RESEARCH TITLE

An analysis of the implementation of the Teaching Development Grant in the South African Higher Education Sector Name: Dr Mtheto Temwa Moyo Supervisors: Professor Sioux McKenna

Clever Ndebele Institution: Rhodes University Year of Award: 2018 Qualification: PhD

ABSTRACT The South African government has attempted to address various transformation and efficiency challenges in the system through the steering mechanisms at its disposal. This study analyses the implementation of one of these mechanisms, the Teaching Development Grant (TDG), which is designed to enhance student learning through the improvement of teaching and teaching resources at South African universities. Since the inception as an earmarked grant ten years ago, a total of R5.5 billion has been allocated for the TDG. The study thus sought to answer the question: What are the factors enabling and constraining the use of the TDG to enhance teaching and student success at South African universities? A total of 275 TDG progress reports and budget plans were analysed alongside other TDG documentation such as TDG payment letters to universities and institutional submissions that universities made on the use of the TDG for the 2008 TDG Review. The TDG criteria and policy over the years were also included as data. The analysis used Archer’s (1995; 1996) morphogenesis/stasis framework, which is concerned with how change does or does not happen over time. Archer’s analytical dualism was used to identify the interplay of structural, cultural and agential mechanisms shaping the emergence of and practices associated with TDGs in order to make sense of the events and experiences in the data.

One of the main findings of the study was that the historically-based differentiated nature of the South African higher education landscape constrained the implementation of the TDG. The stark resource differences in the sector has meant that the TDG has not fully translated into system-wide gains. In the initial years of TDG implementation from 2004 to 2013, most institutions did not use the TDG for teaching development initiatives per se, but rather spent the bulk of the funds on infrastructure and equipment. Such resource gaps have persisted and continue to compromise the academic enterprise at affected universities.

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129 The data also showed that universities which have access to additional funding other than state funding have been able to augment and advance their own funds and were thus able to at least partially counter late payments of the TDG, fluctuations in allocations, and the short-term nature of TDG budgets and inadequate allocations. This enabled relatively straightforward implementation of the teaching and learning enhancement programmes at these universities, while there were ongoing implementation difficulties at the universities with the lowest success rates, the very institutions the grant was most targeted to address.

The study showed that the shortage of appropriate teaching and learning staff constrained the nature and type of interventions. Historically Disadvantaged Institutions in particular struggled to attract and retain the much-needed expertise. This emerged from multiple structural constraints such as geographical location, conditions of work, inefficient human resources systems, lack of access to financial resources for competitive packages, and instability in governance and management structures at some universities.

Emerging from the data in the study is the fact that staffing challenges remain one of the core constraints in the implementation of the TDG. In particular, the data indicated that teaching and learning staff hired on the basis of TDG funds were generally hired as part-time or contract staff. This meant that their academic qualifications and experience in teaching development were limited and, in many cases, it meant that the posts were not filled at all. In some cases, the fluctuating budgets meant that some projects had to be downscaled or abandoned altogether.

The study found that many of the interventions that were implemented had tenuous links to teaching and learning and, even where there were such links, these interventions were often based on fairly a-theoretical, common-sense understandings of what would develop teaching. In many universities, there was little evidence of institution-level planning of interventions aimed at fundamentally addressing the need for teaching development.

The limited access to teaching and learning expertise across the sector was mirrored in the uneven distribution of expertise in administration, financial management, institutional planning and human resource divisions, which had implications for the establishment of monitoring systems and implementation processes of the TDG. The lack of strong systems and policies encouraged cultures that did not value transparency, accountability or compliance to the TDG policy. The role of corporate agency in the form of leadership and ownership of projects emerged as a key enabler in the implementation of the TDG. All of these structures shaped the ability of institutions to spend the TDG and in some cases millions of Rands in funds were not spent and so were withheld. The study found that the inability of some universities to spend was exacerbated by the problem of a lack of alignment between the DHET financial year and the academic year.

Although the TDG has made a notable contribution to the advancement of teaching and learning (T&L) nationally, this study revealed that the blunt implementation of the TDG across the sector constrained the gains. In particular, the practice of withholding unspent funds focused only on the symptoms of underspending and not on the structural, cultural and agential mechanisms that led to such under-expenditure. The withheld funds were redirected by the government for national projects but as all universities including the wellresourced Historically Advantaged Institutions (HAIs) had access to these withheld funds this translated into a regressive distribution of the TDG. Limited capacity within DHET to direct, manage and monitor the grants has also had a constraining effect on their use and the secondment of a teaching and learning expert to the department was seen to be a significant but short-term enablement in this regard.

The findings of how the TDG implementation has emerged in the South African higher education sector are particularly important at this point in time as the TDG together with the Research Development Grant will The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 13 (2) / 2018 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

130 be reconfigured into a new grant called the University Capacity Development Grant as from 2018. This study provides significant insights into the structural, cultural, and agential enablements and constraints of this new grant being able to drive changes in the sector. The findings also provide insights into the implementation of other earmarked grants.

Keywords: Teaching Development Grant, University Capacity Development Grant, Historically Advantaged Universities, Historically Disadvantaged Universities, Earmarked Grants The full thesis can be found at https://www.ru.ac.za/teachingandlearning/highereducationstudies/ doctoralprogramme/phdgraduates/

The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 13 (2) / 2018 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

131 RESEARCH TITLE

Measuring and Modelling Service Quality in Ethiopian Public Higher Education Name: Dr Temesgen Melaku Kassa Supervisor: Professor RJ (Nico) Botha Institution: UNISA Year of Award: 2017 Qualification: PhD

ABSTRACT This study serves two major purposes. First, it explores and validates attributes, dimensions and constructs that can be used to measure service quality in the Ethiopian public higher education (EPHE) context.

Second, it examines the interplay among the major service quality constructs and student related variables in search of a comprehensive theoretical framework for HE service quality. Drawn from these two broad objectives, the study started its investigation by formulating a central research question that states: ‘How can we measure and model service quality in the EPHE context?’ This central research question was further broken into more specific questions that explore attributes, dimensions and constructs essential to measure service quality (RQ1), test for the measurement model fit (RQ2), examine the relationships or associations among the four service constructs and characteristics of students (RQ3), test for the structural model fit (RQ4), determine the causal relations among the variables in the structural model (RQs4.1 - 4.7), and assess service quality performances of EPHE institutions (RQ5).

These research questions were theoretically addressed in chapters two and three. At this stage possible service quality attributes, dimensions and constructs were analytically identified, and a theoretical framework of service quality was hypothesised at a general level to guide the study. Qualitative and quantitative phases of empirical studies followed the literature study to verify the theoretical findings in the context of EPHE. Informed by the pragmatism world view, a mixed methods study with the qual-QUAN exploratory sequential design was employed to empirically answer the research questions. Twenty interviewees selected using a combination of stratified purposeful sampling and criterion sampling techniques took part in the qualitative phase to explore the attributes, dimensions and constructs of service quality in the EPHE context. This phase also served to identify student characteristics that have some association with their perception of service quality constructs. The data obtained through interviews were analysed employing thematic analysis and narration of verbatim accounts. The analysis resulted in three levels of themes that represent attributes, dimensions and constructs of service quality. The results of the qualitative phase were used to develop a questionnaire designed to measure service quality more objectively.

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132 The psychometric test of the instrument marked the beginning of the quantitative phase. A pilot test was carried out at a public university different from the target population of universities to determine the psychometric properties of the instrument. A total of 460 students selected from different batches of undergraduate regular students in four programmes using proportionate stratified random sampling were involved in the pilot test.

The main study was carried out in three universities selected from a target population of seven public universities employing the lottery sampling method. Concurrently, four were chosen from a target population of 27 commonly offered programmes in the three sample universities employing systematic random sampling. Considering different batches and the four programmes as strata, 1412 undergraduate students were included in the main study using proportionate stratified random sampling technique.

The data obtained from the questionnaire from these respondents were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics such as percentage, mean and standard deviation were used to describe the data and characteristics of respondents. Inferential statistic including Pearson correlation, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), exploratory factor analysis (EFA), independent sample t-test, one way analysis of variance (ANOVA), structural equation modelling (SEM), path analysis and one-sample t-test were employed to answer the research questions. AMOS version 18, SPSS version 20 and Stat tool were used to run the data.

The results from the qualitative and quantitative phases show that service quality can be measured by four constructs of which three are multi-dimensional and one is a single dimensional construct. Perceived service quality has 16, satisfaction has three and perceived gain has five dimensions. Loyalty is the single dimension construct. The measurement model fit analysis resulted in an acceptable fit index (i.e., CMIN/ DF = 4.398, GFI = .915, CFI = .951, RMSEA = .049 and PCLOSE =.743) after some re-specifications and confirmed the structural validity of the instrument. The measurement model is also invariant to students’ differences in gender, residence, programmes of study and the institution thus implying cross-validity.

Mixed results were obtained with regard to the correlations/associations between student characteristics and service quality constructs. After some re-specification, a hybrid of measurement and structural model for the four service quality constructs and nine student related variables were identified with an acceptable fit index (CMIN/DF=3.856, GFI=.901, CFI =.934 and RMSEA=.045, p=1.000).

The path analysis also revealed that loyalty is a latent construct with 62% of its variance predicted by the joint effects of perceived service quality, satisfaction and perceived gain. Each of these predicator latent constructs are also explained by some other control variables and latent constructs included in the model. For instance, 60% of the variance in students’ satisfaction is predicted by years of study, perceived service quality, and perceived gain. Similarly, 29% of the variance in perceived gain is predicted by goal orientation and perceived service quality. The nine student variables also explain 12% of the variance in perceived service quality. Students also perceived the current status of service quality in EPHE institutions as daunting in all constructs of service quality except perceived gain. Finally, conclusions pertinent to the measurement instrument and understanding of higher education service quality are drawn, and recommendations that have theoretical and practical implications are forwarded.

Keywords: higher education, service quality, perceived service quality, satisfaction, perceived gain, loyalty, student characteristics, academic service, support service The full thesis can be found at http://hdl.handle.net/10500/23732

The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 13 (2) / 2018 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

133 RESEARCH TITLE

Translocal habitus: high school students’ mediation of their educational success at a focus school Name: Dr Nazli Domingo-Salie Supervisor: Professor Aslam Fataar Institution: Stellenbosch University, South Africa Year of Award: 2016 Qualification: PhD

ABSTRACT Against the backdrop of school reform in South Africa, this dissertation analyses the practices of selected mobile students who accomplished their education ‘on the move’ between their working-class domestic environment and the dissonant terrain of the Focus School situated in a middle-class suburb.

This study describes the navigational practices of the four students in their establishment of a successful educational path. Drawing on Bourdieu’s concepts of practice, habitus and field, augmented by Urry’s theory of mobility, this dissertation discusses the shifts and changes that the four students made as they moved between their domestic environments and the Focus School in order to access quality schooling.

This study is based on qualitative data from in-depth, semi-structured interviews which are used to illustrate the navigation practices of the four students as they develop successful educational subjectivities, a translocal habitus, as they move from their domestic locations to the new terrain of the Focus School.

The study uses the analytical lens of trans-locality to explore how the four students shifted and adapted their educational subjectivities, developed social competency and established subjectivities that enabled them to become successful students at the Focus School. I argue that it is possible for historically disadvantaged, rural and township students to adapt to and meet the academic and behavioural standards of a new school context in the middle-class environment, and that they do this by establishing a trans-local habitus.

Acquiring a trans-local habitus enables them to successfully shift and adapt their subjectivity ‘on the move’ across different contexts. A successful trans-local habitus is thus one that allows the individual, via their navigation across different field contexts, to successfully change or adapt their dispositions to the rules and regularities of the new field context. This study illustrates, therefore, the navigational bases upon which the four students transact their school-going experiences, in effect shifting their ‘habitus on the move’, as they figure out ways of achieving school success.

The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 13 (2) / 2018 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

134 Keywords: trans-locality, trans-local habitus, navigation practices, mediation, educational subjectivity, focus school The full thesis can be found at http://hdl.handle.net/10019.1/100065

The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 13 (2) / 2018 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

135 List of reviewers

The editors wish to express their gratitude to the following experts who offered their knowledge and insights in the double-blind peer review process, thus ensuring all authors received valuable feedback: • Dr K. Al Baker, Education and Training Quality Authority (BQA), Kingdom of Bahrain • S. Anderson, IIE Varsity College, South Africa • Dr M. Botha, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa • Professor T. Bush, University of Nottingham, United Kingdom • T. Bwalya, University of Zambia, Zambia • Dr A. Cherrington, Nelson Mandela University, South Africa • Dr J. Chetty, University of Kent, United Kingdom • M. Cloete, Durban University of Technology, South Africa • Dr I.N. Darko, University of Ghana, Ghana • Dr N. Dasoo, University of Johannesburg, South Africa • H. Goode, The Da Vinci Institute, South Africa • Dr G. Edwards, St David's Marist Inanda, South Africa • Professor P. Higgs, UNISA, South Africa • Dr A. Hlengwa, Rhodes University, South Africa • Professor J. Holm, North West University, South Africa • Dr M.L. Hove, North West University, South Africa

The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 13 (2) / 2018 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

136 • Dr L. Jacobs, UNISA, South Africa • Dr C. Jordaan, Nelson Mandela University, South Africa • Dr G. Kotze, Independent Education Consultant, South Africa • Professor K. Lombard, North West University, South Africa • Professor I. Lubbe, University of Cape Town, South Africa • N. Madhav, The Independent Institute of Education, South Africa • A. Mafunganyika, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa • N. Marimandi, The Independent Institute of Education, South Africa • Dr T. Matingwina, National University of Science and Technology, Zimbabwe • Dr G. Mooney, The Independent Institute of Education, South Africa • Professor V. Nyoni, Nelson Mandela University, South Africa • W.L. Ntshinga, The Independent Institute of Education, South Africa • Dr G.N. Shava, National University of Science and Technology, Zimbabwe • T. Takane, The Independent Institute of Education, South Africa • Professor N. van der Merwe, North West University, South Africa • Dr C. van Greunen, The Independent Institute of Education, South Africa • B. Wilson-Thompson, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa • Dr J.W. Wing, Durban University of Technology, South Africa • Dr L. Zimmerman, UNISA, South Africa

The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 13 (2) / 2018 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

Notes for contributors

Manuscripts should be submitted online at htttps://ijtl.iie.ac.za They should be typed in one and a half spacing Times New Roman font size 12, in A4 format, in MS Word and should generally not exceed 6000 words in length, excluding tables, figures and references. The overall style for abstract, title, headings, figures and references should be in accordance with the Harvard reference style. Tables and Figures should be numbered by Arabic numerals. Each manuscript should be accompanied by all the requirements on the checklist that appear on the journal website. Click on the publish with IJTL Tab on https://ijtl.iie. ac.za. Manuscripts that do not include these requirements will not be considered for publication.

Proofs will be sent to authors if there is sufficient time to do so. They should be corrected and returned within 48 hours of receipt. The editor reserves the right to publish without proofs having been signed-off by the author.

The journal will be published open access online at the following URL https://ijtl.iie.ac.za

The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning - Volume 13 (2) / 2018 Formerly The Journal of Independent Teaching and Learning

The Independent Institute of Education (Pty) Ltd

The Independent Institute of Education is a private higher education institution operating across 21 sites offering more than 90 registered and accredited higher education programmes from Higher Certificate to Masters level on its Varsity College, Vega, and Rosebank College sites. The IIE also offers a range of Short Learning Programmes. The IIE is accredited by the British Accreditation Council as an Independent Higher Education Institution.

The IIE has multiple associations and endorsements with leading organisations and professional bodies and works collaboratively with several other public and private higher education institutions.

The IIE brands have sites across the country; qualifications which are offered on the sites are directly linked to their mission and target student market. This means that students on each site will be able to study with other students with similar interests and ambitions. The IIE also offers qualifications in the distance mode of delivery. The flagship programme is a Postgraduate Diploma in Higher Education.

The IIE has a strong central national academic and quality assurance team based in Sandton that provides academic leadership for the sites and qualifications across the country. The team is also responsible for the registration, curriculum, quality of delivery, and assessment and certification (graduation) of all the qualifications, meaning that students on a site in one city receive an educational experience that is guaranteed to match that which is offered in any other city; this experience includes the same access to key academic resources and facilities. Each site adds to this academic base with its own specific group of well-qualified lecturers who are subject-matter and discipline experts, and collectively have a wealth of knowledge and industry-based experience in the areas in which they teach, as well as the individualised student support that the sites give. An IIE student is, therefore, rounded both academically and socially, thus maximising student success.

The IIE is a founding member of SA Private Higher Education (SAPHE). This is an association of SA’s leading private providers of higher education which has three objectives. Firstly, to promote the understanding of the general public about the role that private higher education plays in offering choices to students; secondly to promote the quality of provision and thirdly to play an advocacy role with the regulators. The Independent Journal of Teaching and Learning, as a peer-reviewed journal that appears on the DHET’s approved list of South African accredited journals, is one of the many ways in which The IIE is ensuring academic leadership within the higher education landscape of South Africa and, in particular, in private higher education.

For more information about The IIE, its academic opportunities, qualifications offered and sites of delivery, or SAPHE, please go to www.iie.ac.za or email info@iie.ac.za

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